• Table of Contents
    {"ID":89932,"post_author":"26","post_date":"2023-03-21 12:05:03","post_date_gmt":"2023-03-21 16:05:03","post_content":"","post_title":"The Complete Guide to LIMS and Laboratory Informatics","post_excerpt":"","post_status":"publish","comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","post_password":"","post_name":"the-complete-guide-to-lims-and-laboratory-informatics","to_ping":"","pinged":"","post_modified":"2024-01-10 12:16:12","post_modified_gmt":"2024-01-10 17:16:12","post_content_filtered":"","post_parent":0,"guid":"https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/?post_type=ebook&#038;p=89932","menu_order":0,"post_type":"ebook","post_mime_type":"","comment_count":"0","filter":"","holland":null,"_ebook_metadata":{"enabled":"on","private":"0","guid":"19EBE158-AB5E-459D-AAB5-E80061AA9A71","title":"The Complete Guide to LIMS and Laboratory Informatics","subtitle":"2024 Edition","cover_theme":"nico_21","cover_image":"https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/wp-content\/plugins\/rdp-ebook-builder\/pl\/cover.php?cover_style=nico_21&subtitle=2024+Edition&editor=Shawn+Douglas&title=The+Complete+Guide+to+LIMS+and+Laboratory+Informatics&title_image=https%3A%2F%2Fs3.limsforum.com%2Fwww.limsforum.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FFig3_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png&publisher=LabLynx+Press","editor":"Shawn Douglas","publisher":"LabLynx Press","author_id":"26","image_url":"https:\/\/s3.limsforum.com\/www.limsforum.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/Biomedical_Engineering_Laboratory.jpg","items":{"b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_type":"article","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_title":"Open-source laboratory informatics software","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_plaintext":"\n\nLaboratory informatics software (open source)From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchThis page exists as a complement to the category page Category:Laboratory informatics software (open source). Because category pages do not render in the book creator plug-in for this wiki, a separate page has been created to list the contents of the category page. \nLast updated January 2024.\n0\u20139\n\n3D Slicer\nA\n\nAI4Green\nB\n\nBASE\nBika LIMS\nC\n\nC4G BLIS\nCaisis\nCheminfo\nChemotion ELN\nClinViro\n\r\n\nD\n\nDcm4che3\nDicoogle\nE\n\nELabFTW\nElectronic Laboratory Notebook (GippLab software)\nG\n\nGalaxy (biomedical software)\nGNomEx\nGNU Health\nGNU LIMS\nI\n\nIndigo ELN\nIPath\nISkyLIMS\nISPyB\nITK\nJ\n\nJuliaBase\nJupyter Notebook\nK\n\nKalenis\nKNIME\nL\n\nLabKey Server\nLabStoRe\nLabTrove\nLabWiki\nLIMS for Dolibarr\nM\n\nMASTR-MS\nMetaLIMS\nMISO\nMyLabBook\nN\n\nNEMO\nNextGen Connect\nNotedELN\nNUcore\nO\n\nOpen enventory\nOpenBIS\nOpenChrom\nOpenClinic GA\nOpenClinica\nOpenELIS\nOpenEpi\nOpenMRS\nOpenSpecimen\nOsiriX\nP\n\nParkour\nS\n\nSciNote\nSciTran\nSENAITE\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)<\/a>\nCategory: Open-source softwareNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 5 January 2024, at 19:53.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 5,068 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_informatics_software_open_source rootpage-Laboratory_informatics_software_open_source skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory informatics software (open source)<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>This page exists as a complement to the category page <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Category:Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)\" title=\"Category:Laboratory informatics software (open source)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f24d9fe179ea3b951d9408c9871baee1\">Category:Laboratory informatics software (open source)<\/a>. Because category pages do not render in the book creator plug-in for this wiki, a separate page has been created to list the contents of the category page. \n<\/p><p><i>Last updated January 2024.<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>0\u20139<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/3D_Slicer\" title=\"3D Slicer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b64a4aa0f08300218472505e53703c\">3D Slicer<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>A<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/AI4Green\" title=\"AI4Green\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ccbf092cd8068d15243cd15f0448100\">AI4Green<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>B<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/BASE\" title=\"BASE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36231d20d7206b3d9d0ca18dff0aac02\">BASE<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bika_LIMS\" title=\"Bika LIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"daf3e2e28f594ad55c814ae802d43fcb\">Bika LIMS<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>C<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/C4G_BLIS\" title=\"C4G BLIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfa1af20f4a68dc928bd873f549e440e\">C4G BLIS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Caisis\" title=\"Caisis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1597c89e610cb842765bbe1344aede3\">Caisis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cheminfo\" title=\"Cheminfo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02d5da96fc39ea94937c7fef993f60e4\">Cheminfo<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chemotion_ELN\" title=\"Chemotion ELN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69d105f8f7c60427d4fe9a8f21a8019a\">Chemotion ELN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ClinViro\" title=\"ClinViro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b0b04f6f86788f0966853599743c210\">ClinViro<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<b>D<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dcm4che3\" title=\"Dcm4che3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"483fdfbf249275826cb653b6ecf3038a\">Dcm4che3<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dicoogle\" title=\"Dicoogle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1066cc100606f420708c8df3d05753ef\">Dicoogle<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>E<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELabFTW\" title=\"ELabFTW\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"155590ac366985a7ee3cf74ade1df84a\">ELabFTW<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_Laboratory_Notebook_(GippLab_software)\" title=\"Electronic Laboratory Notebook (GippLab software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dea89ae1bcb9a4b965d2bd045218cf8b\">Electronic Laboratory Notebook (GippLab software)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>G<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Galaxy_(biomedical_software)\" title=\"Galaxy (biomedical software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ead5d6ebaa8d67744d2f68d454d89ce6\">Galaxy (biomedical software)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/GNomEx\" title=\"GNomEx\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ffe2672873462be87660d574029bf8b2\">GNomEx<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/GNU_Health\" title=\"GNU Health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f7172a563b254c7b34c3805b4a845e7\">GNU Health<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/GNU_LIMS\" title=\"GNU LIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98c7163d23fcaef02b49ee28e8fc27c6\">GNU LIMS<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>I<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Indigo_ELN\" title=\"Indigo ELN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d95c86e43cf8c5a9596375526b635fa4\">Indigo ELN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/IPath\" title=\"IPath\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8175744e54125ba35b7a4e55b5d88e12\">IPath<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISkyLIMS\" title=\"ISkyLIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16ffd78887713ec9959998cc5a354c18\">ISkyLIMS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISPyB\" title=\"ISPyB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0c65aaf9b995ec49fe71aaa92ba5f4c\">ISPyB<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ITK\" title=\"ITK\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8287ad289a65c7f1c8c70694639f0688\">ITK<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>J<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/JuliaBase\" title=\"JuliaBase\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"614d5a2fe0ad270b2728d542b247d1f9\">JuliaBase<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Jupyter_Notebook\" title=\"Jupyter Notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26fd35430c10e009a142bbab5dbf617a\">Jupyter Notebook<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>K<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Kalenis\" title=\"Kalenis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2b9d092b79a0e858b903a2c62bf3056\">Kalenis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/KNIME\" title=\"KNIME\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18360a3b4b22798e231d7b26365dff87\">KNIME<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>L<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabKey_Server\" title=\"LabKey Server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"856c6fe009646beaaed7ecd21dda4932\">LabKey Server<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabStoRe\" title=\"LabStoRe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ba8165ff73389f2ea3bbdd241ec0f8d\">LabStoRe<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabTrove\" title=\"LabTrove\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96314c6a72468722216b9af430141606\">LabTrove<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabWiki\" title=\"LabWiki\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf7948f993e7d91807ac9322f2079362\">LabWiki<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_for_Dolibarr\" title=\"LIMS for Dolibarr\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3459798ccc788cd9e180b4f38d6d822\">LIMS for Dolibarr<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>M<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/MASTR-MS\" title=\"MASTR-MS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e97b3a6750e0d0edfeb14613720dd24\">MASTR-MS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/MetaLIMS\" title=\"MetaLIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbcda0d43003f11a36cb1ff6ef6380ca\">MetaLIMS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/MISO\" title=\"MISO\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"427c89f41b1bfd4c94e97cb1e4edee6f\">MISO<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/MyLabBook\" title=\"MyLabBook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a80c25c470d73512bbd299802d378bc\">MyLabBook<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>N<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/NEMO\" title=\"NEMO\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6274dd71f17c0e0bbaa15d824ecace0\">NEMO<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/NextGen_Connect\" title=\"NextGen Connect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11c781d5ed6d6edda256267a626594f3\">NextGen Connect<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/NotedELN\" title=\"NotedELN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81fcec07d8640bcc89a1714089fe733b\">NotedELN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/NUcore\" title=\"NUcore\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c559b36f2ac0272b2b29668fe4516d93\">NUcore<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>O<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Open_enventory\" title=\"Open enventory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b3fe1fa2243591293cacf8ab2374f0d\">Open enventory<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenBIS\" title=\"OpenBIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bbca2b6be0c273677fc99a9474e49ec\">OpenBIS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenChrom\" title=\"OpenChrom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"586c3f92f680ab8c89b40007151a28e7\">OpenChrom<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenClinic_GA\" title=\"OpenClinic GA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3dba47138f97f4a956e9216f3f34b1b1\">OpenClinic GA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenClinica\" title=\"OpenClinica\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de671e2b0ad26a1a28dcaad120e3fbb4\">OpenClinica<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenELIS\" title=\"OpenELIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b11b00d1e7409d55b58e9f82204cc2a3\">OpenELIS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenEpi\" title=\"OpenEpi\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be3c1d39780208621bfc6371659c1a49\">OpenEpi<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenMRS\" title=\"OpenMRS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bdb797cd304c9ac66336f395c2bb6dbd\">OpenMRS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenSpecimen\" title=\"OpenSpecimen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ede30d8d1185cde6f70bb12423d3d496\">OpenSpecimen<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OsiriX\" title=\"OsiriX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfde47f22774a57ce8c0c36c5dfabdb8\">OsiriX<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>P<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Parkour\" title=\"Parkour\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f517597dab485a30c755ede0a7e3e29\">Parkour<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>S<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SciNote\" title=\"SciNote\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcafe5e3de96d8ba319b70f089a53ea0\">SciNote<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SciTran\" title=\"SciTran\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8804a105e99334303940aa785c4cd5ea\">SciTran<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SENAITE\" title=\"SENAITE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fde520de4f90d065aae386e2b0b0a4e\">SENAITE<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110164713\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.010 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.013 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 1\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 0\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:7918-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110164713 and revision id 57840. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_images":[],"b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_timestamp":1704907035,"df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_type":"article","df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_title":"LIMSpec 2022 R2","df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Book:LIMSpec_2022_R2","df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_plaintext":"\n\nBook:LIMSpec 2022 R2From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nLIMSpec 2022 R2\r\nBy Shawn E. Douglas\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThis is a LIMSwiki book, a collection of LIMSwiki articles that can be easily saved, rendered electronically, and ordered as a printed book.\r\n\n\n\n\n\nEdit this book:\nBook&#160;Creator &#160;&#183; &#32;Wikitext \n\n\nSelect format to download:\n\nPDF&#160;(A4) &#160;&#183; &#32;PDF&#160;(Letter) \n\n \n\n\nOrder a printed copy from these publishers:\nPediaPress \n\n\n[&#160;Start&#160;] [&#160;FAQ&#160;] [&#160;Basic help&#160;] [&#160;Advanced help&#160;] [&#160;Feedback&#160;] [&#160;Recent Changes&#160;] \n\n\n\n\r\n\n\nLIMSpec 2022 R2 \nTitle: LIMSpec 2022 R2\nAuthor for citation: Shawn E. Douglas\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International\nPublication date: December 2022\n\r\n\nMany specification documents for laboratory informatics systems have been compiled over the years. Most of them tend to focus on a potential client's \"wishlist\" of features for a given system. This updated version of a revised LIMSpec is different; it attempts to take a regulatory-, standards-, and guidance-based approach to building a specification document for laboratory informatics systems. The specification is built out upon on more than 100 resources, with ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics and its requirements list chief among them. After the introduction and methodology, various requirements are organized and listed in a methodical order, each supported by one or more regulations, standards, guidance, or accreditation requirements documents. Finally, LIMSpec 2022 closes with a few tips on putting the specification to use.\nThe December 2022 update focuses on the food and beverage industry, adding almost 30 new resources. Examples of significant additions include BRC Global Standards' Global Standard for Food Safety, Issue 8, Global Food Safety Initiative's Benchmarking Requirements Version 2020.1, and various other 21 CFR parts. Some verbiage on existing requirements was also slightly tweaked where necessary.\nThe table of contents is as follows: \n\n1. Introduction\nIntroduction and methodology\n2. Primary Laboratory Workflow\n1. Sample and experiment registration\n2. Sample management\n3. Core laboratory testing and experiments\n4. Results review and verification\n5. Sample, experiment, and study approval and verification\n6. Reporting\n3. Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\n7. Document and records management\n8. Resource management\n9. Compliance management\n10. Instrument and equipment management\n11. Batch and lot management\n12. Scheduled event management\n13. Instrument data capture and control\n14. Standard and reagent management\n15. Inventory management\n16. Investigation and quality management\n4. Specialty Laboratory Functions\n17. Production management\n18. Statistical trending and control charts\n19. Agriculture and food data management\n20. Environmental data management\n21. Forensic case and data management\n22. Clinical and public health data management\n23. Veterinary data management\n24. Scientific data management\n25. Health information technology\n5. Technology and Performance Improvements\n26. Instrument data systems functions\n27. Systems integration\n28. Laboratory scheduling and capacity planning\n29. Lean laboratory and continuous improvement\n30. Artificial intelligence and smart systems\n6. Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\n31. Data integrity\n32. Configuration management\n33. System validation and commission\n34. System administration\n35. Cybersecurity\n36. Information privacy\n7. Closing remarks\nPutting LIMSpec to use\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Book:LIMSpec_2022_R2\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Book:LIMSpec_2022_R2<\/a>\nCategories: LIMSwiki books (community books)LIMSwiki books on softwareNavigation menuPage actionsBookDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsBookDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 4 January 2024, at 01:29.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 9,224 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-208 ns-subject page-Book_LIMSpec_2022_R2 rootpage-Book_LIMSpec_2022_R2 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Book:LIMSpec 2022 R2<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><table class=\"ombox\" cellpadding=\"5%\" style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td rowspan=\"5\">\n<table style=\"background:#f1e2d3; color: black; text-align:left; border:1px solid darkgrey; width: 130px;\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background:gray; height: 3px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"height: 30px; text-align: right; vertical-align: top;\"><small><b>LIMSpec 2022 R2<\/b><br \/><i>By Shawn E. Douglas<\/i><\/small>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background:gray;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"5\" style=\"height: 135px; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Specification_Types.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b4fca8e302427f3e103649612af8f74\"><img alt=\"Specification Types.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/1c\/Specification_Types.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"125\" height=\"67\" \/><\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td>\n<td colspan=\"2;\">This is a <b><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Books\" title=\"LIMSWiki:Books\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"916f58183dda2f43e340d92ef17b35f8\">LIMSwiki book<\/a><\/b>, a collection of LIMSwiki articles that can be easily saved, rendered electronically, and ordered as a printed book.<br \/>\n<hr \/>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\">\n<td class=\"nowrap;\"><i>Edit this book:<\/i><\/td>\n<td class=\"nowrap;\"><span style=\"font-size:larger\"><span class=\"plainlinks\" title=\"Open this book using LIMSwiki&#39;s book editing tool. The Book Creator allows you to easily add or remove articles, create or remove chapters, download and print PDF versions, and more.\">Book&#160;Creator<\/span>&#160;<span style=\"font-weight:bold;\">&#183;<\/span>&#32;<span class=\"plainlinks\" title=\"Edit this book using LIMSwiki&#39;s regular editing tool. See the &#91;Advanced&#93; link below for details.\"><\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\">\n<td class=\"nowrap;\"><i>Select format to download:<\/i><\/td>\n<td class=\"nowrap;\" colspan=\"1;\"><span style=\"font-size:larger\">\n<p><span class=\"plainlinks\" title=\"Download a PDF version of this book, optimized for A4 paper (8.3 \u00d7 11.7 in, 210 \u00d7 297 mm).\">PDF&#160;(A4)<\/span>&#160;<span style=\"font-weight:bold;\">&#183;<\/span>&#32;<span class=\"plainlinks\" title=\"Download a PDF version of this book, optimized for Letter paper (8.5 \u00d7 11 in, 216 \u00d7 279 mm).\">PDF&#160;(Letter)<\/span>\n<\/p>\n<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;\">\n<td class=\"nowrap;\"><i>Order a printed copy from these publishers:<\/i><\/td>\n<td class=\"nowrap;\"><span style=\"font-size:larger\"><span class=\"plainlinks\" title=\"Preview this book with PediaPress, choose a cover image, pick a color for the cover, and more. The printed book is a softcover in A5 format (8.3 \u00d7 5.8 in, 210 \u00d7 148 mm), with professional-quality layout and printing.\">PediaPress<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"tvertical-align:bottom;\">\n<td style=\"text-align:center;\" colspan=\"2;\"><small>[&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Books\" title=\"LIMSWiki:Books\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"916f58183dda2f43e340d92ef17b35f8\">Start<\/a>&#160;] [&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Help:Books\/FAQ\" title=\"Help:Books\/FAQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5cc9155bfe9252688ac60b225367d099\">FAQ<\/a>&#160;] [&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Help:Books\" title=\"Help:Books\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4249fc6a97715d385a8c82afef6b0e87\">Basic help<\/a>&#160;] [&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Help:Books\/For_experts\" title=\"Help:Books\/For experts\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25e7e0015014538ae1022c773a3555df\">Advanced help<\/a>&#160;] [&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Help:Books\/Feedback\" title=\"Help:Books\/Feedback\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2f9ec9721f776835f90a023720cda7a\">Feedback<\/a>&#160;] [&#160;<span class=\"plainlinks\" title=\"See the recent edits made to the articles of this book.\">Recent Changes&#160;]<\/span><\/small>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMSpec_2022_R2\"><i>LIMSpec 2022 R2<\/i><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>LIMSpec 2022 R2<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Shawn E. Douglas\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: December 2022\n<\/p><p><br \/>\nMany specification documents for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> systems have been compiled over the years. Most of them tend to focus on a potential client's \"wishlist\" of features for a given system. This updated version of a revised LIMSpec is different; it attempts to take a regulatory-, standards-, and guidance-based approach to building a specification document for laboratory informatics systems. The specification is built out upon on more than 100 resources, with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578\" title=\"ASTM E1578\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061\">ASTM E1578-18<\/a> <i>Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics<\/i> and its requirements list chief among them. After the introduction and methodology, various requirements are organized and listed in a methodical order, each supported by one or more regulations, standards, guidance, or accreditation requirements documents. Finally, LIMSpec 2022 closes with a few tips on putting the specification to use.\n<\/p><p>The December 2022 update focuses on the food and beverage industry, adding almost 30 new resources. Examples of significant additions include BRC Global Standards' <i>Global Standard for Food Safety, Issue 8<\/i>, Global Food Safety Initiative's <i>Benchmarking Requirements Version 2020.1<\/i>, and various other 21 CFR parts. Some verbiage on existing requirements was also slightly tweaked where necessary.\n<\/p><p>The table of contents is as follows: \n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>1. Introduction<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Introduction_and_methodology\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Introduction and methodology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a58610d5ca6de721882be7114c8ca86\">Introduction and methodology<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>2. Primary Laboratory Workflow<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Primary_Laboratory_Workflow#1._Sample_and_experiment_registration\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Primary Laboratory Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61aff0fab36cdf9b9d726a3caf608cc1\">1. Sample and experiment registration<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Primary_Laboratory_Workflow#2._Sample_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Primary Laboratory Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"15457a38f6d575c440f33bcc732c18a2\">2. Sample management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Primary_Laboratory_Workflow#3._Core_laboratory_testing_and_experiments\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Primary Laboratory Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"391eb403b8e74d30746c87a3dd134f66\">3. Core laboratory testing and experiments<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Primary_Laboratory_Workflow#4._Results_review_and_verification\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Primary Laboratory Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0275d5f4b1bd7bd8c861ef8f0795dfb6\">4. Results review and verification<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Primary_Laboratory_Workflow#5._Sample.2C_experiment.2C_and_study_approval_and_verification\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Primary Laboratory Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99136bc05337b7583a7395cbd590656a\">5. Sample, experiment, and study approval and verification<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Primary_Laboratory_Workflow#6._Reporting\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Primary Laboratory Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"671d88f9d757ca0494ddc846debb4903\">6. Reporting<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>3. Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#7._Document_and_records_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a764b39a539286107f8212ee654db87b\">7. Document and records management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#8._Resource_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe6f7831accf9866e7094abebdb6a6a1\">8. Resource management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#9._Compliance_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4fcb640c65b0c1a19ddb8ac2a708071\">9. Compliance management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#10._Instrument_and_equipment_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bff44fcebcd26459117e31bbd8c99ea1\">10. Instrument and equipment management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#11._Batch_and_lot_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"294df292ed93e358a9df3501bb3de637\">11. Batch and lot management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#12._Scheduled_event_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e65f4869b4cef313b97d330551ce3dde\">12. Scheduled event management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#13._Instrument_data_capture_and_control\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c6dfe1e98f618e279fa954664ddfbb66\">13. Instrument data capture and control<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#14._Standard_and_reagent_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f172b7fc3c58eff808f985a33cdba7e\">14. Standard and reagent management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#15._Inventory_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d51a618475d6fdd30e9db36ce3c6512\">15. Inventory management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining_Laboratory_Workflow_and_Operations#16._Investigation_and_quality_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Maintaining Laboratory Workflow and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a831dc6b2450793264d359a92c01fa15\">16. Investigation and quality management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>4. Specialty Laboratory Functions<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#17._Production_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a86c66dbb770905efc543883944afb7\">17. Production management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#18._Statistical_trending_and_control_charts\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bf95a1f218d7809238a0eb597aff931\">18. Statistical trending and control charts<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#19._Agriculture_and_food_data_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a680a3c3df3893b3027dc86b948be58\">19. Agriculture and food data management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#20._Environmental_data_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73573980729cbd218a34c5c2e84eb661\">20. Environmental data management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#21._Forensic_case_and_data_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f931466bb9436d113fc17a04bc496cf\">21. Forensic case and data management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#22._Clinical_and_public_health_data_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16390a68203fc9b7cc3f655664554328\">22. Clinical and public health data management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#23._Veterinary_data_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"358bde209d8d7ca4c22ace38b7fe75b4\">23. Veterinary data management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#24._Scientific_data_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6db2dcdf3009db85f6affb0fff9d348\">24. Scientific data management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty_Laboratory_Functions#25._Health_information_technology\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Specialty Laboratory Functions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94577196babcc5bb87b20331aa12d805\">25. Health information technology<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>5. Technology and Performance Improvements<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Technology_and_Performance_Improvements#26._Instrument_data_systems_functions\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Technology and Performance Improvements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b7bf1eb07b0c58eaa599ed5a69c9298\">26. Instrument data systems functions<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Technology_and_Performance_Improvements#27._Systems_integration\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Technology and Performance Improvements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16790a3329a8f9a6998e3a9a5c30ec80\">27. Systems integration<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Technology_and_Performance_Improvements#28._Laboratory_scheduling_and_capacity_planning\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Technology and Performance Improvements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef63a9ea25244968b723e4ea21c2b4ec\">28. Laboratory scheduling and capacity planning<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Technology_and_Performance_Improvements#29._Lean_laboratory_and_continuous_improvement\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Technology and Performance Improvements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85b819c0b9017f33292ab934d84712b4\">29. Lean laboratory and continuous improvement<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Technology_and_Performance_Improvements#30._Artificial_intelligence_and_smart_systems\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Technology and Performance Improvements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ebbeb8bfec6319a409d1d0afffa6cbf\">30. Artificial intelligence and smart systems<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>6. Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Security_and_Integrity_of_Systems_and_Operations#31._Data_integrity\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eedafbce6e4049ac527deb43a1e2311d\">31. Data integrity<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Security_and_Integrity_of_Systems_and_Operations#32._Configuration_management\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e972c3ebbff256d2241b0ba5e3831389\">32. Configuration management<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Security_and_Integrity_of_Systems_and_Operations#33._System_validation_and_commission\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"962b522f454655e6db263e82dc72efff\">33. System validation and commission<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Security_and_Integrity_of_Systems_and_Operations#34._System_administration\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e61932b867065094a0b64f809b55574\">34. System administration<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Security_and_Integrity_of_Systems_and_Operations#35._Cybersecurity\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46f38a22c13a626b571bac684fbf12ae\">35. Cybersecurity<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Security_and_Integrity_of_Systems_and_Operations#36._Information_privacy\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Security and Integrity of Systems and Operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"111b080aebf48e07f19c5b0f8f2b6a2e\">36. Information privacy<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>7. Closing remarks<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMSpec\/Putting_LIMSpec_to_use\" title=\"LII:LIMSpec\/Putting LIMSpec to use\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f527b047b67a208cce8ad6301dd8959\">Putting LIMSpec to use<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171715\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.591 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.069 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 143\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 5536\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 247\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 8\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 0\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 23.612 1 Template:Saved_book\n100.00% 23.612 1 -total\n 29.86% 7.050 2 Template:\u00b7\n 25.42% 6.003 1 Template:Pp-book-cover\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:11183-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171714 and revision id 57732. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Book:LIMSpec_2022_R2\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Book:LIMSpec_2022_R2<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/1c\/Specification_Types.jpg"],"df2e12ebefc2379e95f3f1956aac4400_timestamp":1704907034,"de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_type":"article","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_title":"Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_plaintext":"\n\nLII:Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International ImplementationsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search\nTitle: Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations\nAuthor for citation: Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL)\nLicense for content: Copyright 2019, Association of Public Health Laboratories\nPublication date: May 2019\nWhile not a laboratory informatics course in itself, this APHL guidebook certainly contains a full class-worth of material. Developed over several years with funding from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), this guide collects comprehensive information from informaticians and laboratorians in multiple countries in regards to the implementation and project management of laboratory information systems (LIS) in the public health setting. According to APHL, the guide contains useful information for most anyone, from \"[n]ovices who are considering LIS\nin their laboratory for the first time ... [to] more experienced implementers who have questions on certain topics or are looking for a strategic approach to a problem.\"\nYou can find the guide using the program filter \"Informatics\": APHL Publications by Topic\n\r\n\nAbout the authors\nAPHL is a membership organization that focuses on providing resources to and promoting the importance of public health laboratories to national and global health. The organization works closely with not only public laboratories but also federal agencies and international entities to develop and implement regional and national health initiatives, as well as promote better access to diagnostic testing services. APHL also lends its expertise to the development of laboratory informatics systems, training, policy, and research programs.\n\nGeneral layout and contents of the guide \nThe guide contains six major sections as well as appendices and notes. An executive summary and introduction provide insight into the purpose of the guide, which constitutes a significant revision of their 2005 Guidebook for the Implementation of Laboratory Information Systems in Resource Poor Settings. (Archived here, for the curious.) They note \"[t]he overall organization and layout of each LIS Guide section reflects feedback and guidance from various in-country LIS implementation teams and information system subject matter experts.\"\nAfterwards, the \"Laboratory Information Systems (LIS) Overview\" discusses the differences between a LIS and a laboratory information management system (LIMS), as well as why a LIS is important, what it does, and how data can be managed with it. The next section \"Starting a National LIS Program\" details the implementation strategies, monitoring tools, team management, and sustainability concerns that go into a national LIS project. How the LIS becomes a project itself at the laboratory level is detailed thoroughly afterwards.\nThe guide's last major section gets into the core details of project management planning, including scheduling, quality management, procurement, human resources, communication, and risk management strategies. The appendices close out the guide.\n\nThe guide \n: The guide can be found on the APHL site, filtering by topic: \"Informatics\": APHL Publications by Topic\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 9 February 2022, at 20:07.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 7,740 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations rootpage-LII_Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:APHL-Logo.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"91d3a596e43e3b4c047a1b96a0822ede\"><img alt=\"APHL-Logo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/f\/f0\/APHL-Logo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"240\" height=\"179\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL)\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: Copyright 2019, Association of Public Health Laboratories\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: May 2019\n<\/p><p>While not a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> course in itself, this APHL guidebook certainly contains a full class-worth of material. Developed over several years with funding from the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"176aa9c9513251c328d864d1e724e814\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/a> (CDC), this guide collects comprehensive information from informaticians and laboratorians in multiple countries in regards to the implementation and project management of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information systems<\/a> (LIS) in the public health setting. According to APHL, the guide contains useful information for most anyone, from \"[n]ovices who are considering LIS\nin their laboratory for the first time ... [to] more experienced implementers who have questions on certain topics or are looking for a strategic approach to a problem.\"\n<\/p><p>You can find the guide using the program filter \"Informatics\": <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/Pages\/reportsbriefsresults.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">APHL Publications by Topic<\/a>\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<b>About the authors<\/b>\n<\/p><p>APHL is a membership organization that focuses on providing resources to and promoting the importance of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_laboratory\" title=\"Public health laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34ffb658cb79bf322c65efaad95996f5\">public health laboratories<\/a> to national and global health. The organization works closely with not only public laboratories but also federal agencies and international entities to develop and implement regional and national health initiatives, as well as promote better access to diagnostic testing services. APHL also lends its expertise to the development of laboratory informatics systems, training, policy, and research programs.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General_layout_and_contents_of_the_guide\">General layout and contents of the guide<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The guide contains six major sections as well as appendices and notes. An executive summary and introduction provide insight into the purpose of the guide, which constitutes a significant revision of their 2005 <i>Guidebook for the Implementation of Laboratory Information Systems in Resource Poor Settings<\/i>. (Archived <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170830041335\/https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/MRC\/Documents\/GH_2005October_LIS-Guidebook.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">here<\/a>, for the curious.) They note \"[t]he overall organization and layout of each LIS Guide section reflects feedback and guidance from various in-country LIS implementation teams and information system subject matter experts.\"\n<\/p><p>Afterwards, the \"Laboratory Information Systems (LIS) Overview\" discusses the differences between a LIS and a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS), as well as why a LIS is important, what it does, and how data can be managed with it. The next section \"Starting a National LIS Program\" details the implementation strategies, monitoring tools, team management, and sustainability concerns that go into a national LIS project. How the LIS becomes a project itself at the laboratory level is detailed thoroughly afterwards.\n<\/p><p>The guide's last major section gets into the core details of project management planning, including scheduling, quality management, procurement, human resources, communication, and risk management strategies. The appendices close out the guide.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_guide\">The guide<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/Pages\/reportsbriefsresults.aspx\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a>: The guide can be found on the APHL site, filtering by topic: \"Informatics\": <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/Pages\/reportsbriefsresults.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">APHL Publications by Topic<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110162756\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.018 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.028 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 11\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 0\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10885-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110162756 and revision id 46273. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/f\/f0\/APHL-Logo.png"],"de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_timestamp":1704907033,"1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_type":"article","1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_title":"Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization","1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization","1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_plaintext":"\n\nLII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your OrganizationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search\nTitle: Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization\nEdition: First Edition\nAuthors for citation: Joe Liscouski, Shawn E. Douglas\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International\nPublication date: July 2023\n\r\n\nAs laboratory workflows become increasingly complex, personnel become shorter on time, and competition becomes more pronounced, lab managers turn to laboratory informatics solutions like the laboratory information management system (LIMS) to help gain practical and competitive advantage. However, acquiring and deploying a LIMS is no easy task, and simply presenting a handful of bullet-pointed potential benefits likely won't be enough to convince upper management and other critical stakeholders in the organization to go along with any proposed LIMS plan. Justification for the LIMS will need to be succinct and relevant, based on organizational goals, economic concerns, and practical realities. This guide will help you\u2014whether you are a lab manager, lab technician, or someone else in the organization with a stake in seeing laboratory operations improve\u2014understand what a LIMS is, what the alternatives are, what and why acquiring one looks like, and what needs to be considered in putting together a competent and persuasive LIMS project proposal. This guide also includes a handy Microsoft Excel workbook that will help act as a \"cheat sheet\" for persuading stakeholders to better buy into your vision of LIMS acquisition and deployment within your organization.\nThe table of contents for Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization is as follows:\n\r\n\n\n1. Introduction to LIMS and its acquisition and deployment\n1.1 What is a laboratory information management system (LIMS)?\n1.2 What are the alternatives to a LIMS?\n1.3 LIMS acquisition then\n1.4 LIMS acquisition now\n1.5 Why a LIMS matters<\/dd>\n2. Organizational, economic, and practical justifications for a LIMS\n2.1 Organizational justifications: Why is it important?\n2.1.1 Why is acquiring a LIMS important to meeting the goals of your lab?\n2.1.2 What problems does the LIMS solve that currently affect your lab?\n2.1.3 What operational, financial, and personnel improvements do you expect to see in your lab because of LIMS implementation?\n2.1.4 Why is this important to the larger organization, as well as those outside the lab?<\/dd>\n2.2 Economic considerations and justifications\n2.2.1 On-premises vs. cloud LIMS\n2.2.2 Common and add-on costs\n2.2.3 Factors that can offset costs<\/dd>\n2.3 Practical considerations and justifications\n2.3.1 Tangible benefits\n2.3.2 Intangible benefits<\/dd><\/dd>\n3. Gaining buy-in from management and other stakeholders\n3.1 The importance of manager (and stakeholder) buy-in\n3.2 Pitching the LIMS project\n3.2.1 A note about focusing too much on ROI<\/dd>\n3.3 Developing a cheat sheet for management<\/dd>\n4. Closing remarks\nAppendix 1. LIMS Acquisition and Deployment Justification Workbook\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 25 July 2023, at 22:50.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,949 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization rootpage-LII_Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Man_and_Woman_Shaking_Hands.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9486d1ed88697bb95506a9bc45ae8eb\"><img alt=\"Man and Woman Shaking Hands.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2e\/Man_and_Woman_Shaking_Hands.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Edition<\/b>: First Edition\n<\/p><p><b>Authors for citation<\/b>: Joe Liscouski, Shawn E. Douglas\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: July 2023\n<\/p><p><br \/>\nAs <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflows<\/a> become increasingly complex, personnel become shorter on time, and competition becomes more pronounced, lab managers turn to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> solutions like the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) to help gain practical and competitive advantage. However, acquiring and deploying a LIMS is no easy task, and simply presenting a handful of bullet-pointed potential benefits likely won't be enough to convince upper management and other critical stakeholders in the organization to go along with any proposed LIMS plan. Justification for the LIMS will need to be succinct and relevant, based on organizational goals, economic concerns, and practical realities. This guide will help you\u2014whether you are a lab manager, lab technician, or someone else in the organization with a stake in seeing laboratory operations improve\u2014understand what a LIMS is, what the alternatives are, what and why acquiring one looks like, and what needs to be considered in putting together a competent and persuasive LIMS project proposal. This guide also includes a handy Microsoft Excel workbook that will help act as a \"cheat sheet\" for persuading stakeholders to better buy into your vision of LIMS acquisition and deployment within your organization.\n<\/p><p>The table of contents for <i>Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization<\/i> is as follows:\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\/Introduction_to_LIMS_and_its_acquisition_and_deployment\" title=\"LII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization\/Introduction to LIMS and its acquisition and deployment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b79ce2e3f97684c79a00676b4b224fa\">1. Introduction to LIMS and its acquisition and deployment<\/a>\n<dl><dd>1.1 What is a laboratory information management system (LIMS)?<\/dd>\n<dd>1.2 What are the alternatives to a LIMS?<\/dd>\n<dd>1.3 LIMS acquisition then<\/dd>\n<dd>1.4 LIMS acquisition now<\/dd>\n<dd>1.5 Why a LIMS matters<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\/Organizational,_economic,_and_practical_justifications_for_a_LIMS\" title=\"LII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization\/Organizational, economic, and practical justifications for a LIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4afc1caafd8f280aef0e576aee01e485\">2. Organizational, economic, and practical justifications for a LIMS<\/a>\n<dl><dd>2.1 Organizational justifications: Why is it important?\n<dl><dd>2.1.1 Why is acquiring a LIMS important to meeting the goals of your lab?<\/dd>\n<dd>2.1.2 What problems does the LIMS solve that currently affect your lab?<\/dd>\n<dd>2.1.3 What operational, financial, and personnel improvements do you expect to see in your lab because of LIMS implementation?<\/dd>\n<dd>2.1.4 Why is this important to the larger organization, as well as those outside the lab?<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd>\n<dd>2.2 Economic considerations and justifications\n<dl><dd>2.2.1 On-premises vs. cloud LIMS<\/dd>\n<dd>2.2.2 Common and add-on costs<\/dd>\n<dd>2.2.3 Factors that can offset costs<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd>\n<dd>2.3 Practical considerations and justifications\n<dl><dd>2.3.1 Tangible benefits<\/dd>\n<dd>2.3.2 Intangible benefits<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\/Gaining_buy-in_from_management_and_other_stakeholders\" title=\"LII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization\/Gaining buy-in from management and other stakeholders\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dff54c12f9ca6a7431c9c0634a678766\">3. Gaining buy-in from management and other stakeholders<\/a>\n<dl><dd>3.1 The importance of manager (and stakeholder) buy-in<\/dd>\n<dd>3.2 Pitching the LIMS project\n<dl><dd>3.2.1 A note about focusing too much on ROI<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd>\n<dd>3.3 Developing a cheat sheet for management<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\/Closing_remarks\" title=\"LII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization\/Closing remarks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0bc1da54538717bfeae70f25ec6cbcd\">4. Closing remarks<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\/LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_Justification_Workbook\" title=\"LII:Justifying LIMS Acquisition and Deployment within Your Organization\/LIMS Acquisition and Deployment Justification Workbook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f37e1d19cf9d95093f78c0104e22bdd3\">Appendix 1. LIMS Acquisition and Deployment Justification Workbook<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110064230\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.372 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.728 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 1\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 0\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:14291-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110064229 and revision id 52608. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Justifying_LIMS_Acquisition_and_Deployment_within_Your_Organization<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2e\/Man_and_Woman_Shaking_Hands.jpg"],"1f45c718e9ce1c7e28ab898c08c7b1a4_timestamp":1704907033,"d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_type":"article","d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_title":"The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies","d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies","d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_plaintext":"\n\nLII:The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for NewbiesFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchTitle: The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies\nAuthor for citation: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International\nPublication date: April 2021\n\nContents \n\n1 Introduction \n\n1.1 Intended audience \n\n\n2 Types of scientific and laboratory work \n\n2.1 Basic and applied research \n\n2.1.1 The research process \n\n\n\n\n3 Testing laboratories \n4 The laboratory notebook \n5 Using laboratory records \n6 Bringing informatics into the lab \n\n6.1 Backup strategy \n6.2 Witness review or sign-off \n6.3 Instrument-computer integration \n6.4 Expanding the research team \n\n\n7 Meeting the needs of the testing laboratory \n8 Other laboratory informatics systems \n\n8.1 Scientific data management system (SDMS) \n8.2 Laboratory execution system (LES) \n8.3 Instrument data system (IDS) \n\n\n9 Planning for laboratory informatics \n\n9.1 Education \n9.2 Planning \n9.3 Why projects fail \n\n\n10 Closing \n11 Footnotes \n12 About the author \n13 References \n\n\n\nIntroduction \nThe purpose of this piece is to introduce people who are not intimately familiar with laboratory work to the basics of laboratory operations and the role that informatics can play in assisting scientists, engineers, and technicians in their efforts. The concepts are important because they provide a functional foundation for understanding lab work and how that work is done in the early part of the twenty-first century (things will change, just wait for it).\n\nIntended audience \nThis material is intended for anyone who is interested in seeing how modern informatics tools can help those doing scientific work. It will provide an orientation to scientific and laboratory work, as well as the systems that have been developed to make that work more productive. It\u2019s for people coming out of school who have carried out lab experiments but not corporate research projects, for those who need to understand how testing labs work, and for IT professionals who may be faced with supporting computing systems in lab environments. It\u2019s also for those who may be tasked with managing projects to choose, install, and make informatics tools useful.\nFigure 1 shows the elements we\u2019ll be discussing in this piece. The treatment of the technical material will be on the lighter side, leaving in-depth subject matter to other works. Instrument data systems will be covered lightly, as any serious discussion becomes lengthy and discipline-specific very quickly; additionally, that material has been covered in other works.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 1. Elements we\u2019ll be covering\n\n\n\nTypes of scientific and laboratory work \nScience is about seeking truthful answers to questions. Sometimes those questions are open-ended without any idea where they will lead you in answering them (e.g. \u201cWhy does water ice float?\u201d). Others are very specific, concerning material composition or properties (e.g., \u201cHow much lead is in this drinking water?\u201d, \u201cHow much does a butterfly weigh?\u201d). Still others may take some effort before you determine the best approach to working on them. The approach someone uses to address these questions depends on the nature of the question; some are destined for research, while others are addressed using specific test methods.\nThere are two types of research: basic and applied. Both can include field work, observations, experiments, models (mathematical, computer, and simulation), etc. Applied research is also done in testing or service laboratories, as with, for example, the development of new methods of analysis.\n\nBasic and applied research \nBasic research is open-ended, as you are looking into something without any idea of where the work will lead. It is often funded by grants through universities or government institutions; continued support depends on the perceived value of the research. Projects can range in size from the work of a single individual to a small team to large-scale groups studying astronomy, high-energy physics, engineering, the life sciences, or a number of fields.\nApplied research, on the other hand, is directed toward a goal. That goal could be a cure for a disease, the development of a COVID-19 vaccine, or work towards artificial intelligence (AI). As with basic research, until some early goals have been reached the work may begin with a single individual or a small team, and then the project scales up. The effort may be broken down into a set of more narrowly focused efforts, whose results will be combined as the development proceeds. Since applied research is goal-directed, funding will depend upon who benefits from those goals being met. Projects of national interest, including security, may be wholly or partially funded by the government. Projects with a commercial interest tend to be funded by corporate interests, including individual companies in their own laboratories or through contract research organizations with expertise useful to the program. Where there is interest from a number of corporate and\/or government groups, consortiums may form to distribute the cost and share in the results.\nBoth basic and applied research can be found in government institutions (including military groups, research and development agencies like the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency [DARPA], and task-specific institutions such as the National Institutes of Health [NIH]), public and private non-profit groups, corporations, consortia, and contract research organizations.\n\nThe research process \nThe research process begins with a question. Any question will do, including \u201cwhy is the sky blue?\u201d We\u2019ll bypass Greek mythology&#91;a&#93; by asking more questions and planning how to proceed to answer them. For example, \u201cIs the sky always blue?\u201d, \u201cWhen is\/isn\u2019t it?\u201d, and \u201cWhat other colors can it be?\u201d Once the process begins, it can include a number of steps, the choice and direction depending upon the nature of the research and the mindset of the researcher:\n\nObservations: This includes basic note-taking with support material (text, photos, drawings, charts, and scanned material). Research (e.g., as with basic astronomy, field biology) can be as simple as looking something up on Google or as complex as understanding how a virus works. Research is about asking questions and looking for answers, which often leads to more questions. It\u2019s a little like my granddaughter who always asks \u201cwhy?\u201d no matter how well I answer the previous question (or at least how well I think I did).\nEnhanced observations: This includes interacting with items under observation, as well as non-directed interactions, preliminary data gathering, and behavioral analysis.\nExperiments and information gathering: This includes organized experiments that are planned, directed, and purpose-driven, as well as data and information gathering.\nTeam building: This includes the creation of teams or networks of people working on the same or similar projects.\nAnalytics and reporting: This includes data and information analysis, data modeling (e.g., mathematical, computer algorithm, and simulation), information synthesis, and knowledge creation.\nTechnology acquisition: This includes gaining access to public, commercial, remote, and other types of databases to assist the research.\nPinning down a \u201ctypical\u201d approach to research isn\u2019t possible because the routes people follow are as individual as the researchers and their area of work are. However, this is generally not the case with testing labs.\n\nTesting laboratories \nIn addition to research labs, there are also testing or \"service\" laboratories. Service labs carry out specific test routines on samples and specimens; you may be familiar with them as quality control labs, clinical labs, toxicology labs, forensic science labs, etc. They are called service labs because they support other organizations, including research organizations, and they have similar modes of operation and work organization, running different tests depending on their area of specialization.\nContract testing labs are another flavor of service laboratories, acting as independent labs that do testing for a fee. These labs can offer capabilities and expertise that their customer doesn\u2019t have, either because the equipment is specialized and not frequently needed or because the customer is looking for a second opinion on an analysis.\nRegardless of the type of service lab, they all have one thing in common: the way they function. For a moment let\u2019s forget about science and think about something else. Take for example a company that does graphics printing as a service to graphic designers and marketing groups. The company could offer a variety of printing services:\n\nbusiness cards\nstationery (e.g., envelopes, letterhead, etc.)\npostcards\nbrochures\nsigns\ngraphics for trade shows (including mounting of an image on backing, lightboxes, etc.)\npostal marketing services\nIn this scenario, customers can come into the shop and drop off work to be done or place orders online (the company website provides a good description of their services and products). One of their biggest concerns is workflow management: what work is coming in, what is in progress, what is in quality control, and what is ready for delivery. Many activities may be associated with this workflow.\n\nOrder acceptance: Log the job into a log book, the go-to reference for work orders. Add the corresponding work order to a binder of work orders; work orders can be removed from the binders as needed (for example, when people are working on the job) and returned when completed. Comments are made on the work order and referenced to an individual\u2019s notebook for details. Work orders shouldn\u2019t be duplicated since people may not be aware of the duplicates and information may be lost. This does add some inefficiency to the process if a work order contains multiple components (e.g., brochures and trade show graphics); if someone needs to work on a task and someone else has the work order, they have to find it. Work orders contain the names of graphics files and their location. Then a check is made to ensure all the needed information is there, notifying people if something is missing. This includes checking to see if the graphics files are available, in the correct format, etc. The priority of the work is determined with respect to other work. Then the customer is notified of the work order status and the expected completion date.\nScheduling: The work order is assigned to one or more individuals for completion.\nPerforming the work: This is where the actual work is performed, including task coordination if an order has multiple components.\nCustomer service: This includes answering customer questions about the work order and addressing inquiries on completion date.\nDraft review: This involves obtaining customer sign-off on a prototype stage if required, making adjustments if needed, and then proceeding to completion.\nQuality control: This is where projects are reviewed and approved for completion.\nDelivery: This involves shipping the material back to the customer or notifying the customer the order is ready for pick-up.\nBilling: After satisfaction with the completed work is acknowledged, the work order is billed to the customer.\nWhen the shop has a large number of projects going on, such a manual, paper-based workflow is difficult and time-consuming to manage. Projects have to be scheduled so that they get done and don\u2019t interfere with other projects that might be on a tight deadline. And then there is inventory management, making sure you have the materials you need on hand when you need them. There is also the occasional rescheduling that occurs if equipment breaks down or someone is out sick. A simplified workflow based on the above is shown in Figure 2.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 2. Simplified print shop workflow, with some details omitted for clarity\n\n\n\nLet's say our print shop has seven people working there. The owner manages the overall operation, and an administrator logs in work orders, notes the location of files that will be used on those orders, and does the final checkout of work, shipping, and billing. The remaining five people\u2014staff, although everyone is at the same organizational level\u2014take care of the actual production work; everyone is cross-trained, but some are more adept on some tasks than others.\nImagine you worked in this shop; how might your day go if you were one of the staff? The administrator will have prioritized the work depending on urgency and grouping similar work orders (or partial orders if there is request for multiple services) together. This is just a matter of efficiency: if you are using a particular piece of equipment and it has to be set up, calibrated, and cleaned when finished, you may as well make the most of that effort and run as many similar jobs as you can. Tracking down copies of work orders is an issue if someone is already working part of the order as there is only one copy so that notes and comments don\u2019t get lost. Each staff member has a notebook to keep track of work, any settings used on equipment, and comments about how the work progressed. These notebook entries are important and useful in case questions come up about a job, how it was run, and if any issues were encountered. As one set of jobs is completed, you move on to the next set. Inventory has to be checked to make sure that the needed materials are on-hand or ordered; if something is missing work has to be rescheduled. The workflow is a continual, organized mix of tasks, with people scheduling time on equipment as needed.\nYou can begin to appreciate how difficult the manual, paper-based workflow in a shop like that is to manage, particularly when it depends upon people communicating clearly. It is the same workflow as any service-oriented business, from a florist to a repair shop. What differs is the size of the organization, the complexity of the work, and the education needed to perform the required tasks.\nNow let's get back to the service laboratory. The print shop workflow is much like the structural workflow of such a laboratory. In the end, it\u2019s the nature of the tasks; the complexity of equipment, instrumentation, and electronic systems used; and the education needed to carry out the work that sets the service laboratory apart from other service operations. However, there is one other, critical aspect that sets it apart: most service labs have to meet federal or industry regulations (e.g., the ISO 9000 family of standards) for their operations. \nAs noted earlier, there are many different types of service laboratories. The basic workflow is the same (see Figure 3 for one perspective on the commonalities of research and service laboratories), but the nature of the testing separates one from another. A water testing lab uses different test procedures than a toxicology lab does, or a clinical lab. Those working in different types of labs have to learn how to run different tests, and they also have to learn about the materials they work with. After all, people's observations about the material tested will differ depending upon how much experience they have with different kinds of materials. \n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 3. This diagram represents one perspective on the relationship between laboratory types. This is a bit simplified, particularly on the roles of research labs. Large research facilities, or those in which waiting for test results impacts the progress of research work, may incorporate a \u201cservice lab\u201d function within their operations; the same workflow, just a merger of boxes. The downside of doing that is the loss of independent verification of test results, as people sometimes see what they want to see. This can be addressed by having critical and random samples analyzed independently.\n\n\n\nWhile workflows vary between research and service labs, there is one consistent factor that cuts across both: record keeping.\n\nThe laboratory notebook \nThe laboratory notebook has been a fixture in scientific work for centuries. The laboratory notebook is essentially a diary and can contain text, drawings, pasted photos, illustrations, charts, and so on. Historically, at least until the mid-1970s, it was a paper document that has evolved as legal and regulatory considerations have developed. Figure 4 shows part of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell\u2019s notebook.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 4. Pages 40-41 of Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers in the Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Public Domain\n\n\n\nThe format of today\u2019s paper notebooks has changed somewhat, and the process of using it has become more rigorous. Take for example Scientific Bindery Productions, a modern manufacturer of professional laboratory notebooks. The description for their duplicate lined notebook includes the following elements&#91;1&#93;:\n\ntable of contents\ninstructions page, for how to use the notebook and address patent protection\nheaders and footers, with legally defensible language\nheaders that include title, project number, and book number fields, as well as a \"work continued from page\" section\nfooters that include signature, date, disclosed to, and understood by fields, as well as a \"work continued to page\" section\nThe details of some of these points are called out in Figure 5, courtesy of Dr. Raquel Cumeras.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 5. A lab notebook example, courtesey of Dr. Raquel Cumeras, Science 2 Knowledge blog, 2019\n\n\n\nOver the years, several guidelines have been published about the use of laboratory notebooks. Examples include:\n\nGood manufacturing practice (GMP) and good laboratory practice (GLP) recordkeeping, from David West, St. Louis Community College, Center for Plant and Life Sciences&#91;2&#93;\nNIH scientific recordkeeping guidelines, from the National Institutes of Health&#91;3&#93;\nGeneral laboratory notebook guidelines, from Science editor Elisabeth Pain&#91;4&#93;\nA Google search of \"guidelines for maintaining laboratory notebooks\" or something similar will provide more examples, including those developed by leading universities.\nAt this point, you\u2019re probably wondering why we\u2019re spending so much time on this. The point: good record keeping is the foundation for documenting scientific work regardless of the media, be it paper or electronic. Yes, the laboratory notebook has an electronic equivalent: the electronic laboratory notebook (ELN). These ELNs and other laboratory informatics systems have to support everything paper systems do or they will fail in ensuring the integrity of documented work.\n\nUsing laboratory records \nLaboratory records, whether in laboratory notebooks or some other format, can be acted upon in many ways. Laboratory personnel interact with them by:\n\nrecording observations, results, instrument data output, photos, and charts\ndescribing research processes, goals, and results\nensuring the authenticity of laboratory work\nplanning and collaborating on experiments\nextracting information for reporting\nbacking up data\nquerying data\nsharing data\npublishing data\narchiving and retrieving data\nsecuring data\nEverything on that list can be done with paper records; however, those activities are easier, faster, and less error prone with electronic systems. Paper records aren\u2019t going away anytime soon, for example when needing to record comments and information that may not have been provided for in electronic systems. This is particularly true as a project team expands from one person to more people. However, the need to have shared access to information becomes a limiting factor in productivity when we rely on paper-based systems. Paper-based systems also depend upon the proximity of people working together, something that became problematic during the COVID-19 pandemic. Social distancing requirements made sharing paper-based notebook pages more challenging, requiring scanning and emailing. This was perhaps feasible for small amounts of physical materials, but less so for large projects with significant paper-based records.\nThat brings up another important point concerning ownership: whose data is it? When people are handed a notebook, they are told \u201cthis is your notebook, a place to write down your work and observations, and you are responsible for it.\u201d Depending upon how employment or consulting contracts are written, the content that goes into the notebook belongs to whoever is paying for the work. When I worked in a lab, the notebook I used as mine was referenced by others as \u201cyour notebook\u201d (it even had my name on it) even though it wasn\u2019t mine but rather the company\u2019s property. Yet when it was filled, they took possession of it and archived it. This concept of ownership has become a stumbling block in some organizations when they decide to install an ELN or laboratory information management system (LIMS), particularly if there are people who have been working there for a long time and have ingrained behaviors. Those people become concerned that someone is going to see their work in an incomplete state before they\u2019ve reviewed and completed it. It\u2019s their work and they don\u2019t want anyone to look at it until it\u2019s done. While the true owners of the work have always had that right, they may not have exercised it, respecting people\u2019s privacy until the work is complete. If you\u2019re considering an informatics system, does it address that concern about ownership?\n\nBringing informatics into the lab \nSo far this guide has hinted at the implications of adding laboratory informatics systems into the laboratory, but now it's time to discuss it further. Deciding how and when to bring such systems into the lab depends on a number of factors.\n1. What is the lab's budget? If an informatics implementation can't be properly funded, don\u2019t start that implementation until it can be. The cost of a laptop computer is trivial compared to the total cost of implementation.\n2. Do we have in-house access to educated and experienced IT support? That staff should understand that laboratory operations are not just another PC- or Microsoft-dominated arena, but rather an environment which has needs for informatics solutions beyond the typical office solutions. For example, laboratory instruments need to be connected to computers, and the resulting data stores should ideally be integrated to make the data more actionable.\n3. Are laboratory staff ready to use the technologies and take responsibility for the things that go with it? Staff must be trained in more than how to operate an instrument. Can they back up data? Do they understand the security and data privacy risks associated with handling the data?\n4. Are organizational policies flexible enough to allow practical use of the technology while still keeping security and data privacy risks in mind? The organization should have some sort of network access both internally and externally. Remote access should be possible, particularly given the circumstances surrounding pandemics and the like. A balanced policy on taking an organizational laptop out of the laboratory should be in place. Policies on cameras should also be reasonable, allowing researchers to capture images of samples and specimens for their notebooks. If organizational policies are too restrictive, the technology's usefulness is largely overshadowed.\n5. What are the lab's space constraints? The size of a lab and the experiments it must conduct can affect the choice of informatics tools.\n6. What is the nature of the lab's operations? Is it a research lab, service lab, or a combination of both? If you are in a service lab situation, bringing in informatics support as early as possible is essential to your workflow and sanity. You want to minimize having to deal with two separate processes and procedures: the old way we did it (paper-based) and the informatics-supported way.\n7. Is your lab\u2019s operation governed by external regulatory requirements? If it\u2019s going to be in the future, you may as well start as though it currently is. Note that everything should be validated, regardless of whether or not the lab is subject regulations. Validation isn't done to satisfy regulators but rather to prove that a process works properly. If you don\u2019t have that proof, what\u2019s the point of using that process? Do you really want to trust what a process produces without proof that it works?\nMost of the points above are easily understood, but let's go into further detail. Let's start by looking at a simple case of you and your project, where you are the sole contributor, without any need for regulatory oversight. Your primary need is to record your planning notes, observations, results, etc. There are tools within the world of computer software to help with this, most notably the word processor. If you have access to one of those, you probably also have access to spreadsheets and other applications that can make your efforts far easier than working with paper. If you search Google for \u201cword processors as lab notebooks\u201d you will find a number of references, including Dr. Martin Engel's guide to using Microsoft OneNote as an ELN&#91;5&#93; and Labforward's 2020 ELN selection guide.&#91;6&#93;\nHowever, simply switching from paper to electronic doesn't mean you're done. There's more to consider, like developing backup policies, addressing witness review, connecting to instruments, and addressing the effects of team expansion, including expanding to more comprehensive purpose-built informatics solutions.\n\nBackup strategy \nYou have the electronic documentation tools and the skills to use them, but what else do you need? A backup strategy is imperative. Imagine a scenario where you are using a desktop computer, laptop, or tablet to do your work and it has one copy of the document you\u2019ve been working on for weeks. You press the power button one morning and nothing happens. However, you are not (completely) worried or panicked but rather largely calm because:\n\nyou have a local backup on removable media (e.g., flash drive, disk), several instances, in fact, that were backed up at least daily, with backups containing everything on the system you were using (you may have a separate backup of your project);\nyou have a remote backup on your organization's servers (perhaps on a virtual machine);\nyou have a cloud-based backup of at least your project files, and as much of the system files that the cloud storage permits (depending on bandwidth and cost), all secured with two-factor authentication; and\ndepending on the operating system you are using, you may have built-in backup-and-recover abilities, e.g. as with Mac OS X's \"Time Machine\" functionality.\nYou've done these things because you've asked yourself \"how much is my work worth to me and my organization?\"\n\nWitness review or sign-off \nThe need for a witness review or sign-off can occur for several reasons, including a potential patent filing or proof that the work was done and data recorded properly, on a certain date, in case it is challenged. One of the ramifications is that you have to identify a second person to be that witness (though this would also be the case if you were using a paper notebook).\nA second issue is that you would have to format the pages of your word processor document (using templates) so as to emulate a signature block and page numbering structure that meets the requirements noted earlier for paper notebooks. You also have to provide a means for either physical (printouts) or electronic signatures (e.g., Adobe Acrobat and other applications provide a useful template that could be used as a lab notebook in this case, doing a cut-and-paste from a Word file). You would also have to ensure that once dated and signed, no edits could be made to that material. If you choose the printed route, then you\u2019re back to paper management. One possibility for dealing with that is to scan the signed pages and upload them to a secure server using the file server's date and time stamp system, or to a document management system to demonstrate that documents haven\u2019t been changed.\nThere is another possibility for time-stamping printed material that is scanned with a high-quality scanner. The concept of machine identification code or \"tracking dots\" allows a set of barely perceptible, forensically traceable colored dots to be printed onto pages, with the arrangement of the dots providing information that identifies the printer (by serial number), as well as the date and time a page was printed. Recent research has demonstrated ways to decode these dots for analysis, particularly as part of printer forensics.&#91;7&#93;&#91;8&#93;\n\nInstrument-computer integration \nUsing a computer to host a laboratory notebook raises another concern: how can lab instruments or separate instrument data systems connect to automatically transmit data and information to the computer? Controlled data collection will require software beyond a simple word processor, though many of today's ELN vendors provide integration components with their solutions. This connection, possibly using a spreadsheet import, will greatly improve laboratory productivity and the reliability of data transfers.\n\nExpanding the research team \nIncreasing the size of your project by adding more people will have a significant impact on the complexity of using a more electronic laboratory workflow. However, while the basic issues of sharing, collaboration, etc. are not any different than they would be if paper-based notebooks were in use, the electronic solutions to handling those issues are much more useful. At the core of an expanded laboratory operation is getting personnel to agree on how they are going to communicate data and information, how they are going to collaborate using that data and information, and how they will make that agreement sustainable. There is going to be some small allowance for individual approaches to laboratory activities, but critical matters such as data organization and management need to be strictly adhered to. As such, there are several issues to be mindful of.\n1. How will data and information be organized and compiled? If multiple people are contributing to a project, the results of their work need to be organized in one place so that the status of the work can be ascertained, missing data can be identified, and material is easier to work with. As a project's direction evolves, the formatting and content may change, potentially requiring a complete overhaul of the data structure. That is just a consequence of the way research programs progress.\n2. How will data and information be updated, versioned, and retained? If your lab works with paper files, this isn't so difficult. The lab may have one printed file detailing experimental methods, and when that method file gets updated, the old printed document is removed and the new one added. In labs where each person has their own individual method file, the process would be repeated for each person. As such, there's no confusion as to the current version; methods would have revision histories so that you would know why they were changed. In cases where those methods are kept in electronic files, more attention has to be paid to ensuring that old method files are archived, and that everyone is working with the same version. This means clear communications procedures are essential. Additionally, the name of the file should have the current revision information; don\u2019t rely on the computer's creation or modification dates for files.\n3. How is access to common files controlled? Having people edit or add to common files without careful lockout controls is dangerous. If two people open the same document at the same time and make changes, the one who saves the file last can overwrite any changes the other individual has made. You need a document management system that prevents this; if a file is checked out by one person, others may read it but not write to it until the first person is done. Old versions of files should be archived but not deleted so that a detailed revision history is maintained.\nIf an organization grows too large for a consensus-based cooperation of people using office suite products, it will be time to transition to a more purpose-built solution like a multiuser ELN that is capable of allowing multiple people to contribute to a project simultaneously, providing a common organization for data and information, and allowing users to either import data from an instrument or have a direct connection between the ELN and the instrument data system (or through the use of scientific data management system [SDMS]). But how large is too large? It may be the point when personnel become frustrated with waiting for access to documents, or when processes just don\u2019t seem to move as smoothly as they used to. While there is a significant cost factor in implementing an ELN, it should be done sooner rather than later so your lab can benefit from the organizational structure that an ELN provides and reduce the amount of effort it will take to import data and information into the structure. Ideally you are better off if you can start your work with an ELN once the initial project startup work is taken care of. \nELNs afford a number of additional benefits, including but not limited to access to:\n\nvendor databases for ordering supplies and managing inventory,\nchemical structure databases,\nreaction databases, and\nexternal libraries.\nELNs are appropriate for both basic research and applied research, including work in testing labs where method development and special project work is being done. The prior bulleted list might give you the impression that ELN are oriented toward chemistry; however, that is a reflection of my experience not the industry. The ELN is used in many other industries. Several examples of ELNs past and present, covering many industries, are listed below.\n\nLabTech Notebook was released in 1986 and discontinued in 2004, and it was designed to provide communications between computers and laboratory instruments that used RS-232 serial communications. This ELN was applicable to a variety of industries and disciplines.\nSmartLab from Velquest was released in the early 2000s and was the first commercial product to carry the \"electronic laboratory notebook\" identifier. It was designed as a platform to encode and guide people conducting lab procedures in GLP\/GMP\/GALP environments. Now owned by Dassault Syst\u00e8mes and rebranded as a laboratory execution system (LES) as part of the BIOVIA product line, the solution's same conceptual functionality has since been incorporated into LIMS and ELNs that fit the more current expectation for an ELN.\nWolfram Research has as series of notebook products geared toward mathematics.\nThere is a growing list of ELN systems in a variety of disciplines. Given that the scope of activities an ELN can cover is fairly broad, you have to be careful to define your needs before uttering the words \u201cwe\u2019re going to implement an ELN.\u201d We\u2019ll address that point later.\nThe organization of an ELN application is flexible. The layout is user-defined and can contain queryable text, figures, graphics, and fields for instrument-generated data. Because the ELN is inherently flexible and there usually isn\u2019t any quick-start structure, you have to know what you are looking for in a product and how you want to use it. This requires quality due-dilligence research. \u201cIf only I had known\u201d are among the saddest words after product selection.\nSome organizations have chosen to develop their own ELNs. That is something that should be undertaken with fear and trepidation. Part of the original justification for this route is typically based on the belief that you have special needs that can't be met otherwise. Another concern may be that you don\u2019t want to tie yourself to a vendor that may go out of business. Those points are more a matter of product selection criteria than a justification for a software development project. If you do choose to go with an internal or even a contracted development route, you will potentially have to live with a product that has just one customer (unless the contractor decides to productize it, which is an entirely different discussion). You will also be saddled with the support of that product for the rest of its functional life. And that doesn\u2019t even get into the \"who\" of software product management and development, the \u201cwhen will it be done,\u201d and the inevitable scope creep (i.e., the change and expansions of development requirements). In the initial stages of research projects, the organization of data is subject to change as needs change. This is often at the behest of \u201cunstructured\u201d data and the need to manage it. (Note that it isn\u2019t that the data is truly unstructured, it\u2019s just in a variable structure until the project finds its direction.) This can lead to frustration in setting up a commercial ELN system, let alone designing one from scratch. The next section will look at an organization that is more highly structured.\n\nMeeting the needs of the testing laboratory \nThe earlier print shop description will give you an idea of the workflow of a testing or service lab, for example a quality control (QC) lab. In a manually managed QC or research laboratory, operations can become overwhelming quickly. Imagine a study of 40 samples&#91;b&#93; with multiple tests per sample, each of which has to be individually cataloged. Actually I don\u2019t have to imagine it; it happened frequently in our lab, which supported several research groups. When one of these large sample sets shows up\u2014and sometimes more than one\u2014you don't talk to the person doing the sample logging for fear of disrupting their required concentration. You can get them coffee, but no talking.\nWith a LIMS, this isn't so much an issue. You can log in one sample or a hundred, simply by telling it the starting sample ID, how many samples, and what tests should be scheduled. The LIMS then organizes everything and prints the labels for each sample. With some systems, the requestor of a test can even log them in from a web portal, and the central LIMS automatically updates when the samples actually arrive in the lab. \nA LIMS makes life easier for laboratories in a number of other ways as well. Want to find a list of samples that are pending a particular test? A quality LIMS can readily display that information, including the sample numbers, priorities, and current locations, with no need to manually check work request sheets. Does a third party want to find out the status of one or more of their in-process samples? Role-based access management means a third party can receive limited access to view that status, without seeing anyone else's sensitive data. What about verifying and approving results? The LIMS can provide some level of results checking, with final verification and approval by lab management. When approved, the reports for each set of requests can be printed, emailed, or stored for portal access. And what about integrating data and systems? The LIMS can be connected to an instrument data system (IDS). Depending on the sophistication of that system, the LIMS can generate a worklist of samples that needs to be processed by that device, with the list downloaded to the IDS. When the work is completed, the results can be uploaded directly to the LIMS. This type of system interaction is one of the places where significant productivity gains can be had.\nThe key attributes of a LIMS are shown in Figure 6.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 6. Slide detailing the core components of a LIMS, from A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work, Part 1: Laboratory Informatics Technologies, a webinar series by Joe Liscouski\n\n\n\nThese are just the highlights of what a LIMS can do. Why is a LIMS more effective out-of-the-box than an ELN? The operational behavior of testing labs is essentially the same across industries and disciplines, and as a result vendors have a more predictable and stable base of customers and user requirements to work against than an ELN. It\u2019s a bit like comparing home building contractors. Some have a basic structural architecture that they can modify to meet the needs of a broad market. Others do completely custom homes from the basement up, each of which is unique. The economies of scale and a broader, more predictable customer base show up in products that are easier to work with and adapt both for the primary vendor and those providing add-ons. Those LIMS add-ons include specialized facilities for different industries, including enology and viticulture analysis, water treatment, mineral analysis, cannabis testing, and clinical diagnostics (though the system used in the clinical setting is typically referred to as a laboratory information system or LIS). Regardless, and as is the case with ELNs, you want to install a LIMS as soon as you are able to avoid issues surrounding differing workflows based on pre- and post-implementation.\n\nOther laboratory informatics systems \nWe've mentioned a few other systems in passing, but here we'll provide a brief overview of a few of them.\n\n Scientific data management system (SDMS) \nThe SDMS helps laboratories better solve the problem of dealing with a large number of data files that are being generated, basically by acting as a giant file cabinet that LIMS, ELN, and IDS can connect to. For example, you may not want to put large datasets, spectra, etc. in a LIMS or ELN, you but still have to reference those large files within other internal LIMS and ELN files. This is where the SDMS steps in, storing those large files in the \"file cabinet\" while maintaining references and metadata that are usable by other informatics systems.\n\n Laboratory execution system (LES) \nYou may not know about them, but there are lesser-known systems called LES that are designed to ensure testing protocols are executed properly and that all the data that is necessary is properly recorded. The initial incarnation arose from the previously discussed SmartLab&#91;c&#93;, a stand-alone product that would guide an analyst through the steps of an analysis, recording each detail of the work in a file that regulatory agencies could inspect to ensure that work was done properly. It found a ready market in any lab that needed to meet GLP\/GMP requirements. The functionality needed to create the same capability can be found in some LIMS and ELNs, but programming is required.\n\n Instrument data system (IDS) \nAny laboratory instrument popular in the marketplace has had a computer either attached to it or built into it as a package. That\u2019s what an IDS is. It provides automated control over an instrument, collecting and analyzing the data produced by the measuring components. Depending on the sophistication of the vendor, and the demands of the marketplace, the connections between the IDS and another laboratory informatics solution may range from user-programmable interfaces (via a network, USB, serial, or digital I\/O connection) to built-in communications systems that are almost plug-and-play. The latter are most commonly found in the clinical chemistry market, where a great deal of attention has been paid to integration and systems communication via Health Level 7 (HL7) and related protocols. (The details, however, are beyond the scope of this document.)\n\nPlanning for laboratory informatics \nThere are two key requirements to the successful implementation of informatics products: education and planning. \n\nEducation \nAs far as education goes, the webinar series noted in Figure 6 is a good tool, as are documents provided by technical standards body ASTM International. ASTM documents that may be of value to you include:\n\nASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics&#91;9&#93;\nASTM E1578-13 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics&#91;10&#93; (contains some information not found in 2018 version)\nASTM E1947-98(2014) Standard Specification for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data&#91;11&#93;\nASTM D8244-21 Standard Guide for Analytical Laboratory Operations Supporting the Cannabis\/Hemp Industry&#91;12&#93;\nIf you search the ASTM website for \"LIMS\" or \"informatics,\" you'll be surprised by the amount of other material that shows up.\nOther sources of educational material include:\n\nThe Tutorial section of LIMSforum.com&#91;13&#93;\nLaboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations, by the APHL\nLaboratory Informatics Guide 2021, by Scientific Computing World&#91;14&#93;\nLab Manager magazine, published by LabX Media Group&#91;15&#93;\nComputerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide, by Joe Liscouski&#91;16&#93;\nAny vendor with an informatics product will send you a nearly endless stream of material.\nUltimately, however, the responsibility for informatics implementation projects doesn't exist solely on the shoulders of laboratory personnel. Everyone connected with a laboratory implementing informatics solutions should have some level of awareness regarding laboratory informatics, including upper management. However, the level of knowledge required may vary slightly depending on the role. For example, laboratory personnel should be fully educated on common laboratory technologies at a minimum. They should also understand why an informatics project is being considered, what the scope of the implementation will be, and what their role will be in the implementation. Upper management should remember to ask laboratory personnel for input on the project, including the topic of product requirements, in order for personnel to feel like they are part of the process, not simply an observer or \"something that's happening to them.\" Finally, laboratory personnel should understand how their jobs are going to change once the implementation is complete. This needs to be addressed very early in project discussions; it is a matter of change, and change scares people, particularly if it affects their job and income. This is not a \u201cwe\u2019ll deal with that later\u201d point. Don\u2019t start the discussion until you figure this out. Things may change, but people want security.\nOf course, any information technology (IT) personnel will also be involved, requiring significant knowledge about not only networking and software installations but also systems integrations. IT personnel need to understand their role in the implementation project, which can include support, project management, evaluating the vendor support capabilities, and more. They should also be fully aware of and understand the technologies the organization is considering for implementation, and they will be a vital part of the project planning and vendor selection process. IT personnel also will be interested in questions about any enterprise resource planning (ERP) aspects, which may raise issues of \"build or buy.\" The organization needs to be prepared to both address these concerns and gain IT personnel as strong supporters of the project.\nFinally, upper management\u2014those who are going to approve the project and provide funding\u2014need to be educated enough to understand the benefits and risks of the proposed implementation, including the likely time scale for the work. Upper management will need to be active in the project in at least two critical junctures, plus at specific milestones as needed. The first time upper management will need informed participation will be during initial project planning. They will help the organization lay out the issues that need to be addressed, the scope of options that will be investigated, and how the organization is going to proceed. They may pose questions such as \u201ccan we use existing system to solve the problem,\u201d particularly if there already has been an investment in an ERP solution such as SAP. Such technology questions will also be of interest to IT personnel since they have an investment in those systems. The second time upper management needs to undoubtedly be involved is when the actual project proposal is finished and is ready to be pitched. They will ask need to ask questions about the reasoning behind the choices made, why current systems are insufficient, what kind of investment the project will require, how the implementation will be scheduled, and how the roll-out would be planned. Understanding the answers to these and other questions will be difficult if upper management doesn\u2019t understand the technology, the issues, the options, and the benefits of the proposed laboratory informatics project.\nIf the world of informatics is new to any or all these stakeholders, the organization must consider getting outside support (not from a vendor) to guide the organization through the process of evaluating the lab's operations, scoping out an overall implementation program, dividing it into milestones, setting priorities, and developing user requirements.\n\nPlanning \nThe whole point of project planning is to get your organization from the starting point to the end goal, preferably using the most effective path. So, where is the organization going, and why? Everything pretty much boils down to those two questions. Once those questions are answered, more will arise concerning how the organization is actually going to get to the project's end goal.\nInitial planning will look at the lab from a standpoint of the minimum number of computers required to do the work. In some cases, perhaps just those computational systems built into instruments will be sufficient. Whatever the decision, that\u2019s the planning baseline. Then consider what kind of lab it is: a research lab, a service lab, or a blend? That helps direct concentration on potential solutions; however, be sure not to completely eliminate other options just yet. For example, if your lab is a QC lab, it's probably a service lab in need of a LIMS, but even then there are still options to evaluate.\nFrom there, the organization must also think in terms of where that baseline lab is going to be in five years; it\u2019s an arbitrary number but a starting point. Why that far out? It will take a year or two to plan, implement, validate, and educate people to work with the new systems and for the lab to change its behavior and settle down to a new mode of working. The organization should also consider what other changes are likely to take place. What new equipment, procedures, and management changes can be anticipated? Ideally any implemented informatics system will be in place and stable for a few years before people start asking for significant changes; minor ones will likely happen early on. Any hint of \u201cwe didn\u2019t plan for that\u201d will be viewed as poor leadership. Figure 7 shows some of the key points you need to look at during planning.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 7. Slide detailing considerations of laboratory informatics implementation in the lab, from A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work, Part 4: LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS, IT &amp; Education, a webinar series by Joe Liscouski\n\n\n\nAnother factor that needs to be considered is that the considerations shown in Figure 7 can be repeated for each lab in the organization. The project planning team also needs to consider how current laboratory workflow impacts other labs. Are there synergistic effects that can be gained by broadening the scope of what the lab is doing?\n\nWhy projects fail \nWe shouldn't finish the planning section of this guide without discussing why laboratory informatics implementation projects can and do fail. These types of projects are large software projects, and delays, cost over-runs, and failures are common (but hopefully not for your organization's project). Just Google \"why IT projects fail\" and read through some anecdotes. The following are some common reasons informatics implementation projects fail.\n\nInsufficient budgeting: Projects can run short of funding, requiring an awkward meeting with management asking for additional funding (without a project change to account for it), inevitably showing a lack of foresight and planning. Build in a large contingency fund because the unexpected happens. If you\u2019d like some education on the topic, watch a few episodes of any home upgrade project on HGTV, in particular Love It or List It.&#91;d&#93;\nInsufficient management support: If sufficient communication isn\u2019t made with management, problems may arise. For example, project delays are a fact of life. Keep clear communications with upper management so that they, and everyone else on the project, know what is going on. Miscommunication or lack of communication of other aspects of the project may inevitably doom the project.\nPoor understanding of the scope and nature of the project: This is an educational issue, and a lack of education for all involved parties is almost a guarantee of failure. If you need help, bring in an independent consultant who can lend confidence to the project and its management.\nLack of quality or attention to detail: \u201cThere is always time to do it over, but not enough to do it right\u201d is a common complaint in engineering projects. If you hear it on your organization's project, you are in trouble. Basically the complaint is that project members are cutting corners and not doing things properly, and in a way that is not supportable. This never ends well; sometimes not quickly, but in the long run it leads to problems.\nPoor or unrealistic timelines: You may as well face reality from the start: an aggressive timeline just leads to problems (see bullet above). Timelines expand, but they almost never get shorter. If the project team is always rushing, something will most certainly get missed, causing problems later down the road.\nPoor project management: Well-managed projects are obvious, and so are poorly managed ones. Just watch the people working, their demeanor, and their attitude about the work; it will tell you all you need to know. Well-managed projects may not always run smoothly, but they make consistent progress. Poorly managed projects cause you to make excuses.\nClosing \nThis guide is like the directory signs in shopping malls: they tell you where you are and what shops and restaurants in the facility to consider. Once you figure out what you are looking for, you can find your way there. Hopefully in reading this you\u2019ve formed an idea of what you want to look at and what your path to finding it is.\n\nFootnotes \n\n\n\u2191 According to Greek mythology (from the E2BN Myths page): \"Long long ago, when Queen Athena (Zeus's daughter) was born, Zeus blessed her with two boons for when she came of age. After almost 15 years, Athena was told to think up two things to ask for ... 1) To have a city in Greece named after her (Athens) [and] 2) To have all the people of the world see her face every day of the year (what you are seeing are only her eyes). Thus, the sky is blue, just like the color of Athena's eyes...\" \n\n\u2191 In some life science drug screening studies, the number can be far higher, which is where robotics and automation becomes important. \n\n\u2191 A name that has been used by conference organizers after the product was sold and renamed. If you do a Google search on \u201cSmartLab,\u201d you may be surprised at what turns up. \n\n\u2191 Some season highlights can be found on the HGTV website. \n\n\nAbout the author \nInitially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Duplicate Lined Notebook\".&#32;Scientific Bindery Productions, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/scientificbindery.com\/products\/duplicate-lined-notebook\/ .&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 West, D.&#32;(10 January 2024).&#32;\"GMP\/GLP Recordkeeping\".&#32;St. Louis Community College, Center for Plant and Life Sciences.&#32;https:\/\/users.stlcc.edu\/departments\/fvbio\/Lab_Practices_GLP_STLCC.htm .&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 National Institutes of Health&#32;(December 2008).&#32;\"Guidelines for Scientific Record Keeping in the Intramural Research Program at the NIH\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Office of the Director.&#32;https:\/\/oir.nih.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/uploads\/sourcebook\/documents\/ethical_conduct\/guidelines-scientific_recordkeeping.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Pain, E.&#32;(3 September 2019).&#32;\"How to keep a lab notebook\".&#32;Science.&#32;doi:10.1126\/science.caredit.aaz3678.&#32;https:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/careers\/2019\/09\/how-keep-lab-notebook .&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Engel, M.&#32;(December 2015).&#32;\"Blog: How to use onenote as your electronic lab book\".&#32;MartinEngel.net.&#32;http:\/\/martinengel.net\/2015\/12\/how-to-use-onenote-as-your-electronic-notebook\/ .&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Bungers, S.&#32;(2020).&#32;\"The Electronic Lab Notebook in 2020: A comprehensive guide\".&#32;Labforward GmbH.&#32;https:\/\/www.labfolder.com\/electronic-lab-notebook-eln-research-guide .&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Richter, T.; Escher, S.; Sch\u00f6nfeld, D. et al.&#32;(2018).&#32;\"Forensic Analysis and Anonymisation of Printed Documents\".&#32;Proceedings of the 6th ACM Workshop on Information Hiding and Multimedia Security: 127\u201338.&#32;doi:10.1145\/3206004.3206019. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Baraniuk, C.&#32;(7 June 2017).&#32;\"Why printers add secret tracking dots\".&#32;BBC Future.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 02 November 2019.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191102031255\/https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/future\/article\/20170607-why-printers-add-secret-tracking-dots .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2018.&#32;doi:10.1520\/E1578-18.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1578-13 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2013.&#32;doi:10.1520\/E1578-13.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/DATABASE.CART\/HISTORICAL\/E1578-13.htm .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1947-98(2014) Standard Specification for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2014.&#32;doi:10.1520\/E1947-98R14.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1947.htm .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM D8244-21 Standard Guide for Analytical Laboratory Operations Supporting the Cannabis\/Hemp Industry\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2021.&#32;doi:10.1520\/D8244-21.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/D8244.htm .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Tutorials\".&#32;LIMSforum.&#32;LabLynx, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/category\/education\/tutorials-education\/ .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Laboratory Informatics Guide 2021\".&#32;Scientific Computing World.&#32;2021.&#32;https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/issue\/laboratory-informatics-guide-2021 .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Lab Manager\".&#32;LabX Media Group.&#32;2021.&#32;https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/magazine .&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Liscouski, J.G.&#32;(2015).&#32;Computerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide.&#32;DHI Publishing.&#32;pp.&#160;432.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781933722863.&#32;https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/computerized-systems-in-the-modern-laboratory-a-practical-guide . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 1 June 2022, at 22:14.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 4,180 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies rootpage-LII_The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: April 2021\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The purpose of this piece is to introduce people who are not intimately familiar with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> work to the basics of laboratory operations and the role that <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">informatics<\/a> can play in assisting scientists, engineers, and technicians in their efforts. The concepts are important because they provide a functional foundation for understanding lab work and how that work is done in the early part of the twenty-first century (things will change, just wait for it).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Intended_audience\">Intended audience<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This material is intended for anyone who is interested in seeing how modern informatics tools can help those doing scientific work. It will provide an orientation to scientific and laboratory work, as well as the systems that have been developed to make that work more productive. It\u2019s for people coming out of school who have carried out lab experiments but not corporate research projects, for those who need to understand how testing labs work, and for IT professionals who may be faced with supporting computing systems in lab environments. It\u2019s also for those who may be tasked with managing projects to choose, install, and make informatics tools useful.\n<\/p><p>Figure 1 shows the elements we\u2019ll be discussing in this piece. The treatment of the technical material will be on the lighter side, leaving in-depth subject matter to other works. Instrument data systems will be covered lightly, as any serious discussion becomes lengthy and discipline-specific very quickly; additionally, that material has been covered <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\" title=\"LII:Notes on Instrument Data Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b7330228fd59158aab6fab82ad0e7cc\">in other works<\/a>.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig1_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd326d7208c88d3103f5af9e4a306269\"><img alt=\"Fig1 Liscouski AppInfoSciWork21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/5\/5c\/Fig1_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 1.<\/b> Elements we\u2019ll be covering<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_scientific_and_laboratory_work\">Types of scientific and laboratory work<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Science is about seeking truthful answers to questions. Sometimes those questions are open-ended without any idea where they will lead you in answering them (e.g. \u201cWhy does water ice float?\u201d). Others are very specific, concerning material composition or properties (e.g., \u201cHow much lead is in this drinking water?\u201d, \u201cHow much does a butterfly weigh?\u201d). Still others may take some effort before you determine the best approach to working on them. The approach someone uses to address these questions depends on the nature of the question; some are destined for research, while others are addressed using specific test methods.\n<\/p><p>There are two types of research: basic and applied. Both can include field work, observations, experiments, models (mathematical, computer, and simulation), etc. Applied research is also done in testing or service laboratories, as with, for example, the development of new methods of analysis.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Basic_and_applied_research\">Basic and applied research<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Basic research is open-ended, as you are looking into something without any idea of where the work will lead. It is often funded by grants through universities or government institutions; continued support depends on the perceived value of the research. Projects can range in size from the work of a single individual to a small team to large-scale groups studying astronomy, high-energy physics, engineering, the life sciences, or a number of fields.\n<\/p><p>Applied research, on the other hand, is directed toward a goal. That goal could be a cure for a disease, the development of a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/COVID-19\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"COVID-19\" data-key=\"da9bd20c492b2a17074ad66c2fe25652\">COVID-19<\/a> vaccine, or work towards <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI). As with basic research, until some early goals have been reached the work may begin with a single individual or a small team, and then the project scales up. The effort may be broken down into a set of more narrowly focused efforts, whose results will be combined as the development proceeds. Since applied research is goal-directed, funding will depend upon who benefits from those goals being met. Projects of national interest, including security, may be wholly or partially funded by the government. Projects with a commercial interest tend to be funded by corporate interests, including individual companies in their own laboratories or through contract research organizations with expertise useful to the program. Where there is interest from a number of corporate and\/or government groups, consortiums may form to distribute the cost and share in the results.\n<\/p><p>Both basic and applied research can be found in government institutions (including military groups, research and development agencies like the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency [DARPA], and task-specific institutions such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/National_Institutes_of_Health\" title=\"National Institutes of Health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5c215c48e73ae58b0695dc2af951cd0\">National Institutes of Health<\/a> [NIH]), public and private non-profit groups, corporations, consortia, and contract research organizations.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_research_process\">The research process<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The research process begins with a question. Any question will do, including \u201cwhy is the sky blue?\u201d We\u2019ll bypass Greek mythology<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">&#91;a&#93;<\/a><\/sup> by asking more questions and planning how to proceed to answer them. For example, \u201cIs the sky always blue?\u201d, \u201cWhen is\/isn\u2019t it?\u201d, and \u201cWhat other colors can it be?\u201d Once the process begins, it can include a number of steps, the choice and direction depending upon the nature of the research and the mindset of the researcher:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Observations: This includes basic note-taking with support material (text, photos, drawings, charts, and scanned material). Research (e.g., as with basic astronomy, field biology) can be as simple as looking something up on Google or as complex as understanding how a virus works. Research is about asking questions and looking for answers, which often leads to more questions. It\u2019s a little like my granddaughter who always asks \u201cwhy?\u201d no matter how well I answer the previous question (or at least how well I think I did).<\/li>\n<li>Enhanced observations: This includes interacting with items under observation, as well as non-directed interactions, preliminary data gathering, and behavioral analysis.<\/li>\n<li>Experiments and information gathering: This includes organized experiments that are planned, directed, and purpose-driven, as well as data and information gathering.<\/li>\n<li>Team building: This includes the creation of teams or networks of people working on the same or similar projects.<\/li>\n<li>Analytics and reporting: This includes data and information analysis, data modeling (e.g., mathematical, computer algorithm, and simulation), information synthesis, and knowledge creation.<\/li>\n<li>Technology acquisition: This includes gaining access to public, commercial, remote, and other types of databases to assist the research.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Pinning down a \u201ctypical\u201d approach to research isn\u2019t possible because the routes people follow are as individual as the researchers and their area of work are. However, this is generally not the case with testing labs.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Testing_laboratories\">Testing laboratories<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In addition to research labs, there are also testing or \"service\" laboratories. Service labs carry out specific test routines on samples and specimens; you may be familiar with them as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_control\" title=\"Quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f\">quality control<\/a> labs, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_laboratory\" title=\"Clinical laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"307bcdf1bdbcd1bb167cee435b7a5463\">clinical labs<\/a>, toxicology labs, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Forensic_laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Forensic laboratory\" data-key=\"dabef2566b55c1f13b395543b47ae81e\">forensic science labs<\/a>, etc. They are called service labs because they support other organizations, including research organizations, and they have similar modes of operation and work organization, running different tests depending on their area of specialization.\n<\/p><p>Contract testing labs are another flavor of service laboratories, acting as independent labs that do testing for a fee. These labs can offer capabilities and expertise that their customer doesn\u2019t have, either because the equipment is specialized and not frequently needed or because the customer is looking for a second opinion on an analysis.\n<\/p><p>Regardless of the type of service lab, they all have one thing in common: the way they function. For a moment let\u2019s forget about science and think about something else. Take for example a company that does graphics printing as a service to graphic designers and marketing groups. The company could offer a variety of printing services:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>business cards<\/li>\n<li>stationery (e.g., envelopes, letterhead, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>postcards<\/li>\n<li>brochures<\/li>\n<li>signs<\/li>\n<li>graphics for trade shows (including mounting of an image on backing, lightboxes, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>postal marketing services<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In this scenario, customers can come into the shop and drop off work to be done or place orders online (the company website provides a good description of their services and products). One of their biggest concerns is <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a> management: what work is coming in, what is in progress, what is in quality control, and what is ready for delivery. Many activities may be associated with this workflow.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Order acceptance: Log the job into a log book, the go-to reference for work orders. Add the corresponding work order to a binder of work orders; work orders can be removed from the binders as needed (for example, when people are working on the job) and returned when completed. Comments are made on the work order and referenced to an individual\u2019s notebook for details. Work orders shouldn\u2019t be duplicated since people may not be aware of the duplicates and information may be lost. This does add some inefficiency to the process if a work order contains multiple components (e.g., brochures and trade show graphics); if someone needs to work on a task and someone else has the work order, they have to find it. Work orders contain the names of graphics files and their location. Then a check is made to ensure all the needed information is there, notifying people if something is missing. This includes checking to see if the graphics files are available, in the correct format, etc. The priority of the work is determined with respect to other work. Then the customer is notified of the work order status and the expected completion date.<\/li>\n<li>Scheduling: The work order is assigned to one or more individuals for completion.<\/li>\n<li>Performing the work: This is where the actual work is performed, including task coordination if an order has multiple components.<\/li>\n<li>Customer service: This includes answering customer questions about the work order and addressing inquiries on completion date.<\/li>\n<li>Draft review: This involves obtaining customer sign-off on a prototype stage if required, making adjustments if needed, and then proceeding to completion.<\/li>\n<li>Quality control: This is where projects are reviewed and approved for completion.<\/li>\n<li>Delivery: This involves shipping the material back to the customer or notifying the customer the order is ready for pick-up.<\/li>\n<li>Billing: After satisfaction with the completed work is acknowledged, the work order is billed to the customer.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>When the shop has a large number of projects going on, such a manual, paper-based workflow is difficult and time-consuming to manage. Projects have to be scheduled so that they get done and don\u2019t interfere with other projects that might be on a tight deadline. And then there is inventory management, making sure you have the materials you need on hand when you need them. There is also the occasional rescheduling that occurs if equipment breaks down or someone is out sick. A simplified workflow based on the above is shown in Figure 2.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig2_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6a7aef6488ffa2faf96dfaaa770b627\"><img alt=\"Fig2 Liscouski AppInfoSciWork21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/14\/Fig2_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 2.<\/b> Simplified print shop workflow, with some details omitted for clarity<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Let's say our print shop has seven people working there. The owner manages the overall operation, and an administrator logs in work orders, notes the location of files that will be used on those orders, and does the final checkout of work, shipping, and billing. The remaining five people\u2014staff, although everyone is at the same organizational level\u2014take care of the actual production work; everyone is cross-trained, but some are more adept on some tasks than others.\n<\/p><p>Imagine you worked in this shop; how might your day go if you were one of the staff? The administrator will have prioritized the work depending on urgency and grouping similar work orders (or partial orders if there is request for multiple services) together. This is just a matter of efficiency: if you are using a particular piece of equipment and it has to be set up, calibrated, and cleaned when finished, you may as well make the most of that effort and run as many similar jobs as you can. Tracking down copies of work orders is an issue if someone is already working part of the order as there is only one copy so that notes and comments don\u2019t get lost. Each staff member has a notebook to keep track of work, any settings used on equipment, and comments about how the work progressed. These notebook entries are important and useful in case questions come up about a job, how it was run, and if any issues were encountered. As one set of jobs is completed, you move on to the next set. Inventory has to be checked to make sure that the needed materials are on-hand or ordered; if something is missing work has to be rescheduled. The workflow is a continual, organized mix of tasks, with people scheduling time on equipment as needed.\n<\/p><p>You can begin to appreciate how difficult the manual, paper-based workflow in a shop like that is to manage, particularly when it depends upon people communicating clearly. It is the same workflow as any service-oriented business, from a florist to a repair shop. What differs is the size of the organization, the complexity of the work, and the education needed to perform the required tasks.\n<\/p><p>Now let's get back to the service laboratory. The print shop workflow is much like the structural workflow of such a laboratory. In the end, it\u2019s the nature of the tasks; the complexity of equipment, instrumentation, and electronic systems used; and the education needed to carry out the work that sets the service laboratory apart from other service operations. However, there is one other, critical aspect that sets it apart: most service labs have to meet federal or industry regulations (e.g., the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000<\/a> family of standards) for their operations. \n<\/p><p>As noted earlier, there are many different types of service laboratories. The basic workflow is the same (see Figure 3 for one perspective on the commonalities of research and service laboratories), but the nature of the testing separates one from another. A water testing lab uses different test procedures than a toxicology lab does, or a clinical lab. Those working in different types of labs have to learn how to run different tests, and they also have to learn about the materials they work with. After all, people's observations about the material tested will differ depending upon how much experience they have with different kinds of materials. \n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig3_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee73859dfa7a4ff773b8022433c7c3d9\"><img alt=\"Fig3 Liscouski AppInfoSciWork21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/6\/62\/Fig3_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 3.<\/b> This diagram represents one perspective on the relationship between laboratory types. This is a bit simplified, particularly on the roles of research labs. Large research facilities, or those in which waiting for test results impacts the progress of research work, may incorporate a \u201cservice lab\u201d function within their operations; the same workflow, just a merger of boxes. The downside of doing that is the loss of independent verification of test results, as people sometimes see what they want to see. This can be addressed by having critical and random samples analyzed independently.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>While workflows vary between research and service labs, there is one consistent factor that cuts across both: record keeping.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_laboratory_notebook\">The laboratory notebook<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be60c7be96aba8e9a84537fd8835fa54\">laboratory notebook<\/a> has been a fixture in scientific work for centuries. The laboratory notebook is essentially a diary and can contain text, drawings, pasted photos, illustrations, charts, and so on. Historically, at least until the mid-1970s, it was a paper document that has evolved as legal and regulatory considerations have developed. Figure 4 shows part of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell\u2019s notebook.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:AGBell_Notebook.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba0c4bed9e7d80a0155a84a8d79159bf\"><img alt=\"AGBell Notebook.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0c\/AGBell_Notebook.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 4.<\/b> Pages 40-41 of Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers in the Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Public Domain<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The format of today\u2019s paper notebooks has changed somewhat, and the process of using it has become more rigorous. Take for example Scientific Bindery Productions, a modern manufacturer of professional laboratory notebooks. The description for their duplicate lined notebook includes the following elements<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SBPDuplicate_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SBPDuplicate-2\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>table of contents<\/li>\n<li>instructions page, for how to use the notebook and address patent protection<\/li>\n<li>headers and footers, with legally defensible language<\/li>\n<li>headers that include title, project number, and book number fields, as well as a \"work continued from page\" section<\/li>\n<li>footers that include signature, date, disclosed to, and understood by fields, as well as a \"work continued to page\" section<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The details of some of these points are called out in Figure 5, courtesy of Dr. Raquel Cumeras.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig5_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"2cb81832fb7493dc7d899dce7df6a005\"><img alt=\"Fig5 Liscouski AppInfoSciWork21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/6\/65\/Fig5_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 5.<\/b> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/science2knowledge.wordpress.com\/writing-the-laboratory-notebook\/\" target=\"_blank\">A lab notebook example<\/a>, courtesey of Dr. Raquel Cumeras, <i>Science 2 Knowledge<\/i> blog, 2019<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Over the years, several guidelines have been published about the use of laboratory notebooks. Examples include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Good manufacturing practice (GMP) and good laboratory practice (GLP) recordkeeping, from David West, St. Louis Community College, Center for Plant and Life Sciences<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WestGMP_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WestGMP-3\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>NIH scientific recordkeeping guidelines, from the National Institutes of Health<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NIHGuidelines08_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NIHGuidelines08-4\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>General laboratory notebook guidelines, from <i>Science<\/i> editor Elisabeth Pain<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PainBow19_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PainBow19-5\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>A Google search of \"guidelines for maintaining laboratory notebooks\" or something similar will provide more examples, including those developed by leading universities.\n<\/p><p>At this point, you\u2019re probably wondering why we\u2019re spending so much time on this. The point: good record keeping is the foundation for documenting scientific work regardless of the media, be it paper or electronic. Yes, the laboratory notebook has an electronic equivalent: the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN). These ELNs and other <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> systems have to support everything paper systems do or they will fail in ensuring the integrity of documented work.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Using_laboratory_records\">Using laboratory records<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Laboratory records, whether in laboratory notebooks or some other format, can be acted upon in many ways. Laboratory personnel interact with them by:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>recording observations, results, instrument data output, photos, and charts<\/li>\n<li>describing research processes, goals, and results<\/li>\n<li>ensuring the authenticity of laboratory work<\/li>\n<li>planning and collaborating on experiments<\/li>\n<li>extracting information for reporting<\/li>\n<li>backing up data<\/li>\n<li>querying data<\/li>\n<li>sharing data<\/li>\n<li>publishing data<\/li>\n<li>archiving and retrieving data<\/li>\n<li>securing data<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Everything on that list can be done with paper records; however, those activities are easier, faster, and less error prone with electronic systems. Paper records aren\u2019t going away anytime soon, for example when needing to record comments and information that may not have been provided for in electronic systems. This is particularly true as a project team expands from one person to more people. However, the need to have shared access to information becomes a limiting factor in productivity when we rely on paper-based systems. Paper-based systems also depend upon the proximity of people working together, something that became problematic during the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/COVID-19\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"COVID-19\" data-key=\"da9bd20c492b2a17074ad66c2fe25652\">COVID-19<\/a> pandemic. Social distancing requirements made sharing paper-based notebook pages more challenging, requiring scanning and emailing. This was perhaps feasible for small amounts of physical materials, but less so for large projects with significant paper-based records.\n<\/p><p>That brings up another important point concerning ownership: whose data is it? When people are handed a notebook, they are told \u201cthis is your notebook, a place to write down your work and observations, and you are responsible for it.\u201d Depending upon how employment or consulting contracts are written, the content that goes into the notebook belongs to whoever is paying for the work. When I worked in a lab, the notebook I used as mine was referenced by others as \u201cyour notebook\u201d (it even had my name on it) even though it wasn\u2019t mine but rather the company\u2019s property. Yet when it was filled, they took possession of it and archived it. This concept of ownership has become a stumbling block in some organizations when they decide to install an ELN or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS), particularly if there are people who have been working there for a long time and have ingrained behaviors. Those people become concerned that someone is going to see their work in an incomplete state before they\u2019ve reviewed and completed it. It\u2019s their work and they don\u2019t want anyone to look at it until it\u2019s done. While the true owners of the work have always had that right, they may not have exercised it, respecting people\u2019s privacy until the work is complete. If you\u2019re considering an informatics system, does it address that concern about ownership?\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bringing_informatics_into_the_lab\">Bringing informatics into the lab<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>So far this guide has hinted at the implications of adding laboratory informatics systems into the laboratory, but now it's time to discuss it further. Deciding how and when to bring such systems into the lab depends on a number of factors.\n<\/p><p>1. What is the lab's budget? If an informatics implementation can't be properly funded, don\u2019t start that implementation until it can be. The cost of a laptop computer is trivial compared to the total cost of implementation.\n<\/p><p>2. Do we have in-house access to educated and experienced IT support? That staff should understand that laboratory operations are not just another PC- or Microsoft-dominated arena, but rather an environment which has needs for informatics solutions beyond the typical office solutions. For example, laboratory instruments need to be connected to computers, and the resulting data stores should ideally be integrated to make the data more actionable.\n<\/p><p>3. Are laboratory staff ready to use the technologies and take responsibility for the things that go with it? Staff must be trained in more than how to operate an instrument. Can they back up data? Do they understand the security and data privacy risks associated with handling the data?\n<\/p><p>4. Are organizational policies flexible enough to allow practical use of the technology while still keeping security and data privacy risks in mind? The organization should have some sort of network access both internally and externally. Remote access should be possible, particularly given the circumstances surrounding pandemics and the like. A balanced policy on taking an organizational laptop out of the laboratory should be in place. Policies on cameras should also be reasonable, allowing researchers to capture images of samples and specimens for their notebooks. If organizational policies are too restrictive, the technology's usefulness is largely overshadowed.\n<\/p><p>5. What are the lab's space constraints? The size of a lab and the experiments it must conduct can affect the choice of informatics tools.\n<\/p><p>6. What is the nature of the lab's operations? Is it a research lab, service lab, or a combination of both? If you are in a service lab situation, bringing in informatics support as early as possible is essential to your workflow and sanity. You want to minimize having to deal with two separate processes and procedures: the old way we did it (paper-based) and the informatics-supported way.\n<\/p><p>7. Is your lab\u2019s operation governed by external regulatory requirements? If it\u2019s going to be in the future, you may as well start as though it currently is. Note that everything should be validated, regardless of whether or not the lab is subject regulations. Validation isn't done to satisfy regulators but rather to prove that a process works properly. If you don\u2019t have that proof, what\u2019s the point of using that process? Do you really want to trust what a process produces without proof that it works?\n<\/p><p>Most of the points above are easily understood, but let's go into further detail. Let's start by looking at a simple case of you and your project, where you are the sole contributor, without any need for regulatory oversight. Your primary need is to record your planning notes, observations, results, etc. There are tools within the world of computer software to help with this, most notably the word processor. If you have access to one of those, you probably also have access to spreadsheets and other applications that can make your efforts far easier than working with paper. If you search Google for \u201cword processors as lab notebooks\u201d you will find a number of references, including Dr. Martin Engel's guide to using Microsoft OneNote as an ELN<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EngelBlog15_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EngelBlog15-6\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Labforward_GmbH\" title=\"Labforward GmbH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a9842138692008e4f5896ee023849ab\">Labforward's<\/a> 2020 ELN selection guide.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BungersTheElect20_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BungersTheElect20-7\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, simply switching from paper to electronic doesn't mean you're done. There's more to consider, like developing backup policies, addressing witness review, connecting to instruments, and addressing the effects of team expansion, including expanding to more comprehensive purpose-built informatics solutions.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Backup_strategy\">Backup strategy<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>You have the electronic documentation tools and the skills to use them, but what else do you need? A backup strategy is imperative. Imagine a scenario where you are using a desktop computer, laptop, or tablet to do your work and it has one copy of the document you\u2019ve been working on for weeks. You press the power button one morning and nothing happens. However, you are not (completely) worried or panicked but rather largely calm because:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>you have a local backup on removable media (e.g., flash drive, disk), several instances, in fact, that were backed up at least daily, with backups containing everything on the system you were using (you may have a separate backup of your project);<\/li>\n<li>you have a remote backup on your organization's servers (perhaps on a virtual machine);<\/li>\n<li>you have a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f\">cloud-based<\/a> backup of at least your project files, and as much of the system files that the cloud storage permits (depending on bandwidth and cost), all secured with two-factor authentication; and<\/li>\n<li>depending on the operating system you are using, you may have built-in backup-and-recover abilities, e.g. as with Mac OS X's \"Time Machine\" functionality.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>You've done these things because you've asked yourself \"how much is my work worth to me and my organization?\"\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Witness_review_or_sign-off\">Witness review or sign-off<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The need for a witness review or sign-off can occur for several reasons, including a potential patent filing or proof that the work was done and data recorded properly, on a certain date, in case it is challenged. One of the ramifications is that you have to identify a second person to be that witness (though this would also be the case if you were using a paper notebook).\n<\/p><p>A second issue is that you would have to format the pages of your word processor document (using templates) so as to emulate a signature block and page numbering structure that meets the requirements noted earlier for paper notebooks. You also have to provide a means for either physical (printouts) or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature\" title=\"Electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4\">electronic signatures<\/a> (e.g., Adobe Acrobat and other applications provide a useful template that could be used as a lab notebook in this case, doing a cut-and-paste from a Word file). You would also have to ensure that once dated and signed, no edits could be made to that material. If you choose the printed route, then you\u2019re back to paper management. One possibility for dealing with that is to scan the signed pages and upload them to a secure server using the file server's date and time stamp system, or to a document management system to demonstrate that documents haven\u2019t been changed.\n<\/p><p>There is another possibility for time-stamping printed material that is scanned with a high-quality scanner. The concept of machine identification code or \"tracking dots\" allows a set of barely perceptible, forensically traceable colored dots to be printed onto pages, with the arrangement of the dots providing information that identifies the printer (by serial number), as well as the date and time a page was printed. Recent research has demonstrated ways to decode these dots for analysis, particularly as part of printer forensics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RichterForensic18_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RichterForensic18-8\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BaraniukWhy17_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BaraniukWhy17-9\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Instrument-computer_integration\">Instrument-computer integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Using a computer to host a laboratory notebook raises another concern: how can lab instruments or separate instrument data systems connect to automatically transmit data and information to the computer? Controlled data collection will require software beyond a simple word processor, though many of today's ELN vendors provide integration components with their solutions. This connection, possibly using a spreadsheet import, will greatly improve laboratory productivity and the reliability of data transfers.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Expanding_the_research_team\">Expanding the research team<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Increasing the size of your project by adding more people will have a significant impact on the complexity of using a more electronic laboratory workflow. However, while the basic issues of sharing, collaboration, etc. are not any different than they would be if paper-based notebooks were in use, the electronic solutions to handling those issues are much more useful. At the core of an expanded laboratory operation is getting personnel to agree on how they are going to communicate data and information, how they are going to collaborate using that data and information, and how they will make that agreement sustainable. There is going to be some small allowance for individual approaches to laboratory activities, but critical matters such as data organization and management need to be strictly adhered to. As such, there are several issues to be mindful of.\n<\/p><p>1. How will data and information be organized and compiled? If multiple people are contributing to a project, the results of their work need to be organized in one place so that the status of the work can be ascertained, missing data can be identified, and material is easier to work with. As a project's direction evolves, the formatting and content may change, potentially requiring a complete overhaul of the data structure. That is just a consequence of the way research programs progress.\n<\/p><p>2. How will data and information be updated, versioned, and retained? If your lab works with paper files, this isn't so difficult. The lab may have one printed file detailing experimental methods, and when that method file gets updated, the old printed document is removed and the new one added. In labs where each person has their own individual method file, the process would be repeated for each person. As such, there's no confusion as to the current version; methods would have revision histories so that you would know why they were changed. In cases where those methods are kept in electronic files, more attention has to be paid to ensuring that old method files are archived, and that everyone is working with the same version. This means clear communications procedures are essential. Additionally, the name of the file should have the current revision information; don\u2019t rely on the computer's creation or modification dates for files.\n<\/p><p>3. How is access to common files controlled? Having people edit or add to common files without careful lockout controls is dangerous. If two people open the same document at the same time and make changes, the one who saves the file last can overwrite any changes the other individual has made. You need a document management system that prevents this; if a file is checked out by one person, others may read it but not write to it until the first person is done. Old versions of files should be archived but not deleted so that a detailed revision history is maintained.\n<\/p><p>If an organization grows too large for a consensus-based cooperation of people using office suite products, it will be time to transition to a more purpose-built solution like a multiuser ELN that is capable of allowing multiple people to contribute to a project simultaneously, providing a common organization for data and information, and allowing users to either import data from an instrument or have a direct connection between the ELN and the instrument data system (or through the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">scientific data management system<\/a> [SDMS]). But how large is too large? It may be the point when personnel become frustrated with waiting for access to documents, or when processes just don\u2019t seem to move as smoothly as they used to. While there is a significant cost factor in implementing an ELN, it should be done sooner rather than later so your lab can benefit from the organizational structure that an ELN provides and reduce the amount of effort it will take to import data and information into the structure. Ideally you are better off if you can start your work with an ELN once the initial project startup work is taken care of. \n<\/p><p>ELNs afford a number of additional benefits, including but not limited to access to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>vendor databases for ordering supplies and managing inventory,<\/li>\n<li>chemical structure databases,<\/li>\n<li>reaction databases, and<\/li>\n<li>external libraries.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>ELNs are appropriate for both basic research and applied research, including work in testing labs where method development and special project work is being done. The prior bulleted list might give you the impression that ELN are oriented toward chemistry; however, that is a reflection of my experience not the industry. The ELN is used in many other industries. Several examples of ELNs past and present, covering many industries, are listed below.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>LabTech Notebook was released in 1986 and discontinued in 2004, and it was designed to provide communications between computers and laboratory instruments that used RS-232 serial communications. This ELN was applicable to a variety of industries and disciplines.<\/li>\n<li>SmartLab from Velquest was released in the early 2000s and was the first commercial product to carry the \"electronic laboratory notebook\" identifier. It was designed as a platform to encode and guide people conducting lab procedures in GLP\/GMP\/GALP environments. Now owned by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dassault_Syst%C3%A8mes_SA\" title=\"Dassault Syst\u00e8mes SA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1be69bd73e35bc3db0c3229284bf9416\">Dassault Syst\u00e8mes<\/a> and rebranded as a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\" title=\"Laboratory execution system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a\">laboratory execution system<\/a> (LES) as part of the BIOVIA product line, the solution's same conceptual functionality has since been incorporated into LIMS and ELNs that fit the more current expectation for an ELN.<\/li>\n<li>Wolfram Research has as series of notebook products geared toward mathematics.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>There is a growing list of ELN systems in a variety of disciplines. Given that the scope of activities an ELN can cover is fairly broad, you have to be careful to define your needs before uttering the words \u201cwe\u2019re going to implement an ELN.\u201d We\u2019ll address that point later.\n<\/p><p>The organization of an ELN application is flexible. The layout is user-defined and can contain queryable text, figures, graphics, and fields for instrument-generated data. Because the ELN is inherently flexible and there usually isn\u2019t any quick-start structure, you have to know what you are looking for in a product and how you want to use it. This requires quality due-dilligence research. \u201cIf only I had known\u201d are among the saddest words after product selection.\n<\/p><p>Some organizations have chosen to develop their own ELNs. That is something that should be undertaken with fear and trepidation. Part of the original justification for this route is typically based on the belief that you have special needs that can't be met otherwise. Another concern may be that you don\u2019t want to tie yourself to a vendor that may go out of business. Those points are more a matter of product selection criteria than a justification for a software development project. If you do choose to go with an internal or even a contracted development route, you will potentially have to live with a product that has just one customer (unless the contractor decides to productize it, which is an entirely different discussion). You will also be saddled with the support of that product for the rest of its functional life. And that doesn\u2019t even get into the \"who\" of software product management and development, the \u201cwhen will it be done,\u201d and the inevitable scope creep (i.e., the change and expansions of development requirements). In the initial stages of research projects, the organization of data is subject to change as needs change. This is often at the behest of \u201cunstructured\u201d data and the need to manage it. (Note that it isn\u2019t that the data is truly unstructured, it\u2019s just in a variable structure until the project finds its direction.) This can lead to frustration in setting up a commercial ELN system, let alone designing one from scratch. The next section will look at an organization that is more highly structured.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Meeting_the_needs_of_the_testing_laboratory\">Meeting the needs of the testing laboratory<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The earlier print shop description will give you an idea of the workflow of a testing or service lab, for example a quality control (QC) lab. In a manually managed QC or research laboratory, operations can become overwhelming quickly. Imagine a study of 40 samples<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">&#91;b&#93;<\/a><\/sup> with multiple tests per sample, each of which has to be individually cataloged. Actually I don\u2019t have to imagine it; it happened frequently in our lab, which supported several research groups. When one of these large sample sets shows up\u2014and sometimes more than one\u2014you don't talk to the person doing the sample logging for fear of disrupting their required concentration. You can get them coffee, but no talking.\n<\/p><p>With a LIMS, this isn't so much an issue. You can log in one sample or a hundred, simply by telling it the starting sample ID, how many samples, and what tests should be scheduled. The LIMS then organizes everything and prints the labels for each sample. With some systems, the requestor of a test can even log them in from a web portal, and the central LIMS automatically updates when the samples actually arrive in the lab. \n<\/p><p>A LIMS makes life easier for laboratories in a number of other ways as well. Want to find a list of samples that are pending a particular test? A quality LIMS can readily display that information, including the sample numbers, priorities, and current locations, with no need to manually check work request sheets. Does a third party want to find out the status of one or more of their in-process samples? Role-based access management means a third party can receive limited access to view that status, without seeing anyone else's sensitive data. What about verifying and approving results? The LIMS can provide some level of results checking, with final verification and approval by lab management. When approved, the reports for each set of requests can be printed, emailed, or stored for portal access. And what about integrating data and systems? The LIMS can be connected to an instrument data system (IDS). Depending on the sophistication of that system, the LIMS can generate a worklist of samples that needs to be processed by that device, with the list downloaded to the IDS. When the work is completed, the results can be uploaded directly to the LIMS. This type of system interaction is one of the places where significant productivity gains can be had.\n<\/p><p>The key attributes of a LIMS are shown in Figure 6.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig6_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"d409444eac6274c0b9a34c2bd8e1a551\"><img alt=\"Fig6 Liscouski AppInfoSciWork21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/d\/d3\/Fig6_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 6.<\/b> Slide detailing the core components of a LIMS, from <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\" title=\"LII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization&#39;s Work\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360\">A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/a><\/i>, Part 1: Laboratory Informatics Technologies, a webinar series by Joe Liscouski<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>These are just the highlights of what a LIMS can do. Why is a LIMS more effective out-of-the-box than an ELN? The operational behavior of testing labs is essentially the same across industries and disciplines, and as a result vendors have a more predictable and stable base of customers and user requirements to work against than an ELN. It\u2019s a bit like comparing home building contractors. Some have a basic structural architecture that they can modify to meet the needs of a broad market. Others do completely custom homes from the basement up, each of which is unique. The economies of scale and a broader, more predictable customer base show up in products that are easier to work with and adapt both for the primary vendor and those providing add-ons. Those LIMS add-ons include specialized facilities for different industries, including enology and viticulture analysis, water treatment, mineral analysis, cannabis testing, and clinical diagnostics (though the system used in the clinical setting is typically referred to as a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information system<\/a> or LIS). Regardless, and as is the case with ELNs, you want to install a LIMS as soon as you are able to avoid issues surrounding differing workflows based on pre- and post-implementation.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_laboratory_informatics_systems\">Other laboratory informatics systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>We've mentioned a few other systems in passing, but here we'll provide a brief overview of a few of them.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Scientific_data_management_system_(SDMS)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scientific_data_management_system_.28SDMS.29\">Scientific data management system (SDMS)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The SDMS helps laboratories better solve the problem of dealing with a large number of data files that are being generated, basically by acting as a giant file cabinet that LIMS, ELN, and IDS can connect to. For example, you may not want to put large datasets, spectra, etc. in a LIMS or ELN, you but still have to reference those large files within other internal LIMS and ELN files. This is where the SDMS steps in, storing those large files in the \"file cabinet\" while maintaining references and metadata that are usable by other informatics systems.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Laboratory_execution_system_(LES)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laboratory_execution_system_.28LES.29\">Laboratory execution system (LES)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>You may not know about them, but there are lesser-known systems called LES that are designed to ensure testing protocols are executed properly and that all the data that is necessary is properly recorded. The initial incarnation arose from the previously discussed SmartLab<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">&#91;c&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, a stand-alone product that would guide an analyst through the steps of an analysis, recording each detail of the work in a file that regulatory agencies could inspect to ensure that work was done properly. It found a ready market in any lab that needed to meet GLP\/GMP requirements. The functionality needed to create the same capability can be found in some LIMS and ELNs, but programming is required.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Instrument_data_system_(IDS)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Instrument_data_system_.28IDS.29\">Instrument data system (IDS)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Any laboratory instrument popular in the marketplace has had a computer either attached to it or built into it as a package. That\u2019s what an IDS is. It provides automated control over an instrument, collecting and analyzing the data produced by the measuring components. Depending on the sophistication of the vendor, and the demands of the marketplace, the connections between the IDS and another laboratory informatics solution may range from user-programmable interfaces (via a network, USB, serial, or digital I\/O connection) to built-in communications systems that are almost plug-and-play. The latter are most commonly found in the clinical chemistry market, where a great deal of attention has been paid to integration and systems communication via <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a> (HL7) and related protocols. (The details, however, are beyond the scope of this document.)\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Planning_for_laboratory_informatics\">Planning for laboratory informatics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There are two key requirements to the successful implementation of informatics products: education and planning. \n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As far as education goes, the webinar series noted in Figure 6 is a good tool, as are documents provided by technical standards body <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM International<\/a>. ASTM documents that may be of value to you include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-12\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><i>ASTM E1578-13 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578-13_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-13-13\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> (contains some information not found in 2018 version)<\/li>\n<li><i>ASTM E1947-98(2014) Standard Specification for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1947_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1947-14\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><i>ASTM D8244-21 Standard Guide for Analytical Laboratory Operations Supporting the Cannabis\/Hemp Industry<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTMD8244_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTMD8244-15\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>If you search the ASTM website for \"LIMS\" or \"informatics,\" you'll be surprised by the amount of other material that shows up.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Other sources of educational material include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The Tutorial section of LIMSforum.com<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSforumTutorial_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSforumTutorial-16\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations\" title=\"LII:Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1\">Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations<\/a><\/i>, by the APHL<\/li>\n<li><i>Laboratory Informatics Guide 2021<\/i>, by <i>Scientific Computing World<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SCWLabInfo21_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SCWLabInfo21-17\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><i>Lab Manager<\/i> magazine, published by LabX Media Group<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabXLabManager_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabXLabManager-18\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><i>Computerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide<\/i>, by Joe Liscouski<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LiscouskiComput15_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LiscouskiComput15-19\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Any vendor with an informatics product will send you a nearly endless stream of material.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Ultimately, however, the responsibility for informatics implementation projects doesn't exist solely on the shoulders of laboratory personnel. Everyone connected with a laboratory implementing informatics solutions should have some level of awareness regarding laboratory informatics, including upper management. However, the level of knowledge required may vary slightly depending on the role. For example, laboratory personnel should be fully educated on common laboratory technologies at a minimum. They should also understand why an informatics project is being considered, what the scope of the implementation will be, and what their role will be in the implementation. Upper management should remember to ask laboratory personnel for input on the project, including the topic of product requirements, in order for personnel to feel like they are part of the process, not simply an observer or \"something that's happening to them.\" Finally, laboratory personnel should understand how their jobs are going to change once the implementation is complete. This needs to be addressed very early in project discussions; it is a matter of change, and change scares people, particularly if it affects their job and income. This is not a \u201cwe\u2019ll deal with that later\u201d point. Don\u2019t start the discussion until you figure this out. Things may change, but people want security.\n<\/p><p>Of course, any information technology (IT) personnel will also be involved, requiring significant knowledge about not only networking and software installations but also systems integrations. IT personnel need to understand their role in the implementation project, which can include support, project management, evaluating the vendor support capabilities, and more. They should also be fully aware of and understand the technologies the organization is considering for implementation, and they will be a vital part of the project planning and vendor selection process. IT personnel also will be interested in questions about any <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Enterprise_resource_planning\" title=\"Enterprise resource planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b\">enterprise resource planning<\/a> (ERP) aspects, which may raise issues of \"build or buy.\" The organization needs to be prepared to both address these concerns and gain IT personnel as strong supporters of the project.\n<\/p><p>Finally, upper management\u2014those who are going to approve the project and provide funding\u2014need to be educated enough to understand the benefits and risks of the proposed implementation, including the likely time scale for the work. Upper management will need to be active in the project in at least two critical junctures, plus at specific milestones as needed. The first time upper management will need informed participation will be during initial project planning. They will help the organization lay out the issues that need to be addressed, the scope of options that will be investigated, and how the organization is going to proceed. They may pose questions such as \u201ccan we use existing system to solve the problem,\u201d particularly if there already has been an investment in an ERP solution such as SAP. Such technology questions will also be of interest to IT personnel since they have an investment in those systems. The second time upper management needs to undoubtedly be involved is when the actual project proposal is finished and is ready to be pitched. They will ask need to ask questions about the reasoning behind the choices made, why current systems are insufficient, what kind of investment the project will require, how the implementation will be scheduled, and how the roll-out would be planned. Understanding the answers to these and other questions will be difficult if upper management doesn\u2019t understand the technology, the issues, the options, and the benefits of the proposed laboratory informatics project.\n<\/p><p>If the world of informatics is new to any or all these stakeholders, the organization must consider getting outside support (not from a vendor) to guide the organization through the process of evaluating the lab's operations, scoping out an overall implementation program, dividing it into milestones, setting priorities, and developing user requirements.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Planning\">Planning<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The whole point of project planning is to get your organization from the starting point to the end goal, preferably using the most effective path. So, where is the organization going, and why? Everything pretty much boils down to those two questions. Once those questions are answered, more will arise concerning how the organization is actually going to get to the project's end goal.\n<\/p><p>Initial planning will look at the lab from a standpoint of the minimum number of computers required to do the work. In some cases, perhaps just those computational systems built into instruments will be sufficient. Whatever the decision, that\u2019s the planning baseline. Then consider what kind of lab it is: a research lab, a service lab, or a blend? That helps direct concentration on potential solutions; however, be sure not to completely eliminate other options just yet. For example, if your lab is a QC lab, it's probably a service lab in need of a LIMS, but even then there are still options to evaluate.\n<\/p><p>From there, the organization must also think in terms of where that baseline lab is going to be in five years; it\u2019s an arbitrary number but a starting point. Why that far out? It will take a year or two to plan, implement, validate, and educate people to work with the new systems and for the lab to change its behavior and settle down to a new mode of working. The organization should also consider what other changes are likely to take place. What new equipment, procedures, and management changes can be anticipated? Ideally any implemented informatics system will be in place and stable for a few years before people start asking for significant changes; minor ones will likely happen early on. Any hint of \u201cwe didn\u2019t plan for that\u201d will be viewed as poor leadership. Figure 7 shows some of the key points you need to look at during planning.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig7_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af5b365b0632c3c57c0acfe6b912fd8\"><img alt=\"Fig7 Liscouski AppInfoSciWork21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/18\/Fig7_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 7.<\/b> Slide detailing considerations of laboratory informatics implementation in the lab, from <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\" title=\"LII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization&#39;s Work\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360\">A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/a><\/i>, Part 4: LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS, IT &amp; Education, a webinar series by Joe Liscouski<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Another factor that needs to be considered is that the considerations shown in Figure 7 can be repeated for each lab in the organization. The project planning team also needs to consider how current laboratory workflow impacts other labs. Are there synergistic effects that can be gained by broadening the scope of what the lab is doing?\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Why_projects_fail\">Why projects fail<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>We shouldn't finish the planning section of this guide without discussing why laboratory informatics implementation projects can and do fail. These types of projects are large software projects, and delays, cost over-runs, and failures are common (but hopefully not for your organization's project). Just Google \"why IT projects fail\" and read through some anecdotes. The following are some common reasons informatics implementation projects fail.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Insufficient budgeting: Projects can run short of funding, requiring an awkward meeting with management asking for additional funding (without a project change to account for it), inevitably showing a lack of foresight and planning. Build in a large contingency fund because the unexpected happens. If you\u2019d like some education on the topic, watch a few episodes of any home upgrade project on HGTV, in particular <i>Love It or List It<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">&#91;d&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Insufficient management support: If sufficient communication isn\u2019t made with management, problems may arise. For example, project delays are a fact of life. Keep clear communications with upper management so that they, and everyone else on the project, know what is going on. Miscommunication or lack of communication of other aspects of the project may inevitably doom the project.<\/li>\n<li>Poor understanding of the scope and nature of the project: This is an educational issue, and a lack of education for all involved parties is almost a guarantee of failure. If you need help, bring in an independent consultant who can lend confidence to the project and its management.<\/li>\n<li>Lack of quality or attention to detail: \u201cThere is always time to do it over, but not enough to do it right\u201d is a common complaint in engineering projects. If you hear it on your organization's project, you are in trouble. Basically the complaint is that project members are cutting corners and not doing things properly, and in a way that is not supportable. This never ends well; sometimes not quickly, but in the long run it leads to problems.<\/li>\n<li>Poor or unrealistic timelines: You may as well face reality from the start: an aggressive timeline just leads to problems (see bullet above). Timelines expand, but they almost never get shorter. If the project team is always rushing, something will most certainly get missed, causing problems later down the road.<\/li>\n<li>Poor project management: Well-managed projects are obvious, and so are poorly managed ones. Just watch the people working, their demeanor, and their attitude about the work; it will tell you all you need to know. Well-managed projects may not always run smoothly, but they make consistent progress. Poorly managed projects cause you to make excuses.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Closing\">Closing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This guide is like the directory signs in shopping malls: they tell you where you are and what shops and restaurants in the facility to consider. Once you figure out what you are looking for, you can find your way there. Hopefully in reading this you\u2019ve formed an idea of what you want to look at and what your path to finding it is.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Footnotes\">Footnotes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">According to Greek mythology (from the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/myths.e2bn.org\/mythsandlegends\/userstory14957-why-is-the-sky-blue.html\" target=\"_blank\">E2BN Myths page<\/a>): \"Long long ago, when Queen Athena (Zeus's daughter) was born, Zeus blessed her with two boons for when she came of age. After almost 15 years, Athena was told to think up two things to ask for ... 1) To have a city in Greece named after her (Athens) [and] 2) To have all the people of the world see her face every day of the year (what you are seeing are only her eyes). Thus, the sky is blue, just like the color of Athena's eyes...\"<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">In some life science drug screening studies, the number can be far higher, which is where robotics and automation becomes important.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">A name that has been used by conference organizers after the product was sold and renamed. If you do a Google search on \u201cSmartLab,\u201d you may be surprised at what turns up.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Some season highlights <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hgtv.com\/shows\/love-it-or-list-it\" target=\"_blank\">can be found<\/a> on the HGTV website.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"About_the_author\">About the author<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Initially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-SBPDuplicate-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SBPDuplicate_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/scientificbindery.com\/products\/duplicate-lined-notebook\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Duplicate Lined Notebook\"<\/a>.&#32;Scientific Bindery Productions, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/scientificbindery.com\/products\/duplicate-lined-notebook\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/scientificbindery.com\/products\/duplicate-lined-notebook\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Duplicate+Lined+Notebook&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Scientific+Bindery+Productions%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscientificbindery.com%2Fproducts%2Fduplicate-lined-notebook%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WestGMP-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WestGMP_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">West, D.&#32;(10 January 2024).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/users.stlcc.edu\/departments\/fvbio\/Lab_Practices_GLP_STLCC.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"GMP\/GLP Recordkeeping\"<\/a>.&#32;St. Louis Community College, Center for Plant and Life Sciences<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/users.stlcc.edu\/departments\/fvbio\/Lab_Practices_GLP_STLCC.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/users.stlcc.edu\/departments\/fvbio\/Lab_Practices_GLP_STLCC.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" 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href=\"https:\/\/oir.nih.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/uploads\/sourcebook\/documents\/ethical_conduct\/guidelines-scientific_recordkeeping.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Guidelines for Scientific Record Keeping in the Intramural Research Program at the NIH\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Office of the Director<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/oir.nih.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/uploads\/sourcebook\/documents\/ethical_conduct\/guidelines-scientific_recordkeeping.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/oir.nih.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/uploads\/sourcebook\/documents\/ethical_conduct\/guidelines-scientific_recordkeeping.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" 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href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/careers\/2019\/09\/how-keep-lab-notebook\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to keep a lab notebook\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Science<\/i>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.caredit.aaz3678\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.caredit.aaz3678<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/careers\/2019\/09\/how-keep-lab-notebook\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/careers\/2019\/09\/how-keep-lab-notebook<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+to+keep+a+lab+notebook&amp;rft.atitle=Science&amp;rft.aulast=Pain%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Pain%2C+E.&amp;rft.date=3+September+2019&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1126%2Fscience.caredit.aaz3678&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcareers%2F2019%2F09%2Fhow-keep-lab-notebook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EngelBlog15-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EngelBlog15_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Engel, M.&#32;(December 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/martinengel.net\/2015\/12\/how-to-use-onenote-as-your-electronic-notebook\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blog: How to use onenote as your electronic lab book\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>MartinEngel.net<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/martinengel.net\/2015\/12\/how-to-use-onenote-as-your-electronic-notebook\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/martinengel.net\/2015\/12\/how-to-use-onenote-as-your-electronic-notebook\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Blog%3A+How+to+use+onenote+as+your+electronic+lab+book&amp;rft.atitle=MartinEngel.net&amp;rft.aulast=Engel%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Engel%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=December+2015&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmartinengel.net%2F2015%2F12%2Fhow-to-use-onenote-as-your-electronic-notebook%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Electronic+Lab+Notebook+in+2020%3A+A+comprehensive+guide&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Bungers%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Bungers%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.pub=Labforward+GmbH&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labfolder.com%2Felectronic-lab-notebook-eln-research-guide&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RichterForensic18-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RichterForensic18_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Richter, T.; Escher, S.; Sch\u00f6nfeld, D. et al.&#32;(2018).&#32;\"Forensic Analysis and Anonymisation of Printed Documents\".&#32;<i>Proceedings of the 6th ACM Workshop on Information Hiding and Multimedia 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Forensic+Analysis+and+Anonymisation+of+Printed+Documents&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+6th+ACM+Workshop+on+Information+Hiding+and+Multimedia+Security&amp;rft.aulast=Richter%2C+T.%3B+Escher%2C+S.%3B+Sch%C3%B6nfeld%2C+D.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Richter%2C+T.%3B+Escher%2C+S.%3B+Sch%C3%B6nfeld%2C+D.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.pages=127%E2%80%9338&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1145%2F3206004.3206019&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BaraniukWhy17-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BaraniukWhy17_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Baraniuk, C.&#32;(7 June 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191102031255\/https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/future\/article\/20170607-why-printers-add-secret-tracking-dots\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why printers add secret tracking dots\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>BBC Future<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/future\/article\/20170607-why-printers-add-secret-tracking-dots\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 02 November 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191102031255\/https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/future\/article\/20170607-why-printers-add-secret-tracking-dots\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191102031255\/https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/future\/article\/20170607-why-printers-add-secret-tracking-dots<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" 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International.&#32;2014.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1520%2FE1947-98R14\" target=\"_blank\">10.1520\/E1947-98R14<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1947.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1947.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+D8244-21+Standard+Guide+for+Analytical+Laboratory+Operations+Supporting+the+Cannabis%2FHemp+Industry&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1520%2FD8244-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FD8244.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LIMSforumTutorial-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSforumTutorial_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/category\/education\/tutorials-education\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tutorials\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>LIMSforum<\/i>.&#32;LabLynx, 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class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/issue\/laboratory-informatics-guide-2021\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Informatics Guide 2021\"<\/a>.&#32;Scientific Computing World.&#32;2021<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/issue\/laboratory-informatics-guide-2021\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/issue\/laboratory-informatics-guide-2021<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Laboratory+Informatics+Guide+2021&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft.pub=Scientific+Computing+World&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Fissue%2Flaboratory-informatics-guide-2021&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LabXLabManager-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabXLabManager_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/magazine\" target=\"_blank\">\"Lab Manager\"<\/a>.&#32;LabX Media Group.&#32;2021<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/magazine\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/magazine<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 May 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Lab+Manager&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft.pub=LabX+Media+Group&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labmanager.com%2Fmagazine&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LiscouskiComput15-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LiscouskiComput15_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Liscouski, J.G.&#32;(2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/computerized-systems-in-the-modern-laboratory-a-practical-guide\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Computerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide<\/i><\/a>.&#32;DHI Publishing.&#32;pp.&#160;432.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781933722863<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/computerized-systems-in-the-modern-laboratory-a-practical-guide\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/computerized-systems-in-the-modern-laboratory-a-practical-guide<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computerized+Systems+in+the+Modern+Laboratory%3A+A+Practical+Guide&amp;rft.aulast=Liscouski%2C+J.G.&amp;rft.au=Liscouski%2C+J.G.&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B432&amp;rft.pub=DHI+Publishing&amp;rft.isbn=9781933722863&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhibooks.com%2Fcomputerized-systems-in-the-modern-laboratory-a-practical-guide&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110081946\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.875 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.368 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 11265\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 72784\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/5\/5c\/Fig1_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/14\/Fig2_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/6\/62\/Fig3_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0c\/AGBell_Notebook.jpg","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/6\/65\/Fig5_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/d\/d3\/Fig6_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/18\/Fig7_Liscouski_AppInfoSciWork21.png"],"d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd_timestamp":1704907033,"5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_type":"article","5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_title":"A Science Student's Guide to Laboratory Informatics","5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics","5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_plaintext":"\n\nLII:A Science Student's Guide to Laboratory InformaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchTitle: A Science Student's Guide to Laboratory Informatics\nAuthor for citation: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International\nPublication date: November 2023\n\nContents \n\n1 Introduction \n2 What's lacking in modern laboratory education? \n3 Operational models for research and service laboratories \n\n3.1 Intra-lab workflows \n\n3.1.1 Analytical research \n3.1.2 Physical properties research \n3.1.3 Materials characterization \n3.1.4 Fabrication \n\n\n3.2 On the service lab model and research in general \n\n3.2.1 The role of laboratory informatics \n\n\n\n\n4 Laboratory operations and their associated informatics tools \n\n4.1 Data governance \n4.2 Data integrity \n4.3 Regulatory compliance \n4.4 Meeting the needs of data governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance \n\n4.4.1 Paper-based systems \n4.4.2 Spreadsheet software \n4.4.3 LIMS and ELN \n4.4.4 Supporting tiers of software \n\n\n\n\n5 Getting work done quickly and at a low cost \n6 Artificial intelligence applications in the lab \n7 Systems development: Tinkering vs. engineering \n8 In closing... \n9 About the author \n10 References \n\n\n\nIntroduction \nAn undergraduate science education aims to teach people what they need to know to pursue a particular scientific discipline; it emphasizes foundational elements of the discipline. In most cases in current science education, the time allotted to teaching a scientific discipline is often insufficient to address the existing and growing knowledge base and deal with the multidisciplinary aspects of executing laboratory work in both industrial and academic settings; the focus is primarily on educational topics. Yet employers in science-based industries want to hire people \"ready to work,\" leaving a significant gap between the goals of science education and the background needed to be productive in the workplace. One example of this gap is found in the lack of emphasis on laboratory informatics in laboratory-adjacent scientific endeavors.\nThe purpose of this guide is to provide a student with a look at the informatics landscape in industrial labs. The guide has two goals: \n\nProvide a framework to help the reader understand what they need to know to be both comfortable and effective in an industrial setting, giving them a starting point for learning about the product classes and technologies; and,\nGive an instructor an outline of a survey course should they want to pursue teaching this type of material.\nThis guide is not intended to provide a textbook-scale level of discussion. It's an annotated map of the laboratory portion of a technological world, identifying critical points of interest and how they relate to one another, while making recommendations for the reader to learn more. Its intent is that in one document you can appreciate what the technologies are, and if you hear their names, you'll be able to understand the technologies' higher-level positioning and function. The details, which are continually developing, will be referenced elsewhere.\nNote that this guide references LIMSforum.com on multiple occasions. LIMSforum is an educational forum for laboratory informatics that will ask you to sign in for access to its contents. There is no charge for accessing or using any of the materials; the log-in is for security purposes. Sign-in to LIMSforum can be done with a variety of existing social media accounts, or you can create a new LIMSforum account.\n\n What's lacking in modern laboratory education? \nThe science you\u2019ve learned in school provides a basis for understanding laboratory methods, solving problems, conducting projects\/research, and developing methods. It has little to do with the orchestration of industrial lab operations. That role was first filled by paper-based procedures and now firmly falls in the realm of electronic management systems. So why is your laboratory experience in your formal education different from that in industrial labs? After all, both include research, testing, chemistry, biotechnology, pharmaceutical development, material development, engineering, etc.\nEducational lab work is about understanding principles and techniques, developing skills by executing procedures, and conducting research projects. Industrial work is about producing data, information, materials, and devices, some supporting research, others supporting production\/manufacturing operations. Those products are subject to both regulatory review and are subject to internal guidelines. Suppose a regulatory inspector finds fault with a lab's data. In that case, the consequences can range from more detailed inspection and, if warranted, closing the lab or the entire production facility until remedial actions are enacted.\nBecause of the importance of data integrity and quality, industrial laboratories operate under the requirements, regulations, and standards of a variety of sources, including corporate guidelines, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and others. These regulatory and standard-based efforts aim to ensure that the data and information used to make decisions about product quality is maintained and defensible. It all comes down to product quality and safety, so for example, that the acetaminophen capsule you might take has the proper dosage and is free of contamination.\nOutside of regulations and standards, even company policy can drive the desire for timely, high-quality analytical results. Corporate guidelines for lab operations ensure that laboratory data and information is well-managed and supportable. Consider a lawsuit brought by a consumer about product quality. Suppose the company can't demonstrate that the data supporting product quality is on solid ground. In that case, they may be fined with significant damages. Seeking to avoid this, the company puts into place enforceable policy and procedures (P&amp;P) and may even put into place a quality management system (QMS).\nAs noted, labs are production operations. There is more leeway in research, but service labs (i.e., analytical, physical properties, quality control, contract testing, etc.) are heavily production-oriented, so some refer to the work as \"scientific manufacturing\" or \"scientific production work\" because of the heavy reliance on automation. That dependence on automation has led to the adoption of systems such as laboratory information management systems (LIMS), electronic laboratory notebooks (ELN), scientific data management systems (SDMS), instrument data systems (IDS), and robotics to organize and manage the work, and produce results. Some aspects of research, where large volumes of sample processing are essential, have the same issues. Yet realistically, how immersed are today's student scientists in the realities of these systems and their use outside of academia? Are they being taught sufficiently about these and other electronic systems that are increasingly finding their way into the modern industrial laboratory?\n\nOperational models for research and service laboratories \nBefore we get too deeply into laboratory informatics concepts, we need to describe the setting where informatics tools are used. Otherwise, the tools won\u2019t make sense. Scientific work, particularly laboratory work, is process-driven at several levels. Organizational processes describe how a business works and how the various departments relate to each other. Laboratories have processes operating at different levels; one may describe how the lab functions and carries out its intended purpose, and others detail how experimental procedures are carried out. Some of these processes\u2014accounting, for example\u2014are largely, with a few exceptions, the same across organizations in differing industries. Others depend on the industry and are the basis for requiring industry experience before hiring people at the mid- and upper levels. Still other activities, such as research, depend on the particular mission of a lab within an organization. A given company may have several different research laboratories directed at different areas of work with only the word \u201cresearch\u201d and some broad generalizations about what is in common. However, their internal methods of operation can vary widely.\nWe\u2019ll begin by looking at the working environment. Figure 1 shows the functions we need to consider. That model is based on the author\u2019s experience; however, it fits many applied research groups in different industries whose work is intended to lead to new and improved products. The names of the labs may change to include microbiology, toxicology, electronics, forensics, etc., depending on the industry, but the functional behavior will be similar.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 1. An organizational structure of an R&amp;D group.\n\n\n\nThe labs I was working in supported R&amp;D in polymers and pharmaceuticals because that's what the overarching company had broad interest in. The research labs (left column of Figure 1) were focused on those projects. The other facilities consisted of:\n\nAnalytical research: This lab had four functions: routine chemical analysis in support of the research labs, new method development to support both research and production quality control (QC), non-routine analytical work to address special projects, and process monitoring that tested the accuracy of the production QC labs (several production facilities were making different products).\nPhysical properties research: Similar in function to the analytical lab, this lab measured the physical properties of polymers instead of performing chemical analysis.\nMaterials characterization: This group worked with research and special projects looking at the composition of polymers and their properties such as rheology, molecular weight distribution, and other characteristics.\nFabrication: The fabrication facility processed experimental polymers into blends, films, and other components that could be further tested in the physical properties lab.\nOnce an experimental material reached a stage where it was ready for scale-up development, it entered the pilot plant, where production processes were designed and tested to see if the material could be made in larger quantities and still retain its desirable properties (i.e., effectively produced to scale). A dedicated testing lab supported the pilot plant to do raw materials, in-process, and post-production testing. If a product met its goals, it was moved to a production facility for larger-scale testing and eventually commercial production.\n\nIntra-lab workflows \nLet\u2019s look at each of these support lab groups more closely and examine how their workflows relate.\n\nAnalytical research \nThe workflows in this lab fell into two categories: routine testing (i.e., the service lab model) and research. In the routine testing portion, samples could come from the research labs, production facilities, and the pilot plant testing lab. The research work could come from salespeople (e.g., \u201cWe found this in a sample of a competitive product, what is it?\u201d, \u201cOur customer asked us to analyze this,\" etc.), customer support trying to solve customer issues, and researchers developing test methods to support research. The methods used for analysis could come from various sources depending on the industry, e.g., standards organizations such as ASTM International (formerly American Society for Testing Materials, but their scope expanded over time), peer-reviewed academic journals, vendors, and intra-organizational sources.\n\nPhysical properties research \nThe work here was predominately routine testing (i.e., the service lab model). Although samples could come from a variety of sources, as with analytical research, the test methods were standardized and came from groups like ASTM, and in some cases the customers of the company's products. Standardized procedures were used to compare results to testing by other organizations, including potential customers. Labs like this are today found in a variety of industries, including pharmaceuticals, where the lab might be responsible for tablet uniformity testing, among other things.\n\nMaterials characterization \nAs noted, this lab performed work that fell between the analytical and physical properties labs. While their test protocols were standardized within the labs, the nature of the materials they worked on involved individual considerations on how the analysis should be approached and the results interpreted. At one level, they were a service lab and followed that behavior. On another, the execution of testing required more than \"just another sample\" thinking.\n\nFabrication \nThe fabrication facility processed materials from a variety of sources: evaluation samples from both the production facility and pilot plant, as well as competitive material evaluation from the research labs. They also did parts fabrication for testing in the physical properties lab. Some physical tests required plastic materials formed into special shapes; for example, tensile bars for tensile strength testing (test bars are stretched to see how they deformed and eventually failed). The sample sizes they worked with ranged from a few pounds to thousands of pounds (e.g., film production).\nThe pilot plant testing lab did evaluations on scaled-up processing materials. They had to be located within the pilot plant for fast turn-around testing, including on-demand work and routine analysis. They also serviced process chromatographs for in-line testing. Their test procedures came from both the chemical and physical labs as they were responsible for a variety of tests on small samples; anything larger was sent to the analytical research labs. The pilot plant testing lab followed a service lab model.\n\nOn the service lab model and research in general \nThe service lab model has been noted several times and is common in most industries. The details of sample types and testing will vary, but the operational behavior will be the same and will work like this:\n\nSamples are submitted for testing. In many labs, these are done on paper forms listing sample type, testing to be done, whom to bill, and a description of the sample and any unique concerns or issues. In labs with a LIMS, this can be done online by lab personnel or the sample submitter.\nThe work is logged in (electronically using a LIMS or manually for paper-based systems), and rush samples are brought to management's attention. Note that in the pilot plant test lab, everything is in a rush as the next steps in the plant\u2019s work may depend upon the results.\nAnalysts generate worklists (whether electronic or paper, an ordered representation of sample or specimen locations and what analyses must be performed upon them by a specific instrument and\/or analyst using specified procedures) and perform the required analysis, and results are recorded in the LIMS or laboratory notebooks.\nThe work is reviewed and approved for release and, in paper systems, recorded on the submission forms.\nReports are sent to whoever submitted the work electronically, or via the method the submitter requested.\nWork from non-routine samples may be logged in under \u201cspecial projects,\u201d though it may create the need for additional testing.\nThere is no similar model for research work besides project descriptions, initial project outlines, etc. The nature of the work will change as the project progresses and more is learned. Recording results, observations, plans, etc., requires a flexible medium capable of maintaining notes, printouts, charts, and other forms of information. As a result, ELNs are modular systems consisting of a central application with the ability to link to a variety of functional modules such as graphics, statistics, molecular drawing, reaction databases, user-define database structures to hold experimental data, and more. For additional details, see The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies.\n\nThe role of laboratory informatics \nLab informatics has several tiers of systems (Figure 2) that can be applied to lab work to make it more effective and efficient. \n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 2. Tiered structure of laboratory informatics.\n\n\n\nThe top tier consists of ELNs and LIMS, while supporting those systems are SDMS, as well as laboratory execution systems (LES) and IDS (which are are a combination of instruments and computer systems). Typical examples are chromatography data systems (CDS) connected to one or more chromatographs, a mass spectrometer connected to a dedicated computer, and almost any major instrument in an instrument-computer combination. CDSs are, at this point, unique in their ability to support multiple instruments. Sharing the same tier as LES and IDS are devices like pH meters, balances, and other devices with no databases associated with them; these instruments must be programmed to be used with upper-tier systems. Their data output can be manually entered into a LIMS, ELN, or LES, but in regulated labs, the input has to be verified by a second individual. Below that are mechanisms for sample preparation, management, and storage. Our initial concern will be with the top-tier systems. \nNext we look at the interactions involved in such workflows. The primary interaction between a service lab and someone requesting their services is shown in Figure 3.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 3. Sample request\/results flow.\n\n\n\nSamples are submitted by the research group or other groups, and the request proceeds through the system as described above. The split between the LIMS in Figure 2 illustrates the separation between logging samples in, the analysis process, and using the LIMS as an administrative tool for completing the work request and returning results to the submitter. Also note that Figure 2 shows the classical assignment of informatics products to labs: LIMS in service labs and notebooks (usually ELNs) to research labs. However, that assignment is an oversimplification; the systems have broader usage in both types of laboratory workflows. In the research labs, work may generate a large amount of testing that has to be done quickly so that the next steps in the experiments can be determined. The demand may be great enough to swamp the service labs, and they wouldn't be able to provide the turn-around time needed for research. In these cases, a LIMS would be added to the research lab's range of informatics tools so that high-demand testing would be done within those labs. Other, less demanding testing would be submitted to the service labs. The research lab LIMS could be an entirely independent installation or work with the same core system as the service labs. The choice would depend on the locations of the labs, the need for instrument connections, how cooperative they are, and corporate politics.\nThe analytical research and materials characterization labs in Figure 1 could justify an ELN based on research associated with method development work. In addition to providing a means of detailing the research needed to create a new procedure, the ELN would need access to a variety of databases and tools, including chemical reaction modeling, molecular structure representation, published methods retrieval, etc., as well as any corporate research databases that could exist in a large organization.\nThe fabrication facility could use an ELN to record the progress of any non-routine work that was being done. Equipment operating conditions, problems encountered and solved, and the results of their processing would be noted. This could be coordinated with the pilot plant or product development group\u2019s work.\n\nLaboratory operations and their associated informatics tools \nLaboratory operations and work can be divided into two levels:\n\nData and information generation: This is where lab procedures are executed; the informatics tools consist of LES, IDS, and support for automation and devices such as pH meters, scales, etc.\nData, information, and operations management: This involves the management of the data and information ultimately generated, as well as the operational processes that led up to the creation that data and information. The informatics tools at this level consist of LIMS, ELN, and SDMS.\nThe following largely addresses the latter, recognizing that the execution of analytical procedures\u2014both electronically and manually\u2014results in the creation of data and information that must be properly managed. Data, information, and operations management (i.e., laboratory management) involves keeping track of everything that goes on in the lab, including:\n\nLab personnel records: The qualifications, personnel files (along with human resources), vacation schedules, education\/training, etc. of the lab's personnel.\nEquipment lists and maintenance: Records related to scheduled maintenance, repairs, calibration, qualification for use, and software upgrades, if appropriate.\nGeneral process-related documentation: All lab documents, reports, guidelines, sample records, problems and non-conformities, method descriptions, contacts with vendors, etc.\nSample-specific records: What samples need work, what is the scope of the work, results, associated reports, etc.\nInventory: Records related to what materials and equipment (including personal protective equipment) are on hand, but also where those material and equipment are, their age (some materials such as prepared reagents have a limited useful lifetime, in other cases materials may have a limited shelf-life), and any special handling instructions such as storage and disposal.\nChemical and organism safety: Any special conditions needed for chemicals and organisms, their maintenance, condition, related records (e.g., material safety data sheets), etc.\nData governance efforts\nData integrity efforts\nRegulatory compliance efforts: Documentation regarding laboratory effort to meet regulatory requirements or avoid regulatory issues, including preparation for regulatory audits.&#91;1&#93;\nMany of those laboratory operational aspects will be familiar to you, others less so. The last three bullets may be the least familiar to you. The primary point of lab operations is to produce data and information, which will then be used to support production and research operations. That data and information must be reliable and supportable. People have to trust that the analysis was performed correctly and that it can be relied upon to make decisions about product quality, to determine whether production operations are under control, or to take the next step in a research program. That\u2019s where regulatory compliance data governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance come in.\n\nData governance \nData governance refers to the overall management of the availability, usability, integrity, and security of the data employed in an enterprise. It encompasses a set of processes, roles, policies, standards, and metrics that ensure the effective and efficient use of information in enabling an organization to achieve its goals. Its primary purpose is to ensure that data serves the organization's needs and that there's a framework in place to handle data-related issues.\nData governance-related efforts have become more important over time, especially in how data and metadata are stored and made available. We see this importance come up with recent frameworks such as the FAIR principles, that ask that data and metadata be findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable.&#91;2&#93;\n\nData integrity \nData integrity refers to the accuracy and consistency of data over its lifecycle. It ensures that data remains unaltered and uncorrupted unless there's a specific need for a change. It\u2019s focused more on the validity and reliability of data rather than the broader management processes. Its primary purpose is to ensure that data is recorded exactly as intended and, upon retrieval, remains the same as when it was stored.&#91;3&#93;\nWhile data governance is a broader concept that deals with the overall management and strategy of data handling in an organization, data integrity is specifically about ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data. Both are essential for making informed decisions based on the data and ensuring that the data can be trusted.\nThe topic of data integrity has also increasingly become important.&#91;3&#93; A framework called ALCOA+ (fully, ALCOA-CCEA) has been developed by the FDA to help define and guide work on data integrity. ALCO+ asks that paper and electronic data and information be attributable, legible, contemporaneous, original, accurate, complete, consistent, enduring, and available, which all further drive data integrity initiatives in the lab and beyond.&#91;4&#93; For more on this topic, see Schmitt's Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences.&#91;3&#93;\n\nRegulatory compliance \nThe purpose of placing regulations on laboratory operations varies, but the general idea across them all is to ensure that lab operations are safe, well-managed, and that laboratory data and information are reliable. These regulations cover personnel, their certifications\/qualifications, equipment, reagents, safety procedures, and the validity of lab processes, among other things. This includes ensuring that instruments have been calibrated and are in good working order, and that all lab processes have been validated. Laboratory process validation in particular is an interesting aspect and one that causes confusion about what it means and who it applies to.\nIn the late 1970s, when the original FDA guidelines for manufacturing and laboratory practices appeared, there was considerable concern about what \u201cvalidation\u201d meant and to what it was applied. The best description of the term is \"documented proof that something (e.g., a process) works.\" The term \"validation\u201d is only applied to processes; equipment used during the process has to be \"qualified for use.\" In short, if you are going to carry out a procedure, you have to have documented evidence that the procedure does what it is supposed to do and that the tools used in its execution are appropriate for the need they are to fill. If you are going to generate data and information, do it according to a proven process. This was initially applied to manufacturing and production, including testing and QC, but has since been more broadly used. There were questions about its application to research since the FDA didn\u2019t have oversight over research labs, but those concerns have largely, in industrial circles, disappeared. There is one exception to the FDA's formal oversight in research, which has to do with clinical trials that are still part of the research and development (R&amp;D) process. Product development and production involving human, animal, or food safety, for example, are still subject to regulatory review.\nThis all culminates down to this: if you you produce data and information, do it through a proven (or even standardized) methodology; how else can you trust the results?\nSources for regulations and guidelines affecting laboratories include:\n\nFDA: This includes 21 CFR Part 11 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, which helps ensure security, integrity, and confidentially of electronic records.&#91;5&#93;\nEPA: This includes 40 CFR Part 792 on good laboratory practice&#91;6&#93;\nCenters for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS): This includes 42 CFR Part 493 on laboratory requirements for complying with the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)&#91;7&#93;\nInternational Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE): This includes their work on Good Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP) guidance&#91;8&#93;\nAmerican Association for Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA): This includes guidelines and accreditation requirements that labs must adhere to as part of accrediting to a particular standard. This includes standards like the ISO 9000 family of standards and ISO\/IEC 17025. The ISO 9000 family is a set of five QMS standards that help organizations ensure that they meet customer and other stakeholder needs within statutory and regulatory requirements related to a product or service. ISO\/IEC 17025 General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories is the primary standard used by testing and calibration laboratories, and there are special technology considerations to be made when complying. (See LIMS Selection Guide for ISO\/IEC 17025 Laboratories for more on this topic.) In most countries, ISO\/IEC 17025 is the standard for which most labs must hold accreditation to be deemed technically competent.\nA comment should be made about the interplay of regulations, standards, and guidelines. The difference between regulations and standards is that regulations have the law to support their enforcement.&#91;9&#93; Standards are consensus agreements that companies, industries, and associations use to define \u201cbest practices.\u201d Guidelines are proposed standards of organizational behavior that may or may not eventually become regulations. The FDA regulations for example, began as guidelines, underwent discussion and modification, and eventually became regulations under 21 CFR Part 11. For a more nuanced discussion in one particular lab-related area, materials science, see What standards and regulations affect a materials testing laboratory?.\n\n Meeting the needs of data governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance \nData governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance are, to an extent, laboratory cultural issues. Your organization has to instill practices that contribute to meeting the requirements. Informatics tools can provide the means for executing the tasks to meet those needs. Still, first, it is a personnel consideration.\nThe modern lab essentially has four ways of meeting those needs:\n\nPaper-based record systems using forms and laboratory notebooks;\nSpreadsheet software;\nLIMS; and\nELN.\nThe Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies addresses these four ways in detail, but we'll briefly discuss these points further here.\nSystems like LIMS, laboratory information systems (LIS), ELN, and LES can assist a lab in meeting regulatory requirements, standards, and guidelines by providing tools to meet enforcement requirements. For example, one common requirement is the need to provide an audit trail for data and information. (We'll discuss that in more detail later.) While the four product classes noted have audit trails built in, efforts to build a sample tracking system in a spreadsheet often do not have that capability as it would be difficult to implement. Beyond that, the original LES as envisioned by Velquest was intended to provide documented proof that a lab procedure was properly executed by qualified personnel, with qualified equipment and reagents, and documentation for all steps followed along with collected data and information. This again was designed to meet the expectations for a well-run lab.\n\nPaper-based systems \nPaper-based systems were once all we had, and they could adequately deal with all of the issues noted as they existed up to the early 1970s. Then, the demands of lab operations and growing regulatory compliance at the end of that decade developed a need for better tools. Compliance with laboratory practices depended on the organization\u2019s enforcement. Enforcement failures led to the development of a formal, enforced regulatory program.\nThe structure of lab operations changes due to the increasing availability of electronic data capture; having measurements in electronic form made them easier to work with if you had the systems in place to do so. Paper-based systems didn't lend themselves to that. You had to write results down on paper, and in order to later use those results you had to copy them to other documents or re-enter them into a program. In many cases, it was all people could afford, but that was a false economy as the cost of computer-based systems saved considerable time and effort. Electronic systems also afforded lab personnel a wider range of data analysis options, yielding more comprehensive work.\nWord processors represent one useful step up from paper-based systems, but word processors lack some of the flexibility of paper. Another drawback is ensuring compliance with regulations and guidelines. Since everything can be edited, an external mechanism has to be used to sign and witness entries. One possible workaround is to print off each day's work and have that signed. However, that simply inherits the problems with managing paper and makes audit trails difficult.\nAn audit trail is a tool for keeping track of changes to data and information. People make mistakes, something changes, and an entry in a notebook or electronic system has to be corrected or updated. In the laboratory environment, you can't simply erase something or change an entry. Regulatory compliance, organizational guidelines, and data integrity requirements prevent that, which is part of the reason that entries have to be in ink to detect alterations. Changes are made in paper notebooks by lightly crossing out the old data (it still has to be readable), writing the updated information, noting the date and time of the change, why the change was made, and having the new entry signed and witnessed. That process acts as an audit trail, ensuring that results aren\u2019t improperly altered. Paper-based systems require this voluntarily and should be enforced at the organizational level. Electronic laboratory systems do this as part of their design.\nTable 1 examines the pros and cons of using a paper-based system in the laboratory.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTable 1. The pros and cons of using a paper-based system in the laboratory\n\n\nPros\n\nCons\n\n\n\u2022\tLow cost\r\n\u2022\tEasily transportable\r\n\u2022\tNo power required\r\n\u2022\tBuilt-in backup copies\r\n\u2022\tHigh level of flexibility (writing, drawing, charts, etc.)\r\n\u2022\tSignature block for author\/witness\n\n\u2022\tMay be difficult to read\r\n\u2022\tEasily damaged, destroyed\r\n\u2022\tNo\/limited loss prevention\r\n\u2022\tManual searches\r\n\u2022\tData\/information must be copied to be used\r\n\u2022\tDifficult to integrate with other users data\r\n\u2022\tHigh cost of use, everything is manual\r\n\u2022\tAudit practices are manual and either self or organizationally enforced\n\n\n\nSpreadsheet software \nSpreadsheets have benefited many applications that need easy-to-produce calculation and database systems for home, office, and administrative work. The word \"laboratory\" doesn't appear in that sentence because of the demands for data integrity in laboratory applications. Spreadsheet applications are easy to produce for calculations, graphs, etc. Their ease of use and openness to undocumented modifications make them a poor choice for routine calculations. They're attractive because of their simplicity of use and inherent power, but they prove inappropriate for their lack of controls over editing, lack of audit trails, etc. If you need a routine calculation package, it should be done according to standard software development guidelines. One major drawback is the difficulty of validating a spreadsheet, instituting controls, and ensuring that the scripting hasn\u2019t been tampered with. Spreadsheets don't accommodate any of those requirements; spreadsheets are tools, and the applications need to be built. Purpose-built laboratory database systems such as LIMS, on the other hand, are much better equipped to handle those issues. \nSome have turned to developing \"spreadsheet-based LIMS.\" This type of project development requires a formal software development effort; it's not just building a spreadsheet and populating it with data and formulas. Current industrial lab operations are subject to corporate and regulatory guidelines, and violating them can have serious repercussions, including shutting down the lab or production facility. Software development requires documentation, user requirement documents, design documents, user manuals, and materials to support the software. What looks like a fun project may become a significant part of your work. This impacts the cost factor; the development and support costs of a spreadsheet-based LIMS may occupy your entire time. \nPerformance is another matter. Spreadsheet systems typically allow a single user at a time. They don't have the underlying database management support needed for simultaneous multi-user operations. This is one reason spreadsheet implementations give way to replacements with LIMS in industrial labs.\nFor more on the topic of transitioning from paper to spreadsheets to LIMS, see the article \"Improving Lab Systems: From Paper to Spreadsheets to LIMS.\"&#91;10&#93; This article will be helpful to you in considering a direction for laboratory informatics development and planning, describing the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches. It also contains references to regulatory compliance documents on the use of spreadsheets.\n\nLIMS and ELN \nThe commercial software market has evaluated the needs of research and service laboratory operations and developed software specifically designed to address those points. LIMS was designed to meet the requirements of service laboratories such as QC testing, contract testing, analytical lab, and similar groups. The important item is not the name of the lab but its operational characteristics\u2014the processes used\u2014as described earlier. The same software systems could easily be at home in a research lab that conducts a lot of routine testing on samples. If the lab has sets of samples, it needs to keep track of testing, generating worklists, and reporting results on a continuing basis; a LIMS may well be appropriate for their work. It is designed for a highly structured operational environment as described earlier.\nELNs are useful in an operational environment that is less structured, whose needs and direction may change and whose data storage and analysis requirements are more fluid. That is usually in labs designated as \"research,\" but not exclusively. For example, an analytical lab doing method development could use an ELN to support that work. \nBoth LIMS and ELNs are \u201ctop tier\u201d levels of software. LIMS may be subordinate to an ELN in a research lab whose work includes routine testing. Functionality in the \"Needs\" list that is not part of the products (functionality is determined by the vendor, usually with customer input) can be supplied by offerings from third-party vendors. Those can consist of applications that can be linked to the LIMS and ELN, or be completely independent products. \nTable 2 describes characteristics of LIMS and ELN.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTable 2. Characteristics of LIMS and ELN\n\n\nLIMS\n\nELN\n\n\n\u2022\tLIMS has a well-defined database structure and the software components to work with it and support its underlying processes.\r\n\n\u2022\tIt is purpose-built to manage sample logins, sample tracking, results entry, results tracking, reporting, etc. These comprise its core functionality.\r\n\n\u2022\tIn addition, LIMS may include instrument maintenance databases, trend analysis, inventory, personnel records, etc.\n\n\n\u2022\tELNs have modules that can be organized to support projects and manage data according the research process used in that lab's work.\r\n\n\u2022\tSome ELNs, at the vendors discretion, will contain graphics modules, inventory modules, and links to third-party applications such as reaction databases, molecular modeling, and statistical analysis.\n\n\n\n\nSupporting tiers of software \nThere are limits to what a vendor can or wants to include in their products. The more functionality, the higher the cost to the customer, and the more complex the support issue becomes. One of those areas is data storage.\nThe results storage in LIMS is usually limited to sets of numerical values or alphanumeric strings, e.g., the color of something. Those results are often based on the analysis of larger data files from instruments, images, or other sources, files too large to be accommodated within a LIMS. That problem was solved in at least two ways: the creation of the SDMS and IDS. From the standpoint of data files, both have some elements in common, though IDSs are more limited.\nThe SDMS acts as a large file cabinet, where different types of materials can be put into them\u2014images, charts, scanned documents, data files, etc.\u2014and then be referenced by the LIMS or ELN. The results sit in LIMS or ELN, and supporting information is linked to the results in the SDMS. That keeps the LIMS and ELN databases easier to structure while still supporting the lab's needs to manage large files from a variety of sources and formats.\nThat same facility is available through an IDS, but only for the devices that the IDS is connected to, e.g., chromatographs, spectrometers, etc. In addition to that function, IDSs support instrumental data collection, analysis, and reporting. They can also be linked to LIMS and ELNs by electronically receiving worklists and then electronically sending the results back, thus avoiding the need for entering the data manually.\nThe LES is also an aid to the laboratory, ensuring that laboratory methods and procedures are carried out correctly, with documented support for each step in the method. They can be seen as a quasi-automation system, except instead of automation hardware doing the work, the laboratorian is doing it, guided step-by-step by strict adherence to the method as embedded in software. The problem that this type of system, originally styled as an \u201celectronic laboratory notebook\u201d by Velquest Inc. (later purchased by Accelrys) was to ensure that there was documented evidence that every step in a lab procedure was properly carried out by qualified personnel, using calibrated\/maintained instruments, current reagents, with all data electronically captured with potential links to LIMS or other systems. That system would provide bullet-proof support for data and information generated by procedures in regulated environments. That in turn means that the data\/information produced is reliable and can stand up to challenges.\nImplementations of LES have ranged from stand-alone applications that linked to LIMS, ELNs, and SDMS, to programmable components of LIMS and ELNs. Instead of having a stand-alone framework to implement an LES, as with Velquest's product, embedded systems provide a scripting (i.e., programming by the user) facility within a LIMS that has access to the entire LIMS database, avoiding the need to interface two products. That embedded facility put a lot of pressure on the programmer to properly design, test, and validate each procedure in an isolated structure, separate from the active LIMS so that programming errors didn\u2019t compromise the integrity of the database. Note: procedure execution in stand-alone systems requires validation as well.\nAs for the IDS, instrument vendors of the late 1960s explored the benefits of connecting laboratory instruments to computer systems to see what could be gained from that combination. One problem they wanted to address was the handling of the large volumes of data that instruments produced. At that time, analog instrument output was often recorded on chart paper, and a single sample through a chromatograph might be recorded on a chart that was one or more feet long. A day\u2019s work generated a lot of paper that had to be evaluated manually, which proved time-consuming and labor-intensive. Vendors have since successfully developed computer-instrument combinations that automatically transform the instrument's analog output to a digital format, and then store and process that data to produce useful information (results), eliminating the manual effort and making labs more cost-effective in the process. This was the first step in instrument automation; the user was still required to introduce the sample into the device. The second step solved that problem in many instances through the creation of automatic samplers that moved the samples into position for analysis. This includes auto-injectors, flow-through cells, and other autosamplers, depending on the analytical technique.\nAutosamplers have ranged from devices that used a syringe to take a portion of a sample from a vial and inject it into the instrument, to systems that would carry out some sample preparation tasks and then inject the sample&#91;11&#93;, to pneumatic tube-based systems&#91;12&#93; that would bring vials from a central holding area, inject the sample and then return the sample to holding, where it would be available for further work or disposal.\nThe key to all this was the IDS computer and its programming that coordinated all these activities, acquired the data, and then processed it. Life was good as long as human intelligence evaluated the results, looked for anomalies, and took remedial action where needed. For a more detailed discussion of this subject please see Notes on Instrument Data Systems.\nThe instrument data system took us a long way toward an automated laboratory, but there was still some major hurdles to cross, including sample preparation, sample storage management, and systems integration. While much progress has been made, there is a lot more work to do.\n\nGetting work done quickly and at a low cost \nProductivity is one of the driving factors in laboratory work, as in any production environment. What is the most efficient and effective way to accomplish high-quality work at the lowest possible cost? That may not sound like \"science,\" but it is about doing science in an industrial world, in both research and service labs. That need drives software development, new systems, better instrumentation, and investments in robotics and informatics technologies.\nThat need was felt most acutely in the clinical chemistry market in the 1980s. In that field, the cost of testing was an annual contractual agreement between the lab and its clients. If costs increased during that contract year, it impacted the lab's income, profits, and ability to function. Through an industry-wide effort, the labs agreed to pursue the concept of total laboratory automation (TLA). That solution involved the labs working with vendors and associations to create a set of communications standards and standardized testing protocols that would enable the clinical chemistry labs to contain costs and greatly increase their level of operational effectiveness. The communications protocols led to the ability to integrate instrumentation and computer systems, streamlining operations and data transfer. The standardized test protocols allowed vendors to develop custom instrumentation tailored to those protocols, and to have personnel educated in their use.&#91;13&#93;&#91;14&#93;\nThe traditional way of improving productivity in industrial processes, whether on the production line or in the laboratory is through automation. This is discussed in detail in Elements of Laboratory Technology Management and Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures. However, we'll elaborate more here.\nConnecting an IDS to a LIMS, SDMS, or ELN is one form of automation, in the sense that information about samples and work to be done can travel automatically between a LIMS to an IDS and be processed, with the results getting returned without human intervention. However, making such automation successful requires several conditions:\n\nProven, validated procedures and methods;\nA proven, validated automated version of those methods (the method doesn\u2019t have to be re-validated, but the implementation of the method does&#91;15&#93;);\nA clear economic justification for the automation, including sufficient work to be done to make the automation of the process worthwhile; and,\nStandardization in communications and equipment where possible (this is one of the key success factors in clinical chemistry\u2019s TLA program, and the reason for the success in automation and equipment development in processes using microplates).\nRobotics is often one of the first things people think of when automation is suggested. It is also one of the more difficult to engineer because of the need for expertise in electromechanical equipment, software development, and interfacing between control systems and the robotic components themselves. If automation is a consideration, then the user should look first to commercial products. Vendors are looking for any opportunity to provide tools for the laboratory market. Many options have already been exploited or are under development. Present your needs to vendors and see what their reaction is. As noted earlier, user needs drove the development of autosamplers, which are essentially robots. Aside from purpose-built robotic add-ons to laboratory instrumentation, a common approach is user-designed robotics. We'll cover more on the subject of user-built systems below, but the bottom line is that they are usually more expensive to design, build, and maintain than the original project plan allows for.\nRobotics has a useful role in sample preparation. That requires careful consideration of the source of the samples and their destination. The most successful applications of robotics are in cases where the samples are in a standardized container, and the results of the preparation are similarly standardized. As noted above, this is one reason why sample processing using microplates has been so successful. The standard format of the plates with a fixed set of geometries for sample well placement means that the position of samples is predictable, and equipment can be designed to take advantage of that. \nSample preparation with non-standard containers requires specialized engineering to make adaptations for variations. Early robotics used a variety of grippers to grasp test tubes, flasks, bottles, etc., and in the long run, they were unworkable for long-term applications, often requiring frequent adjustments. \nSample storage management is another area where robotics has a potential role but is constrained by the lack of standardization in sample containers, a point that varies widely by industry. In some cases, samples, particularly those that originate with consumers (e.g., water testing), can come in a variety of containers and they have to be handled manually to organize them in a form that a sample inventory system can manage. Life sciences applications can have standardized formats for samples, but in cases such as biobanking, retrieval issues can arise because the samples may be stored in freezers with multiple levels, making them difficult to access.\nA basic sample storage management system would be linked to a LIMS, have an inventory of samples with locations, appropriate environmental controls, a barcode system to make labels machine-readable, and if robotics were considered, be organized so that a robot could have access to all materials without disrupting others. It would also have to interface cleanly with the sample preparation and sample disposal functions.\n\nArtificial intelligence applications in the lab \nArtificial intelligence (AI) in the lab is both an easy and difficult subject to write about. It's easy because anything written will be out-of-date as it is produced, and it's difficult because we really have no idea where things are going, and what we think of as an advanced AI now will be superseded next month, and probably has been in classified intelligence circles. With that said, there are still some useful things to say about the subject that would benefit you.\nWe need to be very cautious about the application of AI to lab work, if nothing else, because you are signing your name to lab results, not the AI. If something is challenged, or found to be a problem, you are responsible and accountable for the work. This is particularly problematic for AI usage since we can\u2019t trace back to the cause of the problem. In traditional programming, we have the code and can find the source of a programming problem. There is no traceback with AI systems as they currently exist. Was there a coding issue? Was there a training issue? Was the training data set biased?\nThe application of computing technology to lab work has placed layers of computing between the scientist and the actual measurements made in the lab. Each layer holds the potential for problems to develop, and assumptions to be made, which the analyst may not be aware of. Put a sample into the instrument, and the computer produces a report. Between the analog output of the instrument\u2014the actual instruments' measurement\u2014and what the analyst sees we have:\n\nThe analog-to-digital converter (ADC), which reads the signal and converts it to a digital value 9there are different types of ADC, some better suited to some applications than others);\nNoise filtering, which may precede the ADC or exist in the form of digital signal processing;\nSoftware that converts the raw data to a more usable form, ranging from a simple pass-through (nothing needed), to peak detection, baseline correction, overlapping peak resolution, peak size calculations, etc.;\nQuantitative analysis, based on the previous points for samples and reference materials;\nMonitoring, checking for anomalies and segregation of problem samples; and\nWhatever capabilities an AI provides.\nNone of this is a problem as long as the analyst is aware of what is going on and has taken steps to ensure that none of those actions adversely affect the results of the analysis. This is the direction that laboratory computing is taking, and it provides a useful basis for laboratory automation systems that will reduce the cost of doing work, and free busy personnel to do other work. AI is another potentially useful layer to streamlining the work you are signing your name to. Similar concerns would also apply to automated sample preparation.\nThere is a long list of applications that could benefit from AI technologies, and they are being explored and exploited. The question of what those applications are was posed to ChatGPT-4 (the prompt was \"What are some good examples of successful applications of artificial intelligence applied to laboratory work?\"), and it responded as such:\n\nCertainly! Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) have made significant inroads into laboratory work across various scientific disciplines. Here are some successful applications:\n1. Automated Image Analysis:\n\n- Pathology: Automated detection and classification of tumors in histopathological slides.\n- Microbiology: Automated identification and counting of bacterial colonies or reading antibiotic susceptibility tests.\n- Cell Biology: Analyzing cell morphology, cell counting, or detecting cellular events in microscopy images.\n2. Predictive Analytics:\n\n- Drug Discovery: Predicting drug interactions and potential drug candidates by analyzing chemical structures.\n- Genomics: Predicting potential disease genes or understanding gene function.\n3. Laboratory Automation and Robotics:\n\n- Sample Handling: Robots equipped with AI can adaptively handle and process samples.\n- Optimization: AI can optimize experimental conditions such as reaction times, temperatures, or concentrations.\n4. Data Mining:\n\n- Literature Analysis: AI can scan vast amounts of published research to identify trends, potential collaborations, or overlooked conclusions.\n- High-throughput Screening: Analyzing and identifying compounds with desired properties from large libraries.\n5. Spectroscopy and Chromatography:\n\n- Analyzing complex spectra or chromatograms, distinguishing minute differences or predicting material properties based on spectral data. (https:\/\/cen.acs.org\/physical-chemistry\/computational-chemistry\/Computers-learning-analyze-chemists-spectra\/101\/i7)\n6. Predictive Maintenance:\n\n- Predicting when equipment needs maintenance or identifying early signs of malfunction, ensuring that lab operations run smoothly.\n7. Natural Language Processing (NLP):\n\n- Automated transcription of lab notes or voice commands.\n- Extracting structured data from unstructured lab reports.\n8. Proteomics &amp; Metabolomics:\n\n- Analyzing complex data sets to identify biomarkers or metabolic pathways.\n- Mass spectrometry data interpretation and peptide identification.\n9. Clinical Decision Support:\n\n- Assisting doctors in diagnosing diseases based on lab results, medical history, and other data sources.\n10. Environment Monitoring:\n\n- Detecting pollutants or pathogens in environmental samples using pattern recognition.\n11. Simulation &amp; Modeling:\n\n- Computational chemistry: Predicting molecular behaviors or drug-target interactions.\n- Systems biology: Modeling complex biological systems or pathways.\n12. Quality Control &amp; Assurance:\n\n- Detecting anomalies or outliers in routine lab measurements.\n- Predicting and ensuring the consistency of lab results over time.\n13. Biobanking:\n\n- Optimizing storage and retrieval of biological samples using pattern recognition and predictive analytics.\n14. Genetic Analysis and Personalized Medicine:\n\n- Predicting disease susceptibility or drug response based on genetic data.\n15. 3D Bioprinting:\n\n- Using AI to optimize the design and production of 3D-printed tissues or organs.\nThese are just a few of the many applications of AI in laboratory settings. As technology advances, it's likely that AI will become an even more integral part of laboratory work, driving efficiencies and enabling new discoveries.\nWhile that is an interesting list, more specifics would be useful. ChatGPT-4 received the follow-up question, \"Can you provide reference for those examples?\"\n\nOf course! While I can't directly link you to the references, I can mention landmark papers, well-known projects, or general topics that you can further search to access the original sources. Here's a non-exhaustive list based on the applications mentioned:\n1. Automated Image Analysis:\n\n- Esteva, A., et al. (2017). Dermatologist-level classification of skin cancer with deep neural networks. Nature. (https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature21056)\n- Coudray, N., et al. (2018). Classification and mutation prediction from non\u2013small cell lung cancer histopathology images using deep learning. Nature Medicine.\n2. Predictive Analytics:\n\n- Wallach, I., et al. (2015). AtomNet: A deep convolutional neural network for bioactivity prediction in structure-based drug discovery. arXiv preprint.\n3. Laboratory Automation and Robotics:\n\n- Gil, Y., et al. (2018). Toward the Geoscience Paper of the Future: Best Practices for Documenting and Sharing Research from Data to Software to Provenance. Earth and Space Science. (https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/2015EA000136)\n4. Data Mining:\n\n- Jensen, L. J., et al. (2006). STRING 8\u2014a global view on proteins and their functional interactions in 630 organisms. Nucleic Acids Research.\n5. Spectroscopy and Chromatography:\n\n- Pasolli, E., et al. (2016). Machine learning meta-analysis of large metagenomic datasets: tools and biological insights. PLoS Computational Biology. (https:\/\/www.semanticscholar.org\/paper\/Machine-Learning-Meta-analysis-of-Large-Metagenomic-Pasolli-Truong\/b067701cf2a2d54ecde7b4e9c25b843d787b66c2)\n6. Natural Language Processing (NLP):\n\n- Jensen, L. J., et al. (2006). Literature mining for the biologist: from information retrieval to biological discovery. Nature Reviews Genetics.\n7. Proteomics &amp; Metabolomics:\n\n- Smith, C. A., et al. (2006). XCMS: Processing mass spectrometry data for metabolite profiling using nonlinear peak alignment, matching, and identification. Analytical Chemistry.\n8. Clinical Decision Support:\n\n- Rajkomar, A., et al. (2018). Scalable and accurate deep learning with electronic health records. NPJ Digital Medicine. (https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31304302\/)\n9. Environment Monitoring:\n\n- Aksenov, A. A., et al. (2014). Global survey of the oxygen isotope composition of bioavailable soil water. Earth and Planetary Science Letters.\n10. Simulation &amp; Modeling:\n\n- Duvenaud, D., et al. (2015). Convolutional networks on graphs for learning molecular fingerprints. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems.\n11. Quality Control &amp; Assurance:\n\n- Hinton, G. E., et al. (2012). Improving neural networks by preventing co-adaptation of feature detectors. arXiv preprint. (https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1207.0580)\n12. Genetic Analysis and Personalized Medicine:\n\n- LeCun, Y., et al. (2015). Deep learning. Nature.\nThese references are based on well-accepted papers and findings up to my last training cut-off in January 2022. You might want to search for these papers or topics in databases like Google Scholar, PubMed, or academic journals for full access and more recent works on the subject.\nThe URLs in italics are ones that have been verified. \nThis latter list is consistent with material that has been found in advertising and the literature. For example, Mettler Toledo has been advertising an AI system for its thermal analysis products.&#91;16&#93; Articles are also available describing the automated analysis of spectra.&#91;17&#93; There is even an AI-prompted interview with ChatGPT about how it sees applications to spectroscopy.&#91;18&#93;\nThe approach Mettler takes with thermal analysis is interesting. It presents the results as a suggested analysis of the data and makes it easy for the analysis to adjust settings if it disagrees with that result.&#91;16&#93; It means that the analyst has to examine each result, and after review accepts the responsibility for the work by either making adjustments or accepting things as they are. This requires an experienced analyst. The problems begin if we skip that step in pursuit of fully automated facilities, are in a rush to release results, or put the tools in the hands of inexperienced personnel.\nAI offers a great deal of potential benefits to laboratory work, something marketers are going to exploit to attract more customers. Product offerings need to be viewed skeptically as supposed benefits may be less than promised, or not as fully tested as needed. Unlike dealing with spelling checkers that consistently make improper word substitutions, AI-generated errors in data analysis are dangerous because they may go undetected.\n\nSystems development: Tinkering vs. engineering \nOne common practice in laboratory work, particularly in research, is modifying equipment or creating new configurations of equipment and instruments to get work done. That same thought pattern often extends to software development; components such as spreadsheets, compilers, database systems, and so on are common parts of laboratory computer systems. Many people include programming as part of their list of skills. That can lead to the development of special purpose software to solve issues in data handling and analysis.\nThat activity in an industrial lab is potentially problematic. Organizations have controls over what software development is permitted so that organizational security isn\u2019t compromised and that the development activities do not create problems with organizational or regulatory requirements and guidelines.\nIf a need for software develops, there are recognized processes for defining, implementing, and validating those projects. One of the best-known in laboratory science comes from ISPE's GAMP guidelines.&#91;8&#93; There is also a discussion of the methodology in Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures.\nThe development process begins with a \u201cneeds analysis\u201d that describes why the project is being undertaken and what it is supposed to accomplish, along with the benefits of doing it. That is followed by a user-requirements document that has to be agreed upon before the project begins. Once that is done, a prototype system(s) can be developed that will give you a chance to explore different options for development, project requirements, etc., that will form the basis of a design specification for the development of the actual project (whereupon the prototype is scrapped). At this point, the rest of the GAMP process is followed through the completion of the project. The end result is a proven, working, documented system that can be relied upon (based on evidence) to work and be supported. If changes are needed, the backup documentation is there to support that work.\nThis is an engineering approach to systems development. Those systems may result in software, a sample preparation process, or the implementation of an automated test method. It is needed to ensure that things work, and if the developer is no longer available, the project can still be used, supported, modified, etc., as needed. The organizations investment is protected, the data and information produced can be supported and treated as reliable, and all guidelines and regulations are being met.\n\nIn closing... \nThe purpose of this document is to give the student a high-level overview of the purpose and use of the major informatics systems that are commonly used in industrial research and service laboratories. This is an active area of development, with new products and platforms being released annually, usually around major conferences. The links included are starting points to increasing the depth of the material.\n\nAbout the author \nInitially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Liscouski, J.&#32;(June 2023).&#32;\"Harnessing Informatics for Effective Lab Inspections and Audits\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;LabLynx, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Article-Harnessing-Informatics-for-Effective-Lab-Inspections-and-Audits.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wilkinson,&#32;Mark D.&#59;&#32;Dumontier,&#32;Michel&#59;&#32;Aalbersberg,&#32;IJsbrand Jan&#59;&#32;Appleton,&#32;Gabrielle&#59;&#32;Axton,&#32;Myles&#59;&#32;Baak,&#32;Arie&#59;&#32;Blomberg,&#32;Niklas&#59;&#32;Boiten,&#32;Jan-Willem&#32;et al.&#32;(15 March 2016).&#32;\"The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship\"&#32;(in en).&#32;Scientific Data&#32;3&#32;(1): 160018.&#32;doi:10.1038\/sdata.2016.18.&#32;ISSN&#160;2052-4463.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC4792175.&#32;PMID&#160;26978244.&#32;https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/sdata201618 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 3.2 Schmitt, S.&#32;(2016).&#32;Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences.&#32;DHI Publishing, LLC.&#32;ISBN&#160;1-933722-97-5.&#32;https:\/\/www.pda.org\/bookstore\/product-detail\/3149-assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Data Integrity for the FDA Regulated Industry\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Quality Systems Compliance, LLC.&#32;12 January 2019.&#32;https:\/\/qscompliance.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/01\/ALCOA-Principles.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"21 CFR Part 11 Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\".&#32;Code of Federal Regulations.&#32;National Archives.&#32;11 November 2023.&#32;https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/chapter-I\/subchapter-A\/part-11 .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"40 CFR Part 792 Good Laboratory Practice Standards\".&#32;Code of Federal Regulations.&#32;National Archives.&#32;15 November 2023.&#32;https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/chapter-I\/subchapter-R\/part-792 .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"42 CFR Part 493 Laboratory Requirements\".&#32;Code of Federal Regulations.&#32;National Archives.&#32;13 November 2023.&#32;https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-42\/chapter-IV\/subchapter-G\/part-493 .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 \"What is GAMP?\".&#32;International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering.&#32;2023.&#32;https:\/\/ispe.org\/initiatives\/regulatory\/what-gamp .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Pankonin, M.&#32;(27 May 2021).&#32;\"Regulations vs. Standards: Clearing up the Confusion\".&#32;Association of Equipment Manufacturers.&#32;https:\/\/www.aem.org\/news\/regulations-vs-standards-clearing-up-the-confusion .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Liscouski, J.&#32;(April 2022).&#32;\"Improving Lab Systems: From Paper to Spreadsheets to LIMS\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;LabLynx, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Improving-Lab-Systems-From-Paper-to-Spreadsheets-to-LIMS.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"7693A Automated Liquid Sampler - Video\".&#32;Agilent Technologies, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.agilent.com\/en\/video\/7693a-video .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"TurboTube for Baytek LIMS software\".&#32;Baytek International.&#32;https:\/\/www.baytekinternational.com\/products\/turbotube .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Leichtle, A.B.&#32;(1 December 2020).&#32;\"Total Laboratory Automation\u2014 Samples on Track\".&#32;Clinical Laboratory News.&#32;Association for Diagnostics &amp; Laboratory Medicine.&#32;https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2020\/december\/total-laboratory-automation-samples-on-track .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Leichtle, A.B.&#32;(1 January 2021).&#32;\"Total Lab Automation: What Matters Most\".&#32;Clinical Laboratory News.&#32;Association for Diagnostics &amp; Laboratory Medicine.&#32;https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2021\/january\/total-lab-automation-what-matters-most .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Webster,&#32;G&#59;&#32;Kott,&#32;L&#59;&#32;Maloney,&#32;T&#32;(1 June 2005).&#32;\"Considerations When Implementing Automated Methods into GxP Laboratories\"&#32;(in en).&#32;Journal of the Association for Laboratory Automation&#32;10&#32;(3): 182\u2013191.&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.jala.2005.03.003.&#32;http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1016\/j.jala.2005.03.003 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 16.0 16.1 \"AIWizard \u2013 Artificial Intelligence for Thermal Analysis\".&#32;Mettler Toledo.&#32;https:\/\/www.mt.com\/us\/en\/home\/library\/know-how\/lab-analytical-instruments\/ai-wizard.html .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jung,&#32;Guwon&#59;&#32;Jung,&#32;Son Gyo&#59;&#32;Cole,&#32;Jacqueline M.&#32;(2023).&#32;\"Automatic materials characterization from infrared spectra using convolutional neural networks\"&#32;(in en).&#32;Chemical Science&#32;14&#32;(13): 3600\u20133609.&#32;doi:10.1039\/D2SC05892H.&#32;ISSN&#160;2041-6520.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC10055241.&#32;PMID&#160;37006683.&#32;http:\/\/xlink.rsc.org\/?DOI=D2SC05892H . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Workman Jr., J.&#32;(17 May 2023).&#32;\"An Interview with AI About Its Potential Role in Vibrational and Atomic Spectroscopy\".&#32;Spectroscopy Online.&#32;https:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/view\/an-interview-with-ai-about-its-potential-role-in-vibrational-and-atomic-spectroscopy .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 4 January 2024, at 15:45.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 1,819 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_A_Science_Student_s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics rootpage-LII_A_Science_Student_s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:A Science Student's Guide to Laboratory Informatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>A Science Student's Guide to Laboratory Informatics<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: November 2023\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>An undergraduate science education aims to teach people what they need to know to pursue a particular scientific discipline; it emphasizes foundational elements of the discipline. In most cases in current science education, the time allotted to teaching a scientific discipline is often insufficient to address the existing and growing knowledge base and deal with the multidisciplinary aspects of executing <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> work in both industrial and academic settings; the focus is primarily on educational topics. Yet employers in science-based industries want to hire people \"ready to work,\" leaving a significant gap between the goals of science education and the background needed to be productive in the workplace. One example of this gap is found in the lack of emphasis on <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> in laboratory-adjacent scientific endeavors.\n<\/p><p>The purpose of this guide is to provide a student with a look at the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">informatics<\/a> landscape in <i>industrial labs<\/i>. The guide has two goals: \n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Provide a framework to help the reader understand what they need to know to be both comfortable and effective in an industrial setting, giving them a starting point for learning about the product classes and technologies; and,<\/li>\n<li>Give an instructor an outline of a survey course should they want to pursue teaching this type of material.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>This guide is not intended to provide a textbook-scale level of discussion. It's an annotated map of the laboratory portion of a technological world, identifying critical points of interest and how they relate to one another, while making recommendations for the reader to learn more. Its intent is that in one document you can appreciate what the technologies are, and if you hear their names, you'll be able to understand the technologies' higher-level positioning and function. The details, which are continually developing, will be referenced elsewhere.\n<\/p><p>Note that this guide references LIMSforum.com on multiple occasions. LIMSforum is an educational forum for laboratory informatics that will ask you to sign in for access to its contents. There is no charge for accessing or using any of the materials; the log-in is for security purposes. Sign-in to LIMSforum can be done with a variety of existing social media accounts, or you can create a new LIMSforum account.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-What's_lacking_in_modern_laboratory_education?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"What.27s_lacking_in_modern_laboratory_education.3F\">What's lacking in modern laboratory education?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The science you\u2019ve learned in school provides a basis for understanding laboratory methods, solving problems, conducting projects\/research, and developing methods. It has little to do with the orchestration of industrial lab operations. That role was first filled by paper-based procedures and now firmly falls in the realm of electronic management systems. So why is your laboratory experience in your formal education different from that in industrial labs? After all, both include <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Research\" title=\"Research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"409634fd90113f119362927fe222f549\">research<\/a>, testing, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chemistry\" title=\"Chemistry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"792a1b261a4ecc7803e3f7f1de2dbda1\">chemistry<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biotechnology\" title=\"Biotechnology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"115005039d4cf0b4ef55ec14dc6d66da\">biotechnology<\/a>, pharmaceutical development, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Materials_science\" title=\"Materials science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89f5ce5de41da20cf3a2144a5731d5e6\">material development<\/a>, engineering, etc.\n<\/p><p>Educational lab work is about understanding principles and techniques, developing skills by executing procedures, and conducting research projects. Industrial work is about producing data, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a>, materials, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Medical_device\" title=\"Medical device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e821122daa731f0fa8782fae57831fa\">devices<\/a>, some supporting research, others supporting production\/manufacturing operations. Those products are subject to both <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"Regulatory compliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca\">regulatory review<\/a> and are subject to internal guidelines. Suppose a regulatory inspector finds fault with a lab's data. In that case, the consequences can range from more detailed inspection and, if warranted, closing the lab or the entire production facility until remedial actions are enacted.\n<\/p><p>Because of the importance of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167\">data integrity<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fe43b05eae4dfa9b5c0547cc8cfcceb\">quality<\/a>, industrial laboratories operate under the requirements, regulations, and standards of a variety of sources, including corporate guidelines, the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO), and others. These regulatory and standard-based efforts aim to ensure that the data and information used to make decisions about product quality is maintained and defensible. It all comes down to product <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_(business)\" title=\"Quality (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4ac43430d1c3a3a15d1255257aaea37\">quality<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Safety_engineering\" title=\"Safety engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4ee82a1c5643fa1a566a98409f65af8\">safety<\/a>, so for example, that the acetaminophen capsule you might take has the proper dosage and is free of contamination.\n<\/p><p>Outside of regulations and standards, even company policy can drive the desire for timely, high-quality analytical results. Corporate guidelines for lab operations ensure that laboratory data and information is well-managed and supportable. Consider a lawsuit brought by a consumer about product quality. Suppose the company can't demonstrate that the data supporting product quality is on solid ground. In that case, they may be fined with significant damages. Seeking to avoid this, the company puts into place enforceable policy and procedures (P&amp;P) and may even put into place a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_management_system\" title=\"Quality management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfecf3cd6f18d4a5e9ac49ca360b447d\">quality management system<\/a> (QMS).\n<\/p><p>As noted, labs are production operations. There is more leeway in research, but service labs (i.e., analytical, physical properties, quality control, contract testing, etc.) are heavily production-oriented, so some refer to the work as \"scientific manufacturing\" or \"scientific production work\" because of the heavy reliance on <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation\" title=\"Laboratory automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331\">automation<\/a>. That dependence on automation has led to the adoption of systems such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management systems<\/a> (LIMS), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a> (ELN), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">scientific data management systems<\/a> (SDMS), instrument data systems (IDS), and robotics to organize and manage the work, and produce results. Some aspects of research, where large volumes of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sample_(material)\" title=\"Sample (material)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f8cd41a077a88d02370c02a3ba3d9d6\">sample<\/a> processing are essential, have the same issues. Yet realistically, how immersed are today's student scientists in the realities of these systems and their use outside of academia? Are they being taught sufficiently about these and other electronic systems that are increasingly finding their way into the modern industrial laboratory?\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Operational_models_for_research_and_service_laboratories\">Operational models for research and service laboratories<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Before we get too deeply into laboratory informatics concepts, we need to describe the setting where informatics tools are used. Otherwise, the tools won\u2019t make sense. Scientific work, particularly laboratory work, is process-driven at several levels. Organizational processes describe how a business works and how the various departments relate to each other. Laboratories have processes operating at different levels; one may describe how the lab functions and carries out its intended purpose, and others detail how experimental procedures are carried out. Some of these processes\u2014accounting, for example\u2014are largely, with a few exceptions, the same across organizations in differing industries. Others depend on the industry and are the basis for requiring industry experience before hiring people at the mid- and upper levels. Still other activities, such as research, depend on the particular mission of a lab within an organization. A given company may have several different research laboratories directed at different areas of work with only the word \u201cresearch\u201d and some broad generalizations about what is in common. However, their internal methods of operation can vary widely.\n<\/p><p>We\u2019ll begin by looking at the working environment. Figure 1 shows the functions we need to consider. That model is based on the author\u2019s experience; however, it fits many applied research groups in different industries whose work is intended to lead to new and improved products. The names of the labs may change to include <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Microbiology\" title=\"Microbiology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"920bf32dc9c9cf492c58c4c5484df41f\">microbiology<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Toxicology\" title=\"Toxicology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c1c9e1a7e33df53c6ca721eee8b5381\">toxicology<\/a>, electronics, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Forensic_science\" title=\"Forensic science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"415d36a7b65494677b6d2873d5febec1\">forensics<\/a>, etc., depending on the industry, but the functional behavior will be similar.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig1_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"efea1d0623f27e4ef9e65e0afeed5777\"><img alt=\"Fig1 Liscouski SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/3\/3b\/Fig1_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 1.<\/b> An organizational structure of an R&amp;D group.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The labs I was working in supported R&amp;D in polymers and pharmaceuticals because that's what the overarching company had broad interest in. The research labs (left column of Figure 1) were focused on those projects. The other facilities consisted of:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Analytical research: This lab had four functions: routine chemical analysis in support of the research labs, new method development to support both research and production <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_control\" title=\"Quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f\">quality control<\/a> (QC), non-routine analytical work to address special projects, and process monitoring that tested the accuracy of the production QC labs (several production facilities were making different products).<\/li>\n<li>Physical properties research: Similar in function to the analytical lab, this lab measured the physical properties of polymers instead of performing chemical analysis.<\/li>\n<li>Materials characterization: This group worked with research and special projects looking at the composition of polymers and their properties such as rheology, molecular weight distribution, and other characteristics.<\/li>\n<li>Fabrication: The fabrication facility processed experimental polymers into blends, films, and other components that could be further tested in the physical properties lab.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Once an experimental material reached a stage where it was ready for scale-up development, it entered the pilot plant, where production processes were designed and tested to see if the material could be made in larger quantities and still retain its desirable properties (i.e., effectively produced to scale). A dedicated testing lab supported the pilot plant to do raw materials, in-process, and post-production testing. If a product met its goals, it was moved to a production facility for larger-scale testing and eventually commercial production.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Intra-lab_workflows\">Intra-lab workflows<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Let\u2019s look at each of these support lab groups more closely and examine how their <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflows<\/a> relate.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Analytical_research\">Analytical research<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The workflows in this lab fell into two categories: routine testing (i.e., the service lab model) and research. In the routine testing portion, samples could come from the research labs, production facilities, and the pilot plant testing lab. The research work could come from salespeople (e.g., \u201cWe found this in a sample of a competitive product, what is it?\u201d, \u201cOur customer asked us to analyze this,\" etc.), customer support trying to solve customer issues, and researchers developing test methods to support research. The methods used for analysis could come from various sources depending on the industry, e.g., standards organizations such as ASTM International (formerly American Society for Testing Materials, but their scope expanded over time), peer-reviewed academic journals, vendors, and intra-organizational sources.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Physical_properties_research\">Physical properties research<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The work here was predominately routine testing (i.e., the service lab model). Although samples could come from a variety of sources, as with analytical research, the test methods were standardized and came from groups like ASTM, and in some cases the customers of the company's products. Standardized procedures were used to compare results to testing by other organizations, including potential customers. Labs like this are today found in a variety of industries, including pharmaceuticals, where the lab might be responsible for tablet uniformity testing, among other things.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Materials_characterization\">Materials characterization<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>As noted, this lab performed work that fell between the analytical and physical properties labs. While their test protocols were standardized within the labs, the nature of the materials they worked on involved individual considerations on how the analysis should be approached and the results interpreted. At one level, they were a service lab and followed that behavior. On another, the execution of testing required more than \"just another sample\" thinking.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fabrication\">Fabrication<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The fabrication facility processed materials from a variety of sources: evaluation samples from both the production facility and pilot plant, as well as competitive material evaluation from the research labs. They also did parts fabrication for testing in the physical properties lab. Some physical tests required plastic materials formed into special shapes; for example, tensile bars for tensile strength testing (test bars are stretched to see how they deformed and eventually failed). The sample sizes they worked with ranged from a few pounds to thousands of pounds (e.g., film production).\n<\/p><p>The pilot plant testing lab did evaluations on scaled-up processing materials. They had to be located within the pilot plant for fast turn-around testing, including on-demand work and routine analysis. They also serviced process chromatographs for in-line testing. Their test procedures came from both the chemical and physical labs as they were responsible for a variety of tests on small samples; anything larger was sent to the analytical research labs. The pilot plant testing lab followed a service lab model.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"On_the_service_lab_model_and_research_in_general\">On the service lab model and research in general<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The service lab model has been noted several times and is common in most industries. The details of sample types and testing will vary, but the operational behavior will be the same and will work like this:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Samples are submitted for testing. In many labs, these are done on paper forms listing sample type, testing to be done, whom to bill, and a description of the sample and any unique concerns or issues. In labs with a LIMS, this can be done online by lab personnel or the sample submitter.<\/li>\n<li>The work is logged in (electronically using a LIMS or manually for paper-based systems), and rush samples are brought to management's attention. Note that in the pilot plant test lab, everything is in a rush as the next steps in the plant\u2019s work may depend upon the results.<\/li>\n<li>Analysts generate worklists (whether electronic or paper, an ordered representation of sample or specimen locations and what analyses must be performed upon them by a specific instrument and\/or analyst using specified procedures) and perform the required analysis, and results are recorded in the LIMS or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be60c7be96aba8e9a84537fd8835fa54\">laboratory notebooks<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>The work is reviewed and approved for release and, in paper systems, recorded on the submission forms.<\/li>\n<li>Reports are sent to whoever submitted the work electronically, or via the method the submitter requested.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Work from non-routine samples may be logged in under \u201cspecial projects,\u201d though it may create the need for additional testing.\n<\/p><p>There is no similar model for research work besides project descriptions, initial project outlines, etc. The nature of the work will change as the project progresses and more is learned. Recording results, observations, plans, etc., requires a flexible medium capable of maintaining notes, printouts, charts, and other forms of information. As a result, ELNs are modular systems consisting of a central application with the ability to link to a variety of functional modules such as graphics, statistics, molecular drawing, reaction databases, user-define database structures to hold experimental data, and more. For additional details, see <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\" title=\"LII:The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd\">The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies<\/a><\/i>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_role_of_laboratory_informatics\">The role of laboratory informatics<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Lab informatics has several tiers of systems (Figure 2) that can be applied to lab work to make it more effective and efficient. \n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig2_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b453c95e8ac81829e0e31f145f69b7a\"><img alt=\"Fig2 Liscouski SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/8\/80\/Fig2_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 2.<\/b> Tiered structure of laboratory informatics.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The top tier consists of ELNs and LIMS, while supporting those systems are SDMS, as well as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\" title=\"Laboratory execution system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a\">laboratory execution systems<\/a> (LES) and IDS (which are are a combination of instruments and computer systems). Typical examples are <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_system\" title=\"Chromatography data system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a424bb889d8507b7e8912f2faf2570c6\">chromatography data systems<\/a> (CDS) connected to one or more <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography\" title=\"Chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2615535d1f14c6cffdfad7285999ad9d\">chromatographs<\/a>, a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb548eafe2596c35d7ea741849aa83d4\">mass spectrometer<\/a> connected to a dedicated computer, and almost any major instrument in an instrument-computer combination. CDSs are, at this point, unique in their ability to support multiple instruments. Sharing the same tier as LES and IDS are devices like pH meters, balances, and other devices with no databases associated with them; these instruments must be programmed to be used with upper-tier systems. Their data output can be manually entered into a LIMS, ELN, or LES, but in regulated labs, the input has to be verified by a second individual. Below that are mechanisms for sample preparation, management, and storage. Our initial concern will be with the top-tier systems. \n<\/p><p>Next we look at the interactions involved in such workflows. The primary interaction between a service lab and someone requesting their services is shown in Figure 3.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig3_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"63ea439ce50da38a759af06c04380b8d\"><img alt=\"Fig3 Liscouski SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/c8\/Fig3_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 3.<\/b> Sample request\/results flow.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Samples are submitted by the research group or other groups, and the request proceeds through the system as described above. The split between the LIMS in Figure 2 illustrates the separation between logging samples in, the analysis process, and using the LIMS as an administrative tool for completing the work request and returning results to the submitter. Also note that Figure 2 shows the classical assignment of informatics products to labs: LIMS in service labs and notebooks (usually ELNs) to research labs. However, that assignment is an oversimplification; the systems have broader usage in both types of laboratory workflows. In the research labs, work may generate a large amount of testing that has to be done quickly so that the next steps in the experiments can be determined. The demand may be great enough to swamp the service labs, and they wouldn't be able to provide the turn-around time needed for research. In these cases, a LIMS would be added to the research lab's range of informatics tools so that high-demand testing would be done within those labs. Other, less demanding testing would be submitted to the service labs. The research lab LIMS could be an entirely independent installation or work with the same core system as the service labs. The choice would depend on the locations of the labs, the need for instrument connections, how cooperative they are, and corporate politics.\n<\/p><p>The analytical research and materials characterization labs in Figure 1 could justify an ELN based on research associated with method development work. In addition to providing a means of detailing the research needed to create a new procedure, the ELN would need access to a variety of databases and tools, including chemical reaction modeling, molecular structure representation, published methods retrieval, etc., as well as any corporate research databases that could exist in a large organization.\n<\/p><p>The fabrication facility could use an ELN to record the progress of any non-routine work that was being done. Equipment operating conditions, problems encountered and solved, and the results of their processing would be noted. This could be coordinated with the pilot plant or product development group\u2019s work.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laboratory_operations_and_their_associated_informatics_tools\">Laboratory operations and their associated informatics tools<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Laboratory operations and work can be divided into two levels:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Data and information generation: This is where lab procedures are executed; the informatics tools consist of LES, IDS, and support for automation and devices such as pH meters, scales, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Data, information, and operations management: This involves the management of the data and information ultimately generated, as well as the operational processes that led up to the creation that data and information. The informatics tools at this level consist of LIMS, ELN, and SDMS.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The following largely addresses the latter, recognizing that the execution of analytical procedures\u2014both electronically and manually\u2014results in the creation of data and information that must be properly managed. Data, information, and operations management (i.e., laboratory management) involves keeping track of everything that goes on in the lab, including:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Lab personnel records: The qualifications, personnel files (along with human resources), vacation schedules, education\/training, etc. of the lab's personnel.<\/li>\n<li>Equipment lists and maintenance: Records related to scheduled maintenance, repairs, calibration, qualification for use, and software upgrades, if appropriate.<\/li>\n<li>General process-related documentation: All lab documents, reports, guidelines, sample records, problems and non-conformities, method descriptions, contacts with vendors, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Sample-specific records: What samples need work, what is the scope of the work, results, associated reports, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Inventory: Records related to what materials and equipment (including personal protective equipment) are on hand, but also where those material and equipment are, their age (some materials such as prepared reagents have a limited useful lifetime, in other cases materials may have a limited shelf-life), and any special handling instructions such as storage and disposal.<\/li>\n<li>Chemical and organism safety: Any special conditions needed for chemicals and organisms, their maintenance, condition, related records (e.g., material safety data sheets), etc.<\/li>\n<li>Data governance efforts<\/li>\n<li>Data integrity efforts<\/li>\n<li>Regulatory compliance efforts: Documentation regarding laboratory effort to meet regulatory requirements or avoid regulatory issues, including preparation for regulatory audits.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LiscouskiHarnessing23_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LiscouskiHarnessing23-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Many of those laboratory operational aspects will be familiar to you, others less so. The last three bullets may be the least familiar to you. The primary point of lab operations is to produce data and information, which will then be used to support production and research operations. That data and information must be reliable and supportable. People have to trust that the analysis was performed correctly and that it can be relied upon to make decisions about product quality, to determine whether production operations are under control, or to take the next step in a research program. That\u2019s where regulatory compliance data governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance come in.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_governance\">Data governance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data governance refers to the overall management of the availability, usability, integrity, and security of the data employed in an enterprise. It encompasses a set of processes, roles, policies, standards, and metrics that ensure the effective and efficient use of information in enabling an organization to achieve its goals. Its primary purpose is to ensure that data serves the organization's needs and that there's a framework in place to handle data-related issues.\n<\/p><p>Data governance-related efforts have become more important over time, especially in how data and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8\">metadata<\/a> are stored and made available. We see this importance come up with recent frameworks such as the FAIR principles, that ask that data and metadata be findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_integrity\">Data integrity<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data integrity refers to the accuracy and consistency of data over its lifecycle. It ensures that data remains unaltered and uncorrupted unless there's a specific need for a change. It\u2019s focused more on the validity and reliability of data rather than the broader management processes. Its primary purpose is to ensure that data is recorded exactly as intended and, upon retrieval, remains the same as when it was stored.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While data governance is a broader concept that deals with the overall management and strategy of data handling in an organization, data integrity is specifically about ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data. Both are essential for making informed decisions based on the data and ensuring that the data can be trusted.\n<\/p><p>The topic of data integrity has also increasingly become important.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> A framework called ALCOA+ (fully, ALCOA-CCEA) has been developed by the FDA to help define and guide work on data integrity. ALCO+ asks that paper and electronic data and information be attributable, legible, contemporaneous, original, accurate, complete, consistent, enduring, and available, which all further drive data integrity initiatives in the lab and beyond.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QSCDataInt19_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QSCDataInt19-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> For more on this topic, see Schmitt's <i>Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_3-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regulatory_compliance\">Regulatory compliance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The purpose of placing regulations on laboratory operations varies, but the general idea across them all is to ensure that lab operations are safe, well-managed, and that laboratory data and information are reliable. These regulations cover personnel, their certifications\/qualifications, equipment, reagents, safety procedures, and the validity of lab processes, among other things. This includes ensuring that instruments have been calibrated and are in good working order, and that all lab processes have been validated. Laboratory process validation in particular is an interesting aspect and one that causes confusion about what it means and who it applies to.\n<\/p><p>In the late 1970s, when the original FDA guidelines for manufacturing and laboratory practices appeared, there was considerable concern about what \u201cvalidation\u201d meant and to what it was applied. The best description of the term is \"documented proof that something (e.g., a process) works.\" The term \"validation\u201d is only applied to processes; equipment used during the process has to be \"qualified for use.\" In short, if you are going to carry out a procedure, you have to have documented evidence that the procedure does what it is supposed to do and that the tools used in its execution are appropriate for the need they are to fill. If you are going to generate data and information, do it according to a proven process. This was initially applied to manufacturing and production, including testing and QC, but has since been more broadly used. There were questions about its application to research since the FDA didn\u2019t have oversight over research labs, but those concerns have largely, in industrial circles, disappeared. There is one exception to the FDA's formal oversight in research, which has to do with clinical trials that are still part of the research and development (R&amp;D) process. Product development and production involving human, animal, or food safety, for example, are still subject to regulatory review.\n<\/p><p>This all culminates down to this: if you you produce data and information, do it through a proven (or even standardized) methodology; how else can you trust the results?\n<\/p><p>Sources for regulations and guidelines affecting laboratories include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>FDA<\/b>: This includes <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, which helps ensure security, integrity, and confidentially of electronic records.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CFR21_11_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CFR21_11-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>EPA<\/b>: This includes 40 CFR Part 792 on good laboratory practice<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CFR40_792_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CFR40_792-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Medicare_and_Medicaid_Services\" title=\"Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"654b4449e4816e190325b420c264df1a\">Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services<\/a> (CMS)<\/b>: This includes 42 CFR Part 493 on laboratory requirements for complying with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\" title=\"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35\">Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments<\/a> (CLIA)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CFR42_493_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CFR42_493-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE)<\/b>: This includes their work on <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\" title=\"Good Automated Manufacturing Practice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb\">Good Automated Manufacturing Practice<\/a> (GAMP) guidance<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISPEWhatIsGAMP_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISPEWhatIsGAMP-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>American Association for Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA)<\/b>: This includes guidelines and accreditation requirements that labs must adhere to as part of accrediting to a particular standard. This includes standards like the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000<\/a> family of standards and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a>. The ISO 9000 family is a set of five QMS standards that help organizations ensure that they meet customer and other stakeholder needs within statutory and regulatory requirements related to a product or service. ISO\/IEC 17025 <i>General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories<\/i> is the primary standard used by testing and calibration laboratories, and there are special technology considerations to be made when complying. (See <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:LIMS_Selection_Guide_for_ISO\/IEC_17025_Laboratories\" title=\"LII:LIMS Selection Guide for ISO\/IEC 17025 Laboratories\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a88af9104987b4cee166d0b4c621519b\">LIMS Selection Guide for ISO\/IEC 17025 Laboratories<\/a><\/i> for more on this topic.) In most countries, ISO\/IEC 17025 is the standard for which most labs must hold accreditation to be deemed technically competent.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>A comment should be made about the interplay of regulations, standards, and guidelines. The difference between regulations and standards is that regulations have the law to support their enforcement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PankoninReg21_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PankoninReg21-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Standards are consensus agreements that companies, industries, and associations use to define \u201cbest practices.\u201d Guidelines are proposed standards of organizational behavior that may or may not eventually become regulations. The FDA regulations for example, began as guidelines, underwent discussion and modification, and eventually became regulations under 21 CFR Part 11. For a more nuanced discussion in one particular lab-related area, materials science, see <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_FAQ:What_standards_and_regulations_affect_a_materials_testing_laboratory%3F\" title=\"LIMS FAQ:What standards and regulations affect a materials testing laboratory?\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5b3ba26d2ece29023b26cb6bb605778\">What standards and regulations affect a materials testing laboratory?<\/a><\/i>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Meeting_the_needs_of_data_governance,_data_integrity,_and_regulatory_compliance\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Meeting_the_needs_of_data_governance.2C_data_integrity.2C_and_regulatory_compliance\">Meeting the needs of data governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data governance, data integrity, and regulatory compliance are, to an extent, laboratory cultural issues. Your organization has to instill practices that contribute to meeting the requirements. Informatics tools can provide the means for executing the tasks to meet those needs. Still, first, it is a personnel consideration.\n<\/p><p>The modern lab essentially has four ways of meeting those needs:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Paper-based record systems using forms and laboratory notebooks;<\/li>\n<li>Spreadsheet software;<\/li>\n<li>LIMS; and<\/li>\n<li>ELN.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\" title=\"LII:The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd\">The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies<\/a><\/i> addresses these four ways in detail, but we'll briefly discuss these points further here.\n<\/p><p>Systems like LIMS, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information systems<\/a> (LIS), ELN, and LES can assist a lab in meeting regulatory requirements, standards, and guidelines by providing tools to meet enforcement requirements. For example, one common requirement is the need to provide an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0\">audit trail<\/a> for data and information. (We'll discuss that in more detail later.) While the four product classes noted have audit trails built in, efforts to build a sample tracking system in a spreadsheet often do not have that capability as it would be difficult to implement. Beyond that, the original LES as envisioned by Velquest was intended to provide documented proof that a lab procedure was properly executed by qualified personnel, with qualified equipment and reagents, and documentation for all steps followed along with collected data and information. This again was designed to meet the expectations for a well-run lab.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Paper-based_systems\">Paper-based systems<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Paper-based systems were once all we had, and they could adequately deal with all of the issues noted as they existed up to the early 1970s. Then, the demands of lab operations and growing regulatory compliance at the end of that decade developed a need for better tools. Compliance with laboratory practices depended on the organization\u2019s enforcement. Enforcement failures led to the development of a formal, enforced regulatory program.\n<\/p><p>The structure of lab operations changes due to the increasing availability of electronic data capture; having measurements in electronic form made them easier to work with if you had the systems in place to do so. Paper-based systems didn't lend themselves to that. You had to write results down on paper, and in order to later use those results you had to copy them to other documents or re-enter them into a program. In many cases, it was all people could afford, but that was a false economy as the cost of computer-based systems saved considerable time and effort. Electronic systems also afforded lab personnel a wider range of data analysis options, yielding more comprehensive work.\n<\/p><p>Word processors represent one useful step up from paper-based systems, but word processors lack some of the flexibility of paper. Another drawback is ensuring compliance with regulations and guidelines. Since everything can be edited, an external mechanism has to be used to sign and witness entries. One possible workaround is to print off each day's work and have that signed. However, that simply inherits the problems with managing paper and makes audit trails difficult.\n<\/p><p>An audit trail is a tool for keeping track of changes to data and information. People make mistakes, something changes, and an entry in a notebook or electronic system has to be corrected or updated. In the laboratory environment, you can't simply erase something or change an entry. Regulatory compliance, organizational guidelines, and data integrity requirements prevent that, which is part of the reason that entries have to be in ink to detect alterations. Changes are made in paper notebooks by lightly crossing out the old data (it still has to be readable), writing the updated information, noting the date and time of the change, why the change was made, and having the new entry signed and witnessed. That process acts as an audit trail, ensuring that results aren\u2019t improperly altered. Paper-based systems require this voluntarily and should be enforced at the organizational level. Electronic laboratory systems do this as part of their design.\n<\/p><p>Table 1 examines the pros and cons of using a paper-based system in the laboratory.\n<\/p>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><b>Table 1.<\/b> The pros and cons of using a paper-based system in the laboratory\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Pros\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Cons\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">\u2022\tLow cost<br \/>\u2022\tEasily transportable<br \/>\u2022\tNo power required<br \/>\u2022\tBuilt-in backup copies<br \/>\u2022\tHigh level of flexibility (writing, drawing, charts, etc.)<br \/>\u2022\tSignature block for author\/witness\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">\u2022\tMay be difficult to read<br \/>\u2022\tEasily damaged, destroyed<br \/>\u2022\tNo\/limited loss prevention<br \/>\u2022\tManual searches<br \/>\u2022\tData\/information must be copied to be used<br \/>\u2022\tDifficult to integrate with other users data<br \/>\u2022\tHigh cost of use, everything is manual<br \/>\u2022\tAudit practices are manual and either self or organizationally enforced\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Spreadsheet_software\">Spreadsheet software<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Spreadsheets have benefited many applications that need easy-to-produce calculation and database systems for home, office, and administrative work. The word \"laboratory\" doesn't appear in that sentence because of the demands for data integrity in laboratory applications. Spreadsheet applications are easy to produce for calculations, graphs, etc. Their ease of use and openness to undocumented modifications make them a poor choice for routine calculations. They're attractive because of their simplicity of use and inherent power, but they prove inappropriate for their lack of controls over editing, lack of audit trails, etc. If you need a routine calculation package, it should be done according to standard software development guidelines. One major drawback is the difficulty of validating a spreadsheet, instituting controls, and ensuring that the scripting hasn\u2019t been tampered with. Spreadsheets don't accommodate any of those requirements; spreadsheets are tools, and the applications need to be built. Purpose-built laboratory database systems such as LIMS, on the other hand, are much better equipped to handle those issues. \n<\/p><p>Some have turned to developing \"spreadsheet-based LIMS.\" This type of project development requires a formal software development effort; it's not just building a spreadsheet and populating it with data and formulas. Current industrial lab operations are subject to corporate and regulatory guidelines, and violating them can have serious repercussions, including shutting down the lab or production facility. Software development requires documentation, user requirement documents, design documents, user manuals, and materials to support the software. What looks like a fun project may become a significant part of your work. This impacts the cost factor; the development and support costs of a spreadsheet-based LIMS may occupy your entire time. \n<\/p><p>Performance is another matter. Spreadsheet systems typically allow a single user at a time. They don't have the underlying database management support needed for simultaneous multi-user operations. This is one reason spreadsheet implementations give way to replacements with LIMS in industrial labs.\n<\/p><p>For more on the topic of transitioning from paper to spreadsheets to LIMS, see the article \"Improving Lab Systems: From Paper to Spreadsheets to LIMS.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LiscouskiImproving22_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LiscouskiImproving22-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This article will be helpful to you in considering a direction for laboratory informatics development and planning, describing the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches. It also contains references to regulatory compliance documents on the use of spreadsheets.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMS_and_ELN\">LIMS and ELN<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The commercial software market has evaluated the needs of research and service laboratory operations and developed software specifically designed to address those points. LIMS was designed to meet the requirements of service laboratories such as QC testing, contract testing, analytical lab, and similar groups. The important item is not the name of the lab but its operational characteristics\u2014the processes used\u2014as described earlier. The same software systems could easily be at home in a research lab that conducts a lot of routine testing on samples. If the lab has sets of samples, it needs to keep track of testing, generating worklists, and reporting results on a continuing basis; a LIMS may well be appropriate for their work. It is designed for a highly structured operational environment as described earlier.\n<\/p><p>ELNs are useful in an operational environment that is less structured, whose needs and direction may change and whose data storage and analysis requirements are more fluid. That is usually in labs designated as \"research,\" but not exclusively. For example, an analytical lab doing method development could use an ELN to support that work. \n<\/p><p>Both LIMS and ELNs are \u201ctop tier\u201d levels of software. LIMS may be subordinate to an ELN in a research lab whose work includes routine testing. Functionality in the \"Needs\" list that is not part of the products (functionality is determined by the vendor, usually with customer input) can be supplied by offerings from third-party vendors. Those can consist of applications that can be linked to the LIMS and ELN, or be completely independent products. \n<\/p><p>Table 2 describes characteristics of LIMS and ELN.\n<\/p>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\" style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><b>Table 2.<\/b> Characteristics of LIMS and ELN\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">LIMS\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">ELN\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">\u2022\tLIMS has a well-defined database structure and the software components to work with it and support its underlying processes.<br \/>\n<p>\u2022\tIt is purpose-built to manage sample logins, sample tracking, results entry, results tracking, reporting, etc. These comprise its core functionality.<br \/>\n\u2022\tIn addition, LIMS may include instrument maintenance databases, trend analysis, inventory, personnel records, etc.\n<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">\u2022\tELNs have modules that can be organized to support projects and manage data according the research process used in that lab's work.<br \/>\n<p>\u2022\tSome ELNs, at the vendors discretion, will contain graphics modules, inventory modules, and links to third-party applications such as reaction databases, molecular modeling, and statistical analysis.\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Supporting_tiers_of_software\">Supporting tiers of software<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>There are limits to what a vendor can or wants to include in their products. The more functionality, the higher the cost to the customer, and the more complex the support issue becomes. One of those areas is data storage.\n<\/p><p>The results storage in LIMS is usually limited to sets of numerical values or alphanumeric strings, e.g., the color of something. Those results are often based on the analysis of larger data files from instruments, images, or other sources, files too large to be accommodated within a LIMS. That problem was solved in at least two ways: the creation of the SDMS and IDS. From the standpoint of data files, both have some elements in common, though IDSs are more limited.\n<\/p><p>The SDMS acts as a large file cabinet, where different types of materials can be put into them\u2014images, charts, scanned documents, data files, etc.\u2014and then be referenced by the LIMS or ELN. The results sit in LIMS or ELN, and supporting information is linked to the results in the SDMS. That keeps the LIMS and ELN databases easier to structure while still supporting the lab's needs to manage large files from a variety of sources and formats.\n<\/p><p>That same facility is available through an IDS, but only for the devices that the IDS is connected to, e.g., chromatographs, spectrometers, etc. In addition to that function, IDSs support instrumental data collection, analysis, and reporting. They can also be linked to LIMS and ELNs by electronically receiving worklists and then electronically sending the results back, thus avoiding the need for entering the data manually.\n<\/p><p>The LES is also an aid to the laboratory, ensuring that laboratory methods and procedures are carried out correctly, with documented support for each step in the method. They can be seen as a quasi-automation system, except instead of automation hardware doing the work, the laboratorian is doing it, guided step-by-step by strict adherence to the method as embedded in software. The problem that this type of system, originally styled as an \u201celectronic laboratory notebook\u201d by Velquest Inc. (later purchased by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Accelrys,_Inc.\" title=\"Accelrys, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"80b4cca2a39ccb7ba8e07211d62267a7\">Accelrys<\/a>) was to ensure that there was documented evidence that every step in a lab procedure was properly carried out by qualified personnel, using calibrated\/maintained instruments, current reagents, with all data electronically captured with potential links to LIMS or other systems. That system would provide bullet-proof support for data and information generated by procedures in regulated environments. That in turn means that the data\/information produced is reliable and can stand up to challenges.\n<\/p><p>Implementations of LES have ranged from stand-alone applications that linked to LIMS, ELNs, and SDMS, to programmable components of LIMS and ELNs. Instead of having a stand-alone framework to implement an LES, as with Velquest's product, embedded systems provide a scripting (i.e., programming by the user) facility within a LIMS that has access to the entire LIMS database, avoiding the need to interface two products. That embedded facility put a lot of pressure on the programmer to properly design, test, and validate each procedure in an isolated structure, separate from the active LIMS so that programming errors didn\u2019t compromise the integrity of the database. Note: procedure execution in stand-alone systems requires validation as well.\n<\/p><p>As for the IDS, instrument vendors of the late 1960s explored the benefits of connecting laboratory instruments to computer systems to see what could be gained from that combination. One problem they wanted to address was the handling of the large volumes of data that instruments produced. At that time, analog instrument output was often recorded on chart paper, and a single sample through a chromatograph might be recorded on a chart that was one or more feet long. A day\u2019s work generated a lot of paper that had to be evaluated manually, which proved time-consuming and labor-intensive. Vendors have since successfully developed computer-instrument combinations that automatically transform the instrument's analog output to a digital format, and then store and process that data to produce useful information (results), eliminating the manual effort and making labs more cost-effective in the process. This was the first step in instrument automation; the user was still required to introduce the sample into the device. The second step solved that problem in many instances through the creation of automatic samplers that moved the samples into position for analysis. This includes auto-injectors, flow-through cells, and other autosamplers, depending on the analytical technique.\n<\/p><p>Autosamplers have ranged from devices that used a syringe to take a portion of a sample from a vial and inject it into the instrument, to systems that would carry out some sample preparation tasks and then inject the sample<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Agilent7693A_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Agilent7693A-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, to pneumatic tube-based systems<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BaytekTT_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BaytekTT-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup> that would bring vials from a central holding area, inject the sample and then return the sample to holding, where it would be available for further work or disposal.\n<\/p><p>The key to all this was the IDS computer and its programming that coordinated all these activities, acquired the data, and then processed it. Life was good as long as human intelligence evaluated the results, looked for anomalies, and took remedial action where needed. For a more detailed discussion of this subject please see <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\" title=\"LII:Notes on Instrument Data Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b7330228fd59158aab6fab82ad0e7cc\">Notes on Instrument Data Systems<\/a><\/i>.\n<\/p><p>The instrument data system took us a long way toward an automated laboratory, but there was still some major hurdles to cross, including sample preparation, sample storage management, and systems integration. While much progress has been made, there is a lot more work to do.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Getting_work_done_quickly_and_at_a_low_cost\">Getting work done quickly and at a low cost<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Productivity is one of the driving factors in laboratory work, as in any production environment. What is the most efficient and effective way to accomplish high-quality work at the lowest possible cost? That may not sound like \"science,\" but it is about doing science in an industrial world, in both research and service labs. That need drives software development, new systems, better instrumentation, and investments in robotics and informatics technologies.\n<\/p><p>That need was felt most acutely in the clinical chemistry market in the 1980s. In that field, the cost of testing was an annual contractual agreement between the lab and its clients. If costs increased during that contract year, it impacted the lab's income, profits, and ability to function. Through an industry-wide effort, the labs agreed to pursue the concept of total laboratory automation (TLA). That solution involved the labs working with vendors and associations to create a set of communications standards and standardized testing protocols that would enable the clinical chemistry labs to contain costs and greatly increase their level of operational effectiveness. The communications protocols led to the ability to integrate instrumentation and computer systems, streamlining operations and data transfer. The standardized test protocols allowed vendors to develop custom instrumentation tailored to those protocols, and to have personnel educated in their use.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeichtleTotal20_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeichtleTotal20-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeichtleTotal21_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeichtleTotal21-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The traditional way of improving productivity in industrial processes, whether on the production line or in the laboratory is through automation. This is discussed in detail in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Elements_of_Laboratory_Technology_Management\" title=\"LII:Elements of Laboratory Technology Management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2000eea677bcd5ee1fcecdab32743800\">Elements of Laboratory Technology Management<\/a><\/i> and <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\" title=\"LII:Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9\">Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures<\/a><\/i>. However, we'll elaborate more here.\n<\/p><p>Connecting an IDS to a LIMS, SDMS, or ELN is one form of automation, in the sense that information about samples and work to be done can travel automatically between a LIMS to an IDS and be processed, with the results getting returned without human intervention. However, making such automation successful requires several conditions:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Proven, validated procedures and methods;<\/li>\n<li>A proven, validated automated version of those methods (the method doesn\u2019t have to be re-validated, but the implementation of the method does<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup>);<\/li>\n<li>A clear economic justification for the automation, including sufficient work to be done to make the automation of the process worthwhile; and,<\/li>\n<li>Standardization in communications and equipment where possible (this is one of the key success factors in clinical chemistry\u2019s TLA program, and the reason for the success in automation and equipment development in processes using microplates).<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Robotics is often one of the first things people think of when automation is suggested. It is also one of the more difficult to engineer because of the need for expertise in electromechanical equipment, software development, and interfacing between control systems and the robotic components themselves. If automation is a consideration, then the user should look first to commercial products. Vendors are looking for any opportunity to provide tools for the laboratory market. Many options have already been exploited or are under development. Present your needs to vendors and see what their reaction is. As noted earlier, user needs drove the development of autosamplers, which are essentially robots. Aside from purpose-built robotic add-ons to laboratory instrumentation, a common approach is user-designed robotics. We'll cover more on the subject of user-built systems below, but the bottom line is that they are usually more expensive to design, build, and maintain than the original project plan allows for.\n<\/p><p>Robotics has a useful role in sample preparation. That requires careful consideration of the source of the samples and their destination. The most successful applications of robotics are in cases where the samples are in a standardized container, and the results of the preparation are similarly standardized. As noted above, this is one reason why sample processing using microplates has been so successful. The standard format of the plates with a fixed set of geometries for sample well placement means that the position of samples is predictable, and equipment can be designed to take advantage of that. \n<\/p><p>Sample preparation with non-standard containers requires specialized engineering to make adaptations for variations. Early robotics used a variety of grippers to grasp test tubes, flasks, bottles, etc., and in the long run, they were unworkable for long-term applications, often requiring frequent adjustments. \n<\/p><p>Sample storage management is another area where robotics has a potential role but is constrained by the lack of standardization in sample containers, a point that varies widely by industry. In some cases, samples, particularly those that originate with consumers (e.g., water testing), can come in a variety of containers and they have to be handled manually to organize them in a form that a sample inventory system can manage. Life sciences applications can have standardized formats for samples, but in cases such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biobanking\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Biobanking\" data-key=\"9b28907f4da2412ae15cd25822a250e8\">biobanking<\/a>, retrieval issues can arise because the samples may be stored in freezers with multiple levels, making them difficult to access.\n<\/p><p>A basic sample storage management system would be linked to a LIMS, have an inventory of samples with locations, appropriate environmental controls, a barcode system to make labels machine-readable, and if robotics were considered, be organized so that a robot could have access to all materials without disrupting others. It would also have to interface cleanly with the sample preparation and sample disposal functions.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Artificial_intelligence_applications_in_the_lab\">Artificial intelligence applications in the lab<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e\">Artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI) in the lab is both an easy and difficult subject to write about. It's easy because anything written will be out-of-date as it is produced, and it's difficult because we really have no idea where things are going, and what we think of as an advanced AI now will be superseded next month, and probably has been in classified intelligence circles. With that said, there are still some useful things to say about the subject that would benefit you.\n<\/p><p>We need to be very cautious about the application of AI to lab work, if nothing else, because you are signing your name to lab results, not the AI. If something is challenged, or found to be a problem, you are responsible and accountable for the work. This is particularly problematic for AI usage since we can\u2019t trace back to the cause of the problem. In traditional programming, we have the code and can find the source of a programming problem. There is no traceback with AI systems as they currently exist. Was there a coding issue? Was there a training issue? Was the training data set biased?\n<\/p><p>The application of computing technology to lab work has placed layers of computing between the scientist and the actual measurements made in the lab. Each layer holds the potential for problems to develop, and assumptions to be made, which the analyst may not be aware of. Put a sample into the instrument, and the computer produces a report. Between the analog output of the instrument\u2014the actual instruments' measurement\u2014and what the analyst sees we have:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The analog-to-digital converter (ADC), which reads the signal and converts it to a digital value 9there are different types of ADC, some better suited to some applications than others);<\/li>\n<li>Noise filtering, which may precede the ADC or exist in the form of digital signal processing;<\/li>\n<li>Software that converts the raw data to a more usable form, ranging from a simple pass-through (nothing needed), to peak detection, baseline correction, overlapping peak resolution, peak size calculations, etc.;<\/li>\n<li>Quantitative analysis, based on the previous points for samples and reference materials;<\/li>\n<li>Monitoring, checking for anomalies and segregation of problem samples; and<\/li>\n<li>Whatever capabilities an AI provides.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>None of this is a problem as long as the analyst is aware of what is going on and has taken steps to ensure that none of those actions adversely affect the results of the analysis. This is the direction that laboratory computing is taking, and it provides a useful basis for laboratory automation systems that will reduce the cost of doing work, and free busy personnel to do other work. AI is another potentially useful layer to streamlining the work you are signing your name to. Similar concerns would also apply to automated sample preparation.\n<\/p><p>There is a long list of applications that could benefit from AI technologies, and they are being explored and exploited. The question of what those applications are was posed to ChatGPT-4 (the prompt was \"What are some good examples of successful applications of artificial intelligence applied to laboratory work?\"), and it responded as such:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Certainly! Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) have made significant inroads into laboratory work across various scientific disciplines. Here are some successful applications:\n<\/p><p>1. Automated Image Analysis:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Pathology: Automated detection and classification of tumors in histopathological slides.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Microbiology: Automated identification and counting of bacterial colonies or reading antibiotic susceptibility tests.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Cell Biology: Analyzing cell morphology, cell counting, or detecting cellular events in microscopy images.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>2. Predictive Analytics:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Drug Discovery: Predicting drug interactions and potential drug candidates by analyzing chemical structures.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Genomics: Predicting potential disease genes or understanding gene function.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>3. Laboratory Automation and Robotics:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Sample Handling: Robots equipped with AI can adaptively handle and process samples.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Optimization: AI can optimize experimental conditions such as reaction times, temperatures, or concentrations.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>4. Data Mining:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Literature Analysis: AI can scan vast amounts of published research to identify trends, potential collaborations, or overlooked conclusions.<\/dd>\n<dd>- High-throughput Screening: Analyzing and identifying compounds with desired properties from large libraries.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>5. Spectroscopy and Chromatography:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Analyzing complex spectra or chromatograms, distinguishing minute differences or predicting material properties based on spectral data. (<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cen.acs.org\/physical-chemistry\/computational-chemistry\/Computers-learning-analyze-chemists-spectra\/101\/i7\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cen.acs.org\/physical-chemistry\/computational-chemistry\/Computers-learning-analyze-chemists-spectra\/101\/i7<\/a>)<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>6. Predictive Maintenance:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Predicting when equipment needs maintenance or identifying early signs of malfunction, ensuring that lab operations run smoothly.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>7. Natural Language Processing (NLP):\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Automated transcription of lab notes or voice commands.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Extracting structured data from unstructured lab reports.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>8. Proteomics &amp; Metabolomics:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Analyzing complex data sets to identify biomarkers or metabolic pathways.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Mass spectrometry data interpretation and peptide identification.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>9. Clinical Decision Support:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Assisting doctors in diagnosing diseases based on lab results, medical history, and other data sources.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>10. Environment Monitoring:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Detecting pollutants or pathogens in environmental samples using pattern recognition.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>11. Simulation &amp; Modeling:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Computational chemistry: Predicting molecular behaviors or drug-target interactions.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Systems biology: Modeling complex biological systems or pathways.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>12. Quality Control &amp; Assurance:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Detecting anomalies or outliers in routine lab measurements.<\/dd>\n<dd>- Predicting and ensuring the consistency of lab results over time.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>13. Biobanking:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Optimizing storage and retrieval of biological samples using pattern recognition and predictive analytics.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>14. Genetic Analysis and Personalized Medicine:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Predicting disease susceptibility or drug response based on genetic data.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>15. 3D Bioprinting:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Using AI to optimize the design and production of 3D-printed tissues or organs.<\/dd><\/dl><\/blockquote>\n<p>These are just a few of the many applications of AI in laboratory settings. As technology advances, it's likely that AI will become an even more integral part of laboratory work, driving efficiencies and enabling new discoveries.\n<\/p><p>While that is an interesting list, more specifics would be useful. ChatGPT-4 received the follow-up question, \"Can you provide reference for those examples?\"\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Of course! While I can't directly link you to the references, I can mention landmark papers, well-known projects, or general topics that you can further search to access the original sources. Here's a non-exhaustive list based on the applications mentioned:\n<\/p><p>1. Automated Image Analysis:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Esteva, A., et al. (2017). Dermatologist-level classification of skin cancer with deep neural networks. <i>Nature<\/i>. (<i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature21056\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature21056<\/a><\/i>)<\/dd>\n<dd>- Coudray, N., et al. (2018). Classification and mutation prediction from non\u2013small cell lung cancer histopathology images using deep learning. <i>Nature Medicine<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>2. Predictive Analytics:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Wallach, I., et al. (2015). AtomNet: A deep convolutional neural network for bioactivity prediction in structure-based drug discovery. <i>arXiv<\/i> preprint.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>3. Laboratory Automation and Robotics:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Gil, Y., et al. (2018). Toward the Geoscience Paper of the Future: Best Practices for Documenting and Sharing Research from Data to Software to Provenance. <i>Earth and Space Science<\/i>. (<i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/2015EA000136\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/2015EA000136<\/a><\/i>)<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>4. Data Mining:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Jensen, L. J., et al. (2006). STRING 8\u2014a global view on proteins and their functional interactions in 630 organisms. <i>Nucleic Acids Research<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>5. Spectroscopy and Chromatography:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Pasolli, E., et al. (2016). Machine learning meta-analysis of large metagenomic datasets: tools and biological insights. <i>PLoS Computational Biology<\/i>. (<i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.semanticscholar.org\/paper\/Machine-Learning-Meta-analysis-of-Large-Metagenomic-Pasolli-Truong\/b067701cf2a2d54ecde7b4e9c25b843d787b66c2\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.semanticscholar.org\/paper\/Machine-Learning-Meta-analysis-of-Large-Metagenomic-Pasolli-Truong\/b067701cf2a2d54ecde7b4e9c25b843d787b66c2<\/a><\/i>)<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>6. Natural Language Processing (NLP):\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Jensen, L. J., et al. (2006). Literature mining for the biologist: from information retrieval to biological discovery. <i>Nature Reviews Genetics<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>7. Proteomics &amp; Metabolomics:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Smith, C. A., et al. (2006). XCMS: Processing mass spectrometry data for metabolite profiling using nonlinear peak alignment, matching, and identification. <i>Analytical Chemistry<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>8. Clinical Decision Support:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Rajkomar, A., et al. (2018). Scalable and accurate deep learning with electronic health records. <i>NPJ Digital Medicine<\/i>. (<i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31304302\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31304302\/<\/a><\/i>)<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>9. Environment Monitoring:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Aksenov, A. A., et al. (2014). Global survey of the oxygen isotope composition of bioavailable soil water. <i>Earth and Planetary Science Letters<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>10. Simulation &amp; Modeling:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Duvenaud, D., et al. (2015). Convolutional networks on graphs for learning molecular fingerprints. <i>Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>11. Quality Control &amp; Assurance:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- Hinton, G. E., et al. (2012). Improving neural networks by preventing co-adaptation of feature detectors. <i>arXiv<\/i> preprint. (<i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1207.0580\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1207.0580<\/a><\/i>)<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>12. Genetic Analysis and Personalized Medicine:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>- LeCun, Y., et al. (2015). Deep learning. <i>Nature<\/i>.<\/dd><\/dl><p>\nThese references are based on well-accepted papers and findings up to my last training cut-off in January 2022. You might want to search for these papers or topics in databases like Google Scholar, PubMed, or academic journals for full access and more recent works on the subject.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The URLs in italics are ones that have been verified. \n<\/p><p>This latter list is consistent with material that has been found in advertising and the literature. For example, Mettler Toledo has been advertising an AI system for its thermal analysis products.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTAIWizard_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTAIWizard-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Articles are also available describing the automated analysis of spectra.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup> There is even an AI-prompted interview with ChatGPT about how it sees applications to spectroscopy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WorkmanAnInt23_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WorkmanAnInt23-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The approach Mettler takes with thermal analysis is interesting. It presents the results as a suggested analysis of the data and makes it easy for the analysis to adjust settings if it disagrees with that result.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTAIWizard_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTAIWizard-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup> It means that the analyst has to examine each result, and after review accepts the responsibility for the work by either making adjustments or accepting things as they are. This requires an experienced analyst. The problems begin if we skip that step in pursuit of fully automated facilities, are in a rush to release results, or put the tools in the hands of inexperienced personnel.\n<\/p><p>AI offers a great deal of potential benefits to laboratory work, something marketers are going to exploit to attract more customers. Product offerings need to be viewed skeptically as supposed benefits may be less than promised, or not as fully tested as needed. Unlike dealing with spelling checkers that consistently make improper word substitutions, AI-generated errors in data analysis are dangerous because they may go undetected.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Systems_development:_Tinkering_vs._engineering\">Systems development: Tinkering vs. engineering<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>One common practice in laboratory work, particularly in research, is modifying equipment or creating new configurations of equipment and instruments to get work done. That same thought pattern often extends to software development; components such as spreadsheets, compilers, database systems, and so on are common parts of laboratory computer systems. Many people include programming as part of their list of skills. That can lead to the development of special purpose software to solve issues in data handling and analysis.\n<\/p><p>That activity in an industrial lab is potentially problematic. Organizations have controls over what software development is permitted so that organizational security isn\u2019t compromised and that the development activities do not create problems with organizational or regulatory requirements and guidelines.\n<\/p><p>If a need for software develops, there are recognized processes for defining, implementing, and validating those projects. One of the best-known in laboratory science comes from ISPE's GAMP guidelines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISPEWhatIsGAMP_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISPEWhatIsGAMP-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> There is also a discussion of the methodology in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\" title=\"LII:Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9\">Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures<\/a><\/i>.\n<\/p><p>The development process begins with a \u201cneeds analysis\u201d that describes why the project is being undertaken and what it is supposed to accomplish, along with the benefits of doing it. That is followed by a user-requirements document that has to be agreed upon before the project begins. Once that is done, a prototype system(s) can be developed that will give you a chance to explore different options for development, project requirements, etc., that will form the basis of a design specification for the development of the actual project (whereupon the prototype is scrapped). At this point, the rest of the GAMP process is followed through the completion of the project. The end result is a proven, working, documented system that can be relied upon (based on evidence) to work and be supported. If changes are needed, the backup documentation is there to support that work.\n<\/p><p>This is an engineering approach to systems development. Those systems may result in software, a sample preparation process, or the implementation of an automated test method. It is needed to ensure that things work, and if the developer is no longer available, the project can still be used, supported, modified, etc., as needed. The organizations investment is protected, the data and information produced can be supported and treated as reliable, and all guidelines and regulations are being met.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_closing...\">In closing...<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The purpose of this document is to give the student a high-level overview of the purpose and use of the major informatics systems that are commonly used in industrial research and service laboratories. This is an active area of development, with new products and platforms being released annually, usually around major conferences. The links included are starting points to increasing the depth of the material.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"About_the_author\">About the author<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Initially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-LiscouskiHarnessing23-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LiscouskiHarnessing23_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Liscouski, J.&#32;(June 2023).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Article-Harnessing-Informatics-for-Effective-Lab-Inspections-and-Audits.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Harnessing Informatics for Effective Lab Inspections and Audits\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;LabLynx, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Article-Harnessing-Informatics-for-Effective-Lab-Inspections-and-Audits.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Article-Harnessing-Informatics-for-Effective-Lab-Inspections-and-Audits.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Harnessing+Informatics+for+Effective+Lab+Inspections+and+Audits&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Liscouski%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Liscouski%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=June+2023&amp;rft.pub=LabLynx%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lablynx.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F06%2FArticle-Harnessing-Informatics-for-Effective-Lab-Inspections-and-Audits.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Wilkinson,&#32;Mark D.&#59;&#32;Dumontier,&#32;Michel&#59;&#32;Aalbersberg,&#32;IJsbrand Jan&#59;&#32;Appleton,&#32;Gabrielle&#59;&#32;Axton,&#32;Myles&#59;&#32;Baak,&#32;Arie&#59;&#32;Blomberg,&#32;Niklas&#59;&#32;Boiten,&#32;Jan-Willem&#32;<i>et al.<\/i>&#32;(15 March 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/sdata201618\" target=\"_blank\">\"The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship\"<\/a>&#32;(in en).&#32;<i>Scientific Data<\/i>&#32;<b>3<\/b>&#32;(1): 160018.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1038%2Fsdata.2016.18\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/sdata.2016.18<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" data-key=\"a5dec3e4d005e654c29ad167ab53f53a\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2052-4463\" target=\"_blank\">2052-4463<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4792175\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC4792175<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/26978244\" target=\"_blank\">26978244<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/sdata201618\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/sdata201618<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+FAIR+Guiding+Principles+for+scientific+data+management+and+stewardship&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+Data&amp;rft.aulast=Wilkinson&amp;rft.aufirst=Mark+D.&amp;rft.au=Wilkinson%2C%26%2332%3BMark+D.&amp;rft.au=Dumontier%2C%26%2332%3BMichel&amp;rft.au=Aalbersberg%2C%26%2332%3BIJsbrand+Jan&amp;rft.au=Appleton%2C%26%2332%3BGabrielle&amp;rft.au=Axton%2C%26%2332%3BMyles&amp;rft.au=Baak%2C%26%2332%3BArie&amp;rft.au=Blomberg%2C%26%2332%3BNiklas&amp;rft.au=Boiten%2C%26%2332%3BJan-Willem&amp;rft.au=da+Silva+Santos%2C%26%2332%3BLuiz+Bonino&amp;rft.date=15+March+2016&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=160018&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1038%2Fsdata.2016.18&amp;rft.issn=2052-4463&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC4792175&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/26978244&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fsdata201618&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_3-2\">3.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Schmitt, S.&#32;(2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pda.org\/bookstore\/product-detail\/3149-assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences<\/i><\/a>.&#32;DHI Publishing, LLC.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-933722-97-5<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pda.org\/bookstore\/product-detail\/3149-assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.pda.org\/bookstore\/product-detail\/3149-assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Assuring+Data+Integrity+for+Life+Sciences&amp;rft.aulast=Schmitt%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Schmitt%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.pub=DHI+Publishing%2C+LLC&amp;rft.isbn=1-933722-97-5&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pda.org%2Fbookstore%2Fproduct-detail%2F3149-assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-QSCDataInt19-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-QSCDataInt19_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/qscompliance.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/01\/ALCOA-Principles.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Integrity for the FDA Regulated Industry\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Quality Systems Compliance, LLC.&#32;12 January 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/qscompliance.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/01\/ALCOA-Principles.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/qscompliance.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/01\/ALCOA-Principles.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Integrity+for+the+FDA+Regulated+Industry&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=12+January+2019&amp;rft.pub=Quality+Systems+Compliance%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fqscompliance.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F01%2FALCOA-Principles.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CFR21_11-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CFR21_11_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/chapter-I\/subchapter-A\/part-11\" target=\"_blank\">\"21 CFR Part 11 Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Code of Federal Regulations<\/i>.&#32;National Archives.&#32;11 November 2023<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/chapter-I\/subchapter-A\/part-11\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/chapter-I\/subchapter-A\/part-11<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=21+CFR+Part+11+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=Code+of+Federal+Regulations&amp;rft.date=11+November+2023&amp;rft.pub=National+Archives&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcurrent%2Ftitle-21%2Fchapter-I%2Fsubchapter-A%2Fpart-11&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CFR40_792-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CFR40_792_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/chapter-I\/subchapter-R\/part-792\" target=\"_blank\">\"40 CFR Part 792 Good Laboratory Practice Standards\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Code of Federal Regulations<\/i>.&#32;National Archives.&#32;15 November 2023<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/chapter-I\/subchapter-R\/part-792\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/chapter-I\/subchapter-R\/part-792<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=40+CFR+Part+792+Good+Laboratory+Practice+Standards&amp;rft.atitle=Code+of+Federal+Regulations&amp;rft.date=15+November+2023&amp;rft.pub=National+Archives&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcurrent%2Ftitle-40%2Fchapter-I%2Fsubchapter-R%2Fpart-792&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CFR42_493-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CFR42_493_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-42\/chapter-IV\/subchapter-G\/part-493\" target=\"_blank\">\"42 CFR Part 493 Laboratory Requirements\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Code of Federal Regulations<\/i>.&#32;National Archives.&#32;13 November 2023<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-42\/chapter-IV\/subchapter-G\/part-493\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-42\/chapter-IV\/subchapter-G\/part-493<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=42+CFR+Part+493+Laboratory+Requirements&amp;rft.atitle=Code+of+Federal+Regulations&amp;rft.date=13+November+2023&amp;rft.pub=National+Archives&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcurrent%2Ftitle-42%2Fchapter-IV%2Fsubchapter-G%2Fpart-493&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISPEWhatIsGAMP-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISPEWhatIsGAMP_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISPEWhatIsGAMP_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ispe.org\/initiatives\/regulatory\/what-gamp\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is GAMP?\"<\/a>.&#32;International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering.&#32;2023<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/ispe.org\/initiatives\/regulatory\/what-gamp\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/ispe.org\/initiatives\/regulatory\/what-gamp<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+GAMP%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2023&amp;rft.pub=International+Society+for+Pharmaceutical+Engineering&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fispe.org%2Finitiatives%2Fregulatory%2Fwhat-gamp&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PankoninReg21-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PankoninReg21_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Pankonin, M.&#32;(27 May 2021).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aem.org\/news\/regulations-vs-standards-clearing-up-the-confusion\" target=\"_blank\">\"Regulations vs. Standards: Clearing up the Confusion\"<\/a>.&#32;Association of Equipment Manufacturers<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aem.org\/news\/regulations-vs-standards-clearing-up-the-confusion\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.aem.org\/news\/regulations-vs-standards-clearing-up-the-confusion<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Regulations+vs.+Standards%3A+Clearing+up+the+Confusion&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Pankonin%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Pankonin%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=27+May+2021&amp;rft.pub=Association+of+Equipment+Manufacturers&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aem.org%2Fnews%2Fregulations-vs-standards-clearing-up-the-confusion&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LiscouskiImproving22-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LiscouskiImproving22_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Liscouski, J.&#32;(April 2022).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Improving-Lab-Systems-From-Paper-to-Spreadsheets-to-LIMS.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Improving Lab Systems: From Paper to Spreadsheets to LIMS\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;LabLynx, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Improving-Lab-Systems-From-Paper-to-Spreadsheets-to-LIMS.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Improving-Lab-Systems-From-Paper-to-Spreadsheets-to-LIMS.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Improving+Lab+Systems%3A+From+Paper+to+Spreadsheets+to+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Liscouski%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Liscouski%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=April+2022&amp;rft.pub=LabLynx%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lablynx.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F03%2FImproving-Lab-Systems-From-Paper-to-Spreadsheets-to-LIMS.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Agilent7693A-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Agilent7693A_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.agilent.com\/en\/video\/7693a-video\" target=\"_blank\">\"7693A Automated Liquid Sampler - Video\"<\/a>.&#32;Agilent 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rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.baytekinternational.com\/products\/turbotube\" target=\"_blank\">\"TurboTube for Baytek LIMS software\"<\/a>.&#32;Baytek International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.baytekinternational.com\/products\/turbotube\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.baytekinternational.com\/products\/turbotube<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=TurboTube+for+Baytek+LIMS+software&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Baytek+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baytekinternational.com%2Fproducts%2Fturbotube&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LeichtleTotal20-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LeichtleTotal20_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Leichtle, A.B.&#32;(1 December 2020).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2020\/december\/total-laboratory-automation-samples-on-track\" target=\"_blank\">\"Total Laboratory Automation\u2014 Samples on Track\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Clinical Laboratory News<\/i>.&#32;Association for Diagnostics &amp; Laboratory Medicine<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2020\/december\/total-laboratory-automation-samples-on-track\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2020\/december\/total-laboratory-automation-samples-on-track<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Total+Laboratory+Automation%E2%80%94+Samples+on+Track&amp;rft.atitle=Clinical+Laboratory+News&amp;rft.aulast=Leichtle%2C+A.B.&amp;rft.au=Leichtle%2C+A.B.&amp;rft.date=1+December+2020&amp;rft.pub=Association+for+Diagnostics+%26+Laboratory+Medicine&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aacc.org%2Fcln%2Farticles%2F2020%2Fdecember%2Ftotal-laboratory-automation-samples-on-track&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LeichtleTotal21-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LeichtleTotal21_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Leichtle, A.B.&#32;(1 January 2021).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2021\/january\/total-lab-automation-what-matters-most\" target=\"_blank\">\"Total Lab Automation: What Matters Most\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Clinical Laboratory News<\/i>.&#32;Association for Diagnostics &amp; Laboratory Medicine<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2021\/january\/total-lab-automation-what-matters-most\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.aacc.org\/cln\/articles\/2021\/january\/total-lab-automation-what-matters-most<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Total+Lab+Automation%3A+What+Matters+Most&amp;rft.atitle=Clinical+Laboratory+News&amp;rft.aulast=Leichtle%2C+A.B.&amp;rft.au=Leichtle%2C+A.B.&amp;rft.date=1+January+2021&amp;rft.pub=Association+for+Diagnostics+%26+Laboratory+Medicine&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aacc.org%2Fcln%2Farticles%2F2021%2Fjanuary%2Ftotal-lab-automation-what-matters-most&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Webster,&#32;G&#59;&#32;Kott,&#32;L&#59;&#32;Maloney,&#32;T&#32;(1 June 2005).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1016\/j.jala.2005.03.003\" target=\"_blank\">\"Considerations When Implementing Automated Methods into GxP Laboratories\"<\/a>&#32;(in en).&#32;<i>Journal of the Association for Laboratory Automation<\/i>&#32;<b>10<\/b>&#32;(3): 182\u2013191.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.jala.2005.03.003\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.jala.2005.03.003<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1016\/j.jala.2005.03.003\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1016\/j.jala.2005.03.003<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Considerations+When+Implementing+Automated+Methods+into+GxP+Laboratories&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Association+for+Laboratory+Automation&amp;rft.aulast=Webster&amp;rft.aufirst=G&amp;rft.au=Webster%2C%26%2332%3BG&amp;rft.au=Kott%2C%26%2332%3BL&amp;rft.au=Maloney%2C%26%2332%3BT&amp;rft.date=1+June+2005&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=182%E2%80%93191&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.jala.2005.03.003&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jala.2005.03.003&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MTAIWizard-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTAIWizard_16-0\">16.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTAIWizard_16-1\">16.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=AIWizard+%E2%80%93+Artificial+Intelligence+for+Thermal+Analysis&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Mettler+Toledo&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mt.com%2Fus%2Fen%2Fhome%2Flibrary%2Fknow-how%2Flab-analytical-instruments%2Fai-wizard.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Jung,&#32;Guwon&#59;&#32;Jung,&#32;Son Gyo&#59;&#32;Cole,&#32;Jacqueline M.&#32;(2023).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/xlink.rsc.org\/?DOI=D2SC05892H\" target=\"_blank\">\"Automatic materials characterization from infrared spectra using convolutional neural 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href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC10055241\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC10055241<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/37006683\" target=\"_blank\">37006683<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/xlink.rsc.org\/?DOI=D2SC05892H\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/xlink.rsc.org\/?DOI=D2SC05892H<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Automatic+materials+characterization+from+infrared+spectra+using+convolutional+neural+networks&amp;rft.jtitle=Chemical+Science&amp;rft.aulast=Jung&amp;rft.aufirst=Guwon&amp;rft.au=Jung%2C%26%2332%3BGuwon&amp;rft.au=Jung%2C%26%2332%3BSon+Gyo&amp;rft.au=Cole%2C%26%2332%3BJacqueline+M.&amp;rft.date=2023&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=13&amp;rft.pages=3600%E2%80%933609&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1039%2FD2SC05892H&amp;rft.issn=2041-6520&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC10055241&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/37006683&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fxlink.rsc.org%2F%3FDOI%3DD2SC05892H&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WorkmanAnInt23-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WorkmanAnInt23_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Workman Jr., J.&#32;(17 May 2023).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/view\/an-interview-with-ai-about-its-potential-role-in-vibrational-and-atomic-spectroscopy\" target=\"_blank\">\"An Interview with AI About Its Potential Role in Vibrational and Atomic Spectroscopy\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Spectroscopy Online<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/view\/an-interview-with-ai-about-its-potential-role-in-vibrational-and-atomic-spectroscopy\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/view\/an-interview-with-ai-about-its-potential-role-in-vibrational-and-atomic-spectroscopy<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2023<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=An+Interview+with+AI+About+Its+Potential+Role+in+Vibrational+and+Atomic+Spectroscopy&amp;rft.atitle=Spectroscopy+Online&amp;rft.aulast=Workman+Jr.%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Workman+Jr.%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=17+May+2023&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spectroscopyonline.com%2Fview%2Fan-interview-with-ai-about-its-potential-role-in-vibrational-and-atomic-spectroscopy&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240109215845\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.448 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.558 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 13557\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 96082\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 34646\/2097152 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Science_Student%27s_Guide_to_Laboratory_Informatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/3\/3b\/Fig1_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/8\/80\/Fig2_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/c8\/Fig3_Liscouski_SciStudGuideLabInfo23.png"],"5a96b4c0c6ab1c4015afdb606bda1125_timestamp":1704907032,"87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_type":"article","87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_title":"Directions in Laboratory Systems: One Person's Perspective","87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective","87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_plaintext":"\n\nLII:Directions in Laboratory Systems: One Person's PerspectiveFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchTitle: Directions in Laboratory Systems: One Person's Perspective\nAuthor for citation: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International\nPublication date: November 2021\n\nContents \n\n1 Introduction \n\n1.1 Intended audience \n1.2 About the content \n\n\n2 Looking forward and back: Where do we begin? \n\n2.1 The \"laboratory of the future\" and laboratory systems engineering \n2.2 But how did we get here? \n2.3 Moving forward \n\n\n3 Laboratory computing \n4 How automation affects people's work in the lab \n\n4.1 It can make routine work easier and more productive, reducing costs and improving ROI \n4.2 Automation can cause some jobs to end, or at least change them significantly \n\n\n5 Development of industry-wide guidelines \n\n5.1 C-1. Education for lab management and lab personnel \n5.2 C-3. Long-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls \n5.3 C-4. Archived instrument data in standardized formats and standardized vendor software \n5.4 C-6. Communications \n\n5.4.1 Additional note on Bluetooth-enabled instruments \n\n\n\n\n6 Laboratory work and scientific production \n\n6.1 Different kinds of laboratory work \n6.2 Scientific production \n6.3 Demonstrating process stability: The standard sample program \n\n\n7 Where is the future of lab automation going to take us? \n8 Applying automation to lab work \n\n8.1 More on the quality control lab and its process management \n\n8.1.1 Early QC testing \n8.1.2 Normal QC testing \n8.1.3 A thought experiment \n\n\n\n\n9 The creation of a \"center for laboratory systems engineering\" \n10 Appendix 1: A very brief historical note \n\n10.1 1.1 Collecting data from instruments \n10.2 1.2 The beginning of laboratory informatics systems \n10.3 1.3 Electro-mechanical robotics \n\n10.3.1 1.3.1 Two approaches to sample processing with robotics \n\n\n10.4 1.4 Sample storage organization \n\n10.4.1 1.4.1 The nature of incoming samples \n\n\n\n\n11 Abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms \n12 Footnotes \n13 About the author \n14 References \n\n\n\nIntroduction \nThe purpose of this work is to provide one person's perspective on planning for the use of computer systems in the laboratory, and with it a means of developing a direction for the future. Rather than concentrating on \u201cscience first, support systems second,\u201d it reverses that order, recommending the construction of a solid support structure before populating the lab with systems and processes that produce knowledge, information, and data (K\/I\/D).\n\nIntended audience \nThis material is intended for those working in laboratories of all types. The biggest benefit will come to those working in startup labs since they have a clean slate to work with, as well as those freshly entering into scientific work as it will help them understand the roles of various systems. Those working in existing labs will also benefit by seeing a different perspective than they may be used to, giving them an alternative path for evaluating their current structure and how they might adjust it to improve operations. \nHowever, all labs in a given industry can benefit from this guide since one of its key points is the development of industry-wide guidelines to solving technology management and planning issues, improving personnel development, and more effectively addressing common projects in automation, instrument communications, and vendor relationships (resulting in lower costs and higher success rates). This would also provide a basis for evaluating new technologies (reducing risks to early adopters) and fostering product development with the necessary product requirements in a particular industry.\n\nAbout the content \nThis material follows in the footsteps of more than 15 years of writing and presentation on the topic. That writing and presentation\u2014compiled here\u2014includes:\n\nAre You a Laboratory Automation Engineer? (2006)\nElements of Laboratory Technology Management (2014)\nA Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work (2018)\nLaboratory Technology Management &amp; Planning (2019)\nNotes on Instrument Data Systems (2020)\nLaboratory Technology Planning and Management: The Practice of Laboratory Systems Engineering (2020)\nConsiderations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures (2021)\nThe Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies (2021)\nWhile that material covers some of the \u201cwhere do we go from here\u201d discussions, I want to bring a lot of it together in one spot so that we can see what the entire picture looks like, while still leaving some of the details to the titles above. Admittedly, there have been some changes in thinking over time from what was presented in those pieces. For example, the concept of \"laboratory automation engineering\" has morphed into \"laboratory systems engineering,\" given that in the past 15 years the scope of laboratory automation and computing has broadened significantly. Additionally, references to \"scientific manufacturing\" are now replaced with \"scientific production,\" since laboratories tend to produce ideas, knowledge, results, information, and data, not tangible widgets. And as the state of laboratories continues to dynamically evolve, there will likely come more changes.\nOf special note is 2019's Laboratory Technology Management &amp; Planning webinars. They provide additional useful background towards what is covered in this guide.\n\n Looking forward and back: Where do we begin? \n The \"laboratory of the future\" and laboratory systems engineering \nThe \u201claboratory of the future\u201d (LOF) makes for an interesting playground of concepts. People's view of the LOF is often colored by their commercial and research interests. Does the future mean tomorrow, next month, six years, or twenty years from now? In reality, it means all of those time spans coupled with the length of a person's tenure in the lab, and the legacy they want to leave behind.\nHowever, with those varied time spans we\u2019ll need flexibility and adaptability for managing data and information while also preserving access and utility for the products of lab work, and that requires organization and planning. Laboratory equipment will change and storage media and data formats will evolve. The instrumentation used to collect data and information will change, and so will the computers and software applications that manage that data and information. Every resource that has been expended in executing lab work has been to develop knowledge, information, and data (K\/I\/D). How are you going to meet that management challenge and retain the expected return on investment (ROI)? Answering it will be one of the hallmarks of the LOF. It will require a deliberate plan that touches on every aspect of lab work: people, equipment and systems choices, and relationships with vendors and information technology support groups. Some points reside within the lab while others require coordination with corporate groups, particularly when we address long-term storage, ease of access, and security (both physical and electronic).\nDuring discussions of the LOF, some people focus on the technology behind the instruments and techniques used in lab work, and they will continue to impress us with their sophistication. However, the bottom line of those conversations is their ability to produce results: K\/I\/D.\nModern laboratory work is a merger of science and information technology. Some of the information technology is built into instruments and equipment, the remainder supports those devices or helps manage operations. That technology needs to be understood, planned, and engineered into smoothly functioning systems if labs are to function at a high level of performance.\nGiven all that, how do we prepare for the LOF, whatever that future turns out to be? One step is the development of \u201claboratory systems engineering\u201d as a means of bringing structure and discipline to the use of informatics, robotics, and automation to lab systems.\nBut who is the laboratory systems engineer (LSE)? The LSE is someone able to understand and be conversant in both the laboratory science and IT worlds, relating them to each other to the benefit of lab operation effectiveness while guiding IT in performing their roles. A fully dedicated LSE will understand a number of important principles:\n\nKnowledge, information, and data should always be protected, available, and usable.\nData integrity is paramount.\nSystems and their underlying components should be supportable, meaning they are proven to meet users' needs (validated), capable of being modified without causing conflicts with results produced by previous versions, documented, upgradable (without major disruption to lab operations), and able to survive upgrades in connected systems.\nSystems should be integrated into lab operations and not exist as isolated entities, unless there are overriding concerns.\nSystems should be portable, meaning they are able to be relocated and installed where appropriate, and not restricted to a specific combination of hardware and\/or software that can\u2019t be duplicated.\nThere should be a smooth, reproducible (bi-directional, if appropriate), error-free (including error detection and correction) flow of results, from data generation to the point of use or need.\n But how did we get here? \nThe primary purpose of laboratory work is developing and carrying out scientific methods and experiments, which are used to answer questions. We don\u2019t want to lose sight of that, or the skill needed to do that work. Initially the work was done manually, which inevitably limited the amount of data and information that could be produced, and in turn the rate at which new knowledge could be developed and distributed.\nHowever, the introduction of electronic instruments changed that, and the problem shifted from data and information production to data and information utilization (including the development of new knowledge), distribution, and management. That\u2019s where we are today.\nScience plays a role in the production of data and information, as well as the development of knowledge. In between we have the tools used in data and information collection, storage, analysis, etc. That\u2019s what we\u2019ll be talking about in this document. The equipment and concepts we\u2019re concerned with here are the tools used to assist in conducting that work and working with the results. They are enablers and amplifiers of lab processes. As in almost any application, the right tools used well are an asset.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 1. Databases for knowledge, information, and data (K\/I\/D) are represented as ovals, and the processes acting on them as arrows.&#91;1&#93;\n\n\n\nOne problem with the distinction between science and informatics tools is that lab personnel understand the science, but they largely don't understand the intricacies of information and computing technologies that comprise the tools they use to facilitate their work. Laboratory personnel are educated in a variety of scientific disciplines, each having its own body of knowledge and practices, each requiring specialization. Shouldn't the same apply to the expertise needed to address the \u201ctools\u201d? On one hand we have chromatographers, spectroscopists, physical chemists, toxicologists, etc., and on the other roboticists, database experts, network specialists, and so on. In today's reality these are not IT specialists but rather LSEs who understand how to apply the IT tools to lab work with all the nuances and details needed to be successful.\n\nMoving forward \nIf we are going to advance laboratory science and its practice, we need the right complement of experienced people. Moving forward to address laboratory- and organization-wide productivity needs a different perspective; rather than ask how we improve things at the bench, ask how we improve the processes and organization.\nThis guide is about long-term planning for lab automation and K\/I\/D management. The material in this guide is structured in sections, and each section starts with a summary, so you can read the summary and decide if you want more detail. However, before you toss it on the \u201clater\u201d pile, read the next few bits and then decide what to do.\nLong-term planning is essential to organizational success. The longer you put it off, the more expensive it will be, the longer it will take to do it, and the more entrenched behaviors you'll have to overcome. Additionally, you won\u2019t be in a position to take advantage of the developing results.\nIt\u2019s time to get past the politics and the inertia and move forward. Someone has to take the lead on this, full-time or part-time, depending on the size of your organization (i.e., if there's more than one lab, know that it affects all of them). Leadership should be from the lab side, not the IT side, as IT people may not have the backgrounds needed and may view everything through their organizations priorities. (However, their support will be necessary for a successful outcome.)\nThe work conducted on the lab bench produces data and information. That is the start of realizing the benefits from research and testing work. The rest depends upon your ability to work with that data and information, which in turn depends on how well your data systems are organized and managed. This culminates in maximizing benefit at the least cost, i.e., ROI. It\u2019s important to you, and it\u2019s important to your organization.\nPlanning has to be done at least four levels:\n\nIndustry-wide (e.g., biotech, mining, electronics, cosmetics, food and beverage, plastics, etc.)\nWithin your organization\nWithin your lab\nWithin your lab processes\nOne important aspect of this planning process\u2014particularly at the top, industry-wide level\u2014is the specification of a framework to coordinate product, process (methods), or standards research and development at the lower levels. This industry-wide framework is ideally not a \u201cthis is what you must do\u201d but rather a common structure that can be adapted to make the work easier and, as a basis for approaching vendors for products and product modifications that will benefit those in your industry, give them confidence that the requests have a broader market appeal. If an industry-wide approach isn\u2019t feasible, then larger companies may group together to provide the needed leadership. Note, however, that this should not be perceived as an industry\/company vs. vendor effort; rather, this is an industry\/company working with vendors. The idea of a large group effort is to demonstrate a consensus viewpoint and that vendors' development efforts won\u2019t be in vain.\nThe development of this framework, among other things, should cover:\n\nInformatics\nCommunications (networking, instrument control and data, informatics control and data, etc.)\nPhysical security (including power)\nData integrity and security\nCybersecurity\nThe FAIR principles (the findability, accessibility, interoperability, and reusability of data&#91;2&#93;)\nThe application of cloud and virtualization technologies\nLong-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls (i.e., the impact of software as a service and other software subscription models)\nBi-directional data interchange between archived instrument data in standardized formats and vendor software, requiring tamper-proof formats\nInstrument design for automation\nSample storage management\nGuidance for automation\nEducation for lab management and lab personnel\nThe conversion of manual methods to semi- or fully automated systems\nThese topics affect both a lab's science personnel and its LSEs. While some topics will be of more interest to the engineers than the scientists, both groups have a stake in the results, as do any IT groups.\nAs digital systems become more entrenched in scientific work, we may need to restructure our thinking from \u201clab bench\u201d and \u201cinformatics\u201d to \u201cdata and information sources\u201d and \u201cdigital tools for working, organizing, and managing those elements.\" Data and information sources can extend to third-party labs and other published material. We have to move from digital systems causing incremental improvements (today\u2019s approach), to a true revolutionary restructuring of how science is conducted.\n\nLaboratory computing \nKey point: Laboratory systems are planned, designed, and engineered. They are not simply a collection of components. Laboratory computing is a transformational technology, one which has yet to fully emerge in large part because those who work in laboratories with computing aren\u2019t fully educated about it to take advantage of it.\nLaboratory computing has always been viewed as an \"add-on\" to traditional laboratory work. These add-ons have the potential to improve our work, make it faster, and make it more productive (see Appendix 1 for more details).\nThe common point-of-view in the discussion of lab computing has been focused on the laboratory scientist or manager, with IT providing a supporting role. That isn\u2019t the only viewpoint available to us, however. Another viewpoint is from that of the laboratory systems engineer (LSE), who focuses on data and information flow. This latter viewpoint should compel us to reconsider the role of computing in the laboratory and the higher level needs of laboratory operations.\nWhy is this important? Data and information generation may represent the end of the lab bench process, but it\u2019s just the beginning of its use in broader scientific work. The ability to take advantage of those elements in the scope of manufacturing and corporate research and development (R&amp;D) is where the real value is realized. That requires planning for storage, access, and utilization over the long term.\nThe problem with the traditional point-of-view (i.e., instrumentation first, with computing in a supporting role) is that the data and information landscape is built supporting the portion of lab work that is the most likely to change (Figure 2). You wind up building an information architecture to meet the requirements of diverse data structures instead of making that architecture part of the product purchase criteria. Systems are installed as needs develop, not as part of a pre-planned information architecture.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 2. Hierarchy of lab systems, noting frequency of change\n\n\n\nDesigning an informatics architecture has some things in common with building a house. You create the foundation first, a supporting structure that everything sits on. Adding the framework sets up the primary living space, which can be modified as needed without disturbing the foundation (Figure 3). If you built the living space first and then wanted to install a foundation, you\u2019d have a mess to deal with.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 3. Comparison of foundation and living\/working space levels in an organization\n\n\n\nThe same holds true with laboratory informatics. Set the foundation\u2014the laboratory information management system (LIMS), electronic laboratory notebook (ELN), scientific data management system (SDMS), etc.\u2014first, then add the data and information generation systems. That gives you a common set of requirements for making connections and can clarify some issues in product selection and systems integration. It may seem backwards if your focus is on data and information production, but as soon as you realize that you have to organize and manage those products, the benefits will be clear.\nYou might wonder how you go about setting up a LIMS, ELN, etc. before the instrumentation is set. However it isn\u2019t that much of a problem. You know why your lab is there and what kind of work you plan to do. That will guide you in setting up the foundation. The details of tests can be added as need. Most of that depends on having your people educated in what the systems are and how to use them.\nOur comparison between a building and information systems does bring up some additional points. A building's access to utilities runs through control points; water and electricity don\u2019t come in from the public supply to each room but run through central control points that include a distribution system with safety and management features. We need the same thing in labs when it comes to network access. In our current society, access to private information for profit is a fact of life. While there are desirable features of lab systems available through network access (remote checking, access to libraries, updates, etc.), they should be controlled so that those with malicious intent are prevented access, and data and information are protected. Should instrument systems and office computers have access to corporate and external networks? That\u2019s your decision and revolves around how you want your lab run, as well as other applicable corporate policies.\nThe connections layer in Figure 3 is where devices connect to each other and the major informatics layer. This layer includes two functions: basic networking capability and application-to-application transfer. Take for example moving pH measurements to a LIMS or ELN; this is where things can get very messy. You need to define what that is and what the standards are to ensure a well-managed system (more on that when we look at industry-wide guidelines).\nTo complete the analogy, people do move the living space of a house from one foundation to another, often making for an interesting experience. Similarly, it\u2019s also possible to change the informatics foundation from one product set to another. It means exporting the contents of the database(s) to a product-independent format and then importing into the new system. If you think this is something that might be in your future, make the ability to engage in that process part of the product selection criteria. Like moving a house, it isn\u2019t going to be fun.&#91;3&#93;&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93; The same holds true for ELN and SDMS.\n\n How automation affects people's work in the lab \nKey point: There are two basic ways lab personnel can approach computing: it\u2019s a black box that they don\u2019t understand but is used as part of their work, or they are fully aware of the equipment's capabilities and limitations and know how to use it to its fullest benefit.\nWhile lab personnel may be fully educated in the science behind their work, the role of computing\u2014from pH meters to multi-instrument data systems\u2014may be viewed with a lack of understanding. That is a significant problem because they are responsible for the results that those systems produce, and they may not be aware of what happens to the signals from the instruments, where the limitations lie, and what can turn a well-executed procedure to junk because an instrument or computer setting wasn\u2019t properly evaluated and used. \nIn reality, automation has both a technical impact on their work and an impact on themselves. These are outlined below.\nTechnical impact on work:\n\nIt can make routine work easier and more productive, reducing costs and improving ROI (more on that below).\nIt can allow work to be performed that might otherwise be too expensive to entertain. There are techniques such as high-throughput screening and statistical experimental design that are useful in laboratory work but might be avoided because the effort of generating the needed data is too labor-intensive and time-consuming. Automated systems can relieve that problem and produce the volumes of data those techniques require.\nIt can improve accuracy and reproducibility. Automated systems, properly designed and implemented, are inherently more reproducible than a corresponding manual system.\nIt can increase safety by limiting people's exposure to hazardous situations and materials.\nIt can also be a financial hole if proper planning and engineering aren\u2019t properly applied to a project. \u201cScope creep,\u201d changes in direction, and changes in project requirements and personnel are key reasons that projects are delayed or fail.\nImpact on the personnel themselves:\n\nIt can increase technical specialization, potentially improving work opportunities and people's job satisfaction. Having people move into a new technology area gives them an opportunity to grow both personally and professionally.\nFull automation of a process can cause some jobs to end, or at least change them significantly (more on that below).\nIt can elevate routine work to more significant supervisory roles.\nMost of these impacts are straightforward to understand, but several require further elaboration.\n\n It can make routine work easier and more productive, reducing costs and improving ROI \nThis sounds like a standard marketing pitch; is there any evidence to support it? In the 1980s, clinical chemistry labs were faced with a problem: the cost for their services was set on an annual basis without any adjustments permitted for rising costs during that period. If costs rose, income dropped; the more testing they did the worse the problem became. They addressed this problem as a community, and that was a key factor in their success. Clinical chemistry labs do testing on materials taken from people and animals and run standardized tests. This is the kind of environment that automation was created for, and they, as a community, embarked on a total laboratory automation (TLA) program. That program had a number of factors: education, standardization of equipment (the tests were standardized so the vendors knew exactly what they needed in equipment capabilities), and the development of instrument and computer communications protocols that enabled the transfer of data and information between devices (application to application).\nOrganizations such as the American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science (ASCLS) and the American Association for Clinical Chemistry (AACC), as well as many others, provide members with education and industry-wide support organization. Other examples include the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI), a non-profit organization that develops standards for laboratory automation and informatics (e.g., AUTO03-A2 on laboratory automation&#91;6&#93;), and Health Level Seven, Inc., a non-profit organization that provide software standards for data interoperability. \nGiven that broad, industry-wide effort to address automation issues, the initial response was as follows&#91;7&#93;:\n\nBetween 1965 and 2000, the Consumer Price Index increased by a factor of 5.5 in the United States.\nDuring the same 36 years, at Mount Sinai Medical Center's chemistry department, the productivity (indicated as the number of reported test results\/employee\/year) increased from 10,600 to 104,558 (9.3-fold).\nWhen expressed in constant 1965 dollars, the total cost per test decreased from $0.79 to $0.15.\nIn addition, the following data (Table 1 and 2) from Dr. Michael Bissell of Ohio State University provides further insight into the resulting potential increase in labor productivity by implementing TLA in the lab&#91;8&#93;:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTable 1. Overall productivity of labor\r\n&#160;\r\nFTE = Full-time equivalent; TLA = Total laboratory automation\n\n\nRatio\n\nPre-TLA\n\nPost-Phase 1\n\nChange\n\n\nTest\/FTE\n\n50,813\n\n64,039\n\n+27%\n\n\nTests\/Tech FTE\n\n80,058\n\n89,120\n\n+11%\n\n\nTests\/Paid hour\n\n20.8\n\n52.9\n\n+24%\n\n\nTests\/Worked hour\n\n24.4\n\n30.8\n\n+26%\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTable 2. Productivity of labor-processing area\r\n&#160;\r\nFTE = Full-time equivalent; TLA = Total laboratory automation\n\n\nRatio\n\nPre-TLA\n\nPost-Phase 1\n\nChange\n\n\nSpecimens\/Processing FTE\n\n39,899\n\n68,708\n\n+72%\n\n\nSpecimens\/Processing paid hour\n\n19.1\n\n33.0\n\n+73%\n\n\nRequests\/Processing paid hour\n\n12.7\n\n21.5\n\n+69%\n\n\n\nThrough TLA, improvements can be seen in:\n\nImproved sample throughput\nCost reduction\nLess variability in the data\nReduced and more predictable consumption of materials\nImproved use of people's talents\nWhile this data is almost 20 years old, it illustrates the impact in a change from a manual system to an automated lab environment. It also gives us an idea of what might be expected if industry- ir community-wide automation programs were developed.\nClinical laboratories are not unique in the potential to organize industry-wide standardized aspects of technology and work, and provide education. The same can be done anywhere as long as the ability to perform a particular test procedure isn\u2019t viewed as a unique competitive advantage. The emerging Cannabis testing industry represents one such opportunity, among others.\nThe clinical industry has provided a template for the development of laboratory systems and automation. The list of instruments that meet the clinical communications standard continues to grow (e.g., Waters' MassLynx LIMS Interface&#91;9&#93;). There is nothing unique about the communications standards that prevent them from being used as a basis for development in other industries, aside from the data dictionary. As such, we need to move from an every-lab-for-itself approach to lab systems development toward a more cooperative and synergistic model.\n\n Automation can cause some jobs to end, or at least change them significantly \nOne of the problems that managers and the people under them get concerned about is change. No matter how beneficial the change is for the organization, it raises people\u2019s anxiety levels and can affect their job performance unless they are prepared for it. In that context, questions and concerns staff may have in relation to automating aspects of a job include:\n\nHow are these changes going to affect my job and my income? Will it cause me to lose my job? That\u2019s about as basic as it gets, and it can impact people at any organizational level.\nBringing in new technologies and products means learning new things, and that opens up the possibility that people may fail or not be as effective as they are currently. It can reshuffle the pecking order.\nThe process of introducing new equipment, procedures, etc. is going to disrupt the lab's workflow. The changes may be procedural structural, or both; how are you going to deal with those issues?\nTwo past examples will highlight different approaches. In the first, a multi-instrument automation system was being introduced. Management told the lab personnel what was going to happen and why, and that they would be part of the final acceptance process. If they weren\u2019t happy, the system would be modified to meet their needs. The system was installed, software written to meet their needs, instruments connected, and the system was tested. Everyone was satisfied except one technician, and that proved to be a major roadblock to putting the system into service. The matter was discussed with the lab manager, who didn\u2019t see the problem; as soon as the system was up and running, that technician would be given a new set of responsibilities, something she was interested in. But no one told her that. As she saw it, once the system came on line she was out of a job. (One of the primary methods used in that lab's work was chromatography, with the instrument output recorded on chart paper. Most measurements were done using peak height, but peak area was used for some critical analyses. Those exacting measurements, made with a planimeter, were her responsibility and her unique\u2014as she saw it\u2014contribution to the lab's work. The instrument system replaced the need for this work. The other technicians and chemists had no problem adapting to the data system.) However, a short discussion between she and the lab manager alleviated the concerns.\nThe second example was handled a lot differently, and was concerned with the implementation of a lab\u2019s first LIMS. The people in the lab knew something was going on but not the details. Individual meetings were held with each member of the lab team to discuss what was being considered and to learn of their impressions and concerns (these sessions were held with an outside consultant, and the results were reported to management in summary form). Once that was completed, the project started, with the lab manager holding a meeting of all lab personnel and IT, describing what was going to be done, why, how the project was going to proceed, and the role of those working in the lab in determining product requirement and product selection. The concerns raised in the individual sessions were addressed up-front, and staff all understood that no one was going to lose their job, or suffer a pay cut. Yes, some jobs would change, and where appropriate that was discussed with each individual. There was an educational course about what a LIMS was, its role in the lab's work, and how it would improve the lab\u2019s operations. When those sessions were completed, the lab\u2019s personnel looked forward to the project. They were part of the project and the process, rather than having it done without their participation. In short, instead of it happening to them, it happened with them as willing participants.\nPeople's attitudes about automation systems and being willing participants in their development can make a big difference in a project's success or failure. You don\u2019t want people to feel that the incoming system and the questions surrounding it are threatening, or seen as something that is potentially going to end their employment. They may not freely participate or they may leave when you need them the most.\nAll of this may seem daunting for a lab to take on by itself. Large companies may have the resources to handle it, but we need more than a large company to do this right; we need an industry-wide effort.\n\nDevelopment of industry-wide guidelines \nKey point: The discussion above about clinical labs illustrates what can be accomplished when an industry group focuses on a technology problem. We need to extend that thinking\u2014and action\u2014to a broader range of industries individually. The benefits of an industry-wide approach to addressing technology and education issues include:\n\nproviding a wider range of inputs to solving problems;\nproviding a critical marketing mass to lobby vendors to create products that fit customers\u2019 needs in a particular industry;\ndeveloping an organized educational program with emphasis on that industry's requirements;\ngiving labs (startup and existing) a well-structured reference point to guide them (not dictate) in making technology decisions;\nreducing the cost of automation, with improved support; and\nwhere competitive issues aren\u2019t a factor, enabling industry-funded R&amp;D technology development and implementation for production or manufacturing quality, process control (integration of online quality information), and process management.\nThe proposal: each industry group should define a set of guidelines to assist labs in setting up an information infrastructure. For the most part, large sections would end up similar across multiple industries, as there isn\u2019t that much behavioral distinction between some industry sets. The real separation would come in two places: the data dictionaries (data descriptions) and the nature of the testing and automation to implement that testing. Where there is a clear competitive edge to a test or its execution, each company may choose to go it alone, but that still leaves a lot of room for cooperation in method development, addressing both the basic science and its automated implementations, particularly where ASTM, USP, etc. methods are employed.\nThe benefits of this proposal are noted in the key point above. However, the three most significant ones are arguably:\n\nthe development of an organized education program with an emphasis on industry requirements;\nthe development of a robust communications protocol for application-to-application transfers; and,\nthe ability to lobby vendors from an industry-wide basis for product development, modification, and support.\nIn the \"Looking forward and back\" section earlier in this guide, we showed a bulleted list of considerations for the development of such a guideline-based framework. What follows is a more organized version of those points, separated into three sections, which all need to be addressed in any industry-based framework. For the purposes of this guide, we'll focus primarily on Section C: \"Issues that need concerted attention.\" Section A on background and IT support, and Section B on lab-specific background information, aren't discussed as they are addressed elsewhere, particularly in the previous works referenced in the Introduction. \n\nA. General background and routine IT support\n1. Physical security (including power)\n2. Cybersecurity\n3. Cloud and virtualization technologies<\/dd>\nB. Lab-specific background information\n1. Informatics (could be an industry-specific version of ASTM E1578 - 18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics&#91;10&#93;)\n2. Sample storage management and organization (see Appendix 1, section 1.4 of this guide)\n3. Guidance for automation\n4: Data integrity and security (see S. Schmitt's Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences&#91;11&#93;, which has broader application outside the life sciences)\n5. The FAIR principles (the findability, accessibility, interoperability, and reusability of data; see Wilkinson et al. 2016&#91;2&#93;)<\/dd>\nC. Issues that need concerted attention:\n1. Education for lab management and lab personnel\n2. The conversion of manual methods to semi- or full-automated methods (see Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures for more)\n3. Long-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls (i.e., the impact of software as a service and other software subscription models)\n4. Archived instrument data in standardized formats and standardized vendor software (requires tamper-proof formats)\n5. Instrument design for automation (Most instruments and their support software are dual-use, i.e., they work as stand-alone devices via front panels, or through software controls. While this is a useful selling tool\u2014whether by manual or automated use\u2014it means the device is larger, more complex, and expensive than a automation-only device that uses software [e.g., a smartphone or computer] for everything. Instruments and devices designed for automation should be more compact and permit more efficient automation systems.)\n6. Communications (networking, instrument control and data, informatics control and data, etc.)<\/dd>\nWe'll now go on to expand upon items C-1, C-3, C-4, and C-6.\n\nC-1. Education for lab management and lab personnel \nLaboratory work has become a merger of two disciplines: science and information technology (including robotics). Without the first, nothing happens; without the second, work will proceed but at a slower more costly pace. There are different levels of education requirements. For those working at the lab bench, not only do they need to understand the science, but also how the instrumentation and supporting computers systems (if any, including those embedded in the instrument) make and transform measurements into results. \u201cThe computer did it\u201d is not a satisfactory answer to \u201chow did you get that result,\u201d nor is \u201cmagic,\" or maintaining willful ignorance of exactly how the instrument measurements are taken. Laboratorians are responsible and accountable for the results, and they should be able to explain the process of how they were derived, including how settings on the instrument and computer software affect that work. Lab managers should understand the technologies at the functional level and how the systems interact with each other. They are accountable for the overall integrity of the systems and the data and information they contain. IT personnel should understand how lab systems differ from office applications and why business-as-usual for managing office applications doesn\u2019t work in the lab environment. The computer systems are there to support the instruments, and any changes that may affect that relationship should be initiated with care; the instrument vendor\u2019s support for computer systems upgrades is essential.\nAs such, we need a new personnel position, that of the laboratory systems engineer or LSE, to provide support for the informatics architecture. This isn\u2019t simply an IT person; it should be someone who is fluent in both the science and the information technology applied to lab work. (See Laboratory Technology Planning and Management: The Practice of Laboratory Systems Engineering for more on this topic.)\n\nC-3. Long-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls \nThe data and information your lab produces, with the assistance of instrumentation and instrument data systems, is yours, and no one should put limits on your ability to work with it. There is a problem with modern software design: most lab data and information can only be viewed through applications software. In some cases, the files may be used with several applications, but often it is the vendor's proprietary formats that limit access. In those instances, you have to maintain licenses for that software for as long as you need access to the data and information, even if the original application has been replaced by something else. This can happen for a variety of reasons:\n\nBetter technology is available from another vendor\nA vendor sold part of its operations to another organization\nOrganizations merge\nCompletion of a consulting or research contract requires all data to be sent to the contracting organization\nAll of these, and others, are reasons for maintaining multiple versions of similar datasets that people need access to yet don\u2019t want to maintain licenses for into the future, even though they still must consider meeting regulatory (FDA, EPA, ISO, etc.) requirements.\nAll of this revolves around your ability to gain value from your data and information without having to pay for its access. The vendors don\u2019t want to give their software away for free either. What we need is something like the relationship between Adobe Acrobat Reader and the Adobe Acrobat application software. The latter gives you the ability to create, modify, comment, etc. documents, while the former allows you to view them. The Reader gives anyone the ability to view the contents, just not alter it. We need a \u201creader\u201d application for instrument data collected and processed by an instrument data system. We need to be able to view the reports, raw data, etc. and export the data in a useful format, everything short of acquiring and processing new data. This gives you the ability to work with your intellectual property and allows it to be viewed by regulatory agencies if that becomes necessary, without incurring unnecessary costs or depriving the vendor of justifiable income.\nThis has become increasingly important as vendors have shifted to a subscription model for software licenses in place of one-time payments with additional charges for voluntary upgrades. One example from another realm illustrates the point. My wife keeps all of her recipes in an application on her iPad. One day she looked for a recipe and received a message that read, roughly, \u201cNo access unless you upgrade the app &lt;not free&gt;.\u201d As it turned out, a Google search recommended re-installing the current app instead. It worked, but she upgraded anyhow, just to be safe. It\u2019s your content, but who \u201cowns\u201d it if the software vendor can impose controls on how it is used?\nAs more of our work depends on software, we find ourselves in a constant upgrade loop of new hardware, new operating systems, and new applications just to maintain the status quo. We need more control over what happens to our data. Industry-wide guidelines backed by the buying power of an industry could create vendor policies that would mitigate that. Earlier in this document we noted that the future is going to extend industry change for a long time, with hardware and software evolving in ways we can\u2019t imagine. Hardware changes (anyone remember floppy disks?) inevitably make almost everything obsolete, so how do we protect our access to data and information? Floppy disks were the go-to media 40 years ago, and since then cassette tapes, magnetic tape, Zip drives, CD-ROMs, DVDs, Syquest drives, and other types of storage media have come and gone. Networked systems, at the moment, are the only consistent and reliable means of exchange and storage as datasets increase in size.\nOne point we have to take into account is that versions of applications will only function on certain versions of operating systems and databases. All three elements are going to evolve, and at some point we\u2019ll have to deal with \u201cold\u201d generations while new ones are coming online. One good answer to that is emulation. Some software systems like VMWare Corporation's VMware allow packages of operating systems, databases, and applications to operate on computers regardless of their age, with each collection residing in a \u201ccontainer\u201d; we can have several generations of those containers residing on a computer and execute them at will, as if they were still running on the original hardware. If you are looking for the data for a particular sample, go to the container that covers its time period and access it. Emulation packages are powerful tools; using them you can even run Atari 2600 games on a Windows or OS X system.\nAddressing this issue is generally bigger than what a basic laboratory-based organization can handle, involving policy making and support from information technology support groups and corporate legal and financial management. The policies have to take into account physical locations of servers, support, financing, regulatory support groups, and international laws, even if your company isn\u2019t a multinational (third-party contracting organizations may be). Given this complexity, and the fact that most companies in a given industry will be affected, industry-wide guidelines would be useful.\n\nC-4. Archived instrument data in standardized formats and standardized vendor software \nThis has been an area of interest for over 25 years, beginning with the Analytical Instrument Association's work that resulted in a set of ASTM Standard Guides:\n\nASTM E2078 - 00(2016) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Mass Spectrometric Data&#91;12&#93;\nASTM E1948 - 98(2014) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data&#91;13&#93;\nMillipore Sigma continues to invest in solutions based on the Analytical Information Markup Language (AnIML) standard (an outgrowth of work done at NIST).&#91;14&#93; There have also been a variety of standards programs, all of which have a goal of moving instrument data into a neutral data format that is free of proprietary interests, allowing it to be used and analyzed as the analyst needs (e.g., JCAMP-DX&#91;15&#93; and GAML&#91;16&#93;).\nData interchange standards can help address issues in two aspects of data analysis: qualitative and quantitative work. In qualitative applications, the exported data can imported into other packages that provide facilities not found in the original data acquisition system. Examining an infrared spectra or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) scan depends upon peak amplitude, shape, and positions to provide useful information, and some software (including user-developed software) may provide facilities that the original data acquisition system didn\u2019t, or it might be a matter of having a file to send to someone for review or inclusion in another project.\nQuantitative analysis is a different matter. Techniques such as chromatography, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP), and atomic absorption spectroscopy, among others, rely on the measurement of peak characteristics or single wavelength absorbance measurements in comparison with measurements made on standards. A single chromatogram is useless (for quantitative work) unless the standards are available. (However, it may be useful for qualitative work if retention time references to appropriate known materials are available.) If you are going to export the data for any of the techniques noted, and others as well, you need the full collection of standards and samples for the data to be of any value.\nYet there is a problem with some, if not all of these programs: they trust the integrity of the analyst to use the data honestly. It is possible for people to use these exported formats in ways that circumvent current data integrity practices and falsify results.\nThere are good reasons to want vendor neutral data formats so that data sets can be examined by user-developed software, to put it into a form where the analysis is not limited by a vendor's product design. It also holds the potential for separating data acquisition from data analysis as long as all pertinent data and information (e.g., standards and samples) were held together in a package that could not be altered without detection. It may be that something akin to blockchain technology could be used to register and manage access to datasets on a company-by-company basis (each company having it\u2019s own registry that would become part of the lab's data architecture).\nThese standards formats are potentially very useful to labs, created by people with a passion for doing something useful and beneficial to the practice of science, sometimes at their own expense. This is another area where a coordinated industry-wide statement of requirements and support would lead to some significant advancements in systems development, and enhanced capability for those practicing instrumental science.\nIf these capabilities are important to you, than addressing that need has to be part of an industry-wide conversation and consensus to provide the marketing support to have the work done.\n\nC-6. Communications \nMost computers and electronic devices in the laboratory have communications capability built in: RS-232 (or similar), digital I\/O, Ethernet port, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, IEEE-488, etc. What these connection types do is provide the potential for communications, and the realization of that potential depends on message formatting, structure of the contents, and moving beyond proprietary interests to those expressed by an industry-wide community. There are two types of devices that need to be addressed: computer systems that service instruments (instrument data systems), and, devices that don\u2019t require an external computer to function (pH meters, balances, etc.) that may have Ethernet ports, serial ASCII, digital I\/O, or IEEE-488 connections. In either of these cases, the typical situation is one in which the vendor has determined a communications structure and the user has to adapt their systems to it, often using custom programming to parse messages and take action. \nThe user community needs to determine its needs and make them known using community-wide buying power as justification for asking for vendor development efforts. As noted earlier, this is not an adversarial situation, but rather a maturation of industry-wide communities working with vendors; the \u201cbuying power\u201d comments simply give the vendors the confidence that its development efforts won\u2019t be in vain.\nIn both cases we need application-to-application message structures that meet several needs. They should be able to handle test method identifications, so that the receiving application knows what the\nmessage is addressing, as well as whether the content is a list of samples to be processed or samples that have already been processed, with results. Additionally, the worklist message should ideally contain, in attribute-value pairs, the number of samples, with a list of sample IDs to be processed. As for the completed work message, the attribute-value pairs would also ideally contain the number of samples processed, the sample IDs, and the results of the analysis (which could be one or more elements depending on the procedure). Of course, there may be other elements required of these message structures; these were just examples. Ultimately, the final framework could be implemented in a format similar to that used in HTML files: plain-text that is easily read and machine- and operating-system-independent.\nMapping the message content to database system structure (LIMS or ELN) could be done using a simple built-in application (within the LIMS or ELN) that would graphically display the received message content on one side of a window, with the database\u2019s available fields on the other side. The two sides would then graphically be mapped to one another, as shown in the Figure 4 below. (Note: Since the format of the messages are standardized, we wouldn\u2019t need a separate mapping function to accommodate different vendors).\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 4. Mapping IDS message contents to database system\n\n\n\nThe second case\u2014devices like pH meters, etc.\u2014is a little more interesting since the devices don\u2019t have the same facilities available as a computer system provides. However, in the consumer marketplace, this is well-trod ground, using both a smartphone or tablet as an interface, and translation mechanisms between small, fixed function devices and more extensive applications platforms. The only non-standard element is a single-point Bluetooth connection, as shown in Figure 5.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 5. Using a smartphone or tablet as an interface to a LIMS or ELN. The procedure takes a series of pH measurements for a series of samples.\n\n\n\nA single-point Bluetooth connection is used to exchange information between the measuring device and the smartphone or tablet. There are multi-point connection devices (the smartphone, for example) but we want to restrict the device to avoid confusion about who is in control of the measuring unit. A setup screen (not shown) would set up the worklist and populate the sample IDs. The \u201cTake Reading\u201d button would read the device and enter the value into the corresponding sample position\u2014taking them in order\u2014and enable the next reading until all samples had been read. \u201cSend\u201d would transmit the formatted message to the LIMS or ELN. Depending on the nature of the device and the procedure being used, the application can take any form, this is just a simple example taking pH measurement for a series of samples. In essence, the device-smartphone combination becomes an instrument data system, and the database setup would be the same as described above.\nThe bottom line is this: standardized message formats can greatly simplify the interfacing of instrument data systems, LIMS, ELNs, and other laboratory informatics applications. The clinical chemistry community created communications standards that would permit meaningful messages to be sent between an instrument data system and database system structured so that either end of the link would recognize the message and be able to extract and use the message content without the custom programming common to most labs today. There is no reason why the same thing can\u2019t be done in any other industry; it may even be possible to adapt the clinical chemistry protocols. The data dictionary (list of test names and attributes) would have to be adjusted, but that is a minor point that can be handled on an industry-by-industry basis and be incorporated as part of a system installation. \nWhat is needed is people coming together as a group and organizing and defining the effort. How important is it to you to streamline the effort in getting systems up and running without custom programming, to work toward a plug-and-play capability that we encounter in consumer systems (an environment where vendors know easy integration is a must or their products won\u2019t sell)?\n\nAdditional note on Bluetooth-enabled instruments \nThe addition of Bluetooth to a device can result in much more compact systems, making the footprint smaller and reducing the cost of the unit. By using a smartphone to replace the front panel controls, the programming can become much more sophisticated. Imagine a Bluetooth-enabled pH meter and a separate Bluetooth, electronically controlled titrator. That combination would permit optimized&#91;a&#93; delivery of titrant making the process faster and more accurate, while also providing a graphical display of the resulting titration curve, putting the full data processing capability of the smartphone and it\u2019s communications at the service of the experiment. Think about what the addition of a simple clock did for thermostats: it opened the door to programmable thermostats and better controls. What would smartphones controlling simple devices like balances, pH meters, titrators, etc. facilitate?\n\nLaboratory work and scientific production \nKey point: Laboratory work is a collection of processes and procedures that have to be carried out for research to progress, or, to support product manufacturing and production processes. In order to meet \u201cproductivity\u201d goals, get enough work done to make progress, or provide a good ROI, we need labs to transition manual to automated (partial or full) execution as much as possible. We also need to ensure and demonstrate process stability, so that lab work itself doesn\u2019t create variability and unreliable results.\n\nDifferent kinds of laboratory work \nThere are different kinds of laboratory work. Some consist of a series of experiments or observations that may not be repeated, or are repeated with expected or unplanned variations. Other experiments may be repeated over and over either without variation or with controlled variations based on gained experience. It is that second set that concerns this writing, because repetition provides a basis and a reason for automation.\nToday we are used to automation in lab work, enacted in the form of computers and robotics ranging from mechanical arms to auto-samplers, auto-titration systems, and more. Some of the technology development we've discussed began many decades before, and there's utility in looking back that far to note how technologies have developed. However, while there are definitely forms of automation and robotics available today, they are not always interconnected, integrated, or compatible with each other; they were produced as products either without an underlying integration framework, or with one that was limited to a few cooperating vendors. This can be problematic.\nThere are two major elements to repetitive laboratory methods: the underlying science and how the procedures are executed. At these methods\u2019 core, however is the underlying scientific method, be it a chemical, biological, or physical sequence. We automate processes not things. We don\u2019t, for example, automate an instrument, but rather the process of using it to accomplish something. If you are automating the use of a telescope to obtain the spectra of a series of stars, you build a control algorithm to look at each star in a list, have the instrument position itself properly, record the data using sensors, process it, and then move on the next star on the list. (You would also build in error detection with messages like \"there isn\u2019t any star there,\" \"cover on telescope,\" and \"it isn\u2019t dark yet,\" along with relevant correction routines). The control algorithm is the automation, while the telescope and sensors are just tools being used.\nWhen building a repetitive laboratory method, the method should be completely described and include aspects such as:\n\nthe underlying science\na complete list of equipment and materials when implemented as a manual process\npossible interferences\ncritical facets of the method\nvariables that have to be controlled and their operating ranges (e.g., temperature, pH of solutions, etc.)\nspecial characteristics of instrumentation\nsafety considerations\nrecommended sources of equipment and sources to be avoided\nsoftware considerations such as possible products, desirable characteristics, and things to be avoided\npotentially dangerous, hazardous situations\nan end-to-end walkthrough of the methods used\nOf course, the method has to be validated. You need to have complete confidence in its ability to produce the results necessary given the input into the process. At this point, the scientific aspects of the work are complete and finished. They may be revisited if problems arise during process automation, but no further changes should be entertained unless you are willing to absorb additional costs and alterations to the schedule. This is a serious matter; one of the leading causes of project failures is \u201cscope creep,\u201d which occurs when incremental changes are made to a process while it is under development. This results in the project becoming a moving target, with seemingly minor changes able to cause a major disruption in the project's design.\n\nScientific production \nAt this point, we have a proven procedure that we need to execute repeatedly on a set of inputs (samples). We aren\u2019t carrying out \"experiments\"; that word suggests that something may be changing in the nature of the procedure, and at this point it shouldn\u2019t. Changes to the underlying process invite a host of problems and may forfeit any chance at a successful automation effort.\nHowever, somewhere in the (distant) future something in the process is likely to change. A new piece of technology may be introduced, equipment (including software) may need to be upgraded, or the timing of a step may need to be adjusted. That\u2019s life. How that change is made is very important. Before it is implemented, the process has to be in place long enough to establish that it works reliably, that it produces useful results, and that there is a history of running the same reference sample(s) over and over again in the mix of samples to show that the process is under control with acceptable variability in results (i.e., statistical process control). In manufacturing and production language, this is referred to as \"evolutionary operations\" (EVOP). But we can pull it all together under the heading \u201cscientific production.\u201d&#91;b&#93;\nIf your reaction to the previous paragraph is \u201cthis is a science lab not a commercial production operation,\u201d you\u2019re getting close to the point. This is a production operation (commercial or not, it depends on the type of lab, contract testing, and other factors) going on within a science lab. It\u2019s just a matter of scale.\n\nDemonstrating process stability: The standard sample program \nOne of the characteristics of a successfully implemented stable process is consistency of the results with the same set of inputs. Basically, if everything is working properly, the same set of samples introduced at the beginning should yield the same results time after time, regardless of whether the implementation is manual or automated. A standard sample program (Std.SP) is a means of demonstrating the stability and operational integrity of a process; it can also tell you if a process is getting out of control. Introduced early in my career, the Std.SP was used to show the consistency of results between analysts in a lab, and to compare the performance of our lab and the quality control labs in the production facilities. The samples were submitted and marked like any similar sample and became part of the workflow. The lab managers maintained control charts of the labs and and individual's performance on the samples. The combined results would show whether the lab and those working there had things under control or if problems were developing. Those problems might be with an individual, a change in equipment performance, or a change in incoming raw materials used in the analysis.\nThe Std.SP was the answer to the typical \u201chow do you know you can trust these results?\u201d question, which often came up when a research program or production line was having issues. This becomes more important when automation is used and the sampling and testing throughput increases. If an automated system is having issues, you are just producing bad data faster. The Std.SP is a high-level test of the system's performance. A deviation of the results trend line or a widening of the variability are indications that something is wrong, which should lead to a detailed evaluation of the system to account for the deviations. A troubleshooting guide should be part of the original method description (containing aspects such as \u201cif something starts going wrong, here\u2019s where to look for problems\u201d or \u201cthe test method is particularly sensitive to \u2026\u201d, etc.) and notes made during the implementation process.\nReference samples are another matter, however. They have to be stable over a long enough period of use to establish a meaningful trend. If the reference samples are stable over a long period of time, you may only need two or three so that the method can be evaluated over different ranges (you may have a higher variability at a lower range than a higher one). If the reference samples are not stable, then their useful lifetime needs to be established and older ones swapped out periodically. There should be some overlap between samples near the end of their useful life and the introduction of new ones so that laboratorians can differentiate between system variation and changes in reference samples. You may need to use more reference samples in these situations.\nThis inevitably becomes a lot of work, and if your lab utilizes many procedures, it can be time-consuming to manage an Std.SP. But before you decide it is too much work, ask yourself how valuable it is to have a solid, documented answer to the \u201chow do you know you can trust these results?\u201d question. Having a validated process or method is a start, but that only holds at the start of a method\u2019s implementation. If all of this is new to you, find someone who understands process engineering and statistical process control and learn more from them.\n\n Where is the future of lab automation going to take us? \nKey point: There is no single \u201cfuture\u201d for laboratories; each lab charts it own path. However there are things they can all do to be better prepared to meet the next day, month, or decade. Plan for flexibility and adaptability. Keep your data and information accessible, educate your personnel to recognize and take advantage of opportunities, and don\u2019t be afraid of taking risks.\nWhere is the future of lab automation going to take us? The simple answer is that the future is in your hands. Lab personnel are going to be making their own choices, and that is both a reflection of reality and part of the problem. Aside from a few industries, labs have approached the subject of automation individually, making their own plans and charting their own course of action. The problems that approach engenders are that it is both inefficient and it wastes resources (e.g., funding, time, effort).\nEarlier we saw how the clinical chemistry industry handled the problem of containing costs through automation: it made the automation work better. Within any given industry, it\u2019s unlikely that the same type of testing is going to differ markedly; there will be unique demands and opportunities, but they will be the exception. Why not pool resources and solve common problems? It would benefit the end-user in the lab as well as the vendor, encouraging those vendors to build products for a specific market rather than meeting the needs of a single customer. Among the biggest issues in automation and lab computing is communications between devices; the clinical chemistry industry has solved that. Their solution has elements that are specific to their work but they should be easily adjusted to meet the needs of other groups.\nWe\u2019re in a phase where we have many technologies that work well independently for their intended purpose, but they don't work well together. We\u2019ve been there before, with two examples to be found in computer networking and computer graphics. \nComputer networks began to emerge commercially in the early 1970s. Each computer vendor had their own approach to networking (similar hardware but different communications protocols). Within each vendor's ecosystem things worked well, yet bridging across ecosystems was interesting. When network installations occurred at customer sites, the best hardware and software people were involved in planning, laying out the systems, installing software, and getting things to work. Installation time was measured in weeks. Today, a reasonably sophisticated home or business network can be install in an hour or two, maybe longer depending on the number of machines and components involved, and when you turn it on, you\u2019d be surprised if it didn\u2019t work. What made the difference? Standards were developed for communications protocols. Instead of each vendor having their own protocol, the world adopted TCP\/IP and everything changed.\nThe path of computer graphics development provides further insight. In the 1970s and 80s, when computer graphics hardware began seeing widespread use, every vendor in the market had their own graphics display hardware and software. If you liked one vendor's graphics library, you had to buy their hardware. If you liked their hardware you had to live with their software. We saw this play out in the early days of the PC, when there were multiple graphics processor card adapters (e.g., enhanced graphics adapter [EGA], color graphics adapter [CGA], video graphics adapter [VGA], Hercules, etc.), and if you had the wrong card installed, the software wouldn\u2019t work (although combination cards allowed the user to switch modes and reduce the number of boards used in the computer). This continued to frustrate users and developers, until a standardized graphics architecture was developed that was device-independent. Problem solved.\nThis is a common theme that comes up over and over. A new technology develops, vendors build products with unique features and those products don\u2019t play well with each other (i.e., they attempt to achieve a strong market positions). Customers get frustrated and standards are developed that convert \u201cdon\u2019t play well\u201d to \"easy integration,\" and the market takes off.\nHow the future of lab automation is going to play out for you is in your hands, but there are things we can do to make it easier. As we noted earlier, few if any of the developments in lab automation were initially done according to a plan, though we\u2019ve also seen what planning can actually do in at least one setting, the field of clinical chemistry. This highlights the fact that not only do you need a plan for your laboratory, but also a plan for automation in your industry would be worthwhile; it would avoid spending resources individually where pooling is a better approach, and it would give you a stronger voice to work with vendors to create products that meet your industry's needs. A set of industry-wide strategies (e.g., for mining, viniculture, cosmetics, materials research, healthcare, biotech, electronics, etc.) would give you a solid starting point for the use of computing and automation technologies in your lab. There still would be plenty of room for unique applications.\nIndustry working groups are one need, while getting people educated is another. Determining how much you are willing to rely on automation is an additional point, which we\u2019ll illustrate with a discussion of quality control labs, in the next section.\nBefore we move on to the next section, however, there are two terms that haven\u2019t been mentioned yet that need to be noted: artificial intelligence (AI) and big data. I\u2019m not sure I know what AI is (the definition and examples change frequently), or that I\u2019d trust what is available today for serious work. For every article that talks about the wonders it will have, there is one that talks about the pitfalls of design, built in bias, and concerns about misapplication. In science, aside from using it as a \u201cdid you know about this?\u201d advisory tool, I\u2019d be concerned about using it. If you don\u2019t know how the AI arrived at its answer (one of AI\u2019s characteristics) why would you trust it? Big data, on the hand, is on a more solid technical footing and should prove useful, though only if your data and information is structured to take advantage of it. You can\u2019t just say \u201chere are all my datasets\u201d; you have to organize them to be usable.\n\nApplying automation to lab work \nKey point: Today, people\u2019s attitudes about work have changed, and with it the world has changed; the COVID-19 pandemic has forced us to re-evaluate models of work. If nothing else, even though we\u2019re talking about science, the use of technology to conduct scientific work is going to take on a new importance. This won\u2019t be solved one lab at a time, but on an industry-by-industry basis. We need to think about key concepts and their implementation as a community if truly effective solutions are to be found and put into practice.\nIn Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures, the criteria for \"automation readiness\" were described. Two significant points were that a laboratory procedure must both be stable and have a duration of use sufficiently long enough to justify the cost of automation. Beyond that, additional concerns such as safety may come into play, but those two points were the most critical. From those points we can roughly derive the automation needs of research, testing, quality control, and contract laboratories.\nResearch laboratory: Automation in research is going to be predominately at the task level, i.e., portions of a process being done by automated instruments and devices rather than end-to-end automation. This is due to the two key points noted above: research labs often change procedures, with some being very short-lived, and the cost of full-automation (including validation) may not be worth it unless the equipment is designed to be modular, interconnected, and easily programmed. One exception can be seen with Bayer.&#91;17&#93; They are using robotics and microplate technology to automate a high-throughput screen system that couldn\u2019t\u2014in their words\u2014be done practically by people; it's too slow and too expensive. Could something like this become more commonplace?\nTesting laboratory: Non-routine testing laboratories are going to have a mix of task-level and end-to-end automation. It will depend on the stability of the test process and if there is sufficient work to justify the cost of automation, plus what level of control over the form of the incoming samples is available (see Appendix 1, section 1.3 of this guide). Often samples are submitted for multiple tests, which raised an additional concern: is the last step in a procedure destructive to the sample? Samples may be prepared so that they can be used in more than one test procedure. If the test process is destructive, then the initial preparation has to be divided so there is enough material for all testing; this can complicate the automation process.\nQuality control laboratory: Quality control (QC) labs should be the ideal place for automation to take hold. The procedures are well defined, stable, and entrenched. The benefits in faster throughput and cost reduction should be clear. The biggest place for problems is in sample preparation and getting material ready for analysis. Given that the form of the samples is known and predictable, it is worthwhile to spend time in analyzing and designing a means of working with samples. There are going to be some preparation steps that may be too difficult to justify automation; this can be seen with tensile testing of polymers and fibers. The sample or parts fabrication and need to wait for the material to stabilize may make parts of the process difficult to deal with, or not financially justifiable. Insertion into the test apparatus may also be an issue. Testing that can be done by spectroscopic, chromatographic, or other easily automated instrumentation may be migrated from the laboratory to in-line testing, raising questions about the nature of the QC process.\nContract or independent laboratory: The ability to apply automation beyond the task level depends on the kind of work being done; is it specialized or highly flexible? The greater the flexibility (e.g., a number of different procedures with a small number of samples submitted at a time) the more task level automation will apply. However, the justification for automation may not be there. Specialized labs (e.g., clinical chemistry labs) or a lab that specializes in a technique with a high demand and throughput should benefit from a move to end-to-end automation since it reduces costs and improves accuracy and turn-around times (TATs).\n\nMore on the quality control lab and its process management \nThe evolution of QC labs may change our perspective of how QC testing is accomplished, as well as the nature of QC lab operations. Our current view, and that of the last few decades, may change significantly.\n\nEarly QC testing \nSome form of quality testing was done during the production process in prior decades. For example, I\u2019ve seen production station operators bite plastic materials to get an idea of how well the production process, and the expansion of polystyrene beads, was going in the production of Styrofoam cups (though this was not encouraged by management as butane and pentane, used as expansion agents, could cause health problems). If the cup was too stiff or soft, it would indicate a problem in the molding process. There were other \u201cquick and dirty\u201d production floor tests that were run because the TAT in the lab was producing an unacceptable delay (if you\u2019re making adjustments, you need measurements quickly). People may also have wanted to avoid having a record of production problems and changes.\nIn another application (anecdotal reporting from a course on plastics manufacturing)\u2014calendering&#91;c&#93; of plastic coated paper\u2014the production operator would strike the laminated paper with a slender bamboo rod and listen to the sound it made to determine the product quality. According to the course instructor, he was adept at this, and no other test could replace this in-process procedure.\nAs such, it's clear not all \"quality\" testing went on in the laboratory.\n\nNormal QC testing \nTraditionally, QC lab operations became separate from production, partly because of the physical conditions needed to conduct the work, and partly to avoid bias in the results. The conclusion: it was important that the reporting lines of communication be separate and independent from production. QC labs would, and do, perform testing on incoming materials to certify them suitable for use and produced products to see if they met product specifications, as well as perform in-process testing. They would also certify products as qualified for shipment, acting as an unbiased evaluator of product quality.\nQuality tests were manually implemented until the early 1960s. Then we saw the advent of in-process instrumentation and process chromatographs by Fisher Controls and Mine Safety Apparatus, for example. While the instruments themselves were on the production floor, their management and analysis was under the control of the QC lab, at least in the facility I worked in. The instruments' maintenance, calibration, peak measurements, and sample calculations were all done by lab personnel. Since that time, we\u2019ve seen a continued growth in in-line testing for production processes. That said, what\u2019s the logical conclusion of increasing automation?\n\nA thought experiment \nLets posit that we have a production process whose raw materials are fluids and the end product is a fluid. We\u2019d be concerned with certifying in-coming raw materials as suitable for use, while monitoring the production process for product composition and potential contaminants. The end product would have to be certified for shipment.\nIf all the testing were chromatographic with in-process instruments and a chromatography data system (CDS), and\/or in-line spectrophotometric and other in-line or in-process tests, with the results becoming part of the process control system (sample IDs would be a hash of sensor type-location-timestamp), what would the role of the QC lab become? Assuring that the equipment was running properly and regularly calibrated, with periodic verification of test results (off-line testing) is one set of possibilities. Is this a desirable developmental direction? We need to look at the benefits and issues that result from this design.\nBenefits:\n\nIt provides an integrated system where all process sensor and test result data are immediately available to management. This allows them to detect issues faster and provide a more timely response (better process control), reducing down time and off-spec product. If we want to enter the world of science fiction, we can even imagine a combination AI-machine learning solution providing closed loop process monitoring and control.\nIt signifies a potential cost reduction resulting from smaller labs and lower personnel costs.\nIssues:\n\nThere's a loss of independent product evaluation. Basically, you are trusting the system to honestly monitor, report, and reject off-spec, incoming, and outgoing material. In the movie version, this is where the sound track becomes ominous. This loss of independent checking may reduce customer confidence in product quality.\nThe veracity of statistical process control and correction may suffer.\nSystem validation could be challenging as the production process has to be validated, each sensor and instrument data system has to be validated, and the integrated system has to be validated, including the statistical process control.\nAssuming a system were built, how far are we willing to trust automated systems to function without external oversight? The control room would still be populated with people managing the process and exerting a higher level of scrutiny, but you are still trusting the designers of the system to do very sophisticated work, not only in process design but also integrating testing as part of the effort. Ideally you\u2019d want the CDS and other instrument data processing equipment in the control room, where it is more easily used and maintained, than on the process floor. The role of the QC lab would then change to that of an overarching quality manager of the entire system, ensuring that equipment functioned properly, testing was accurate, the process and testing were operating within control limits, and the data logs were correct.\nSome organizations may be past this point, while for others this may be interesting, bordering on science fiction. The point of this thought experiment is to see what could happen and where your comfort level is with it. How much control do you want to give an automated system and how much do you want to retain? What are the consequences of not providing sufficient oversight? How much bad product could be made?\nAlso note that this isn\u2019t an all-or-nothing proposition; give it some room to work, see what happens, and if everything is good, give it more. Just build in a big red button that allows you to reboot and revert to manual operations; in other words, don't self-destruct, just remove some critical controls. A lot depends on the nature of the finished product. If the end product is something critical (e.g., a medical device or therapeutic), you\u2019ll want to be cautious about phasing in automated control systems.\nAll that said, two additional points should be made. First, be willing to play with the ideas. Turn it into a science fiction project (\u201csci fi\u201d is just a playground for \"what ifs\"), remove it from reality enough that people can look at it from different perspectives and see what might work and what might not. Then let people play with those ideas; you might learn something. What are all the things that could go right, and what could go wrong (and what can you do about it)? You probably won't have to worry about alien robots, but malware interference is certainly a factor, as is a network air-gap. There is always the possibility of someone causing a problem; the question of course is how do you detect it and correct it. Second, be willing to model the system. There are a number of modeling packages ideal for this purpose. You can model the behavior and see how different control methods react.\n(While this thought experiment used a process involving fluids only, as they are relatively easy to work with, its worth noting that solid materials become more of an issue, complicating the automation process [see Appendix 1, section 1.4 of this guide]. In some cases sample preparation for testing may be too cumbersome for automation. This would shift the automated-manual testing balance more toward the latter in those cases, introducing delays and disrupting the timing of results to process control.)\n\n The creation of a \"center for laboratory systems engineering\" \nKey point: Throughout this piece, the need for education has been a consistent theme. Developing and using the technologies in lab work, both scientific and informatics-related, will require people who know what they are doing, specifically educated to carry out the work noted above. We also need a means of pulling things together so that there is a centralized resource to start a learning process and continue development from there.\nLet's propose a \"center for laboratory system engineering.\" This center would firstly prepare people to be effective planners, designers, implementers, supporters, and users of laboratory informatics and automation systems in scientific applications. Additionally, the center would ideally drive innovation and provide assistance to scientific personnel and IT groups seeking to apply and manage such laboratory technologies.\nThose goals would be accomplished by:\n\nDeveloping and delivering courses for LSEs, lab personnel, and IT support (These courses would cover technical science topics as well as skills in working with people, conflict resolution, and communications. They would be presented both in-person and online or on-demand to reach a broad audience; an intensive summer course with hands-on experience should also be considered.)\nCreating an LSE certification program\nCarrying out research on the application of informatics, robotics, and computer-assisted data collection and processing\nDocumenting the best practices for an LSE\nAggregating and publishing material on the roles and requirements of the LSE\nIdeally, this center would be part of a university setting so that it could interact with both science and computer science departments, contribute to their programs, and in turn gain from that association.\n\nAppendix 1: A very brief historical note \nIt would be useful to understand how we arrived at our current state in regards to informatics and automation in science. That will make it easier to understand what we need to do to make advancements. There is one key point to take away from this: in the history of lab automation, products weren\u2019t developed according to a grand plan&#91;d&#93; but rather to meet perceived needs and opportunities. Thought processes in this vein have likely included:\n\n\u201cHere\u2019s a problem that needs to be solved.\u201d\n\u201cIf I can figure out how to do X, then I can accomplish Y.\u201d\n\u201cThere\u2019s a business opportunity in building product concept X, which will help people do Y and Z.\"\nSometimes these ideas were voiced by lab personnel, but most of the time they were the result of someone seeing a problem or opportunity and taking the initiative to address it.\n\n1.1 Collecting data from instruments \nIn the late 1960s and early 1970s, instrument companies recognized that connecting a computer to the analog output of an instrument would help lab personnel capture and process data. The form that this product development took depended on how the developer saw the problem. We\u2019re going to look at chromatography&#91;e&#93; as an example for several reasons: it received the most attention for automation, it\u2019s a data rich technique that took considerable manual effort to analyze, and it was and still is one of the most popular instrumental techniques in chemical labs. The product solutions provided by the vendor reflected the technology available and their view of the problem that needed to be solved.\nThe analysis (Figure A1) depends on recognizing and quantifying a series of peaks, each of which represents the amount of a component in a mixture of materials. The size of the peak (measured by area \"better\" or height with respect to a baseline) helps quantify the amount, and the time it takes the peak to appear can be used to help identify the component.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure A1. Illustration of peaks from chromatograph. Source: public domain\n\n\n\nReference standards are prepared and run along with the samples. The peak response of the standards and their corresponding concentrations are used to draw a calibration curve, and the samples are quantified by comparing peak sizes against that curve (Figure A2).\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure A2. Samples are quantified by comparison to a calibration curve\n\n\n\nThe solutions reflected both the user\u2019s input and the vendor's observations, plus being too close to the problem and not seeing the whole picture. In that same timeframe, computing was expensive and you had to have a lot of processing done to justify the costs. Otherwise you dropped down to microprocessors and scaled back the size of the problem you could tackle. The microprocessor of choice was the Intel 4004, which was superseded by the Intel 8008 in 1972.\nWith computing, the chromatographer could detect peaks and quantify the peak height and area, later printing the results on a strip of paper. This was a big help to the chromatographer since determining peak size, and area in particular, was a major hassle. Prior to computerized methods, chromatographers were using:\n\nmechanical integrators built into the strip chart recorder (that recorded the chromatograph output), which were hard to read and didn\u2019t provide for baseline corrections (critical for accurate results);\na planimeter, which was time-comsuming and demanded careful attention;\na cut-and-weigh method, where the chromatographer literally cut our a copy of the peak and weighed it on a balance, cutting out a reference area, and comparing it to a calibration chart constructed from a similar procedure; and\na method that had the chromatographer counting the boxes the peak enclosed on the chart paper, which was not very accurate, though better than peak height in some cases.\nHaving the quantified peaks printed on a piece of paper meant that the analyst could move quickly to drawing the calibration curve and evaluating the results. However, from the standpoint of being a laborious, time-consuming task, this is only a piece of the problem (a major one, but only a part). Some users connected the output of the integrators (RS-232 serial ASCII) to minicomputers, transferred the integrator information, and completed the analytical process in the larger machines. Several integrators could be connected to a mini-computer so the cost per instrument was reduced. This was a step toward a better solution, but only a step.\nComputer vendors wanted to participate in the same market, but the cost of minicomputers put them at a disadvantage unless they could come at it from a different perspective. They looked at the entire data processing problem, including the points mentioned above, plus getting the computer to compute the calibration curve, complete the analysis, print out a report, and store the report and the data for later retrieval (integrators didn\u2019t have that capability). They could also store the raw digitized instrument output for later analysis and display. The cost per instrument dropped when computer vendors began connecting multiple instruments to one system, some from different labs. Nelson Analytical used a local-to-the-instrument box for data collection and control and then forwarded those information packets to a central system for processing. This bigger-picture view of the problem greatly reduced the workload on the analyst. As computing costs dropped and the power of microchips increased, several different approaches emerged from different vendors that had varied perspectives on computing. Most took the big-picture view but worked on a one-instrument-one-computer-station approach, which benefited small labs since they didn\u2019t have to invest in a minicomputer.\nThe low-cost of microprocessors more readily allowed digital systems to join the lab, to the point where almost every lab device had a computer chip in it (\u201cdigital\u201d was a strong marketing point). Now that we had lots of digital data sources, what was the lab going to do with them?\n\n1.2 The beginning of laboratory informatics systems \nIn the early 1970s, PerkinElmer described its instrument supporting computers as \u201cdata stations.\u201d Then they announced the \u201claboratory information management system\u201d or \"LIMS,\" and the next level of informatics hit the lab market. However, \u201claboratory information management system\u201d was a problematic name for a product that did sample and test tracking. The customers thought it would take into account all of a lab's information, including personnel records, scheduling, budgets, documents, anything that \u201cinformation\u201d could be attached to, ultimately promising more than it could deliver. It took some time, but eventually something like that happened. From a marketing standpoint, it got people\u2019s attention.\nSeveral other vendors, consulting companies, startups, and computer vendors began LIMS development projects (computer vendors felt that database systems were their turf). This was viewed as a strategic offering: the testing lab's operations would revolve around the LIMS, and that gave the LIMS vendor whose product was chosen a strong marketing position in that company.\nThe introduction of the LIMS eventually opened the door to other informatics applications. The major classes and functions of said applications are show in Figure A3.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure A3. The starting point for major classes of lab informatics systems and the lab functions they addressed\n\n\n\nMissing from the chart are user-developer tools like LabView from National Instruments that enabled users to develop data acquisition and control applications via a graphical user interface.\nThe term \u201celectronic laboratory notebook\u201d or \"ELN\" has had an interesting history. It\u2019s been applied to at least three types of software before its most current iteration. Laboratory Technologies, Inc. first created LABTECH Notebook, a PC-based software package designed to assist users with the communication between a computer and its lab instruments via RS-232 connections. Then there was Wolfram's Mathematica software, an electronic notebook for advanced mathematics. And finally there was Velquest's SmartLAB, an ELN for conducting analyzes and recording information from laboratory procedures, becoming the first laboratory execution system (LES).\nFigure A3 showed a nice clean, somewhat idealized, starting point for the introduction of lab informatics. That didn\u2019t last long. Vendors saw what their competition was doing and the opportunities to expand their products' capabilities (and market acceptance). What were clean, neat, functionality silos became more complex products to attract the attention of scientists and laboratorians (Figure A4).\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure A4. Lab informatics capability expansion\n\n\n\nThese expanded capabilities meant that a single vendor solution could address more of a lab\u2019s needs, simplifying support, installation, and so on through the use of a singular software package. It did, however, make product and vendor selection more of a challenge; you really had to know what you needed. It also raised questions of cross-product compatibility: what instruments connected easily to what LIMS, ELN, or SDMS? If it wasn\u2019t easy, what did you do? Third-party intermediate systems were eventually developed that translated instrument communications similarly in the way database systems did.\nWhile all this was going on in the expanding digital laboratory space, people still had things to do on the lab bench.\n\n1.3 Electro-mechanical robotics \nDuring the 1970s and 80s, vendors noted the amount of time spent doing repetitive tasks at the lab bench. This resulted in two different approaches to product development:\n\nDedicated-function robotics: The development of auto-samplers, auto-titrators, and similar devices that were used to carry out a specific task\nGeneral-purpose robotics: The development of an elaborate kit the use user had to assemble to robotically complete a task; not too different from a computer programming language: the\ncomponents are there, you just have to organize them to make something useful happen\nAlthough each of these approaches was potentially useful, they each presented the user community with different sets of problems.\nThe dedicated-function robotics device generally worked well; that wasn\u2019t the issue. The problem arose when they had to connect to other components and instruments. The use of an auto-sampler, for example, required the user to adjust their sample preparation so that the material to be analyzed wound up in the appropriate sample vials. This may have required adjusting the procedure to accommodate a different set of mechanics than they were used to, e.g., sealing the vials or choosing the proper vial for an application. Auto-samplers feed samples into instruments so there is a matter of setting up control signals for proper coordination with instruments and instrument data systems.\nOther devices such as auto-titrators required a reservoir of samples (in the proper vial formats), and the vials had to be organized so that an analysis on sample ID456 was in fact that sample and that the order didn\u2019t get mixed up. The data output could also be a problem. The default for many vendors was a spreadsheet-compatible file, though it was up to the user to make sense of it and integrate it into the workflow. This was probably the best compromise available until more formalized data interchange and communications standards became available. The vendor had no idea how a particular device was going to fit into a procedure's workflow or what was going to happen to the data further downstream, so a CSV file format as a solution was simple, flexible, and easy to work with. It also meant more work on the user's part on the integration front, representing another place where changes may have to be made if a device is replaced in the future.\nWith the dedicated-function device, which could be as simple as a balance (the process of reading a force exerted on a sensor and converted to a weight is an automated process), we have potentially isolated elements of automation that are either interconnected by programming or someone reading data and re-entering it. However, there is no \u201cplug-and-go\u201d capability.\nAs for the general-purpose robotics device, they could be broken down into two categories: those that were successful in the broad marketplace and those that weren't. In the 1980s, three vendors were competing for attention in the laboratory robotics market: Zymark, Hewlett-Packard, and PerkinElmer. Each of their general-purpose systems had a moveable arm that could grip items and be programmed to carry out lab procedures. Yet they faced a daunting task: the process of gripping items was problematic. The robot didn\u2019t work with just one gripper or \"hand\"; it required multiple interchangeable hands that had to be swapped depending on the next sequence of actions and what items had to be grasped. Those items were typically things designed for human use, including flasks, test tubes, and a variety of other equipment. This problem was non-trivial, a result of having the robot work with equipment designed for humans so that the lab didn\u2019t have to buy duplicate components, which would have raised problems of cost, and the ability to carry on work if the robot didn\u2019t function. Another issue with the grippers and their holders was that they took up space. The Zymark system for example had a central robotic arm that could reach items within the shell of a hemispherical volume; grippers took up space that could be used by other devices. Some people were successful in building systems, but not enough to make the products economically viable. In many respects, the core robotics technologies should have been successful, but the peripheral devices were not up to the necessary operational levels; good for humans, lacking for automation.\nAnother problem was education. The vendors would run courses to train people to use their systems. However, successful implementations required engineering, expertise, and experience, not just experimentation. Further robust systems, those capable of running days on end with built-in error detection and correction, were rare but necessary to avoid processing samples into junk. People had the need and the desire to make working systems, but not the process engineering skills to create successful implementations.\nThe life sciences market, and biotechnology in particular, took a different approach to robotics: they standardized the sample carrier format in the form of the microplate. The physical dimensions of the microplate were constant while the number of sample cells could vary. The image on the right of Figure A5, for example, shows plates with 96, 384, and 1,536 wells, with even higher densities available.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure A5. A microplate sample holder (left); examples of 96, 384, and 1,536 well holders, care of WikiMedia Commons (right)\n\n\n\nWhat did this mean for robotics? Every device that interacted with a microplate could be reliably designed with a single gripper size and a single aperture size for plates to be inserted. Systems would \u201cknow\u201d where in the sample space the sample wells were. In short, standardization made it easier to build equipment for a marketplace. And a lot of equipment was built and put into successful use.&#91;f&#93;\nThe combination of robotics and microplates also worked well in biotechnology because of the prevalence of liquid samples; this point can not be stressed enough. We are good at working with fluids, including measuring amounts, transferring them, dispensing them, and so on. Solids can be a problem because of cross-contamination if equipment isn\u2019t cleaned, if the solid is tacky, if the particle size isn\u2019t right for the equipment, if it has a tendency to roll, and so on. Solids also have the potential for problems with homogeneity. (You can get layering in liquids, but that can be solved in \u201ctwo shakes.\u201d)\n\n1.3.1 Two approaches to sample processing with robotics \nBroadly speaking, there are two approaches to sample processing with robotics: batching and sample-at-a-time runs. The microplate is an example of batch processing. Each tray is handled (dilution, sealing, reading, etc.) at a station, and you don\u2019t have an opportunity to evaluate the results until the analysis for a tray is completed and reported. Other methods such as ICP, mass spectrometry, chromatography, etc. that use auto-injectors can behave in a similar fashion, or be evaluated on a sample-at-a-time basis. It depends on how the process is planned and implemented, and at what stage the results are evaluated.\nThe sample-at-a-time procedure offers an interesting alternative pathway for automated analysis. This process can include auto-titrators, in addition to the techniques noted, as well as others. Here each sample is processed in stages either one-at-a-time or in overlapping stages. While one sample is being processed in stage 3 (adding a solvent for example), a sample in stage 4 is being injected into an instrument. This means that the results for one sample can be known before the next one is processed. The benefit is that systematic errors can be caught and corrected before all samples are processed. This would reduce waste and improve overall efficiency.\n\n1.4 Sample storage organization \nBefore we leave the topic of samples, we need to address the subject of sample storage organization. This is important, as poor organization and management can nullify any gains from automation. There are two aspects to consider: the organization process itself and the physical nature of the samples.\nIn the life sciences, biobanking and refrigerated storage management have been actively discussed topics. For example a white paper commissioned for Titian Software Ltd. titled The Essential Guide to Managing Laboratory Samples goes into a fair amount of depth on the subject.&#91;18&#93; And if you Google \u201claboratory sample storage management,\u201d you\u2019ll get a sizeable listing of material, including peer-reviewed work by Redrup et al. titled \"Sample Management: Recommendation for Best Practices and Harmonization from the Global Bioanalysis Consortium Harmonization Team.\u201d&#91;19&#93; The abstract of the work of Redrup et al. reads in part&#91;19&#93;:\n\nThe importance of appropriate sample management in regulated bioanalysis is undeniable for clinical and non-clinical study support due to the fact that if the samples are compromised at any stage prior to analysis, the study results may be affected. Health authority regulations do not contain specific guidance on sample management; therefore, as part of the Global Bioanalysis Consortium (GBC), the A5 team was established to discuss sample management requirements and to put forward recommendations.\nIn short, you have to have control of your samples and be able to ensure their integrity.\n\n1.4.1 The nature of incoming samples \nConsiderations about the nature of incoming samples don\u2019t get as much press as they deserve. For example, if you are in quality control, the nature of your incoming samples is going to be consistent and determined by the production process. In fact, sample preparation is likely to be integrated with the test procedure\u2019s automation. If the samples are fluids, the impact on an automation process may be small compared to working with solids. One complicating factor with fluids is the need to remove extraneous material so that downstream problems aren\u2019t created. That removal may be accomplished by filtering, settling, centrifugal separation, batch centrifugation, or other means depending on the amount of material and its composition.\nWorking with solids raises several other issues. First, does the material have to be reduced to a coarse or fine powder before processing? This may be needed to permit precise weighing of amounts or providing a large surface area for solvent extractions. Second, is fabrication of a sample piece required? Some mechanical properties testing of plastics require molding test bars. Other tests may require pressing films for spectral analysis. Other issues exist as well. Some are industry-specific, for example working with hazardous materials (including toxic substances and radioactive samples), and those requiring careful environmental and\/or security controls.\nIn many labs, automation is viewed as something that happens after the samples are logged in. Yet that doesn\u2019t have to be the case. The following paragraphs focus on testing labs because they are the most likely to benefit from automation. They meet the two key criteria for automation implementation: stable procedures and sufficient workload to justify the cost of automation development. That can also happen in research labs, though; in the end it's simply a matter of the nature of the work.\nTesting labs (e.g., quality control and non-routine internal and contract labs) can take steps to streamline their sample handling operations, though unfortunately at the expense of someone else\u2019s labor (just make it worth their effort). For example, those submitting samples can be required to pre-log their samples. This can be accomplished by giving them access to restricted accounts on a LIMS that lets them log samples in, and little more. Sample containers can also be standardized with barcodes. The barcodes can then be required as part of the logging process and are critical to identifying samples that have reached the lab, as well as tracking their physical location. Additionally, sample container sizes and related container forms can also be standardized. These should match the requirements for sample handling in automated systems, if possible. (Unless you supply them, your submitters may not have the tools for sealing sample vials, etc.) Finally, all this cooperative effort to standardize sample reception can be incentivized with price breaks, which is likely to lead to faster TAT. In other words, give them an incentive to work with you, the lab. They are supplying labor that could potentially impact their productivity, so give them a good reason to work with you.\nTesting operations can, as a result, see further benefits:\n\nSample storage management and access is improved.\nYou\u2019ll be more informed of incoming work.\nAutomation and scheduling is enhanced when it begins with the requester instead of post-login.\nMy first professional lab experience was in polymers in an analytical research group (some routine work, a lot of non-routine work). Samples would arrive in a variety of containers (e.g., bags, jars, test tubes, envelopes, fabricated parts taped to sample request forms). Sample matrices would range from pellets, waxes, and powders to liquids, gas cylinders, rolls of film, and more. Classifying those samples, figuring out where to put them, locating them, and preparing them for work (which often involved grinding them in a Wiley mill) was a major time sink, sufficiently so that the actual analysis was a smaller part of the overall workflow. As such, anything you can do to streamline that process will help productivity and contribute to a successful automation project.\n\n Abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms \nCDS: Chromatography data system\nELN: Electronic laboratory notebook\nEVOP: Evolutionary operations\nICP: Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry\nK\/D\/I: Knowledge, data, and information\nLIMS: Laboratory information management system\nLOF: Laboratory of the future\nLSE: Laboratory systems engineer\nNMR: Nuclear magnetic resonance\nQC: Quality control\nROI: Return on investment\nSDMS: Scientific data management system\nStd.SP: Standard sample program\nTLA: Total laboratory automation\nTAT: Turn-around time\n\nFootnotes \n\n\n\u2191 Where the amount of titrant added is adjusted based on the response to the previous addition. This should yield faster titrations with increased accuracy. \n\n\u2191 In prior writings, the term \u201cscientific manufacturing\u201d was used. The problem with that term is that we\u2019re not making products but instead producing results. Plus \u201cmanufacturing results\u201d has some negative connotations. \n\n\u2191 Wikipedia says this of calendering: \"A calender is a series of hard pressure rollers used to finish or smooth a sheet of material such as paper, textiles, or plastics. Calender rolls are also used to form some types of plastic films and to apply coatings.\" \n\n\u2191 See the discussion on clinical chemistry in the main text. \n\n\u2191 If you\u2019re not familiar with the method, Wikipedia's chromatography page is a good starting point. \n\n\u2191 See Wikipedia's microplate article for more. \n\n\nAbout the author \nInitially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Liscouski, J.&#32;(2015).&#32;Computerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide.&#32;PDA\/DHI.&#32;pp.&#160;432.&#32;ASIN&#160;B010EWO06S.&#32;ISBN&#160;978-1933722863. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 Wilkinson, M.D.; Dumontier, M.; Aalbersberg, I.J. et al.&#32;(2016).&#32;\"The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship\".&#32;Scientific Data&#32;3: 160018.&#32;doi:10.1038\/sdata.2016.18.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC4792175.&#32;PMID&#160;26978244.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC4792175 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Fish, M.; Minicuci, D.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"Overcoming the Challenges of a LIMS Migration\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Research &amp; Development&#32;47&#32;(2).&#32;http:\/\/apps.thermoscientific.com\/media\/SID\/Informatics\/PDF\/Article-Overcoming-the-Challanges.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Fish, M.; Minicuci, D.&#32;(1 April 2013).&#32;\"Overcoming daunting business challenges of a LIMS migration\".&#32;Scientist Live.&#32;https:\/\/www.scientistlive.com\/content\/overcoming-daunting-business-challenges-lims-migration .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Overcoming the Challenges of Legacy Data Migration\".&#32;FreeLIMS.org.&#32;CloudLIMS.com, LLC.&#32;29 June 2018.&#32;https:\/\/freelims.org\/blog\/legacy-data-migration-to-lims.html .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"AUTO03 Laboratory Automation: Communications With Automated Clinical Laboratory Systems, Instruments, Devices, and Information Systems, 2nd Edition\".&#32;Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute.&#32;30 September 2009.&#32;https:\/\/clsi.org\/standards\/products\/automation-and-informatics\/documents\/auto03\/ .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sarkozi, L.; Simson, E.; Ramanathan, L.&#32;(2003).&#32;\"The effects of total laboratory automation on the management of a clinical chemistry laboratory. Retrospective analysis of 36 years\".&#32;Clinica Chimica Acta&#32;329&#32;(1\u20132): 89\u201394.&#32;doi:10.1016\/S0009-8981(03)00020-2. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Total Laboratory Automation - Michael Bissell, MD, Ph.D\".&#32;YouTube.&#32;University of Washington.&#32;15 July 2014.&#32;https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RdwFZyYE_4Q .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"MassLynx LIMS Interface\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Waters Corporation.&#32;November 2016.&#32;https:\/\/www.waters.com\/webassets\/cms\/library\/docs\/720005731en%20Masslynx%20LIMS%20Interface.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1578 - 18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2018.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Schmitt, S., ed.&#32;Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences.&#32;DHI Publishing.&#32;pp.&#160;385.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781933722979.&#32;https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E2078 - 00(2016) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Mass Spectrometric Data\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2016.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E2078.htm .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1948 - 98(2014) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2014.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1948.htm .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"MilliporeSigma Acquires BSSN Software to Accelerate Customers\u2019 Digital Transformation in the Lab\".&#32;Merck KGaA.&#32;6 August 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.emdgroup.com\/en\/news\/bssn-software-06-08-2019.html .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 McDonald,&#32;Robert S.&#59;&#32;Wilks,&#32;Paul A.&#32;(1 January 1988).&#32;\"JCAMP-DX: A Standard Form for Exchange of Infrared Spectra in Computer Readable Form\"&#32;(in en).&#32;Applied Spectroscopy&#32;42&#32;(1): 151\u2013162.&#32;doi:10.1366\/0003702884428734.&#32;ISSN&#160;0003-7028.&#32;http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1366\/0003702884428734 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Welcome to GAML.org\".&#32;GAML.org.&#32;22 June 2007.&#32;http:\/\/www.gaml.org\/default.asp .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 CNN Business&#32;(17 April 2015).&#32;\"Micro robots drive Bayer's high-tech vision\".&#32;YouTube.&#32;https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_PuTKH7143c .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Oxer, M.; Stroud, T.&#32;(2017).&#32;\"The Essential Guide to Managing Laboratory Samples\".&#32;Titian Software Ltd.&#32;https:\/\/www.titian.co.uk\/the-essential-guide-to-managing-laboratory-samples-web .&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 19.0 19.1 Redrup,&#32;Michael J.&#59;&#32;Igarashi,&#32;Harue&#59;&#32;Schaefgen,&#32;Jay&#59;&#32;Lin,&#32;Jenny&#59;&#32;Geisler,&#32;Lisa&#59;&#32;Ben M\u2019Barek,&#32;Mohamed&#59;&#32;Ramachandran,&#32;Subramanian&#59;&#32;Cardoso,&#32;Thales&#32;et al.&#32;(1 March 2016).&#32;\"Sample Management: Recommendation for Best Practices and Harmonization from the Global Bioanalysis Consortium Harmonization Team\"&#32;(in en).&#32;The AAPS Journal&#32;18&#32;(2): 290\u2013293.&#32;doi:10.1208\/s12248-016-9869-2.&#32;ISSN&#160;1550-7416.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC4779093.&#32;PMID&#160;26821803.&#32;http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1208\/s12248-016-9869-2 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 9 February 2022, at 19:44.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,722 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems_One_Person_s_Perspective rootpage-LII_Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems_One_Person_s_Perspective skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:Directions in Laboratory Systems: One Person's Perspective<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>Directions in Laboratory Systems: One Person's Perspective<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: November 2021\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The purpose of this work is to provide one person's perspective on planning for the use of computer systems in the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a>, and with it a means of developing a direction for the future. Rather than concentrating on \u201cscience first, support systems second,\u201d it reverses that order, recommending the construction of a solid support structure before populating the lab with systems and processes that produce knowledge, information, and data (K\/I\/D).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Intended_audience\">Intended audience<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This material is intended for those working in laboratories of all types. The biggest benefit will come to those working in startup labs since they have a clean slate to work with, as well as those freshly entering into scientific work as it will help them understand the roles of various systems. Those working in existing labs will also benefit by seeing a different perspective than they may be used to, giving them an alternative path for evaluating their current structure and how they might adjust it to improve operations. \n<\/p><p>However, all labs in a given industry can benefit from this guide since one of its key points is the development of industry-wide guidelines to solving technology management and planning issues, improving personnel development, and more effectively addressing common projects in automation, instrument communications, and vendor relationships (resulting in lower costs and higher success rates). This would also provide a basis for evaluating new technologies (reducing risks to early adopters) and fostering product development with the necessary product requirements in a particular industry.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"About_the_content\">About the content<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This material follows in the footsteps of more than 15 years of writing and presentation on the topic. That writing and presentation\u2014<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Book:LIMSjournal_-_Laboratory_Technology_Special_Edition\" title=\"Book:LIMSjournal - Laboratory Technology Special Edition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca03292ab5af765e5a5a97438216ed5c\">compiled here<\/a>\u2014includes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Are_You_a_Laboratory_Automation_Engineer%3F\" title=\"LII:Are You a Laboratory Automation Engineer?\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67df76407d0807e78d9cde61bb3f82c9\"><i>Are You a Laboratory Automation Engineer?<\/i> (2006)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Elements_of_Laboratory_Technology_Management\" title=\"LII:Elements of Laboratory Technology Management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2000eea677bcd5ee1fcecdab32743800\"><i>Elements of Laboratory Technology Management<\/i> (2014)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\" title=\"LII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization&#39;s Work\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360\"><i>A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/i> (2018)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Technology_Management_%26_Planning\" title=\"LII:Laboratory Technology Management &amp; Planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2016524e3c4b551c982fcfc23e33220d\"><i>Laboratory Technology Management &amp; Planning<\/i> (2019)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\" title=\"LII:Notes on Instrument Data Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b7330228fd59158aab6fab82ad0e7cc\"><i>Notes on Instrument Data Systems<\/i> (2020)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Technology_Planning_and_Management:_The_Practice_of_Laboratory_Systems_Engineering\" title=\"LII:Laboratory Technology Planning and Management: The Practice of Laboratory Systems Engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"655f7d48a642e9b45533745af73f0d59\"><i>Laboratory Technology Planning and Management: The Practice of Laboratory Systems Engineering<\/i> (2020)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\" title=\"LII:Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9\"><i>Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures<\/i> (2021)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:The_Application_of_Informatics_to_Scientific_Work:_Laboratory_Informatics_for_Newbies\" title=\"LII:The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8b467af534a70312a21f63b61be26cd\"><i>The Application of Informatics to Scientific Work: Laboratory Informatics for Newbies<\/i> (2021)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>While that material covers some of the \u201cwhere do we go from here\u201d discussions, I want to bring a lot of it together in one spot so that we can see what the entire picture looks like, while still leaving some of the details to the titles above. Admittedly, there have been some changes in thinking over time from what was presented in those pieces. For example, the concept of \"laboratory automation engineering\" has morphed into \"laboratory systems engineering,\" given that in the past 15 years the scope of laboratory automation and computing has broadened significantly. Additionally, references to \"scientific manufacturing\" are now replaced with \"scientific production,\" since laboratories tend to produce ideas, knowledge, results, information, and data, not tangible widgets. And as the state of laboratories continues to dynamically evolve, there will likely come more changes.\n<\/p><p>Of special note is 2019's <i>Laboratory Technology Management &amp; Planning<\/i> webinars. They provide additional useful background towards what is covered in this guide.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Looking_forward_and_back:_Where_do_we_begin?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Looking_forward_and_back:_Where_do_we_begin.3F\">Looking forward and back: Where do we begin?<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-The_&quot;laboratory_of_the_future&quot;_and_laboratory_systems_engineering\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_.22laboratory_of_the_future.22_and_laboratory_systems_engineering\">The \"laboratory of the future\" and laboratory systems engineering<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The \u201claboratory of the future\u201d (LOF) makes for an interesting playground of concepts. People's view of the LOF is often colored by their commercial and research interests. Does the future mean tomorrow, next month, six years, or twenty years from now? In reality, it means all of those time spans coupled with the length of a person's tenure in the lab, and the legacy they want to leave behind.\n<\/p><p>However, with those varied time spans we\u2019ll need flexibility and adaptability for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management\" title=\"Information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73\">managing data<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> while also preserving access and utility for the products of lab work, and that requires organization and planning. Laboratory equipment will change and storage media and data formats will evolve. The instrumentation used to collect data and information will change, and so will the computers and software applications that manage that data and information. Every resource that has been expended in executing lab work has been to develop knowledge, information, and data (K\/I\/D). How are you going to meet that management challenge and retain the expected return on investment (ROI)? Answering it will be one of the hallmarks of the LOF. It will require a deliberate plan that touches on every aspect of lab work: people, equipment and systems choices, and relationships with vendors and information technology support groups. Some points reside within the lab while others require coordination with corporate groups, particularly when we address long-term storage, ease of access, and security (both physical and electronic).\n<\/p><p>During discussions of the LOF, some people focus on the technology behind the instruments and techniques used in lab work, and they will continue to impress us with their sophistication. However, the bottom line of those conversations is their ability to produce results: K\/I\/D.\n<\/p><p>Modern laboratory work is a merger of science and information technology. Some of the information technology is built into instruments and equipment, the remainder supports those devices or helps manage operations. That technology needs to be understood, planned, and engineered into smoothly functioning systems if labs are to function at a high level of performance.\n<\/p><p>Given all that, how do we prepare for the LOF, whatever that future turns out to be? One step is the development of \u201claboratory systems engineering\u201d as a means of bringing structure and discipline to the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">informatics<\/a>, robotics, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation\" title=\"Laboratory automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331\">automation<\/a> to lab systems.\n<\/p><p>But who is the laboratory systems engineer (LSE)? The LSE is someone able to understand and be conversant in both the laboratory science and IT worlds, relating them to each other to the benefit of lab operation effectiveness while guiding IT in performing their roles. A fully dedicated LSE will understand a number of important principles:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Knowledge, information, and data should always be protected, available, and usable.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167\">Data integrity<\/a> is paramount.<\/li>\n<li>Systems and their underlying components should be supportable, meaning they are proven to meet users' needs (validated), capable of being modified without causing conflicts with results produced by previous versions, documented, upgradable (without major disruption to lab operations), and able to survive upgrades in connected systems.<\/li>\n<li>Systems should be integrated into lab operations and not exist as isolated entities, unless there are overriding concerns.<\/li>\n<li>Systems should be portable, meaning they are able to be relocated and installed where appropriate, and not restricted to a specific combination of hardware and\/or software that can\u2019t be duplicated.<\/li>\n<li>There should be a smooth, reproducible (bi-directional, if appropriate), error-free (including error detection and correction) flow of results, from data generation to the point of use or need.<\/li><\/ol>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-But_how_did_we_get_here?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"But_how_did_we_get_here.3F\">But how did we get here?<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The primary purpose of laboratory work is developing and carrying out scientific methods and experiments, which are used to answer questions. We don\u2019t want to lose sight of that, or the skill needed to do that work. Initially the work was done manually, which inevitably limited the amount of data and information that could be produced, and in turn the rate at which new knowledge could be developed and distributed.\n<\/p><p>However, the introduction of electronic instruments changed that, and the problem shifted from data and information production to data and information utilization (including the development of new knowledge), distribution, and management. That\u2019s where we are today.\n<\/p><p>Science plays a role in the production of data and information, as well as the development of knowledge. In between we have the tools used in data and information collection, storage, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1\">analysis<\/a>, etc. That\u2019s what we\u2019ll be talking about in this document. The equipment and concepts we\u2019re concerned with here are the tools used to assist in conducting that work and working with the results. They are enablers and amplifiers of lab processes. As in almost any application, the right tools used well are an asset.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig1_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"518c9d8873fabfb9564ead7d65137cd7\"><img alt=\"Fig1 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/d\/dc\/Fig1_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 1.<\/b> Databases for knowledge, information, and data (K\/I\/D) are represented as ovals, and the processes acting on them as arrows.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>One problem with the distinction between science and informatics tools is that lab personnel understand the science, but they largely don't understand the intricacies of information and computing technologies that comprise the tools they use to facilitate their work. Laboratory personnel are educated in a variety of scientific disciplines, each having its own body of knowledge and practices, each requiring specialization. Shouldn't the same apply to the expertise needed to address the \u201ctools\u201d? On one hand we have <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography\" title=\"Chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2615535d1f14c6cffdfad7285999ad9d\">chromatographers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Spectroscopy\" title=\"Spectroscopy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2babfd09e1f6d00d86ad7032cbb60d91\">spectroscopists<\/a>, physical chemists, toxicologists, etc., and on the other roboticists, database experts, network specialists, and so on. In today's reality these are not IT specialists but rather LSEs who understand how to apply the IT tools to lab work with all the nuances and details needed to be successful.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Moving_forward\">Moving forward<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>If we are going to advance laboratory science and its practice, we need the right complement of experienced people. Moving forward to address laboratory- and organization-wide productivity needs a different perspective; rather than ask how we improve things at the bench, ask how we improve the processes and organization.\n<\/p><p>This guide is about long-term planning for lab automation and K\/I\/D management. The material in this guide is structured in sections, and each section starts with a summary, so you can read the summary and decide if you want more detail. However, before you toss it on the \u201clater\u201d pile, read the next few bits and then decide what to do.\n<\/p><p>Long-term planning is essential to organizational success. The longer you put it off, the more expensive it will be, the longer it will take to do it, and the more entrenched behaviors you'll have to overcome. Additionally, you won\u2019t be in a position to take advantage of the developing results.\n<\/p><p>It\u2019s time to get past the politics and the inertia and move forward. Someone has to take the lead on this, full-time or part-time, depending on the size of your organization (i.e., if there's more than one lab, know that it affects all of them). Leadership should be from the lab side, not the IT side, as IT people may not have the backgrounds needed and may view everything through their organizations priorities. (However, their support will be necessary for a successful outcome.)\n<\/p><p>The work conducted on the lab bench produces data and information. That is the start of realizing the benefits from research and testing work. The rest depends upon your ability to work with that data and information, which in turn depends on how well your data systems are organized and managed. This culminates in maximizing benefit at the least cost, i.e., ROI. It\u2019s important to you, and it\u2019s important to your organization.\n<\/p><p>Planning has to be done at least four levels:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Industry-wide (e.g., biotech, mining, electronics, cosmetics, food and beverage, plastics, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>Within your organization<\/li>\n<li>Within your lab<\/li>\n<li>Within your lab processes<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>One important aspect of this planning process\u2014particularly at the top, industry-wide level\u2014is the specification of a framework to coordinate product, process (methods), or standards research and development at the lower levels. This industry-wide framework is ideally not a \u201cthis is what you must do\u201d but rather a common structure that can be adapted to make the work easier and, as a basis for approaching vendors for products and product modifications that will benefit those in your industry, give them confidence that the requests have a broader market appeal. If an industry-wide approach isn\u2019t feasible, then larger companies may group together to provide the needed leadership. Note, however, that this should not be perceived as an industry\/company vs. vendor effort; rather, this is an industry\/company working with vendors. The idea of a large group effort is to demonstrate a consensus viewpoint and that vendors' development efforts won\u2019t be in vain.\n<\/p><p>The development of this framework, among other things, should cover:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Informatics<\/li>\n<li>Communications (networking, instrument control and data, informatics control and data, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>Physical security (including power)<\/li>\n<li>Data integrity and security<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cybersecurity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cybersecurity\" data-key=\"ba653dc2a1384e5f9f6ac9dc1a740109\">Cybersecurity<\/a><\/li>\n<li>The FAIR principles (the findability, accessibility, interoperability, and reusability of data<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilkinsonTheFAIR16_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilkinsonTheFAIR16-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>)<\/li>\n<li>The application of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f\">cloud<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Virtualization\" title=\"Virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6ef1e0497ceb6545c0948d436eba29c\">virtualization<\/a> technologies<\/li>\n<li>Long-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls (i.e., the impact of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> and other software subscription models)<\/li>\n<li>Bi-directional <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange\" title=\"Data exchange\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66\">data interchange<\/a> between archived instrument data in standardized formats and vendor software, requiring tamper-proof formats<\/li>\n<li>Instrument design for automation<\/li>\n<li>Sample storage management<\/li>\n<li>Guidance for automation<\/li>\n<li>Education for lab management and lab personnel<\/li>\n<li>The conversion of manual methods to semi- or fully automated systems<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>These topics affect both a lab's science personnel and its LSEs. While some topics will be of more interest to the engineers than the scientists, both groups have a stake in the results, as do any IT groups.\n<\/p><p>As digital systems become more entrenched in scientific work, we may need to restructure our thinking from \u201clab bench\u201d and \u201cinformatics\u201d to \u201cdata and information sources\u201d and \u201cdigital tools for working, organizing, and managing those elements.\" Data and information sources can extend to third-party labs and other published material. We have to move from digital systems causing incremental improvements (today\u2019s approach), to a true revolutionary restructuring of how science is conducted.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laboratory_computing\">Laboratory computing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>Laboratory systems are planned, designed, and engineered. They are not simply a collection of components. Laboratory computing is a transformational technology, one which has yet to fully emerge in large part because those who work in laboratories with computing aren\u2019t fully educated about it to take advantage of it.<\/i>\n<\/p><p>Laboratory computing has always been viewed as an \"add-on\" to traditional laboratory work. These add-ons have the potential to improve our work, make it faster, and make it more productive (see Appendix 1 for more details).\n<\/p><p>The common point-of-view in the discussion of lab computing has been focused on the laboratory scientist or manager, with IT providing a supporting role. That isn\u2019t the only viewpoint available to us, however. Another viewpoint is from that of the laboratory systems engineer (LSE), who focuses on data and information flow. This latter viewpoint should compel us to reconsider the role of computing in the laboratory and the higher level needs of laboratory operations.\n<\/p><p>Why is this important? Data and information generation may represent the end of the lab bench process, but it\u2019s just the beginning of its use in broader scientific work. The ability to take advantage of those elements in the scope of manufacturing and corporate research and development (R&amp;D) is where the real value is realized. That requires planning for storage, access, and utilization over the long term.\n<\/p><p>The problem with the traditional point-of-view (i.e., instrumentation first, with computing in a supporting role) is that the data and information landscape is built supporting the portion of lab work that is the most likely to change (Figure 2). You wind up building an information architecture to meet the requirements of diverse data structures instead of making that architecture part of the product purchase criteria. Systems are installed as needs develop, not as part of a pre-planned information architecture.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig2_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"55245fa5ec8c8de01e309fff006f043f\"><img alt=\"Fig2 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/7\/70\/Fig2_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 2.<\/b> Hierarchy of lab systems, noting frequency of change<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Designing an informatics architecture has some things in common with building a house. You create the foundation first, a supporting structure that everything sits on. Adding the framework sets up the primary living space, which can be modified as needed without disturbing the foundation (Figure 3). If you built the living space first and then wanted to install a foundation, you\u2019d have a mess to deal with.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig3_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fa3e98d742ed53067982cbcabdfb29a\"><img alt=\"Fig3 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/3\/3e\/Fig3_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 3.<\/b> Comparison of foundation and living\/working space levels in an organization<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The same holds true with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a>. Set the foundation\u2014the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">scientific data management system<\/a> (SDMS), etc.\u2014first, then add the data and information generation systems. That gives you a common set of requirements for making connections and can clarify some issues in product selection and systems integration. It may seem backwards if your focus is on data and information production, but as soon as you realize that you have to organize and manage those products, the benefits will be clear.\n<\/p><p>You might wonder how you go about setting up a LIMS, ELN, etc. before the instrumentation is set. However it isn\u2019t that much of a problem. You know why your lab is there and what kind of work you plan to do. That will guide you in setting up the foundation. The details of tests can be added as need. Most of that depends on having your people educated in what the systems are and how to use them.\n<\/p><p>Our comparison between a building and information systems does bring up some additional points. A building's access to utilities runs through control points; water and electricity don\u2019t come in from the public supply to each room but run through central control points that include a distribution system with safety and management features. We need the same thing in labs when it comes to network access. In our current society, access to private information for profit is a fact of life. While there are desirable features of lab systems available through network access (remote checking, access to libraries, updates, etc.), they should be controlled so that those with malicious intent are prevented access, and data and information are protected. Should instrument systems and office computers have access to corporate and external networks? That\u2019s your decision and revolves around how you want your lab run, as well as other applicable corporate policies.\n<\/p><p>The connections layer in Figure 3 is where devices connect to each other and the major informatics layer. This layer includes two functions: basic networking capability and application-to-application transfer. Take for example moving pH measurements to a LIMS or ELN; this is where things can get very messy. You need to define what that is and what the standards are to ensure a well-managed system (more on that when we look at industry-wide guidelines).\n<\/p><p>To complete the analogy, people do move the living space of a house from one foundation to another, often making for an interesting experience. Similarly, it\u2019s also possible to change the informatics foundation from one product set to another. It means exporting the contents of the database(s) to a product-independent format and then importing into the new system. If you think this is something that might be in your future, make the ability to engage in that process part of the product selection criteria. Like moving a house, it isn\u2019t going to be fun.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FishOvercoming05_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FishOvercoming05-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FishOvercoming13_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FishOvercoming13-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FreeLIMSWhat18_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FreeLIMSWhat18-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The same holds true for ELN and SDMS.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-How_automation_affects_people's_work_in_the_lab\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"How_automation_affects_people.27s_work_in_the_lab\">How automation affects people's work in the lab<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>There are two basic ways lab personnel can approach computing: it\u2019s a black box that they don\u2019t understand but is used as part of their work, or they are fully aware of the equipment's capabilities and limitations and know how to use it to its fullest benefit.<\/i>\n<\/p><p>While lab personnel may be fully educated in the science behind their work, the role of computing\u2014from pH meters to multi-instrument data systems\u2014may be viewed with a lack of understanding. That is a significant problem because they are responsible for the results that those systems produce, and they may not be aware of what happens to the signals from the instruments, where the limitations lie, and what can turn a well-executed procedure to junk because an instrument or computer setting wasn\u2019t properly evaluated and used. \n<\/p><p>In reality, automation has both a technical impact on their work and an impact on themselves. These are outlined below.\n<\/p><p>Technical impact on work:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>It can make routine work easier and more productive, reducing costs and improving ROI (more on that below).<\/li>\n<li>It can allow work to be performed that might otherwise be too expensive to entertain. There are techniques such as high-throughput screening and statistical experimental design that are useful in laboratory work but might be avoided because the effort of generating the needed data is too labor-intensive and time-consuming. Automated systems can relieve that problem and produce the volumes of data those techniques require.<\/li>\n<li>It can improve accuracy and reproducibility. Automated systems, properly designed and implemented, are inherently more reproducible than a corresponding manual system.<\/li>\n<li>It can increase safety by limiting people's exposure to hazardous situations and materials.<\/li>\n<li>It can also be a financial hole if proper planning and engineering aren\u2019t properly applied to a project. \u201cScope creep,\u201d changes in direction, and changes in project requirements and personnel are key reasons that projects are delayed or fail.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Impact on the personnel themselves:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>It can increase technical specialization, potentially improving work opportunities and people's job satisfaction. Having people move into a new technology area gives them an opportunity to grow both personally and professionally.<\/li>\n<li>Full automation of a process can cause some jobs to end, or at least change them significantly (more on that below).<\/li>\n<li>It can elevate routine work to more significant supervisory roles.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Most of these impacts are straightforward to understand, but several require further elaboration.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-It_can_make_routine_work_easier_and_more_productive,_reducing_costs_and_improving_ROI\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"It_can_make_routine_work_easier_and_more_productive.2C_reducing_costs_and_improving_ROI\">It can make routine work easier and more productive, reducing costs and improving ROI<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This sounds like a standard marketing pitch; is there any evidence to support it? In the 1980s, clinical chemistry labs were faced with a problem: the cost for their services was set on an annual basis without any adjustments permitted for rising costs during that period. If costs rose, income dropped; the more testing they did the worse the problem became. They addressed this problem as a community, and that was a key factor in their success. Clinical chemistry labs do testing on materials taken from people and animals and run standardized tests. This is the kind of environment that automation was created for, and they, as a community, embarked on a total laboratory automation (TLA) program. That program had a number of factors: education, standardization of equipment (the tests were standardized so the vendors knew exactly what they needed in equipment capabilities), and the development of instrument and computer communications protocols that enabled the transfer of data and information between devices (application to application).\n<\/p><p>Organizations such as the American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science (ASCLS) and the American Association for Clinical Chemistry (AACC), as well as many others, provide members with education and industry-wide support organization. Other examples include the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI), a non-profit organization that develops standards for laboratory automation and informatics (e.g., AUTO03-A2 on laboratory automation<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLSIAUTO03_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLSIAUTO03-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>), and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level Seven, Inc.<\/a>, a non-profit organization that provide software standards for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718\">data interoperability<\/a>. \n<\/p><p>Given that broad, industry-wide effort to address automation issues, the initial response was as follows<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SarkoziTheEff03_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SarkoziTheEff03-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Between 1965 and 2000, the Consumer Price Index increased by a factor of 5.5 in the United States.<\/li>\n<li>During the same 36 years, at Mount Sinai Medical Center's chemistry department, the productivity (indicated as the number of reported test results\/employee\/year) increased from 10,600 to 104,558 (9.3-fold).<\/li>\n<li>When expressed in constant 1965 dollars, the total cost per test decreased from $0.79 to $0.15.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In addition, the following data (Table 1 and 2) from Dr. Michael Bissell of Ohio State University provides further insight into the resulting potential increase in labor productivity by implementing TLA in the lab<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BissellTotal14_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BissellTotal14-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td colspan=\"4\" style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><b>Table 1.<\/b> Overall productivity of labor<br \/>&#160;<br \/>FTE = Full-time equivalent; TLA = Total laboratory automation\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Ratio\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Pre-TLA\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Post-Phase 1\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Change\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Test\/FTE\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">50,813\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">64,039\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+27%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Tests\/Tech FTE\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">80,058\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">89,120\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+11%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Tests\/Paid hour\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">20.8\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">52.9\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+24%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Tests\/Worked hour\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">24.4\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">30.8\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+26%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td colspan=\"4\" style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><b>Table 2.<\/b> Productivity of labor-processing area<br \/>&#160;<br \/>FTE = Full-time equivalent; TLA = Total laboratory automation\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Ratio\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Pre-TLA\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Post-Phase 1\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Change\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Specimens\/Processing FTE\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">39,899\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">68,708\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+72%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Specimens\/Processing paid hour\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">19.1\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">33.0\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+73%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">Requests\/Processing paid hour\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">12.7\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">21.5\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\">+69%\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Through TLA, improvements can be seen in:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Improved sample throughput<\/li>\n<li>Cost reduction<\/li>\n<li>Less variability in the data<\/li>\n<li>Reduced and more predictable consumption of materials<\/li>\n<li>Improved use of people's talents<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>While this data is almost 20 years old, it illustrates the impact in a change from a manual system to an automated lab environment. It also gives us an idea of what might be expected if industry- ir community-wide automation programs were developed.\n<\/p><p>Clinical laboratories are not unique in the potential to organize industry-wide standardized aspects of technology and work, and provide education. The same can be done anywhere as long as the ability to perform a particular test procedure isn\u2019t viewed as a unique competitive advantage. The emerging <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cannabis\" title=\"Cannabis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af797c56ff03f240199d1fdff0690555\">Cannabis<\/a><\/i> testing industry represents one such opportunity, among others.\n<\/p><p>The clinical industry has provided a template for the development of laboratory systems and automation. The list of instruments that meet the clinical communications standard continues to grow (e.g., Waters' MassLynx LIMS Interface<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WatersMassLynx16_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WatersMassLynx16-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>). There is nothing unique about the communications standards that prevent them from being used as a basis for development in other industries, aside from the data dictionary. As such, we need to move from an every-lab-for-itself approach to lab systems development toward a more cooperative and synergistic model.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Automation_can_cause_some_jobs_to_end,_or_at_least_change_them_significantly\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Automation_can_cause_some_jobs_to_end.2C_or_at_least_change_them_significantly\">Automation can cause some jobs to end, or at least change them significantly<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of the problems that managers and the people under them get concerned about is change. No matter how beneficial the change is for the organization, it raises people\u2019s anxiety levels and can affect their job performance unless they are prepared for it. In that context, questions and concerns staff may have in relation to automating aspects of a job include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>How are these changes going to affect my job and my income? Will it cause me to lose my job? That\u2019s about as basic as it gets, and it can impact people at any organizational level.<\/li>\n<li>Bringing in new technologies and products means learning new things, and that opens up the possibility that people may fail or not be as effective as they are currently. It can reshuffle the pecking order.<\/li>\n<li>The process of introducing new equipment, procedures, etc. is going to disrupt the lab's <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a>. The changes may be procedural structural, or both; how are you going to deal with those issues?<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Two past examples will highlight different approaches. In the first, a multi-instrument automation system was being introduced. Management told the lab personnel what was going to happen and why, and that they would be part of the final acceptance process. If they weren\u2019t happy, the system would be modified to meet their needs. The system was installed, software written to meet their needs, instruments connected, and the system was tested. Everyone was satisfied except one technician, and that proved to be a major roadblock to putting the system into service. The matter was discussed with the lab manager, who didn\u2019t see the problem; as soon as the system was up and running, that technician would be given a new set of responsibilities, something she was interested in. But no one told her that. As she saw it, once the system came on line she was out of a job. (One of the primary methods used in that lab's work was chromatography, with the instrument output recorded on chart paper. Most measurements were done using peak height, but peak area was used for some critical analyses. Those exacting measurements, made with a planimeter, were her responsibility and her unique\u2014as she saw it\u2014contribution to the lab's work. The instrument system replaced the need for this work. The other technicians and chemists had no problem adapting to the data system.) However, a short discussion between she and the lab manager alleviated the concerns.\n<\/p><p>The second example was handled a lot differently, and was concerned with the implementation of a lab\u2019s first LIMS. The people in the lab knew something was going on but not the details. Individual meetings were held with each member of the lab team to discuss what was being considered and to learn of their impressions and concerns (these sessions were held with an outside consultant, and the results were reported to management in summary form). Once that was completed, the project started, with the lab manager holding a meeting of all lab personnel and IT, describing what was going to be done, why, how the project was going to proceed, and the role of those working in the lab in determining product requirement and product selection. The concerns raised in the individual sessions were addressed up-front, and staff all understood that no one was going to lose their job, or suffer a pay cut. Yes, some jobs would change, and where appropriate that was discussed with each individual. There was an educational course about what a LIMS was, its role in the lab's work, and how it would improve the lab\u2019s operations. When those sessions were completed, the lab\u2019s personnel looked forward to the project. They were part of the project and the process, rather than having it done without their participation. In short, instead of it happening to them, it happened with them as willing participants.\n<\/p><p>People's attitudes about automation systems and being willing participants in their development can make a big difference in a project's success or failure. You don\u2019t want people to feel that the incoming system and the questions surrounding it are threatening, or seen as something that is potentially going to end their employment. They may not freely participate or they may leave when you need them the most.\n<\/p><p>All of this may seem daunting for a lab to take on by itself. Large companies may have the resources to handle it, but we need more than a large company to do this right; we need an industry-wide effort.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Development_of_industry-wide_guidelines\">Development of industry-wide guidelines<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>The discussion above about clinical labs illustrates what can be accomplished when an industry group focuses on a technology problem. We need to extend that thinking\u2014and action\u2014to a broader range of industries individually. The benefits of an industry-wide approach to addressing technology and education issues include:<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>providing a wider range of inputs to solving problems;<\/i><\/li>\n<li><i>providing a critical marketing mass to lobby vendors to create products that fit customers\u2019 needs in a particular industry;<\/i><\/li>\n<li><i>developing an organized educational program with emphasis on that industry's requirements;<\/i><\/li>\n<li><i>giving labs (startup and existing) a well-structured reference point to guide them (not dictate) in making technology decisions;<\/i><\/li>\n<li><i>reducing the cost of automation, with improved support; and<\/i><\/li>\n<li><i>where competitive issues aren\u2019t a factor, enabling industry-funded R&amp;D technology development and implementation for production or manufacturing quality, process control (integration of online quality information), and process management.<\/i><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The proposal: each industry group should define a set of guidelines to assist labs in setting up an information infrastructure. For the most part, large sections would end up similar across multiple industries, as there isn\u2019t that much behavioral distinction between some industry sets. The real separation would come in two places: the data dictionaries (data descriptions) and the nature of the testing and automation to implement that testing. Where there is a clear competitive edge to a test or its execution, each company may choose to go it alone, but that still leaves a lot of room for cooperation in method development, addressing both the basic science and its automated implementations, particularly where ASTM, USP, etc. methods are employed.\n<\/p><p>The benefits of this proposal are noted in the key point above. However, the three most significant ones are arguably:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the development of an organized education program with an emphasis on industry requirements;<\/li>\n<li>the development of a robust communications protocol for application-to-application transfers; and,<\/li>\n<li>the ability to lobby vendors from an industry-wide basis for product development, modification, and support.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In the \"Looking forward and back\" section earlier in this guide, we showed a bulleted list of considerations for the development of such a guideline-based framework. What follows is a more organized version of those points, separated into three sections, which all need to be addressed in any industry-based framework. For the purposes of this guide, we'll focus primarily on Section C: \"Issues that need concerted attention.\" Section A on background and IT support, and Section B on lab-specific background information, aren't discussed as they are addressed elsewhere, particularly in the previous works referenced in the Introduction. \n<\/p>\n<dl><dd><b>A.<\/b> General background and routine IT support\n<dl><dd>1. Physical security (including power)<\/dd>\n<dd>2. Cybersecurity<\/dd>\n<dd>3. Cloud and virtualization technologies<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><b>B.<\/b> Lab-specific background information\n<dl><dd>1. Informatics (could be an industry-specific version of <i>ASTM E1578 - 18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_18_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578_18-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>)<\/dd>\n<dd>2. Sample storage management and organization (see Appendix 1, section 1.4 of this guide)<\/dd>\n<dd>3. Guidance for automation<\/dd>\n<dd>4: Data integrity and security (see S. Schmitt's <i>Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, which has broader application outside the life sciences)<\/dd>\n<dd>5. The FAIR principles (the findability, accessibility, interoperability, and reusability of data; see Wilkinson <i>et al.<\/i> 2016<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilkinsonTheFAIR16_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilkinsonTheFAIR16-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>)<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><i>C.<\/i> Issues that need concerted attention:\n<dl><dd>1. Education for lab management and lab personnel<\/dd>\n<dd>2. The conversion of manual methods to semi- or full-automated methods (see <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\" title=\"LII:Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9\"><i>Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures<\/i><\/a> for more)<\/dd>\n<dd>3. Long-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls (i.e., the impact of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> and other software subscription models)<\/dd>\n<dd>4. Archived instrument data in standardized formats and standardized vendor software (requires tamper-proof formats)<\/dd>\n<dd>5. Instrument design for automation (Most instruments and their support software are dual-use, i.e., they work as stand-alone devices via front panels, or through software controls. While this is a useful selling tool\u2014whether by manual or automated use\u2014it means the device is larger, more complex, and expensive than a automation-only device that uses software [e.g., a smartphone or computer] for everything. Instruments and devices designed for automation should be more compact and permit more efficient automation systems.)<\/dd>\n<dd>6. Communications (networking, instrument control and data, informatics control and data, etc.)<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>We'll now go on to expand upon items C-1, C-3, C-4, and C-6.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"C-1._Education_for_lab_management_and_lab_personnel\">C-1. Education for lab management and lab personnel<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Laboratory work has become a merger of two disciplines: science and information technology (including robotics). Without the first, nothing happens; without the second, work will proceed but at a slower more costly pace. There are different levels of education requirements. For those working at the lab bench, not only do they need to understand the science, but also how the instrumentation and supporting computers systems (if any, including those embedded in the instrument) make and transform measurements into results. \u201cThe computer did it\u201d is not a satisfactory answer to \u201chow did you get that result,\u201d nor is \u201cmagic,\" or maintaining willful ignorance of exactly how the instrument measurements are taken. Laboratorians are responsible and accountable for the results, and they should be able to explain the process of how they were derived, including how settings on the instrument and computer software affect that work. Lab managers should understand the technologies at the functional level and how the systems interact with each other. They are accountable for the overall integrity of the systems and the data and information they contain. IT personnel should understand how lab systems differ from office applications and why business-as-usual for managing office applications doesn\u2019t work in the lab environment. The computer systems are there to support the instruments, and any changes that may affect that relationship should be initiated with care; the instrument vendor\u2019s support for computer systems upgrades is essential.\n<\/p><p>As such, we need a new personnel position, that of the laboratory systems engineer or LSE, to provide support for the informatics architecture. This isn\u2019t simply an IT person; it should be someone who is fluent in both the science and the information technology applied to lab work. (See <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Technology_Planning_and_Management:_The_Practice_of_Laboratory_Systems_Engineering\" title=\"LII:Laboratory Technology Planning and Management: The Practice of Laboratory Systems Engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"655f7d48a642e9b45533745af73f0d59\"><i>Laboratory Technology Planning and Management: The Practice of Laboratory Systems Engineering<\/i><\/a> for more on this topic.)\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"C-3._Long-term_usable_access_to_lab_information_in_databases_without_vendor_controls\">C-3. Long-term usable access to lab information in databases without vendor controls<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The data and information your lab produces, with the assistance of instrumentation and instrument data systems, is yours, and no one should put limits on your ability to work with it. There is a problem with modern software design: most lab data and information can only be viewed through applications software. In some cases, the files may be used with several applications, but often it is the vendor's proprietary formats that limit access. In those instances, you have to maintain licenses for that software for as long as you need access to the data and information, even if the original application has been replaced by something else. This can happen for a variety of reasons:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Better technology is available from another vendor<\/li>\n<li>A vendor sold part of its operations to another organization<\/li>\n<li>Organizations merge<\/li>\n<li>Completion of a consulting or research contract requires all data to be sent to the contracting organization<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>All of these, and others, are reasons for maintaining multiple versions of similar datasets that people need access to yet don\u2019t want to maintain licenses for into the future, even though they still must consider meeting regulatory (FDA, EPA, ISO, etc.) requirements.\n<\/p><p>All of this revolves around your ability to gain value from your data and information without having to pay for its access. The vendors don\u2019t want to give their software away for free either. What we need is something like the relationship between Adobe Acrobat Reader and the Adobe Acrobat application software. The latter gives you the ability to create, modify, comment, etc. documents, while the former allows you to view them. The Reader gives anyone the ability to view the contents, just not alter it. We need a \u201creader\u201d application for instrument data collected and processed by an instrument data system. We need to be able to view the reports, raw data, etc. and export the data in a useful format, everything short of acquiring and processing new data. This gives you the ability to work with your intellectual property and allows it to be viewed by regulatory agencies if that becomes necessary, without incurring unnecessary costs or depriving the vendor of justifiable income.\n<\/p><p>This has become increasingly important as vendors have shifted to a subscription model for software licenses in place of one-time payments with additional charges for voluntary upgrades. One example from another realm illustrates the point. My wife keeps all of her recipes in an application on her iPad. One day she looked for a recipe and received a message that read, roughly, \u201cNo access unless you upgrade the app &lt;not free&gt;.\u201d As it turned out, a Google search recommended re-installing the current app instead. It worked, but she upgraded anyhow, just to be safe. It\u2019s your content, but who \u201cowns\u201d it if the software vendor can impose controls on how it is used?\n<\/p><p>As more of our work depends on software, we find ourselves in a constant upgrade loop of new hardware, new operating systems, and new applications just to maintain the status quo. We need more control over what happens to our data. Industry-wide guidelines backed by the buying power of an industry could create vendor policies that would mitigate that. Earlier in this document we noted that the future is going to extend industry change for a long time, with hardware and software evolving in ways we can\u2019t imagine. Hardware changes (anyone remember floppy disks?) inevitably make almost everything obsolete, so how do we protect our access to data and information? Floppy disks were the go-to media 40 years ago, and since then cassette tapes, magnetic tape, Zip drives, CD-ROMs, DVDs, Syquest drives, and other types of storage media have come and gone. Networked systems, at the moment, are the only consistent and reliable means of exchange and storage as datasets increase in size.\n<\/p><p>One point we have to take into account is that versions of applications will only function on certain versions of operating systems and databases. All three elements are going to evolve, and at some point we\u2019ll have to deal with \u201cold\u201d generations while new ones are coming online. One good answer to that is emulation. Some software systems like VMWare Corporation's VMware allow packages of operating systems, databases, and applications to operate on computers regardless of their age, with each collection residing in a \u201ccontainer\u201d; we can have several generations of those containers residing on a computer and execute them at will, as if they were still running on the original hardware. If you are looking for the data for a particular sample, go to the container that covers its time period and access it. Emulation packages are powerful tools; using them you can even run Atari 2600 games on a Windows or OS X system.\n<\/p><p>Addressing this issue is generally bigger than what a basic laboratory-based organization can handle, involving policy making and support from information technology support groups and corporate legal and financial management. The policies have to take into account physical locations of servers, support, financing, regulatory support groups, and international laws, even if your company isn\u2019t a multinational (third-party contracting organizations may be). Given this complexity, and the fact that most companies in a given industry will be affected, industry-wide guidelines would be useful.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"C-4._Archived_instrument_data_in_standardized_formats_and_standardized_vendor_software\">C-4. Archived instrument data in standardized formats and standardized vendor software<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This has been an area of interest for over 25 years, beginning with the Analytical Instrument Association's work that resulted in a set of ASTM Standard Guides:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>ASTM E2078 - 00(2016) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Mass Spectrometric Data<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTMEE2078_16_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTMEE2078_16-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><i>ASTM E1948 - 98(2014) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1948_14_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1948_14-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Millipore Sigma continues to invest in solutions based on the Analytical Information Markup Language (AnIML) standard (an outgrowth of work done at NIST).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MerckMilli19_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MerckMilli19-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> There have also been a variety of standards programs, all of which have a goal of moving instrument data into a neutral data format that is free of proprietary interests, allowing it to be used and analyzed as the analyst needs (e.g., JCAMP-DX<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and GAML<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GAML_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GAML-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>).\n<\/p><p>Data interchange standards can help address issues in two aspects of data analysis: qualitative and quantitative work. In qualitative applications, the exported data can imported into other packages that provide facilities not found in the original data acquisition system. Examining an infrared spectra or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy\" title=\"Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a05c6a4eb8775761248c099371cdb82f\">nuclear magnetic resonance<\/a> (NMR) scan depends upon peak amplitude, shape, and positions to provide useful information, and some software (including user-developed software) may provide facilities that the original data acquisition system didn\u2019t, or it might be a matter of having a file to send to someone for review or inclusion in another project.\n<\/p><p>Quantitative analysis is a different matter. Techniques such as chromatography, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56b77f19f090a156bf0d78c71c76da21\">inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry<\/a> (ICP), and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy\" title=\"Atomic absorption spectroscopy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e68cc5571310e82b3cec4ab67ebb68f5\">atomic absorption spectroscopy<\/a>, among others, rely on the measurement of peak characteristics or single wavelength absorbance measurements in comparison with measurements made on standards. A single chromatogram is useless (for quantitative work) unless the standards are available. (However, it may be useful for qualitative work if retention time references to appropriate known materials are available.) If you are going to export the data for any of the techniques noted, and others as well, you need the full collection of standards and samples for the data to be of any value.\n<\/p><p>Yet there is a problem with some, if not all of these programs: they trust the integrity of the analyst to use the data honestly. It is possible for people to use these exported formats in ways that circumvent current data integrity practices and falsify results.\n<\/p><p>There are good reasons to want vendor neutral data formats so that data sets can be examined by user-developed software, to put it into a form where the analysis is not limited by a vendor's product design. It also holds the potential for separating data acquisition from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1\">data analysis<\/a> as long as all pertinent data and information (e.g., standards and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sample_(material)\" title=\"Sample (material)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f8cd41a077a88d02370c02a3ba3d9d6\">samples<\/a>) were held together in a package that could not be altered without detection. It may be that something akin to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blockchain\" title=\"Blockchain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e\">blockchain<\/a> technology could be used to register and manage access to datasets on a company-by-company basis (each company having it\u2019s own registry that would become part of the lab's data architecture).\n<\/p><p>These standards formats are potentially very useful to labs, created by people with a passion for doing something useful and beneficial to the practice of science, sometimes at their own expense. This is another area where a coordinated industry-wide statement of requirements and support would lead to some significant advancements in systems development, and enhanced capability for those practicing instrumental science.\n<\/p><p>If these capabilities are important to you, than addressing that need has to be part of an industry-wide conversation and consensus to provide the marketing support to have the work done.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"C-6._Communications\">C-6. Communications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Most computers and electronic devices in the laboratory have communications capability built in: RS-232 (or similar), digital I\/O, Ethernet port, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, IEEE-488, etc. What these connection types do is provide the potential for communications, and the realization of that potential depends on message formatting, structure of the contents, and moving beyond proprietary interests to those expressed by an industry-wide community. There are two types of devices that need to be addressed: computer systems that service instruments (instrument data systems), and, devices that don\u2019t require an external computer to function (pH meters, balances, etc.) that may have Ethernet ports, serial ASCII, digital I\/O, or IEEE-488 connections. In either of these cases, the typical situation is one in which the vendor has determined a communications structure and the user has to adapt their systems to it, often using custom programming to parse messages and take action. \n<\/p><p>The user community needs to determine its needs and make them known using community-wide buying power as justification for asking for vendor development efforts. As noted earlier, this is not an adversarial situation, but rather a maturation of industry-wide communities working with vendors; the \u201cbuying power\u201d comments simply give the vendors the confidence that its development efforts won\u2019t be in vain.\n<\/p><p>In both cases we need application-to-application message structures that meet several needs. They should be able to handle test method identifications, so that the receiving application knows what the\nmessage is addressing, as well as whether the content is a list of samples to be processed or samples that have already been processed, with results. Additionally, the worklist message should ideally contain, in attribute-value pairs, the number of samples, with a list of sample IDs to be processed. As for the completed work message, the attribute-value pairs would also ideally contain the number of samples processed, the sample IDs, and the results of the analysis (which could be one or more elements depending on the procedure). Of course, there may be other elements required of these message structures; these were just examples. Ultimately, the final framework could be implemented in a format similar to that used in HTML files: plain-text that is easily read and machine- and operating-system-independent.\n<\/p><p>Mapping the message content to database system structure (LIMS or ELN) could be done using a simple built-in application (within the LIMS or ELN) that would graphically display the received message content on one side of a window, with the database\u2019s available fields on the other side. The two sides would then graphically be mapped to one another, as shown in the Figure 4 below. (Note: Since the format of the messages are standardized, we wouldn\u2019t need a separate mapping function to accommodate different vendors).\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig4_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e23312fb3d39315bd902b3f62450a52\"><img alt=\"Fig4 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b2\/Fig4_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 4.<\/b> Mapping IDS message contents to database system<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The second case\u2014devices like pH meters, etc.\u2014is a little more interesting since the devices don\u2019t have the same facilities available as a computer system provides. However, in the consumer marketplace, this is well-trod ground, using both a smartphone or tablet as an interface, and translation mechanisms between small, fixed function devices and more extensive applications platforms. The only non-standard element is a single-point Bluetooth connection, as shown in Figure 5.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig5_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"7597192728a3c14de36813edad03a6d1\"><img alt=\"Fig5 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/cc\/Fig5_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 5.<\/b> Using a smartphone or tablet as an interface to a LIMS or ELN. The procedure takes a series of pH measurements for a series of samples.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>A single-point Bluetooth connection is used to exchange information between the measuring device and the smartphone or tablet. There are multi-point connection devices (the smartphone, for example) but we want to restrict the device to avoid confusion about who is in control of the measuring unit. A setup screen (not shown) would set up the worklist and populate the sample IDs. The \u201cTake Reading\u201d button would read the device and enter the value into the corresponding sample position\u2014taking them in order\u2014and enable the next reading until all samples had been read. \u201cSend\u201d would transmit the formatted message to the LIMS or ELN. Depending on the nature of the device and the procedure being used, the application can take any form, this is just a simple example taking pH measurement for a series of samples. In essence, the device-smartphone combination becomes an instrument data system, and the database setup would be the same as described above.\n<\/p><p>The bottom line is this: standardized message formats can greatly simplify the interfacing of instrument data systems, LIMS, ELNs, and other laboratory informatics applications. The clinical chemistry community created communications standards that would permit meaningful messages to be sent between an instrument data system and database system structured so that either end of the link would recognize the message and be able to extract and use the message content without the custom programming common to most labs today. There is no reason why the same thing can\u2019t be done in any other industry; it may even be possible to adapt the clinical chemistry protocols. The data dictionary (list of test names and attributes) would have to be adjusted, but that is a minor point that can be handled on an industry-by-industry basis and be incorporated as part of a system installation. \n<\/p><p>What is needed is people coming together as a group and organizing and defining the effort. How important is it to you to streamline the effort in getting systems up and running without custom programming, to work toward a plug-and-play capability that we encounter in consumer systems (an environment where vendors know easy integration is a must or their products won\u2019t sell)?\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Additional_note_on_Bluetooth-enabled_instruments\">Additional note on Bluetooth-enabled instruments<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The addition of Bluetooth to a device can result in much more compact systems, making the footprint smaller and reducing the cost of the unit. By using a smartphone to replace the front panel controls, the programming can become much more sophisticated. Imagine a Bluetooth-enabled pH meter and a separate Bluetooth, electronically controlled titrator. That combination would permit optimized<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">&#91;a&#93;<\/a><\/sup> delivery of titrant making the process faster and more accurate, while also providing a graphical display of the resulting titration curve, putting the full data processing capability of the smartphone and it\u2019s communications at the service of the experiment. Think about what the addition of a simple clock did for thermostats: it opened the door to programmable thermostats and better controls. What would smartphones controlling simple devices like balances, pH meters, titrators, etc. facilitate?\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laboratory_work_and_scientific_production\">Laboratory work and scientific production<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>Laboratory work is a collection of processes and procedures that have to be carried out for research to progress, or, to support product manufacturing and production processes. In order to meet \u201cproductivity\u201d goals, get enough work done to make progress, or provide a good ROI, we need labs to transition manual to automated (partial or full) execution as much as possible. We also need to ensure and demonstrate process stability, so that lab work itself doesn\u2019t create variability and unreliable results.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Different_kinds_of_laboratory_work\">Different kinds of laboratory work<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are different kinds of laboratory work. Some consist of a series of experiments or observations that may not be repeated, or are repeated with expected or unplanned variations. Other experiments may be repeated over and over either without variation or with controlled variations based on gained experience. It is that second set that concerns this writing, because repetition provides a basis and a reason for automation.\n<\/p><p>Today we are used to automation in lab work, enacted in the form of computers and robotics ranging from mechanical arms to auto-samplers, auto-titration systems, and more. Some of the technology development we've discussed began many decades before, and there's utility in looking back that far to note how technologies have developed. However, while there are definitely forms of automation and robotics available today, they are not always interconnected, integrated, or compatible with each other; they were produced as products either without an underlying integration framework, or with one that was limited to a few cooperating vendors. This can be problematic.\n<\/p><p>There are two major elements to repetitive laboratory methods: the underlying science and how the procedures are executed. At these methods\u2019 core, however is the underlying scientific method, be it a chemical, biological, or physical sequence. We automate processes not things. We don\u2019t, for example, automate an instrument, but rather the process of using it to accomplish something. If you are automating the use of a telescope to obtain the spectra of a series of stars, you build a control algorithm to look at each star in a list, have the instrument position itself properly, record the data using sensors, process it, and then move on the next star on the list. (You would also build in error detection with messages like \"there isn\u2019t any star there,\" \"cover on telescope,\" and \"it isn\u2019t dark yet,\" along with relevant correction routines). The control algorithm is the automation, while the telescope and sensors are just tools being used.\n<\/p><p>When building a repetitive laboratory method, the method should be completely described and include aspects such as:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the underlying science<\/li>\n<li>a complete list of equipment and materials when implemented as a manual process<\/li>\n<li>possible interferences<\/li>\n<li>critical facets of the method<\/li>\n<li>variables that have to be controlled and their operating ranges (e.g., temperature, pH of solutions, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>special characteristics of instrumentation<\/li>\n<li>safety considerations<\/li>\n<li>recommended sources of equipment and sources to be avoided<\/li>\n<li>software considerations such as possible products, desirable characteristics, and things to be avoided<\/li>\n<li>potentially dangerous, hazardous situations<\/li>\n<li>an end-to-end walkthrough of the methods used<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Of course, the method has to be validated. You need to have complete confidence in its ability to produce the results necessary given the input into the process. At this point, the scientific aspects of the work are complete and finished. They may be revisited if problems arise during process automation, but no further changes should be entertained unless you are willing to absorb additional costs and alterations to the schedule. This is a serious matter; one of the leading causes of project failures is \u201cscope creep,\u201d which occurs when incremental changes are made to a process while it is under development. This results in the project becoming a moving target, with seemingly minor changes able to cause a major disruption in the project's design.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scientific_production\">Scientific production<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>At this point, we have a proven procedure that we need to execute repeatedly on a set of inputs (samples). We aren\u2019t carrying out \"experiments\"; that word suggests that something may be changing in the nature of the procedure, and at this point it shouldn\u2019t. Changes to the underlying process invite a host of problems and may forfeit any chance at a successful automation effort.\n<\/p><p>However, somewhere in the (distant) future something in the process is likely to change. A new piece of technology may be introduced, equipment (including software) may need to be upgraded, or the timing of a step may need to be adjusted. That\u2019s life. How that change is made is very important. Before it is implemented, the process has to be in place long enough to establish that it works reliably, that it produces useful results, and that there is a history of running the same reference sample(s) over and over again in the mix of samples to show that the process is under control with acceptable variability in results (i.e., statistical process control). In manufacturing and production language, this is referred to as \"evolutionary operations\" (EVOP). But we can pull it all together under the heading \u201cscientific production.\u201d<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">&#91;b&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>If your reaction to the previous paragraph is \u201cthis is a science lab not a commercial production operation,\u201d you\u2019re getting close to the point. This is a production operation (commercial or not, it depends on the type of lab, contract testing, and other factors) going on within a science lab. It\u2019s just a matter of scale.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Demonstrating_process_stability:_The_standard_sample_program\">Demonstrating process stability: The standard sample program<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of the characteristics of a successfully implemented stable process is consistency of the results with the same set of inputs. Basically, if everything is working properly, the same set of samples introduced at the beginning should yield the same results time after time, regardless of whether the implementation is manual or automated. A standard sample program (Std.SP) is a means of demonstrating the stability and operational integrity of a process; it can also tell you if a process is getting out of control. Introduced early in my career, the Std.SP was used to show the consistency of results between analysts in a lab, and to compare the performance of our lab and the quality control labs in the production facilities. The samples were submitted and marked like any similar sample and became part of the workflow. The lab managers maintained control charts of the labs and and individual's performance on the samples. The combined results would show whether the lab and those working there had things under control or if problems were developing. Those problems might be with an individual, a change in equipment performance, or a change in incoming raw materials used in the analysis.\n<\/p><p>The Std.SP was the answer to the typical \u201chow do you know you can trust these results?\u201d question, which often came up when a research program or production line was having issues. This becomes more important when automation is used and the sampling and testing throughput increases. If an automated system is having issues, you are just producing bad data faster. The Std.SP is a high-level test of the system's performance. A deviation of the results trend line or a widening of the variability are indications that something is wrong, which should lead to a detailed evaluation of the system to account for the deviations. A troubleshooting guide should be part of the original method description (containing aspects such as \u201cif something starts going wrong, here\u2019s where to look for problems\u201d or \u201cthe test method is particularly sensitive to \u2026\u201d, etc.) and notes made during the implementation process.\n<\/p><p>Reference samples are another matter, however. They have to be stable over a long enough period of use to establish a meaningful trend. If the reference samples are stable over a long period of time, you may only need two or three so that the method can be evaluated over different ranges (you may have a higher variability at a lower range than a higher one). If the reference samples are not stable, then their useful lifetime needs to be established and older ones swapped out periodically. There should be some overlap between samples near the end of their useful life and the introduction of new ones so that laboratorians can differentiate between system variation and changes in reference samples. You may need to use more reference samples in these situations.\n<\/p><p>This inevitably becomes a lot of work, and if your lab utilizes many procedures, it can be time-consuming to manage an Std.SP. But before you decide it is too much work, ask yourself how valuable it is to have a solid, documented answer to the \u201chow do you know you can trust these results?\u201d question. Having a validated process or method is a start, but that only holds at the start of a method\u2019s implementation. If all of this is new to you, find someone who understands process engineering and statistical process control and learn more from them.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Where_is_the_future_of_lab_automation_going_to_take_us?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Where_is_the_future_of_lab_automation_going_to_take_us.3F\">Where is the future of lab automation going to take us?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>There is no single \u201cfuture\u201d for laboratories; each lab charts it own path. However there are things they can all do to be better prepared to meet the next day, month, or decade. Plan for flexibility and adaptability. Keep your data and information accessible, educate your personnel to recognize and take advantage of opportunities, and don\u2019t be afraid of taking risks.<\/i>\n<\/p><p>Where is the future of lab automation going to take us? The simple answer is that the future is in your hands. Lab personnel are going to be making their own choices, and that is both a reflection of reality and part of the problem. Aside from a few industries, labs have approached the subject of automation individually, making their own plans and charting their own course of action. The problems that approach engenders are that it is both inefficient and it wastes resources (e.g., funding, time, effort).\n<\/p><p>Earlier we saw how the clinical chemistry industry handled the problem of containing costs through automation: it made the automation work better. Within any given industry, it\u2019s unlikely that the same type of testing is going to differ markedly; there will be unique demands and opportunities, but they will be the exception. Why not pool resources and solve common problems? It would benefit the end-user in the lab as well as the vendor, encouraging those vendors to build products for a specific market rather than meeting the needs of a single customer. Among the biggest issues in automation and lab computing is communications between devices; the clinical chemistry industry has solved that. Their solution has elements that are specific to their work but they should be easily adjusted to meet the needs of other groups.\n<\/p><p>We\u2019re in a phase where we have many technologies that work well independently for their intended purpose, but they don't work well together. We\u2019ve been there before, with two examples to be found in computer networking and computer graphics. \n<\/p><p>Computer networks began to emerge commercially in the early 1970s. Each computer vendor had their own approach to networking (similar hardware but different communications protocols). Within each vendor's ecosystem things worked well, yet bridging across ecosystems was interesting. When network installations occurred at customer sites, the best hardware and software people were involved in planning, laying out the systems, installing software, and getting things to work. Installation time was measured in weeks. Today, a reasonably sophisticated home or business network can be install in an hour or two, maybe longer depending on the number of machines and components involved, and when you turn it on, you\u2019d be surprised if it didn\u2019t work. What made the difference? Standards were developed for communications protocols. Instead of each vendor having their own protocol, the world adopted TCP\/IP and everything changed.\n<\/p><p>The path of computer graphics development provides further insight. In the 1970s and 80s, when computer graphics hardware began seeing widespread use, every vendor in the market had their own graphics display hardware and software. If you liked one vendor's graphics library, you had to buy their hardware. If you liked their hardware you had to live with their software. We saw this play out in the early days of the PC, when there were multiple graphics processor card adapters (e.g., enhanced graphics adapter [EGA], color graphics adapter [CGA], video graphics adapter [VGA], Hercules, etc.), and if you had the wrong card installed, the software wouldn\u2019t work (although combination cards allowed the user to switch modes and reduce the number of boards used in the computer). This continued to frustrate users and developers, until a standardized graphics architecture was developed that was device-independent. Problem solved.\n<\/p><p>This is a common theme that comes up over and over. A new technology develops, vendors build products with unique features and those products don\u2019t play well with each other (i.e., they attempt to achieve a strong market positions). Customers get frustrated and standards are developed that convert \u201cdon\u2019t play well\u201d to \"easy integration,\" and the market takes off.\n<\/p><p>How the future of lab automation is going to play out for you is in your hands, but there are things we can do to make it easier. As we noted earlier, few if any of the developments in lab automation were initially done according to a plan, though we\u2019ve also seen what planning can actually do in at least one setting, the field of clinical chemistry. This highlights the fact that not only do you need a plan for your laboratory, but also a plan for automation in your industry would be worthwhile; it would avoid spending resources individually where pooling is a better approach, and it would give you a stronger voice to work with vendors to create products that meet your industry's needs. A set of industry-wide strategies (e.g., for mining, viniculture, cosmetics, materials research, healthcare, biotech, electronics, etc.) would give you a solid starting point for the use of computing and automation technologies in your lab. There still would be plenty of room for unique applications.\n<\/p><p>Industry working groups are one need, while getting people educated is another. Determining how much you are willing to rely on automation is an additional point, which we\u2019ll illustrate with a discussion of quality control labs, in the next section.\n<\/p><p>Before we move on to the next section, however, there are two terms that haven\u2019t been mentioned yet that need to be noted: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI) and big data. I\u2019m not sure I know what AI is (the definition and examples change frequently), or that I\u2019d trust what is available today for serious work. For every article that talks about the wonders it will have, there is one that talks about the pitfalls of design, built in bias, and concerns about misapplication. In science, aside from using it as a \u201cdid you know about this?\u201d advisory tool, I\u2019d be concerned about using it. If you don\u2019t know how the AI arrived at its answer (one of AI\u2019s characteristics) why would you trust it? Big data, on the hand, is on a more solid technical footing and should prove useful, though only if your data and information is structured to take advantage of it. You can\u2019t just say \u201chere are all my datasets\u201d; you have to organize them to be usable.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applying_automation_to_lab_work\">Applying automation to lab work<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>Today, people\u2019s attitudes about work have changed, and with it the world has changed; the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/COVID-19\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"COVID-19\" data-key=\"da9bd20c492b2a17074ad66c2fe25652\">COVID-19<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Pandemic\" title=\"Pandemic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9a48e6c6e41b6d603ee703836b01f1\">pandemic<\/a> has forced us to re-evaluate models of work. If nothing else, even though we\u2019re talking about science, the use of technology to conduct scientific work is going to take on a new importance. This won\u2019t be solved one lab at a time, but on an industry-by-industry basis. We need to think about key concepts and their implementation as a community if truly effective solutions are to be found and put into practice.<\/i>\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\" title=\"LII:Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9\"><i>Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures<\/i><\/a>, the criteria for \"automation readiness\" were described. Two significant points were that a laboratory procedure must both be stable and have a duration of use sufficiently long enough to justify the cost of automation. Beyond that, additional concerns such as safety may come into play, but those two points were the most critical. From those points we can roughly derive the automation needs of research, testing, quality control, and contract laboratories.\n<\/p><p><b>Research laboratory<\/b>: Automation in research is going to be predominately at the task level, i.e., portions of a process being done by automated instruments and devices rather than end-to-end automation. This is due to the two key points noted above: research labs often change procedures, with some being very short-lived, and the cost of full-automation (including validation) may not be worth it unless the equipment is designed to be modular, interconnected, and easily programmed. One exception can be seen with Bayer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CNNMicro15_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CNNMicro15-19\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup> They are using robotics and microplate technology to automate a high-throughput screen system that couldn\u2019t\u2014in their words\u2014be done practically by people; it's too slow and too expensive. Could something like this become more commonplace?\n<\/p><p><b>Testing laboratory<\/b>: Non-routine testing laboratories are going to have a mix of task-level and end-to-end automation. It will depend on the stability of the test process and if there is sufficient work to justify the cost of automation, plus what level of control over the form of the incoming samples is available (see Appendix 1, section 1.3 of this guide). Often samples are submitted for multiple tests, which raised an additional concern: is the last step in a procedure destructive to the sample? Samples may be prepared so that they can be used in more than one test procedure. If the test process is destructive, then the initial preparation has to be divided so there is enough material for all testing; this can complicate the automation process.\n<\/p><p><b>Quality control laboratory<\/b>: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_control\" title=\"Quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f\">Quality control<\/a> (QC) labs should be the ideal place for automation to take hold. The procedures are well defined, stable, and entrenched. The benefits in faster throughput and cost reduction should be clear. The biggest place for problems is in sample preparation and getting material ready for analysis. Given that the form of the samples is known and predictable, it is worthwhile to spend time in analyzing and designing a means of working with samples. There are going to be some preparation steps that may be too difficult to justify automation; this can be seen with tensile testing of polymers and fibers. The sample or parts fabrication and need to wait for the material to stabilize may make parts of the process difficult to deal with, or not financially justifiable. Insertion into the test apparatus may also be an issue. Testing that can be done by spectroscopic, chromatographic, or other easily automated instrumentation may be migrated from the laboratory to in-line testing, raising questions about the nature of the QC process.\n<\/p><p><b>Contract or independent laboratory<\/b>: The ability to apply automation beyond the task level depends on the kind of work being done; is it specialized or highly flexible? The greater the flexibility (e.g., a number of different procedures with a small number of samples submitted at a time) the more task level automation will apply. However, the justification for automation may not be there. Specialized labs (e.g., clinical chemistry labs) or a lab that specializes in a technique with a high demand and throughput should benefit from a move to end-to-end automation since it reduces costs and improves accuracy and turn-around times (TATs).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"More_on_the_quality_control_lab_and_its_process_management\">More on the quality control lab and its process management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The evolution of QC labs may change our perspective of how QC testing is accomplished, as well as the nature of QC lab operations. Our current view, and that of the last few decades, may change significantly.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Early_QC_testing\">Early QC testing<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Some form of quality testing was done during the production process in prior decades. For example, I\u2019ve seen production station operators bite plastic materials to get an idea of how well the production process, and the expansion of polystyrene beads, was going in the production of Styrofoam cups (though this was not encouraged by management as butane and pentane, used as expansion agents, could cause health problems). If the cup was too stiff or soft, it would indicate a problem in the molding process. There were other \u201cquick and dirty\u201d production floor tests that were run because the TAT in the lab was producing an unacceptable delay (if you\u2019re making adjustments, you need measurements quickly). People may also have wanted to avoid having a record of production problems and changes.\n<\/p><p>In another application (anecdotal reporting from a course on plastics manufacturing)\u2014calendering<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">&#91;c&#93;<\/a><\/sup> of plastic coated paper\u2014the production operator would strike the laminated paper with a slender bamboo rod and listen to the sound it made to determine the product quality. According to the course instructor, he was adept at this, and no other test could replace this in-process procedure.\n<\/p><p>As such, it's clear not all \"quality\" testing went on in the laboratory.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Normal_QC_testing\">Normal QC testing<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Traditionally, QC lab operations became separate from production, partly because of the physical conditions needed to conduct the work, and partly to avoid bias in the results. The conclusion: it was important that the reporting lines of communication be separate and independent from production. QC labs would, and do, perform testing on incoming materials to certify them suitable for use and produced products to see if they met product specifications, as well as perform in-process testing. They would also certify products as qualified for shipment, acting as an unbiased evaluator of product quality.\n<\/p><p>Quality tests were manually implemented until the early 1960s. Then we saw the advent of in-process instrumentation and process chromatographs by Fisher Controls and Mine Safety Apparatus, for example. While the instruments themselves were on the production floor, their management and analysis was under the control of the QC lab, at least in the facility I worked in. The instruments' maintenance, calibration, peak measurements, and sample calculations were all done by lab personnel. Since that time, we\u2019ve seen a continued growth in in-line testing for production processes. That said, what\u2019s the logical conclusion of increasing automation?\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"A_thought_experiment\">A thought experiment<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Lets posit that we have a production process whose raw materials are fluids and the end product is a fluid. We\u2019d be concerned with certifying in-coming raw materials as suitable for use, while monitoring the production process for product composition and potential contaminants. The end product would have to be certified for shipment.\n<\/p><p>If all the testing were chromatographic with in-process instruments and a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_system\" title=\"Chromatography data system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a424bb889d8507b7e8912f2faf2570c6\">chromatography data system<\/a> (CDS), and\/or in-line spectrophotometric and other in-line or in-process tests, with the results becoming part of the process control system (sample IDs would be a hash of sensor type-location-timestamp), what would the role of the QC lab become? Assuring that the equipment was running properly and regularly calibrated, with periodic verification of test results (off-line testing) is one set of possibilities. Is this a desirable developmental direction? We need to look at the benefits and issues that result from this design.\n<\/p><p><b>Benefits<\/b>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>It provides an integrated system where all process sensor and test result data are immediately available to management. This allows them to detect issues faster and provide a more timely response (better process control), reducing down time and off-spec product. If we want to enter the world of science fiction, we can even imagine a combination AI-<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122\">machine learning<\/a> solution providing closed loop process monitoring and control.<\/li>\n<li>It signifies a potential cost reduction resulting from smaller labs and lower personnel costs.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>Issues<\/b>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>There's a loss of independent product evaluation. Basically, you are trusting the system to honestly monitor, report, and reject off-spec, incoming, and outgoing material. In the movie version, this is where the sound track becomes ominous. This loss of independent checking may reduce customer confidence in product quality.<\/li>\n<li>The veracity of statistical process control and correction may suffer.<\/li>\n<li>System validation could be challenging as the production process has to be validated, each sensor and instrument data system has to be validated, and the integrated system has to be validated, including the statistical process control.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Assuming a system were built, how far are we willing to trust automated systems to function without external oversight? The control room would still be populated with people managing the process and exerting a higher level of scrutiny, but you are still trusting the designers of the system to do very sophisticated work, not only in process design but also integrating testing as part of the effort. Ideally you\u2019d want the CDS and other instrument data processing equipment in the control room, where it is more easily used and maintained, than on the process floor. The role of the QC lab would then change to that of an overarching quality manager of the entire system, ensuring that equipment functioned properly, testing was accurate, the process and testing were operating within control limits, and the data logs were correct.\n<\/p><p>Some organizations may be past this point, while for others this may be interesting, bordering on science fiction. The point of this thought experiment is to see what could happen and where your comfort level is with it. How much control do you want to give an automated system and how much do you want to retain? What are the consequences of not providing sufficient oversight? How much bad product could be made?\n<\/p><p>Also note that this isn\u2019t an all-or-nothing proposition; give it some room to work, see what happens, and if everything is good, give it more. Just build in a big red button that allows you to reboot and revert to manual operations; in other words, don't self-destruct, just remove some critical controls. A lot depends on the nature of the finished product. If the end product is something critical (e.g., a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Medical_device\" title=\"Medical device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e821122daa731f0fa8782fae57831fa\">medical device<\/a> or therapeutic), you\u2019ll want to be cautious about phasing in automated control systems.\n<\/p><p>All that said, two additional points should be made. First, be willing to play with the ideas. Turn it into a science fiction project (\u201csci fi\u201d is just a playground for \"what ifs\"), remove it from reality enough that people can look at it from different perspectives and see what might work and what might not. Then let people play with those ideas; you might learn something. What are all the things that could go right, and what could go wrong (and what can you do about it)? You probably won't have to worry about alien robots, but malware interference is certainly a factor, as is a network air-gap. There is always the possibility of someone causing a problem; the question of course is how do you detect it and correct it. Second, be willing to model the system. There are a number of modeling packages ideal for this purpose. You can model the behavior and see how different control methods react.\n<\/p><p>(While this thought experiment used a process involving fluids only, as they are relatively easy to work with, its worth noting that solid materials become more of an issue, complicating the automation process [see Appendix 1, section 1.4 of this guide]. In some cases sample preparation for testing may be too cumbersome for automation. This would shift the automated-manual testing balance more toward the latter in those cases, introducing delays and disrupting the timing of results to process control.)\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-The_creation_of_a_&quot;center_for_laboratory_systems_engineering&quot;\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_creation_of_a_.22center_for_laboratory_systems_engineering.22\">The creation of a \"center for laboratory systems engineering\"<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Key point<\/b>: <i>Throughout this piece, the need for education has been a consistent theme. Developing and using the technologies in lab work, both scientific and informatics-related, will require people who know what they are doing, specifically educated to carry out the work noted above. We also need a means of pulling things together so that there is a centralized resource to start a learning process and continue development from there.<\/i>\n<\/p><p>Let's propose a \"center for laboratory system engineering.\" This center would firstly prepare people to be effective planners, designers, implementers, supporters, and users of laboratory informatics and automation systems in scientific applications. Additionally, the center would ideally drive innovation and provide assistance to scientific personnel and IT groups seeking to apply and manage such laboratory technologies.\n<\/p><p>Those goals would be accomplished by:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Developing and delivering courses for LSEs, lab personnel, and IT support (These courses would cover technical science topics as well as skills in working with people, conflict resolution, and communications. They would be presented both in-person and online or on-demand to reach a broad audience; an intensive summer course with hands-on experience should also be considered.)<\/li>\n<li>Creating an LSE certification program<\/li>\n<li>Carrying out research on the application of informatics, robotics, and computer-assisted data collection and processing<\/li>\n<li>Documenting the best practices for an LSE<\/li>\n<li>Aggregating and publishing material on the roles and requirements of the LSE<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Ideally, this center would be part of a university setting so that it could interact with both science and computer science departments, contribute to their programs, and in turn gain from that association.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Appendix_1:_A_very_brief_historical_note\">Appendix 1: A very brief historical note<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>It would be useful to understand how we arrived at our current state in regards to informatics and automation in science. That will make it easier to understand what we need to do to make advancements. There is one key point to take away from this: in the history of lab automation, products weren\u2019t developed according to a grand plan<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">&#91;d&#93;<\/a><\/sup> but rather to meet perceived needs and opportunities. Thought processes in this vein have likely included:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>\u201cHere\u2019s a problem that needs to be solved.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>\u201cIf I can figure out how to do X, then I can accomplish Y.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>\u201cThere\u2019s a business opportunity in building product concept X, which will help people do Y and Z.\"<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Sometimes these ideas were voiced by lab personnel, but most of the time they were the result of someone seeing a problem or opportunity and taking the initiative to address it.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.1_Collecting_data_from_instruments\">1.1 Collecting data from instruments<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the late 1960s and early 1970s, instrument companies recognized that connecting a computer to the analog output of an instrument would help lab personnel capture and process data. The form that this product development took depended on how the developer saw the problem. We\u2019re going to look at chromatography<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">&#91;e&#93;<\/a><\/sup> as an example for several reasons: it received the most attention for automation, it\u2019s a data rich technique that took considerable manual effort to analyze, and it was and still is one of the most popular instrumental techniques in chemical labs. The product solutions provided by the vendor reflected the technology available and their view of the problem that needed to be solved.\n<\/p><p>The analysis (Figure A1) depends on recognizing and quantifying a series of peaks, each of which represents the amount of a component in a mixture of materials. The size of the peak (measured by area \"better\" or height with respect to a baseline) helps quantify the amount, and the time it takes the peak to appear can be used to help identify the component.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:FigA1_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"9398087969f28a1dd4d6f0e6b8182414\"><img alt=\"FigA1 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/0\/05\/FigA1_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure A1.<\/b> Illustration of peaks from chromatograph. Source: public domain<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Reference standards are prepared and run along with the samples. The peak response of the standards and their corresponding concentrations are used to draw a calibration curve, and the samples are quantified by comparing peak sizes against that curve (Figure A2).\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:FigA2_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b9878402119e7fc21a56039292a6ba8\"><img alt=\"FigA2 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/c8\/FigA2_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure A2.<\/b> Samples are quantified by comparison to a calibration curve<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The solutions reflected both the user\u2019s input and the vendor's observations, plus being too close to the problem and not seeing the whole picture. In that same timeframe, computing was expensive and you had to have a lot of processing done to justify the costs. Otherwise you dropped down to microprocessors and scaled back the size of the problem you could tackle. The microprocessor of choice was the Intel 4004, which was superseded by the Intel 8008 in 1972.\n<\/p><p>With computing, the chromatographer could detect peaks and quantify the peak height and area, later printing the results on a strip of paper. This was a big help to the chromatographer since determining peak size, and area in particular, was a major hassle. Prior to computerized methods, chromatographers were using:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>mechanical integrators built into the strip chart recorder (that recorded the chromatograph output), which were hard to read and didn\u2019t provide for baseline corrections (critical for accurate results);<\/li>\n<li>a planimeter, which was time-comsuming and demanded careful attention;<\/li>\n<li>a cut-and-weigh method, where the chromatographer literally cut our a copy of the peak and weighed it on a balance, cutting out a reference area, and comparing it to a calibration chart constructed from a similar procedure; and<\/li>\n<li>a method that had the chromatographer counting the boxes the peak enclosed on the chart paper, which was not very accurate, though better than peak height in some cases.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Having the quantified peaks printed on a piece of paper meant that the analyst could move quickly to drawing the calibration curve and evaluating the results. However, from the standpoint of being a laborious, time-consuming task, this is only a piece of the problem (a major one, but only a part). Some users connected the output of the integrators (RS-232 serial ASCII) to minicomputers, transferred the integrator information, and completed the analytical process in the larger machines. Several integrators could be connected to a mini-computer so the cost per instrument was reduced. This was a step toward a better solution, but only a step.\n<\/p><p>Computer vendors wanted to participate in the same market, but the cost of minicomputers put them at a disadvantage unless they could come at it from a different perspective. They looked at the entire data processing problem, including the points mentioned above, plus getting the computer to compute the calibration curve, complete the analysis, print out a report, and store the report and the data for later retrieval (integrators didn\u2019t have that capability). They could also store the raw digitized instrument output for later analysis and display. The cost per instrument dropped when computer vendors began connecting multiple instruments to one system, some from different labs. Nelson Analytical used a local-to-the-instrument box for data collection and control and then forwarded those information packets to a central system for processing. This bigger-picture view of the problem greatly reduced the workload on the analyst. As computing costs dropped and the power of microchips increased, several different approaches emerged from different vendors that had varied perspectives on computing. Most took the big-picture view but worked on a one-instrument-one-computer-station approach, which benefited small labs since they didn\u2019t have to invest in a minicomputer.\n<\/p><p>The low-cost of microprocessors more readily allowed digital systems to join the lab, to the point where almost every lab device had a computer chip in it (\u201cdigital\u201d was a strong marketing point). Now that we had lots of digital data sources, what was the lab going to do with them?\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.2_The_beginning_of_laboratory_informatics_systems\">1.2 The beginning of laboratory informatics systems<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the early 1970s, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/PerkinElmer_Inc.\" title=\"PerkinElmer Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dabda40785b60866d056709e611512f8\">PerkinElmer<\/a> described its instrument supporting computers as \u201cdata stations.\u201d Then they announced the \u201claboratory information management system\u201d or \"LIMS,\" and the next level of informatics hit the lab market. However, \u201claboratory information management system\u201d was a problematic name for a product that did sample and test tracking. The customers thought it would take into account all of a lab's information, including personnel records, scheduling, budgets, documents, anything that \u201cinformation\u201d could be attached to, ultimately promising more than it could deliver. It took some time, but eventually something like that happened. From a marketing standpoint, it got people\u2019s attention.\n<\/p><p>Several other vendors, consulting companies, startups, and computer vendors began LIMS development projects (computer vendors felt that database systems were their turf). This was viewed as a strategic offering: the testing lab's operations would revolve around the LIMS, and that gave the LIMS vendor whose product was chosen a strong marketing position in that company.\n<\/p><p>The introduction of the LIMS eventually opened the door to other informatics applications. The major classes and functions of said applications are show in Figure A3.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:FigA3_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"45606351182bb832ffb420441f14f9a9\"><img alt=\"FigA3 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/1c\/FigA3_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure A3.<\/b> The starting point for major classes of lab informatics systems and the lab functions they addressed<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Missing from the chart are user-developer tools like LabView from National Instruments that enabled users to develop data acquisition and control applications via a graphical user interface.\n<\/p><p>The term \u201celectronic laboratory notebook\u201d or \"ELN\" has had an interesting history. It\u2019s been applied to at least three types of software before its most current iteration. Laboratory Technologies, Inc. first created LABTECH Notebook, a PC-based software package designed to assist users with the communication between a computer and its lab instruments via RS-232 connections. Then there was Wolfram's Mathematica software, an electronic notebook for advanced mathematics. And finally there was Velquest's SmartLAB, an ELN for conducting analyzes and recording information from laboratory procedures, becoming the first <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\" title=\"Laboratory execution system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a\">laboratory execution system<\/a> (LES).\n<\/p><p>Figure A3 showed a nice clean, somewhat idealized, starting point for the introduction of lab informatics. That didn\u2019t last long. Vendors saw what their competition was doing and the opportunities to expand their products' capabilities (and market acceptance). What were clean, neat, functionality silos became more complex products to attract the attention of scientists and laboratorians (Figure A4).\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:FigA4_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"409e9dd3124c8da588d921b0eada249b\"><img alt=\"FigA4 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b3\/FigA4_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure A4.<\/b> Lab informatics capability expansion<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>These expanded capabilities meant that a single vendor solution could address more of a lab\u2019s needs, simplifying support, installation, and so on through the use of a singular software package. It did, however, make product and vendor selection more of a challenge; you really had to know what you needed. It also raised questions of cross-product compatibility: what instruments connected easily to what LIMS, ELN, or SDMS? If it wasn\u2019t easy, what did you do? Third-party intermediate systems were eventually developed that translated instrument communications similarly in the way database systems did.\n<\/p><p>While all this was going on in the expanding digital laboratory space, people still had things to do on the lab bench.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.3_Electro-mechanical_robotics\">1.3 Electro-mechanical robotics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>During the 1970s and 80s, vendors noted the amount of time spent doing repetitive tasks at the lab bench. This resulted in two different approaches to product development:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Dedicated-function robotics: The development of auto-samplers, auto-titrators, and similar devices that were used to carry out a specific task<\/li>\n<li>General-purpose robotics: The development of an elaborate kit the use user had to assemble to robotically complete a task; not too different from a computer programming language: the<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>components are there, you just have to organize them to make something useful happen\n<\/p><p>Although each of these approaches was potentially useful, they each presented the user community with different sets of problems.\n<\/p><p>The dedicated-function robotics device generally worked well; that wasn\u2019t the issue. The problem arose when they had to connect to other components and instruments. The use of an auto-sampler, for example, required the user to adjust their sample preparation so that the material to be analyzed wound up in the appropriate sample vials. This may have required adjusting the procedure to accommodate a different set of mechanics than they were used to, e.g., sealing the vials or choosing the proper vial for an application. Auto-samplers feed samples into instruments so there is a matter of setting up control signals for proper coordination with instruments and instrument data systems.\n<\/p><p>Other devices such as auto-titrators required a reservoir of samples (in the proper vial formats), and the vials had to be organized so that an analysis on sample ID456 was in fact that sample and that the order didn\u2019t get mixed up. The data output could also be a problem. The default for many vendors was a spreadsheet-compatible file, though it was up to the user to make sense of it and integrate it into the workflow. This was probably the best compromise available until more formalized data interchange and communications standards became available. The vendor had no idea how a particular device was going to fit into a procedure's workflow or what was going to happen to the data further downstream, so a CSV file format as a solution was simple, flexible, and easy to work with. It also meant more work on the user's part on the integration front, representing another place where changes may have to be made if a device is replaced in the future.\n<\/p><p>With the dedicated-function device, which could be as simple as a balance (the process of reading a force exerted on a sensor and converted to a weight is an automated process), we have potentially isolated elements of automation that are either interconnected by programming or someone reading data and re-entering it. However, there is no \u201cplug-and-go\u201d capability.\n<\/p><p>As for the general-purpose robotics device, they could be broken down into two categories: those that were successful in the broad marketplace and those that weren't. In the 1980s, three vendors were competing for attention in the laboratory robotics market: Zymark, Hewlett-Packard, and PerkinElmer. Each of their general-purpose systems had a moveable arm that could grip items and be programmed to carry out lab procedures. Yet they faced a daunting task: the process of gripping items was problematic. The robot didn\u2019t work with just one gripper or \"hand\"; it required multiple interchangeable hands that had to be swapped depending on the next sequence of actions and what items had to be grasped. Those items were typically things designed for human use, including flasks, test tubes, and a variety of other equipment. This problem was non-trivial, a result of having the robot work with equipment designed for humans so that the lab didn\u2019t have to buy duplicate components, which would have raised problems of cost, and the ability to carry on work if the robot didn\u2019t function. Another issue with the grippers and their holders was that they took up space. The Zymark system for example had a central robotic arm that could reach items within the shell of a hemispherical volume; grippers took up space that could be used by other devices. Some people were successful in building systems, but not enough to make the products economically viable. In many respects, the core robotics technologies should have been successful, but the peripheral devices were not up to the necessary operational levels; good for humans, lacking for automation.\n<\/p><p>Another problem was education. The vendors would run courses to train people to use their systems. However, successful implementations required engineering, expertise, and experience, not just experimentation. Further robust systems, those capable of running days on end with built-in error detection and correction, were rare but necessary to avoid processing samples into junk. People had the need and the desire to make working systems, but not the process engineering skills to create successful implementations.\n<\/p><p>The life sciences market, and biotechnology in particular, took a different approach to robotics: they standardized the sample carrier format in the form of the microplate. The physical dimensions of the microplate were constant while the number of sample cells could vary. The image on the right of Figure A5, for example, shows plates with 96, 384, and 1,536 wells, with even higher densities available.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:FigA5_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"46e8551c1035853039fb9360aeae72d7\"><img alt=\"FigA5 Liscouski DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/f\/f1\/FigA5_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure A5.<\/b> A microplate sample holder (<b>left<\/b>); examples of 96, 384, and 1,536 well holders, care of <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Microplates.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">WikiMedia Commons<\/a> (<b>right<\/b>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>What did this mean for robotics? Every device that interacted with a microplate could be reliably designed with a single gripper size and a single aperture size for plates to be inserted. Systems would \u201cknow\u201d where in the sample space the sample wells were. In short, standardization made it easier to build equipment for a marketplace. And a lot of equipment was built and put into successful use.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">&#91;f&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The combination of robotics and microplates also worked well in biotechnology because of the prevalence of liquid samples; this point can not be stressed enough. We are good at working with fluids, including measuring amounts, transferring them, dispensing them, and so on. Solids can be a problem because of cross-contamination if equipment isn\u2019t cleaned, if the solid is tacky, if the particle size isn\u2019t right for the equipment, if it has a tendency to roll, and so on. Solids also have the potential for problems with homogeneity. (You can get layering in liquids, but that can be solved in \u201ctwo shakes.\u201d)\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.3.1_Two_approaches_to_sample_processing_with_robotics\">1.3.1 Two approaches to sample processing with robotics<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Broadly speaking, there are two approaches to sample processing with robotics: batching and sample-at-a-time runs. The microplate is an example of batch processing. Each tray is handled (dilution, sealing, reading, etc.) at a station, and you don\u2019t have an opportunity to evaluate the results until the analysis for a tray is completed and reported. Other methods such as ICP, mass spectrometry, chromatography, etc. that use auto-injectors can behave in a similar fashion, or be evaluated on a sample-at-a-time basis. It depends on how the process is planned and implemented, and at what stage the results are evaluated.\n<\/p><p>The sample-at-a-time procedure offers an interesting alternative pathway for automated analysis. This process can include auto-titrators, in addition to the techniques noted, as well as others. Here each sample is processed in stages either one-at-a-time or in overlapping stages. While one sample is being processed in stage 3 (adding a solvent for example), a sample in stage 4 is being injected into an instrument. This means that the results for one sample can be known before the next one is processed. The benefit is that systematic errors can be caught and corrected before all samples are processed. This would reduce waste and improve overall efficiency.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4_Sample_storage_organization\">1.4 Sample storage organization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Before we leave the topic of samples, we need to address the subject of sample storage organization. This is important, as poor organization and management can nullify any gains from automation. There are two aspects to consider: the organization process itself and the physical nature of the samples.\n<\/p><p>In the life sciences, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biobank\" title=\"Biobank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e5f94a2b2036266701220c1fd724bd2\">biobanking<\/a> and refrigerated storage management have been actively discussed topics. For example a white paper commissioned for Titian Software Ltd. titled <i>The Essential Guide to Managing Laboratory Samples<\/i> goes into a fair amount of depth on the subject.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OxerTheEss17_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OxerTheEss17-24\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup> And if you Google \u201claboratory sample storage management,\u201d you\u2019ll get a sizeable listing of material, including peer-reviewed work by Redrup <i>et al.<\/i> titled \"Sample Management: Recommendation for Best Practices and Harmonization from the Global Bioanalysis Consortium Harmonization Team.\u201d<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-25\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The abstract of the work of Redrup <i>et al.<\/i> reads in part<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_25-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-25\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>The importance of appropriate sample management in regulated bioanalysis is undeniable for clinical and non-clinical study support due to the fact that if the samples are compromised at any stage prior to analysis, the study results may be affected. Health authority regulations do not contain specific guidance on sample management; therefore, as part of the Global Bioanalysis Consortium (GBC), the A5 team was established to discuss sample management requirements and to put forward recommendations.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>In short, you have to have control of your samples and be able to ensure their integrity.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.1_The_nature_of_incoming_samples\">1.4.1 The nature of incoming samples<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Considerations about the nature of incoming samples don\u2019t get as much press as they deserve. For example, if you are in quality control, the nature of your incoming samples is going to be consistent and determined by the production process. In fact, sample preparation is likely to be integrated with the test procedure\u2019s automation. If the samples are fluids, the impact on an automation process may be small compared to working with solids. One complicating factor with fluids is the need to remove extraneous material so that downstream problems aren\u2019t created. That removal may be accomplished by filtering, settling, centrifugal separation, batch centrifugation, or other means depending on the amount of material and its composition.\n<\/p><p>Working with solids raises several other issues. First, does the material have to be reduced to a coarse or fine powder before processing? This may be needed to permit precise weighing of amounts or providing a large surface area for solvent extractions. Second, is fabrication of a sample piece required? Some mechanical properties testing of plastics require molding test bars. Other tests may require pressing films for spectral analysis. Other issues exist as well. Some are industry-specific, for example working with hazardous materials (including toxic substances and radioactive samples), and those requiring careful environmental and\/or security controls.\n<\/p><p>In many labs, automation is viewed as something that happens after the samples are logged in. Yet that doesn\u2019t have to be the case. The following paragraphs focus on testing labs because they are the most likely to benefit from automation. They meet the two key criteria for automation implementation: stable procedures and sufficient workload to justify the cost of automation development. That can also happen in research labs, though; in the end it's simply a matter of the nature of the work.\n<\/p><p>Testing labs (e.g., quality control and non-routine internal and contract labs) can take steps to streamline their sample handling operations, though unfortunately at the expense of someone else\u2019s labor (just make it worth their effort). For example, those submitting samples can be required to pre-log their samples. This can be accomplished by giving them access to restricted accounts on a LIMS that lets them log samples in, and little more. Sample containers can also be standardized with barcodes. The barcodes can then be required as part of the logging process and are critical to identifying samples that have reached the lab, as well as tracking their physical location. Additionally, sample container sizes and related container forms can also be standardized. These should match the requirements for sample handling in automated systems, if possible. (Unless you supply them, your submitters may not have the tools for sealing sample vials, etc.) Finally, all this cooperative effort to standardize sample reception can be incentivized with price breaks, which is likely to lead to faster TAT. In other words, give them an incentive to work with you, the lab. They are supplying labor that could potentially impact their productivity, so give them a good reason to work with you.\n<\/p><p>Testing operations can, as a result, see further benefits:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Sample storage management and access is improved.<\/li>\n<li>You\u2019ll be more informed of incoming work.<\/li>\n<li>Automation and scheduling is enhanced when it begins with the requester instead of post-login.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>My first professional lab experience was in polymers in an analytical research group (some routine work, a lot of non-routine work). Samples would arrive in a variety of containers (e.g., bags, jars, test tubes, envelopes, fabricated parts taped to sample request forms). Sample matrices would range from pellets, waxes, and powders to liquids, gas cylinders, rolls of film, and more. Classifying those samples, figuring out where to put them, locating them, and preparing them for work (which often involved grinding them in a Wiley mill) was a major time sink, sufficiently so that the actual analysis was a smaller part of the overall workflow. As such, anything you can do to streamline that process will help productivity and contribute to a successful automation project.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Abbreviations,_acronyms,_and_initialisms\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Abbreviations.2C_acronyms.2C_and_initialisms\">Abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>CDS<\/b>: Chromatography data system\n<\/p><p><b>ELN<\/b>: Electronic laboratory notebook\n<\/p><p><b>EVOP<\/b>: Evolutionary operations\n<\/p><p><b>ICP<\/b>: Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry\n<\/p><p><b>K\/D\/I<\/b>: Knowledge, data, and information\n<\/p><p><b>LIMS<\/b>: Laboratory information management system\n<\/p><p><b>LOF<\/b>: Laboratory of the future\n<\/p><p><b>LSE<\/b>: Laboratory systems engineer\n<\/p><p><b>NMR<\/b>: Nuclear magnetic resonance\n<\/p><p><b>QC<\/b>: Quality control\n<\/p><p><b>ROI<\/b>: Return on investment\n<\/p><p><b>SDMS<\/b>: Scientific data management system\n<\/p><p><b>Std.SP<\/b>: Standard sample program\n<\/p><p><b>TLA<\/b>: Total laboratory automation\n<\/p><p><b>TAT<\/b>: Turn-around time\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Footnotes\">Footnotes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Where the amount of titrant added is adjusted based on the response to the previous addition. This should yield faster titrations with increased accuracy.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">In prior writings, the term \u201cscientific manufacturing\u201d was used. The problem with that term is that we\u2019re not making products but instead producing results. Plus \u201cmanufacturing results\u201d has some negative connotations.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Wikipedia <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Calender\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Calender\" data-key=\"d8d8d99ee47563a86625118bdd0b05a2\">says this<\/a> of calendering: \"A calender is a series of hard pressure rollers used to finish or smooth a sheet of material such as paper, textiles, or plastics. Calender rolls are also used to form some types of plastic films and to apply coatings.\"<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See the discussion on clinical chemistry in the main text.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">If you\u2019re not familiar with the method, Wikipedia's <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography\" title=\"Chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2615535d1f14c6cffdfad7285999ad9d\">chromatography<\/a> page is a good starting point.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See Wikipedia's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microplate\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Microplate\" data-key=\"118619c5fab5efc970417c99b85e858d\">microplate<\/a> article for more.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"About_the_author\">About the author<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Initially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Liscouski, J.&#32;(2015).&#32;<i>Computerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide<\/i>.&#32;PDA\/DHI.&#32;pp.&#160;432.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ASIN\" data-key=\"5cc6746513dcbbbee6f1bf9284ead699\">ASIN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.amazon.com\/dp\/B010EWO06S\" target=\"_blank\">B010EWO06S<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1933722863.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computerized+Systems+in+the+Modern+Laboratory%3A+A+Practical+Guide&amp;rft.aulast=Liscouski%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Liscouski%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B432&amp;rft.pub=PDA%2FDHI&amp;rft_id=info:asin\/B010EWO06S&amp;rft.isbn=978-1933722863&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WilkinsonTheFAIR16-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-WilkinsonTheFAIR16_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-WilkinsonTheFAIR16_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Wilkinson, M.D.; Dumontier, M.; Aalbersberg, I.J. et al.&#32;(2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC4792175\" target=\"_blank\">\"The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Data<\/i>&#32;<b>3<\/b>: 160018.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1038%2Fsdata.2016.18\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/sdata.2016.18<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4792175\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC4792175<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/26978244\" target=\"_blank\">26978244<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC4792175\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC4792175<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+FAIR+Guiding+Principles+for+scientific+data+management+and+stewardship&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+Data&amp;rft.aulast=Wilkinson%2C+M.D.%3B+Dumontier%2C+M.%3B+Aalbersberg%2C+I.J.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+M.D.%3B+Dumontier%2C+M.%3B+Aalbersberg%2C+I.J.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.pages=160018&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1038%2Fsdata.2016.18&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC4792175&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/26978244&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3DPMC4792175&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FishOvercoming05-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FishOvercoming05_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Fish, M.; Minicuci, D.&#32;(2005).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/apps.thermoscientific.com\/media\/SID\/Informatics\/PDF\/Article-Overcoming-the-Challanges.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Overcoming the Challenges of a LIMS Migration\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Research &amp; Development<\/i>&#32;<b>47<\/b>&#32;(2)<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/apps.thermoscientific.com\/media\/SID\/Informatics\/PDF\/Article-Overcoming-the-Challanges.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/apps.thermoscientific.com\/media\/SID\/Informatics\/PDF\/Article-Overcoming-the-Challanges.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Overcoming+the+Challenges+of+a+LIMS+Migration&amp;rft.jtitle=Research+%26+Development&amp;rft.aulast=Fish%2C+M.%3B+Minicuci%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Fish%2C+M.%3B+Minicuci%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.volume=47&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.thermoscientific.com%2Fmedia%2FSID%2FInformatics%2FPDF%2FArticle-Overcoming-the-Challanges.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FishOvercoming13-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FishOvercoming13_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Fish, M.; Minicuci, D.&#32;(1 April 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientistlive.com\/content\/overcoming-daunting-business-challenges-lims-migration\" target=\"_blank\">\"Overcoming daunting business challenges of a LIMS migration\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientist Live<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientistlive.com\/content\/overcoming-daunting-business-challenges-lims-migration\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientistlive.com\/content\/overcoming-daunting-business-challenges-lims-migration<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Overcoming+daunting+business+challenges+of+a+LIMS+migration&amp;rft.atitle=Scientist+Live&amp;rft.aulast=Fish%2C+M.%3B+Minicuci%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Fish%2C+M.%3B+Minicuci%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=1+April+2013&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientistlive.com%2Fcontent%2Fovercoming-daunting-business-challenges-lims-migration&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FreeLIMSWhat18-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FreeLIMSWhat18_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/freelims.org\/blog\/legacy-data-migration-to-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Overcoming the Challenges of Legacy Data Migration\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>FreeLIMS.org<\/i>.&#32;CloudLIMS.com, LLC.&#32;29 June 2018<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/freelims.org\/blog\/legacy-data-migration-to-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/freelims.org\/blog\/legacy-data-migration-to-lims.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Overcoming+the+Challenges+of+Legacy+Data+Migration&amp;rft.atitle=FreeLIMS.org&amp;rft.date=29+June+2018&amp;rft.pub=CloudLIMS.com%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffreelims.org%2Fblog%2Flegacy-data-migration-to-lims.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLSIAUTO03-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLSIAUTO03_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/clsi.org\/standards\/products\/automation-and-informatics\/documents\/auto03\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AUTO03 Laboratory Automation: Communications With Automated Clinical Laboratory Systems, Instruments, Devices, and Information Systems, 2nd Edition\"<\/a>.&#32;Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute.&#32;30 September 2009<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/clsi.org\/standards\/products\/automation-and-informatics\/documents\/auto03\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/clsi.org\/standards\/products\/automation-and-informatics\/documents\/auto03\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=AUTO03+Laboratory+Automation%3A+Communications+With+Automated+Clinical+Laboratory+Systems%2C+Instruments%2C+Devices%2C+and+Information+Systems%2C+2nd+Edition&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=30+September+2009&amp;rft.pub=Clinical+and+Laboratory+Standards+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclsi.org%2Fstandards%2Fproducts%2Fautomation-and-informatics%2Fdocuments%2Fauto03%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SarkoziTheEff03-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SarkoziTheEff03_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Sarkozi, L.; Simson, E.; Ramanathan, L.&#32;(2003).&#32;\"The effects of total laboratory automation on the management of a clinical chemistry laboratory. Retrospective analysis of 36 years\".&#32;<i>Clinica Chimica Acta<\/i>&#32;<b>329<\/b>&#32;(1\u20132): 89\u201394.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0009-8981%2803%2900020-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/S0009-8981(03)00020-2<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+effects+of+total+laboratory+automation+on+the+management+of+a+clinical+chemistry+laboratory.+Retrospective+analysis+of+36+years&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinica+Chimica+Acta&amp;rft.aulast=Sarkozi%2C+L.%3B+Simson%2C+E.%3B+Ramanathan%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Sarkozi%2C+L.%3B+Simson%2C+E.%3B+Ramanathan%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.volume=329&amp;rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&amp;rft.pages=89%E2%80%9394&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2FS0009-8981%2803%2900020-2&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BissellTotal14-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BissellTotal14_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RdwFZyYE_4Q\" target=\"_blank\">\"Total Laboratory Automation - Michael Bissell, MD, Ph.D\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>YouTube<\/i>.&#32;University of Washington.&#32;15 July 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RdwFZyYE_4Q\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RdwFZyYE_4Q<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Total+Laboratory+Automation+-+Michael+Bissell%2C+MD%2C+Ph.D&amp;rft.atitle=YouTube&amp;rft.date=15+July+2014&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Washington&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DRdwFZyYE_4Q&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WatersMassLynx16-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WatersMassLynx16_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.waters.com\/webassets\/cms\/library\/docs\/720005731en%20Masslynx%20LIMS%20Interface.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"MassLynx LIMS Interface\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Waters Corporation.&#32;November 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.waters.com\/webassets\/cms\/library\/docs\/720005731en%20Masslynx%20LIMS%20Interface.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.waters.com\/webassets\/cms\/library\/docs\/720005731en%20Masslynx%20LIMS%20Interface.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=MassLynx+LIMS+Interface&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=November+2016&amp;rft.pub=Waters+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.waters.com%2Fwebassets%2Fcms%2Flibrary%2Fdocs%2F720005731en%2520Masslynx%2520LIMS%2520Interface.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTME1578_18-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1578_18_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1578 - 18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2018<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578+-+18+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FE1578.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Schmitt, S., ed.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Assuring Data Integrity for Life Sciences<\/i><\/a>.&#32;DHI Publishing.&#32;pp.&#160;385.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781933722979<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.dhibooks.com\/assuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Assuring+Data+Integrity+for+Life+Sciences&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B385&amp;rft.pub=DHI+Publishing&amp;rft.isbn=9781933722979&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhibooks.com%2Fassuring-data-integrity-for-life-sciences&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTMEE2078_16-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTMEE2078_16_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E2078.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E2078 - 00(2016) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Mass Spectrometric Data\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E2078.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E2078.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E2078+-+00%282016%29+Standard+Guide+for+Analytical+Data+Interchange+Protocol+for+Mass+Spectrometric+Data&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FE2078.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTME1948_14-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1948_14_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1948.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1948 - 98(2014) Standard Guide for Analytical Data Interchange Protocol for Chromatographic Data\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International.&#32;2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1948.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1948.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E1948+-+98%282014%29+Standard+Guide+for+Analytical+Data+Interchange+Protocol+for+Chromatographic+Data&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FE1948.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MerckMilli19-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MerckMilli19_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.emdgroup.com\/en\/news\/bssn-software-06-08-2019.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"MilliporeSigma Acquires BSSN Software to Accelerate Customers\u2019 Digital Transformation in the Lab\"<\/a>.&#32;Merck KGaA.&#32;6 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href=\"#cite_ref-15\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">McDonald,&#32;Robert S.&#59;&#32;Wilks,&#32;Paul A.&#32;(1 January 1988).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1366\/0003702884428734\" target=\"_blank\">\"JCAMP-DX: A Standard Form for Exchange of Infrared Spectra in Computer Readable Form\"<\/a>&#32;(in en).&#32;<i>Applied Spectroscopy<\/i>&#32;<b>42<\/b>&#32;(1): 151\u2013162.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1366%2F0003702884428734\" target=\"_blank\">10.1366\/0003702884428734<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" data-key=\"a5dec3e4d005e654c29ad167ab53f53a\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0003-7028\" target=\"_blank\">0003-7028<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1366\/0003702884428734\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1366\/0003702884428734<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=JCAMP-DX%3A+A+Standard+Form+for+Exchange+of+Infrared+Spectra+in+Computer+Readable+Form&amp;rft.jtitle=Applied+Spectroscopy&amp;rft.aulast=McDonald&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&amp;rft.au=McDonald%2C%26%2332%3BRobert+S.&amp;rft.au=Wilks%2C%26%2332%3BPaul+A.&amp;rft.date=1+January+1988&amp;rft.volume=42&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=151%E2%80%93162&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1366%2F0003702884428734&amp;rft.issn=0003-7028&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1366%2F0003702884428734&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GAML-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GAML_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" 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class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">CNN Business&#32;(17 April 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_PuTKH7143c\" target=\"_blank\">\"Micro robots drive Bayer's high-tech vision\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>YouTube<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_PuTKH7143c\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_PuTKH7143c<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 November 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Micro+robots+drive+Bayer%27s+high-tech+vision&amp;rft.atitle=YouTube&amp;rft.aulast=CNN+Business&amp;rft.au=CNN+Business&amp;rft.date=17+April+2015&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D_PuTKH7143c&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OxerTheEss17-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OxerTheEss17_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Oxer, M.; Stroud, T.&#32;(2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.titian.co.uk\/the-essential-guide-to-managing-laboratory-samples-web\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Essential Guide to Managing Laboratory Samples\"<\/a>.&#32;Titian Software Ltd<span 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id=\"cite_note-:0-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_25-0\">19.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_25-1\">19.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Redrup,&#32;Michael J.&#59;&#32;Igarashi,&#32;Harue&#59;&#32;Schaefgen,&#32;Jay&#59;&#32;Lin,&#32;Jenny&#59;&#32;Geisler,&#32;Lisa&#59;&#32;Ben M\u2019Barek,&#32;Mohamed&#59;&#32;Ramachandran,&#32;Subramanian&#59;&#32;Cardoso,&#32;Thales&#32;<i>et al.<\/i>&#32;(1 March 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1208\/s12248-016-9869-2\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sample Management: Recommendation for Best Practices and Harmonization from the Global Bioanalysis Consortium Harmonization Team\"<\/a>&#32;(in en).&#32;<i>The AAPS Journal<\/i>&#32;<b>18<\/b>&#32;(2): 290\u2013293.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1208%2Fs12248-016-9869-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1208\/s12248-016-9869-2<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" data-key=\"a5dec3e4d005e654c29ad167ab53f53a\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1550-7416\" target=\"_blank\">1550-7416<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4779093\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC4779093<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/26821803\" target=\"_blank\">26821803<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1208\/s12248-016-9869-2\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1208\/s12248-016-9869-2<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Sample+Management%3A+Recommendation+for+Best+Practices+and+Harmonization+from+the+Global+Bioanalysis+Consortium+Harmonization+Team&amp;rft.jtitle=The+AAPS+Journal&amp;rft.aulast=Redrup&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&amp;rft.au=Redrup%2C%26%2332%3BMichael+J.&amp;rft.au=Igarashi%2C%26%2332%3BHarue&amp;rft.au=Schaefgen%2C%26%2332%3BJay&amp;rft.au=Lin%2C%26%2332%3BJenny&amp;rft.au=Geisler%2C%26%2332%3BLisa&amp;rft.au=Ben+M%E2%80%99Barek%2C%26%2332%3BMohamed&amp;rft.au=Ramachandran%2C%26%2332%3BSubramanian&amp;rft.au=Cardoso%2C%26%2332%3BThales&amp;rft.au=Hillewaert%2C%26%2332%3BVera&amp;rft.date=1+March+2016&amp;rft.volume=18&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=290%E2%80%93293&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1208%2Fs12248-016-9869-2&amp;rft.issn=1550-7416&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC4779093&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/26821803&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1208%2Fs12248-016-9869-2&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110121053\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.829 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.301 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 14382\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 100080\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 34791\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 25\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 34153\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 492.568 1 -total\n 86.37% 425.412 2 Template:Reflist\n 55.71% 274.395 19 Template:Citation\/core\n 32.51% 160.116 12 Template:Cite_web\n 16.33% 80.451 2 Template:Cite_book\n 14.83% 73.059 5 Template:Cite_journal\n 9.30% 45.798 14 Template:Date\n 7.18% 35.349 6 Template:Efn\n 6.14% 30.225 13 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 5.76% 28.367 24 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Directions_in_Laboratory_Systems:_One_Person%27s_Perspective<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/d\/dc\/Fig1_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/7\/70\/Fig2_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/3\/3e\/Fig3_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b2\/Fig4_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/cc\/Fig5_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/0\/05\/FigA1_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/c8\/FigA2_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/1c\/FigA3_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b3\/FigA4_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/f\/f1\/FigA5_Liscouski_DirectLabSysOnePerPersp21.png"],"87d7f050e0c47d7762a90382989592a1_timestamp":1704907032,"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_type":"article","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_title":"A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_plaintext":"\n\nLII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's WorkFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search\nTitle: A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work\nAuthor for citation: Joe Liscouski\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International\nPublication date: January 2018\n\r\n\nLaboratory informatics involves a collection of technologies that range from sample storage management and robotics to database\/workflow management systems such as laboratory information management systems (LIMS) and electronic laboratory notebooks (ELN), with a lot of task-specific tools in between. These components were designed by a number of vendors who saw specific needs and developed products to address them. Those products in turn were presented to laboratories as a means of solving their instrumental data collection and analysis, sample preparation, data management, and document management issues. With many needs and so many ways to address them, how do you go about choosing a set of products that will work for you? \nThat is what this set of webinars is all about. We introduce the technologies and position them for you so that you can see how they may or may not apply to your work. Then we address the very real world topic of justifying the investment needed to put those tools to use in your laboratories. \nOnce that foundation has been put in place we cover:\n\nTechnology planning and education: Planning is essential for success in this work. We look at how to go about it, who to involve, and methodologies for carrying out the work. We also look at the associated knowledge necessary to be effective.\nImplementation: Informatics systems can be a challenge to implement. We look at what is needed to minimize risks and make the implementation easier, as well as the support requirements needed to manage their use in your laboratory environment.\nRegulatory guidelines and compliance: We also address regulatory guidelines and compliance and how they can affect every laboratory application.\nThe future: What developments will arise and be needed in the future? We wrap up the series with those details.\n\r\n\nAbout the author\nInitially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n\nContents \n\n1 Introduction \n\n1.1 Introductory video \n1.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n2 Part 1: Laboratory Informatics Technologies \n\n2.1 Webinar \n2.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n3 Part 2: Laboratory Informatics and Return on Investment \n\n3.1 Webinar \n3.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n4 Part 3: Technology, Planning, &amp; Education \n\n4.1 Webinar \n4.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n5 Part 4: LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS, IT &amp; Education \n\n5.1 Webinar \n5.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n6 Part 5: Supporting Laboratory Systems \n\n6.1 Webinar \n6.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n7 Part 6: Instrument Data Systems \n\n7.1 Webinar \n7.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n8 Part 7: Laboratory Processes \n\n8.1 Webinar \n8.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n\n\n\nIntroduction \nOnce the scientific mission of a lab has been established, lab work is divided into three areas:\n\nAdministrative work, including report preparation\nPlanning experimental work, including method development and attendant documentation \/ validation\nExperiment \/procedure \/ task execution\nLaboratory computing and automation can play a useful role in each of these points. The effectiveness of these tools depends on preparation, planning, and the capabilities of those carrying out lab work. It is those points that need attention if we are going to transition from a collection of technologies to integrated functional systems. Similar transitions took other production environments from a succession of individual steps to highly efficient, cost-effective, and successful productivity.\nThe purpose of these webinars and the resources they carry with them, is to help people understand how to make that transition happen. How those tools can improve laboratory operations.\nWe, as a community, need to move from a series of incremental improvements to well-designed, engineered solutions to laboratory needs. That will require a change in mindset. That mindset change will lead to better science, better results, improved productivity, and more effective laboratory operations and technology management.\n\nIntroductory video \n The introductory video for this series of webinars (12:30) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this introductory video can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 1: Laboratory Informatics Technologies \nLIMS, ELN, scientific data management systems (SDMS), laboratory information systems (LIS), laboratory execution systems (LES), and instrument data systems are terms that have been part of laboratory discussions for years, but unless you\u2019ve been an active part of those conversations, they sound like techno-babble. The purpose of this webinar is two-fold:\n\nfirst, to introduce the webinar series and its objectives, and\nsecond, to convert that babble into meaningful subjects and see how they apply (or not) to your laboratory.\nInformatics is part of laboratory life: unless it is a piece of glassware, almost everything in the lab has a chip that is supposed to improve its usefulness. At the end of this webinar you will have an understanding of what the key technologies are, how they relate to each other, and how they might improve you lab's operations. The remainder of the series will build on this background, looking at return on investment (ROI) considerations, planning, education, and IT support requirements. You\u2019ll love it.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (50:17) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 2: Laboratory Informatics and Return on Investment \nWhen you are considering lab informatics and automation projects, someone is going to ask \u201cwhat is the return on the investment you\u2019re asking for?\u201d How do you answer them? This second webinar in the series provides practical guidance.\nThe introduction of informatics\/automation technologies into laboratory work requires larger investments than typical lab bench spending and involves people from outside support groups. It also brings up issues of knowledge and intellectual property management, an increasingly important corporate topic. Your ability to address these points within the ROI conversation will have a direct impact on the approval of your projects. Join us as we begin to look into these considerations:\n\nHow do you justify the expense of laboratory systems?\nWhat results can be expected from an investment in laboratory technologies?\nHow do you go about setting goals that are easily understood and play into corporate concerns?\nHow will these investments affect other groups?\nAs laboratory work and the investments in it become more visible to the corporate organization, more effort will have to be put into the justification and evaluation of these expenditures. This webinar will help you form a basis for that work.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (38:31) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\n Part 3: Technology, Planning, &amp; Education \nThe first webinar introduced the subject of laboratory informatics, comparing the use of LIMS, ELN, SDMS, LIS, LES, and instrument data systems in different laboratory settings. The second looked at how you can evaluate the ROI in those technologies.\nThis third webinar looks at technology planning and education, and more specifically, how you can gain the benefits expected from your investment in informatics technologies. Effective planning, by people with a good understanding of laboratory technologies, is one of the key points in successfully applying informatics technologies to laboratory work. Most failures can be traced back to insufficient planning efforts.\nThis subject may span more than one webinar session and will look at the:\n\nmethodologies for laboratory systems planning, including where and when to start and who should be involved;\nroles of regulatory guidelines in different laboratories;\nroles that laboratory management, personnel, and IT support groups play;\nchanges taking place in laboratory work and the backgrounds needed to be successful; and\nefforts needed to support the technical work and meet ROI and performance goals.\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (42:18) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\n Part 4: LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS, IT &amp; Education \nThis session builds on the material covered in the previous webinars. We extend the discussion of centralized laboratory database systems (LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS) to look at multi-laboratory applications, as well as the use of virtual systems, local\/private cloud, remote cloud, and vendor-supported remote database applications. This session also begins looking at the roles that information technology support groups can play in this work. Points covered include:\n\nplanning for multiple laboratory use of database systems;\nusing local and cloud-based computing models; and\nintegrating IT teams to better play a role in the work.\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (43:59) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 5: Supporting Laboratory Systems \nThe previous webinars have progressed from the descriptions of laboratory technologies to choosing some components, the financial justification for their use, and the beginnings of describing the topology and distribution of lab informatics. In the course of those sessions, we began looking at the need for outside support for the systems under consideration: what help do you need when carrying out this work, and where will it come from?\nThis webinar continues the development of that topic. What roles do lab personnel and corporate IT support play in identifying technologies, selecting products, implementing them, and providing for long-term support? Is there a need for additional players in this work and what are their roles?\nWhy is this important to you? We\u2019re past the point where traditional IT backgrounds are sufficient to support laboratory work. While the ability to effectively apply the available technologies, and identify missing components, is outside the experience of most lab personnel and IT support, it is an essential need if we are going to meet the growing productivity and return on investment (ROI) demands of laboratory work. This presentation looks at how we develop people to fit that need.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (43:31) can be found on YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 6: Instrument Data Systems \nInstrument data systems represent a critical transition in lab work: it is the place where we stop working with materials and begin working with numerical representations of those materials, where lab bench science ends and informatics begins. Problems in that transition can negate all the work leading up to it, leading to results that are open to challenge.\nThis webinar takes a look at:\n\nthose instrument data systems;\nthe processes that affect your data;\nthe choices you face in designing an informatics architecture for your lab; and\nthe silo effect and the roles of lab managers, personnel, and support have in selecting and managing those technologies.\nWhy does this matter? We are moving toward the development of automated science as a means of gaining higher productivity and reducing costs. If the systems we are putting in place are not well understood and planned, that automation can result in questionable results and missed opportunities. Laboratory informatics architectures have become a major factor in the success of lab operations, and this webinar represents an important step in building that success.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (43:09) can be found on YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 7: Laboratory Processes \nIn this seventh and final episode of the webinar series, we broaden our view to examine the full range of lab work, including the methods and procedures that put the \u201cscience\u201d in lab work. \nThis webinar takes a look at:\n\nhow the various informatics pieces relate to each other in the process of lab work, and\nwhat it takes to integrate them into computer-controlled, computer-assisted, and scientific production systems.\nWhy is this important to you? As the drive for higher productivity and improved ROI continues, laboratories need to take advantage of the full range of informatics and automation tools available to them. That includes viewing the lab's operations from a broader viewpoint, ensuring that resources are used effectively and opportunities aren\u2019t missed. This concluding session brings the entire series to a close, allowing you to apply all the concepts we've covered to your lab's work, all while realizing how regulatory guidelines come into play.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (33:10) can be found on YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 4 January 2024, at 15:46.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 15,569 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_A_Guide_for_Management_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization_s_Work rootpage-LII_A_Guide_for_Management_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization_s_Work skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:LabCourses_Transparent.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8c952781a315e89a294f7326bb7182d\"><img alt=\"LabCourses Transparent.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b4\/LabCourses_Transparent.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"240\" height=\"147\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Joe Liscouski\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: January 2018\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">Laboratory informatics<\/a> involves a collection of technologies that range from sample storage management and robotics to database\/workflow management systems such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management systems<\/a> (LIMS) and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a> (ELN), with a lot of task-specific tools in between. These components were designed by a number of vendors who saw specific needs and developed products to address them. Those products in turn were presented to laboratories as a means of solving their instrumental data collection and analysis, sample preparation, data management, and document management issues. With many needs and so many ways to address them, how do you go about choosing a set of products that will work for you? \n<\/p><p>That is what this set of webinars is all about. We introduce the technologies and position them for you so that you can see how they may or may not apply to your work. Then we address the very real world topic of justifying the investment needed to put those tools to use in your laboratories. \n<\/p><p>Once that foundation has been put in place we cover:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Technology planning and education: Planning is essential for success in this work. We look at how to go about it, who to involve, and methodologies for carrying out the work. We also look at the associated knowledge necessary to be effective.<\/li>\n<li>Implementation: Informatics systems can be a challenge to implement. We look at what is needed to minimize risks and make the implementation easier, as well as the support requirements needed to manage their use in your laboratory environment.<\/li>\n<li>Regulatory guidelines and compliance: We also address regulatory guidelines and compliance and how they can affect every laboratory application.<\/li>\n<li>The future: What developments will arise and be needed in the future? We wrap up the series with those details.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<b>About the author<\/b>\n<\/p><p>Initially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Once the scientific mission of a lab has been established, lab work is divided into three areas:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Administrative work, including report preparation<\/li>\n<li>Planning experimental work, including method development and attendant documentation \/ validation<\/li>\n<li>Experiment \/procedure \/ task execution<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Laboratory computing and automation can play a useful role in each of these points. The effectiveness of these tools depends on preparation, planning, and the capabilities of those carrying out lab work. It is those points that need attention if we are going to transition from a collection of technologies to integrated functional systems. Similar transitions took other production environments from a succession of individual steps to highly efficient, cost-effective, and successful productivity.\n<\/p><p>The purpose of these webinars and the resources they carry with them, is to help people understand how to make that transition happen. How those tools can improve laboratory operations.\n<\/p><p>We, as a community, need to move from a series of incremental improvements to well-designed, engineered solutions to laboratory needs. That will require a change in mindset. That mindset change will lead to better science, better results, improved productivity, and more effective laboratory operations and technology management.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introductory_video\">Introductory video<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=6p_aRNTiBQM\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The introductory video for this series of webinars (12:30) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=6p_aRNTiBQM\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=15jiWwQ0PBflzjP7fvG6S48ppvJVVvmcn\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this introductory video can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=15jiWwQ0PBflzjP7fvG6S48ppvJVVvmcn\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_1:_Laboratory_Informatics_Technologies\">Part 1: Laboratory Informatics Technologies<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>LIMS, ELN, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">scientific data management systems<\/a> (SDMS), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information systems<\/a> (LIS), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\" title=\"Laboratory execution system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a\">laboratory execution systems<\/a> (LES), and instrument data systems are terms that have been part of laboratory discussions for years, but unless you\u2019ve been an active part of those conversations, they sound like techno-babble. The purpose of this webinar is two-fold:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>first, to introduce the webinar series and its objectives, and<\/li>\n<li>second, to convert that babble into meaningful subjects and see how they apply (or not) to your laboratory.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Informatics is part of laboratory life: unless it is a piece of glassware, almost everything in the lab has a chip that is supposed to improve its usefulness. At the end of this webinar you will have an understanding of what the key technologies are, how they relate to each other, and how they might improve you lab's operations. The remainder of the series will build on this background, looking at return on investment (ROI) considerations, planning, education, and IT support requirements. You\u2019ll love it.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=p6FtygPEZS4\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (50:17) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=p6FtygPEZS4\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_2\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1iykZUk9HcNrpFrqg5ZpuHmoAQdCn-yf_\/view\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1iykZUk9HcNrpFrqg5ZpuHmoAQdCn-yf_\/view\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_2:_Laboratory_Informatics_and_Return_on_Investment\">Part 2: Laboratory Informatics and Return on Investment<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>When you are considering lab informatics and automation projects, someone is going to ask \u201cwhat is the return on the investment you\u2019re asking for?\u201d How do you answer them? This second webinar in the series provides practical guidance.\n<\/p><p>The introduction of informatics\/automation technologies into laboratory work requires larger investments than typical lab bench spending and involves people from outside support groups. It also brings up issues of knowledge and intellectual property management, an increasingly important corporate topic. Your ability to address these points within the ROI conversation will have a direct impact on the approval of your projects. Join us as we begin to look into these considerations:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>How do you justify the expense of laboratory systems?<\/li>\n<li>What results can be expected from an investment in laboratory technologies?<\/li>\n<li>How do you go about setting goals that are easily understood and play into corporate concerns?<\/li>\n<li>How will these investments affect other groups?<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>As laboratory work and the investments in it become more visible to the corporate organization, more effort will have to be put into the justification and evaluation of these expenditures. This webinar will help you form a basis for that work.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_2\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=e6SfvFEXwSk\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (38:31) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=e6SfvFEXwSk\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_3\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1az0Wq-SX1f-m4_-wVn838kgX8I6LZ3me\/view\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1az0Wq-SX1f-m4_-wVn838kgX8I6LZ3me\/view\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Part_3:_Technology,_Planning,_&amp;_Education\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_3:_Technology.2C_Planning.2C_.26_Education\">Part 3: Technology, Planning, &amp; Education<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The first webinar introduced the subject of laboratory informatics, comparing the use of LIMS, ELN, SDMS, LIS, LES, and instrument data systems in different laboratory settings. The second looked at how you can evaluate the ROI in those technologies.\n<\/p><p>This third webinar looks at technology planning and education, and more specifically, how you can gain the benefits expected from your investment in informatics technologies. Effective planning, by people with a good understanding of laboratory technologies, is one of the key points in successfully applying informatics technologies to laboratory work. Most failures can be traced back to insufficient planning efforts.\n<\/p><p>This subject may span more than one webinar session and will look at the:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>methodologies for laboratory systems planning, including where and when to start and who should be involved;<\/li>\n<li>roles of regulatory guidelines in different laboratories;<\/li>\n<li>roles that laboratory management, personnel, and IT support groups play;<\/li>\n<li>changes taking place in laboratory work and the backgrounds needed to be successful; and<\/li>\n<li>efforts needed to support the technical work and meet ROI and performance goals.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_3\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=nyIt6j_6qzQ\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (42:18) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=nyIt6j_6qzQ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_4\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1sGeOlNLfzoJfcRXBYQBaT24GloSJ2zyB\/view\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1sGeOlNLfzoJfcRXBYQBaT24GloSJ2zyB\/view\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Part_4:_LIMS\/LIS,_ELN,_SDMS,_IT_&amp;_Education\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_4:_LIMS.2FLIS.2C_ELN.2C_SDMS.2C_IT_.26_Education\">Part 4: LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS, IT &amp; Education<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This session builds on the material covered in the previous webinars. We extend the discussion of centralized laboratory database systems (LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS) to look at multi-laboratory applications, as well as the use of virtual systems, local\/private cloud, remote cloud, and vendor-supported remote database applications. This session also begins looking at the roles that information technology support groups can play in this work. Points covered include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>planning for multiple laboratory use of database systems;<\/li>\n<li>using local and cloud-based computing models; and<\/li>\n<li>integrating IT teams to better play a role in the work.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_4\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-8dkKsuEwdU\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (43:59) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-8dkKsuEwdU\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_5\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1RFlWkKHZAi-MPqV1XjDm5vYexyO7tGld\/view\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1RFlWkKHZAi-MPqV1XjDm5vYexyO7tGld\/view\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_5:_Supporting_Laboratory_Systems\">Part 5: Supporting Laboratory Systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The previous webinars have progressed from the descriptions of laboratory technologies to choosing some components, the financial justification for their use, and the beginnings of describing the topology and distribution of lab informatics. In the course of those sessions, we began looking at the need for outside support for the systems under consideration: what help do you need when carrying out this work, and where will it come from?\n<\/p><p>This webinar continues the development of that topic. What roles do lab personnel and corporate IT support play in identifying technologies, selecting products, implementing them, and providing for long-term support? Is there a need for additional players in this work and what are their roles?\n<\/p><p>Why is this important to you? We\u2019re past the point where traditional IT backgrounds are sufficient to support laboratory work. While the ability to effectively apply the available technologies, and identify missing components, is outside the experience of most lab personnel and IT support, it is an essential need if we are going to meet the growing productivity and return on investment (ROI) demands of laboratory work. This presentation looks at how we develop people to fit that need.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_5\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/1Oi6Flczt8g\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (43:31) can be found on YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/1Oi6Flczt8g\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_6\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1tfNnWYgVb49FyKU5S_saPi1TZ6n9_L4Q\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1tfNnWYgVb49FyKU5S_saPi1TZ6n9_L4Q\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_6:_Instrument_Data_Systems\">Part 6: Instrument Data Systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Instrument data systems represent a critical transition in lab work: it is the place where we stop working with materials and begin working with numerical representations of those materials, where lab bench science ends and informatics begins. Problems in that transition can negate all the work leading up to it, leading to results that are open to challenge.\n<\/p><p>This webinar takes a look at:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>those instrument data systems;<\/li>\n<li>the processes that affect your data;<\/li>\n<li>the choices you face in designing an informatics architecture for your lab; and<\/li>\n<li>the silo effect and the roles of lab managers, personnel, and support have in selecting and managing those technologies.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Why does this matter? We are moving toward the development of automated science as a means of gaining higher productivity and reducing costs. If the systems we are putting in place are not well understood and planned, that automation can result in questionable results and missed opportunities. Laboratory informatics architectures have become a major factor in the success of lab operations, and this webinar represents an important step in building that success.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_6\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gvkTjx8veBI\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (43:09) can be found on YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gvkTjx8veBI\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_7\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1_vMiovIWRfUrA4Wf8kTP4YQplfPWH0KH\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1_vMiovIWRfUrA4Wf8kTP4YQplfPWH0KH\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_7:_Laboratory_Processes\">Part 7: Laboratory Processes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In this seventh and final episode of the webinar series, we broaden our view to examine the full range of lab work, including the methods and procedures that put the \u201cscience\u201d in lab work. \n<\/p><p>This webinar takes a look at:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>how the various informatics pieces relate to each other in the process of lab work, and<\/li>\n<li>what it takes to integrate them into computer-controlled, computer-assisted, and scientific production systems.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Why is this important to you? As the drive for higher productivity and improved ROI continues, laboratories need to take advantage of the full range of informatics and automation tools available to them. That includes viewing the lab's operations from a broader viewpoint, ensuring that resources are used effectively and opportunities aren\u2019t missed. This concluding session brings the entire series to a close, allowing you to apply all the concepts we've covered to your lab's work, all while realizing how regulatory guidelines come into play.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_7\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-ppHVRoNkFE\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (33:10) can be found on YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-ppHVRoNkFE\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_8\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1ex1qRsP9nw2_rT5u34NLoFSm2-Onwn4B\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1ex1qRsP9nw2_rT5u34NLoFSm2-Onwn4B\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171712\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.089 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.142 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 93\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 0\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10382-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171711 and revision id 57734. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b4\/LabCourses_Transparent.png"],"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_timestamp":1704907031,"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_type":"article","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_title":"The NELAC Institute","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_plaintext":"\n\nThe NELAC InstituteFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchThe NELAC Institute (TNI) is a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting \"the generation of environmental data of known and documented quality through an open, inclusive, and transparent process that is responsive to the needs of the community.\"&#91;1&#93; The founders' long-term motivation behind the creation of the NIC was to enact a \"uniform, rigorous, and robust\" nationwide environmental laboratory and monitoring accreditation program.&#91;1&#93; This accreditation program exists today in the form of the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (NELAP).\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program \n3 External links \n4 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nThe NELAC Institute (TNI) was formed on November 6, 2006 as a collaboration between the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Conference (NELAC) and the Institute for National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation (INELA) with \"the vision that all entities generating environmental data in the United States be accredited to a national standard.\"&#91;2&#93; \nWith the original 2003 NELAC Standard and 2005 updates to ISO\/IEC 17025 as their guide, TNI continued work on revising the NELAC Standard, culminating in the release of its new standards in July 2011. The revisions both made ISO\/IEC 17025 adherence mandatory and added analysis requirements for \"five new contaminants and lower limits for existing contaminants.\"&#91;3&#93;&#91;4&#93;\n\nNational Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program \nNELAP is an accreditation program targeted at environmental laboratories. The laboratory and accreditation body standards for the program were originally modeled after sections of ISO\/IEC 17025 and ISO\/IEC 17011.&#91;5&#93; Accreditation for NELAP is performed by U.S. state governmental agencies that wish to participate; control over scope, laboratory types accepted, and fees are all controlled by the state agency. As of April 2020&#91;update&#93;, 15 agencies in 14 states are organized as NELAP accreditation bodies. Those states are Florida, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, and Virginia.&#91;6&#93; California used to also participate but withdrew from the program on January 31, 2014.&#91;7&#93;\nEnvironmental laboratories seeking NELAP accreditation are directed to go to their State's accreditation body. If the lab's state doesn't have such a body, the lab is still able to select an out-of-state body to do the accreditation for them.&#91;6&#93;&#91;8&#93; This sort of \"reciprocal certification\" has the disadvantage that the accredited lab will only be certified to test a certain subset of analytes and contaminants, specifically those chosen for coverage by the state's accreditation body. This requires labs to carefully select which state agency to go through. Once the application stage begins, labs go through a series of performance evaluation studies and on-site auditing as well as pay the necessary fees. Each state may vary its audit requirements for labs maintaining accreditation.&#91;9&#93;\n\nExternal links \nThe NELAC Institute\nNational Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program\nTNI LAMS\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 \"The NELAC Instute - About TNI\".&#32;The NELAC Institute.&#32;https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/aboutus.php .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"NELAC\".&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;25 January 2011.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 10 February 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150210093828\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/ .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Mensingh, J.; Thurston, C.&#32;(1 October 2012).&#32;\"LIMS Wastes No Time Testing Wastewater\".&#32;Laboratory Equipment.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 21 September 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150921202658\/http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Parr, J.L.&#32;(20 October 2008).&#32;\"History and Future of Laboratory Accreditation\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;The NELAC Institute.&#32;http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/docs\/pubs\/NELAC%20history2008.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 23 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (NELAP)\".&#32;The NELAC Institute.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 07 March 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120307105256\/http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 \"NELAP-Recognized Accreditation Bodies\".&#32;The NELAC Institute.&#32;https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/NELAP\/accred-bodies.php .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"TestAmerica NELAP Accredited in California Despite State's Decision to Withdraw from Program\".&#32;TestAmerica Laboratories, Inc.&#32;6 February 2014.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 23 February 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150223210526\/http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/ .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Management System: Search\".&#32;The NELAC Institute.&#32;http:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/search .&#32;Retrieved 23 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Metzger, M.&#32;(10 April 2012).&#32;\"Is your Laboratory EPA Certified?\".&#32;National Testing Laboratories, Ltd.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 27 June 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120627173128\/http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24 .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute<\/a>\nCategories: Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2020All articles containing potentially dated statementsAccrediting organizationsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 16 April 2020, at 22:52.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 16,807 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-The_NELAC_Institute rootpage-The_NELAC_Institute skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">The NELAC Institute<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>The NELAC Institute<\/b> (<b>TNI<\/b>) is a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting \"the generation of environmental data of known and documented quality through an open, inclusive, and transparent process that is responsive to the needs of the community.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELACAbout_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELACAbout-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The founders' long-term motivation behind the creation of the NIC was to enact a \"uniform, rigorous, and robust\" nationwide environmental laboratory and monitoring accreditation program.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELACAbout_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELACAbout-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This accreditation program exists today in the form of the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (NELAP).\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The NELAC Institute (TNI) was formed on November 6, 2006 as a collaboration between the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Conference (NELAC) and the Institute for National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation (INELA) with \"the vision that all entities generating environmental data in the United States be accredited to a national standard.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPANELAP_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPANELAP-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>With the original 2003 NELAC Standard and 2005 updates to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a> as their guide, TNI continued work on revising the NELAC Standard, culminating in the release of its new standards in July 2011. The revisions both made ISO\/IEC 17025 adherence mandatory and added analysis requirements for \"five new contaminants and lower limits for existing contaminants.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABNewStands_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABNewStands-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Parr_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Parr-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"National_Environmental_Laboratory_Accreditation_Program\">National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>NELAP is an accreditation program targeted at environmental laboratories. The laboratory and accreditation body standards for the program were originally modeled after sections of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a> and ISO\/IEC 17011.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPHome_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPHome-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Accreditation for NELAP is performed by U.S. state governmental agencies that wish to participate; control over scope, laboratory types accepted, and fees are all controlled by the state agency. As of April 2020<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, 15 agencies in 14 states are organized as NELAP accreditation bodies. Those states are Florida, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, and Virginia.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPAccred_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPAccred-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> California used to also participate but withdrew from the program on January 31, 2014.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPCali_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPCali-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Environmental laboratories seeking NELAP accreditation are directed to go to their State's accreditation body. If the lab's state doesn't have such a body, the lab is still able to select an out-of-state body to do the accreditation for them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPAccred_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPAccred-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TNILAMS_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TNILAMS-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This sort of \"reciprocal certification\" has the disadvantage that the accredited lab will only be certified to test a certain subset of analytes and contaminants, specifically those chosen for coverage by the state's accreditation body. This requires labs to carefully select which state agency to go through. Once the application stage begins, labs go through a series of performance evaluation studies and on-site auditing as well as pay the necessary fees. Each state may vary its audit requirements for labs maintaining accreditation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPNTL_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPNTL-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">The NELAC Institute<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/NELAP\/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">TNI LAMS<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELACAbout-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELACAbout_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELACAbout_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/aboutus.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"The NELAC Instute - About TNI\"<\/a>.&#32;The NELAC Institute<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/aboutus.php\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/aboutus.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+NELAC+Instute+-+About+TNI&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnelac-institute.org%2Fcontent%2Faboutus.php&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPANELAP-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EPANELAP_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150210093828\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"NELAC\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;25 January 2011.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 10 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150210093828\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150210093828\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=NELAC&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=25+January+2011&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150210093828%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fnelac%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LABNewStands-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABNewStands_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Mensingh, J.; Thurston, C.&#32;(1 October 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150921202658\/http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS Wastes No Time Testing Wastewater\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Laboratory Equipment<\/i>.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 21 September 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150921202658\/http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150921202658\/http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIMS+Wastes+No+Time+Testing+Wastewater&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+Equipment&amp;rft.aulast=Mensingh%2C+J.%3B+Thurston%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Mensingh%2C+J.%3B+Thurston%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=1+October+2012&amp;rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150921202658%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.laboratoryequipment.com%2Farticles%2F2012%2F10%2Flims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Parr-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Parr_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Parr, J.L.&#32;(20 October 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/docs\/pubs\/NELAC%20history2008.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"History and Future of Laboratory Accreditation\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;The NELAC Institute<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/docs\/pubs\/NELAC%20history2008.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/docs\/pubs\/NELAC%20history2008.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=History+and+Future+of+Laboratory+Accreditation&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Parr%2C+J.L.&amp;rft.au=Parr%2C+J.L.&amp;rft.date=20+October+2008&amp;rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nelac-institute.org%2Fdocs%2Fpubs%2FNELAC%2520history2008.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELAPHome-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPHome_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120307105256\/http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (NELAP)\"<\/a>.&#32;The NELAC Institute.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 07 March 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120307105256\/http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120307105256\/http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=National+Environmental+Laboratory+Accreditation+Program+%28NELAP%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120307105256%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.nelac-institute.org%2Fnewnelap.php&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELAPAccred-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPAccred_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPAccred_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/NELAP\/accred-bodies.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"NELAP-Recognized Accreditation Bodies\"<\/a>.&#32;The NELAC Institute<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/NELAP\/accred-bodies.php\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/nelac-institute.org\/content\/NELAP\/accred-bodies.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=NELAP-Recognized+Accreditation+Bodies&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnelac-institute.org%2Fcontent%2FNELAP%2Faccred-bodies.php&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELAPCali-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPCali_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150223210526\/http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"TestAmerica NELAP Accredited in California Despite State's Decision to Withdraw from Program\"<\/a>.&#32;TestAmerica Laboratories, Inc.&#32;6 February 2014.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 23 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150223210526\/http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150223210526\/http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=TestAmerica+NELAP+Accredited+in+California+Despite+State%27s+Decision+to+Withdraw+from+Program&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=6+February+2014&amp;rft.pub=TestAmerica+Laboratories%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150223210526%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.testamericainc.com%2Fnews%2F2014%2Ftestamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%25E2%2580%2599s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TNILAMS-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TNILAMS_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/search\" target=\"_blank\">\"National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Management System: Search\"<\/a>.&#32;The NELAC Institute<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/search\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/search<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=National+Environmental+Laboratory+Accreditation+Management+System%3A+Search&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flams.nelac-institute.org%2Fsearch&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELAPNTL-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPNTL_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Metzger, M.&#32;(10 April 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120627173128\/http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is your Laboratory EPA Certified?\"<\/a>.&#32;National Testing Laboratories, Ltd.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 27 June 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120627173128\/http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120627173128\/http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Is+your+Laboratory+EPA+Certified%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Metzger%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Metzger%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=10+April+2012&amp;rft.pub=National+Testing+Laboratories%2C+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120627173128%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ntllabs.com%2Fblog%2F%3Fp%3D24&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110073305\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.251 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.304 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6178\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 42394\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 21190\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 13624\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 267.005 1 -total\n 79.14% 211.302 1 Template:Reflist\n 62.15% 165.951 9 Template:Cite_web\n 55.29% 147.621 9 Template:Citation\/core\n 19.21% 51.300 1 Template:As_of\n 14.33% 38.259 1 Template:DMCA\n 10.94% 29.200 5 Template:Date\n 9.32% 24.879 1 Template:Dated_maintenance_category\n 8.65% 23.083 15 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 5.18% 13.844 1 Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3387-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110073305 and revision id 39048. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_images":[],"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_timestamp":1704907031,"7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_type":"article","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_title":"Regulatory compliance","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_plaintext":"\n\nRegulatory complianceFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulatory_compliance?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementRegulatory informationHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 31 July 2018, at 22:05.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 5,825 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Regulatory_compliance rootpage-Regulatory_compliance skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Regulatory compliance<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulatory_compliance?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulatory_compliance\" data-key=\"4ca6bf47b29b4fa458d97db174b6cb0f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171711\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.147 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.214 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 103\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 1206.971 1 wikipedia:Regulatory_compliance\n100.00% 1206.971 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10705-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171710 and revision id 33634. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_images":[],"7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_timestamp":1704907029,"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_type":"article","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_title":"ISO\/IEC 17025","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_plaintext":"\n\nISO\/IEC 17025From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search Even military testing and calibration labs like the Navy Standards Laboratory (WPP) opt to get ISO\/IEC 17025 certified.ISO\/IEC 17025 is an International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard used by testing and calibration laboratories to provide a basis for accreditation of laboratory quality systems. There are many commonalities with the ISO 9000 family of standards, but ISO\/IEC 17025 adds in the concept of competence to the equation, applying directly to those organizations that produce testing and calibration results. \nContents \n\n1 History \n2 The standard \n\n2.1 Scope \n2.2 Normative references \n2.3 Terms and definitions \n2.4 General requirements \n2.5 Structural requirements \n2.6 Resource requirements \n2.7 Process requirements \n2.8 Management system requirements \n2.9 Annexes \n\n\n3 Accreditation \n4 Further reading \n5 External links \n6 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nISO\/IEC 17025 was originally known as ISO\/IEC Guide 25, first released in 1978, with subsequent editions following in 1982 and 1990. Guide 25 was created with the belief that \"third party certification systems [for laboratories] should, to the extent possible, be based on internationally agreed standards and procedures.\"&#91;1&#93; In the mid- to late 1990s, an update to Guide 25 was required. However, the ISO decided to convert the guide into a standard and introduce tight compatibility with ISO 9001, which was also being revised, such that ISO 9001 would be treated as a master standard and the next evolution of Guide 25 to be treated as a standard to be specifically applied to testing and calibration laboratories.\nISO\/IEC 17025:1999 was issued by the ISO in late 1999 and was internationally adopted in 2000. A second release\u2014ISO\/IEC 17025:2005\u2014was made on May 12, 2005 after it was agreed that it needed to have its wording more closely aligned with the 2000 version of ISO 9001. The most significant changes introduced greater emphasis on the responsibilities of senior management, as well as explicit requirements for continual improvement of the management system itself, particularly communication with the customer.&#91;2&#93;&#91;1&#93;\nAt the end of November 2017, the ISO released an updated version, ISO\/IEC 17025:2017. This update brought with it broader scope in sampling, testing, and calibration; a more consistent process approach; a stronger focus on information technologies; and the addition of risk-based thinking methods.&#91;3&#93;\n\nThe standard \nThe ISO\/IEC 17025:2017 standard itself comprises eight (formerly five) elements: scope, normative references, terms and definitions, general requirements, structural requirements, resource requirements, process requirements, and management system requirements. Two annexes are also included. The management and technical requirements sections of 2005 were further broken out into general, structural, resource, process, and management system requirements. The management system requirements section remains one of the more important ones, detailing the operation and effectiveness of the quality management system within the laboratory, with the process requirements being equally as vital.\nThe standard is organized as follows&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93;&#91;6&#93;:\n\nScope \nThe scope of the standard is described over six points. It states what type of testing and calibration is covered; who it's applicable to; the purpose for the standard; what's not covered; and how it relates to ISO 9001.\n\nNormative references \nThis section states both ISO\/IEC 17000 and the International Vocabulary of Metrology (VIM) are vital to applying the standard.\n\nTerms and definitions \nThis section simply states that relevant terms found in the standard can be defined via ISO\/IEC 17000 and VIM. The 2017 version added nine new terms to be defined, including \"impartiality,\" \"complaint,\" and \"validation.\"&#91;4&#93;&#91;6&#93;\n\nGeneral requirements \nThis section discusses the risks associated with creating biased results (impartiality) and risks associate with handling protected information (confidentiality) to the standard. The requirements are broken down into two subsections:\n4.1 Impartiality\n4.2 Confidentiality\n\nStructural requirements \nThis section addresses the organization as a legal entity, responsible for its processes and actions, including the protection of customer information.\n\nResource requirements \nThis section addresses the provisioning of resources necessary to supporting organizational operations. The requirements are broken down into six subsections:\n6.1 General\n6.2 Personnel\n6.3 Facilities and environmental conditions\n6.4 Equipment\n6.5 Metrological traceability\n6.6 Externally provided products and services\n\nProcess requirements \nThis section gets into the nuts and bolts of operations within the laboratory, running through best practices for various laboratory functions. The requirements are broken down into 11 subsections:\n7.1 Review of requests, tenders and contracts\n7.2 Selection, verification and validation of methods\n7.3 Sampling\n7.4 Handling of test or calibration items\n7.5 Technical records\n7.6 Evaluation of measurement uncertainty\n7.7 Ensuring the validity of results\n7.8 Reporting of results\n7.9 Complaints\n7.10 Nonconforming work\n7.11 Control of data and information management\n\nManagement system requirements \nThe requirements for the operational effectiveness of a laboratory's quality management system are outlined in this section. It splits compliance into two options: A. complying with all of this section's subsections, or B. complying with ISO 9001:2015. The requirements are broken down into nine subsections:\n8.1 Options\n8.2 Management system documentation (Option A)\n8.3 Control of management system documents (Option A)\n8.4 Control of records (Option A)\n8.5 Actions to address risks and opportunities (Option A)\n8.6 Improvement (Option A)\n8.7 Corrective actions (Option A)\n8.8 Internal audits (Option A)\n8.9 Management reviews (Option A)\n\nAnnexes \nTwo annexes and a bibliography are included. Annex A: Metrological traceability provides further context on section 6.5 of the standard, including addressing international agreements. Annex B: Management system options elaborates on section 8, including rationale behind the various options.\n\nAccreditation \nLaboratories use ISO\/IEC 17025 to implement a quality system aimed at improving their ability to consistently produce valid results.&#91;7&#93; It is also the basis for accreditation from an accreditation body. Since the standard is about competence, accreditation is simply formal recognition of a demonstration of that competence. A prerequisite for a laboratory to become accredited is to have a documented quality management system. The usual contents of the quality manual follow the outline of the ISO\/IEC 17025 standard.&#91;1&#93;\nNational accreditation bodies are primarily responsible for accrediting laboratories to ISO\/IEC 17025. Laboratories can use either a domestic organization or some other internationally recognized body in cases where the domestic organization \"has either no international recognition or where it lacks recognition in parts of the world relevant to the laboratory\u2019s operations.\"&#91;1&#93; Laboratories typically select a range of common and frequently used methodologies that could readily benefit and demonstrate a comprehensive quality system that those methodologies run under.\n\nFurther reading \n\"Complying with ISO 17025\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;United Nations Industrial Development Organization.&#32;October 2009.&#32;pp. 106.&#32;https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf . &#160; \n\"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017 Transition\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Perry Johnson Laboratory Accreditation, Inc.&#32;26 February 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf . &#160; \nExternal links \nISO\/IEC 17025:2017\nISO\/IEC 17025:2017 on the ISO Online Browsing Platform\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 \"Complying with ISO 17025\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;United Nations Industrial Development Organization.&#32;October 2009.&#32;pp. 106.&#32;https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Hoolihan, D.D..&#32;\"ISO\/IEC 17025:1999 versus 2005\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Hoolihan EMC Consulting.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 24 January 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170124140236\/http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Tranchard, S.&#32;(1 December 2017).&#32;\"New Edition of ISO\/IEC 17025 Just Published\".&#32;ISO News.&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/ref2250.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 \"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017(en) - General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories\".&#32;ISO Online Browsing Platform (OBP).&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;2017.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/IEC 17025 - General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories\".&#32;Activation Laboratories Ltd.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 05 October 2019.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191005053732\/http:\/\/www.actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&amp;app=206&amp;cat1=732&amp;tp=2&amp;lk=no .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 \"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017 Transition\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Perry Johnson Laboratory Accreditation, Inc.&#32;26 February 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Honsa, J.D.; McIntyre, D.A.&#32;(2003).&#32;\"ISO 17025: Practical Benefits of Implementing a Quality System\".&#32;Journal of AOAC International&#32;86&#32;(5): 1038\u20131044.&#32;doi:10.1093\/jaoac\/86.5.1038. &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025<\/a>\nCategory: Laboratory informatics standardsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 24 January 2023, at 20:52.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 31,906 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-ISO_IEC_17025 rootpage-ISO_IEC_17025 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:US_Navy_100714-N-3852A-118_Hull_Systems_Technician_monitors_nitrogen_tank.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"de97ce7e843011f46d92204cfd550a0d\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/96\/US_Navy_100714-N-3852A-118_Hull_Systems_Technician_monitors_nitrogen_tank.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:US_Navy_100714-N-3852A-118_Hull_Systems_Technician_monitors_nitrogen_tank.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"de97ce7e843011f46d92204cfd550a0d\"><\/a><\/div>Even military testing and calibration labs like the Navy Standards Laboratory (WPP) opt to get ISO\/IEC 17025 certified.<\/div><\/div><\/div><p><b>ISO\/IEC 17025<\/b> is an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) standard used by testing and calibration laboratories to provide a basis for accreditation of laboratory quality systems. There are many commonalities with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000<\/a> family of standards, but ISO\/IEC 17025 adds in the concept of competence to the equation, applying directly to those organizations that produce testing and calibration results. \n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ISO\/IEC 17025 was originally known as ISO\/IEC Guide 25, first released in 1978, with subsequent editions following in 1982 and 1990. Guide 25 was created with the belief that \"third party certification systems [for laboratories] should, to the extent possible, be based on internationally agreed standards and procedures.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Comp17025_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Comp17025-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In the mid- to late 1990s, an update to Guide 25 was required. However, the ISO decided to convert the guide into a standard and introduce tight compatibility with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9001\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 9001\" data-key=\"6de0ce2bd9e48192cdb903331a793aa7\">ISO 9001<\/a>, which was also being revised, such that ISO 9001 would be treated as a master standard and the next evolution of Guide 25 to be treated as a standard to be specifically applied to testing and calibration laboratories.\n<\/p><p>ISO\/IEC 17025:1999 was issued by the ISO in late 1999 and was internationally adopted in 2000. A second release\u2014ISO\/IEC 17025:2005\u2014was made on May 12, 2005 after it was agreed that it needed to have its wording more closely aligned with the 2000 version of ISO 9001. The most significant changes introduced greater emphasis on the responsibilities of senior management, as well as explicit requirements for continual improvement of the management system itself, particularly communication with the customer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Difs_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Difs-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Comp17025_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Comp17025-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>At the end of November 2017, the ISO released an updated version, ISO\/IEC 17025:2017. This update brought with it broader scope in sampling, testing, and calibration; a more consistent process approach; a stronger focus on information technologies; and the addition of risk-based thinking methods.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TranchardNewEd17_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TranchardNewEd17-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_standard\">The standard<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The ISO\/IEC 17025:2017 standard itself comprises eight (formerly five) elements: scope, normative references, terms and definitions, general requirements, structural requirements, resource requirements, process requirements, and management system requirements. Two annexes are also included. The management and technical requirements sections of 2005 were further broken out into general, structural, resource, process, and management system requirements. The management system requirements section remains one of the more important ones, detailing the operation and effectiveness of the quality management system within the laboratory, with the process requirements being equally as vital.\n<\/p><p>The standard is organized as follows<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO17025Peak_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO17025Peak-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACT_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACT-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PJLA_ISO_19_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PJLA_ISO_19-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scope\">Scope<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The scope of the standard is described over six points. It states what type of testing and calibration is covered; who it's applicable to; the purpose for the standard; what's not covered; and how it relates to ISO 9001.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Normative_references\">Normative references<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section states both ISO\/IEC 17000 and the International Vocabulary of Metrology (VIM) are vital to applying the standard.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Terms_and_definitions\">Terms and definitions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section simply states that relevant terms found in the standard can be defined via ISO\/IEC 17000 and VIM. The 2017 version added nine new terms to be defined, including \"impartiality,\" \"complaint,\" and \"validation.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO17025Peak_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO17025Peak-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PJLA_ISO_19_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PJLA_ISO_19-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General_requirements\">General requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section discusses the risks associated with creating biased results (impartiality) and risks associate with handling protected information (confidentiality) to the standard. The requirements are broken down into two subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>4.1<\/b> Impartiality\n<\/p><p><b>4.2<\/b> Confidentiality\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structural_requirements\">Structural requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section addresses the organization as a legal entity, responsible for its processes and actions, including the protection of customer information.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Resource_requirements\">Resource requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section addresses the provisioning of resources necessary to supporting organizational operations. The requirements are broken down into six subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>6.1<\/b> General\n<\/p><p><b>6.2<\/b> Personnel\n<\/p><p><b>6.3<\/b> Facilities and environmental conditions\n<\/p><p><b>6.4<\/b> Equipment\n<\/p><p><b>6.5<\/b> Metrological traceability\n<\/p><p><b>6.6<\/b> Externally provided products and services\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Process_requirements\">Process requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section gets into the nuts and bolts of operations within the laboratory, running through best practices for various laboratory functions. The requirements are broken down into 11 subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>7.1<\/b> Review of requests, tenders and contracts\n<\/p><p><b>7.2<\/b> Selection, verification and validation of methods\n<\/p><p><b>7.3<\/b> Sampling\n<\/p><p><b>7.4<\/b> Handling of test or calibration items\n<\/p><p><b>7.5<\/b> Technical records\n<\/p><p><b>7.6<\/b> Evaluation of measurement uncertainty\n<\/p><p><b>7.7<\/b> Ensuring the validity of results\n<\/p><p><b>7.8<\/b> Reporting of results\n<\/p><p><b>7.9<\/b> Complaints\n<\/p><p><b>7.10<\/b> Nonconforming work\n<\/p><p><b>7.11<\/b> Control of data and information management\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Management_system_requirements\">Management system requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The requirements for the operational effectiveness of a laboratory's quality management system are outlined in this section. It splits compliance into two options: A. complying with all of this section's subsections, or B. complying with ISO 9001:2015. The requirements are broken down into nine subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>8.1<\/b> Options\n<\/p><p><b>8.2<\/b> Management system documentation (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.3<\/b> Control of management system documents (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.4<\/b> Control of records (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.5<\/b> Actions to address risks and opportunities (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.6<\/b> Improvement (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.7<\/b> Corrective actions (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.8<\/b> Internal audits (Option A)\n<\/p><p><b>8.9<\/b> Management reviews (Option A)\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Annexes\">Annexes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Two annexes and a bibliography are included. <i>Annex A: Metrological traceability<\/i> provides further context on section 6.5 of the standard, including addressing international agreements. <i>Annex B: Management system options<\/i> elaborates on section 8, including rationale behind the various options.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Accreditation\">Accreditation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Laboratories use ISO\/IEC 17025 to implement a quality system aimed at improving their ability to consistently produce valid results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Honsa_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Honsa-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> It is also the basis for accreditation from an accreditation body. Since the standard is about competence, accreditation is simply formal recognition of a demonstration of that competence. A prerequisite for a laboratory to become accredited is to have a documented quality management system. The usual contents of the quality manual follow the outline of the ISO\/IEC 17025 standard.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Comp17025_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Comp17025-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>National accreditation bodies are primarily responsible for accrediting laboratories to ISO\/IEC 17025. Laboratories can use either a domestic organization or some other internationally recognized body in cases where the domestic organization \"has either no international recognition or where it lacks recognition in parts of the world relevant to the laboratory\u2019s operations.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Comp17025_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Comp17025-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Laboratories typically select a range of common and frequently used methodologies that could readily benefit and demonstrate a comprehensive quality system that those methodologies run under.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Complying with ISO 17025\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;United Nations Industrial Development Organization.&#32;October 2009.&#32;pp. 106<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Complying+with+ISO+17025&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=October+2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.+106&amp;rft.pub=United+Nations+Industrial+Development+Organization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unido.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2010-08%2FComplying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017 Transition\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Perry Johnson Laboratory Accreditation, Inc.&#32;26 February 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025%3A2017+Transition&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=26+February+2019&amp;rft.pub=Perry+Johnson+Laboratory+Accreditation%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pjlabs.com%2Fdownloads%2F17025-Transition-Book.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/39883.html\" target=\"_blank\">ISO\/IEC 17025:2017<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en\" target=\"_blank\">ISO\/IEC 17025:2017<\/a> on the ISO Online Browsing Platform<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Comp17025-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Comp17025_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Comp17025_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Comp17025_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Comp17025_1-3\">1.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Complying with ISO 17025\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;United Nations Industrial Development Organization.&#32;October 2009.&#32;pp. 106<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.unido.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2010-08\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Complying+with+ISO+17025&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=October+2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.+106&amp;rft.pub=United+Nations+Industrial+Development+Organization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unido.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2010-08%2FComplying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook_0.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Difs-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Difs_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hoolihan, D.D..&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170124140236\/http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025:1999 versus 2005\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Hoolihan EMC Consulting.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 24 January 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170124140236\/http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170124140236\/http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025%3A1999+versus+2005&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Hoolihan%2C+D.D.&amp;rft.au=Hoolihan%2C+D.D.&amp;rft.pub=Hoolihan+EMC+Consulting&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170124140236%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fgsi.nist.gov%2Fglobal%2Fdocs%2Fmra%2F2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TranchardNewEd17-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TranchardNewEd17_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Tranchard, S.&#32;(1 December 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/ref2250.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"New Edition of ISO\/IEC 17025 Just Published\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ISO News<\/i>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/ref2250.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/ref2250.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=New+Edition+of+ISO%2FIEC+17025+Just+Published&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+News&amp;rft.aulast=Tranchard%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Tranchard%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=1+December+2017&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fnews%2Fref2250.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO17025Peak-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO17025Peak_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO17025Peak_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017(en) - General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ISO Online Browsing Platform (OBP)<\/i>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025%3A2017%28en%29+-+General+requirements+for+the+competence+of+testing+and+calibration+laboratories&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+Online+Browsing+Platform+%28OBP%29&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fobp%2Fui%2F%23iso%3Astd%3Aiso-iec%3A17025%3Aed-3%3Av1%3Aen&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ACT-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ACT_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191005053732\/http:\/\/www.actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&app=206&cat1=732&tp=2&lk=no\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025 - General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories\"<\/a>.&#32;Activation Laboratories Ltd.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&app=206&cat1=732&tp=2&lk=no\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 05 October 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191005053732\/http:\/\/www.actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&app=206&cat1=732&tp=2&lk=no\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191005053732\/http:\/\/www.actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&amp;app=206&amp;cat1=732&amp;tp=2&amp;lk=no<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025+-+General+requirements+for+the+competence+of+testing+and+calibration+laboratories&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Activation+Laboratories+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20191005053732%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.actlabs.com%2Fpage.aspx%3Fmenu%3D60%26app%3D206%26cat1%3D732%26tp%3D2%26lk%3Dno&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PJLA_ISO_19-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PJLA_ISO_19_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PJLA_ISO_19_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017 Transition\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Perry Johnson Laboratory Accreditation, Inc.&#32;26 February 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.pjlabs.com\/downloads\/17025-Transition-Book.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025%3A2017+Transition&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=26+February+2019&amp;rft.pub=Perry+Johnson+Laboratory+Accreditation%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pjlabs.com%2Fdownloads%2F17025-Transition-Book.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Honsa-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Honsa_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Honsa, J.D.; McIntyre, D.A.&#32;(2003).&#32;\"ISO 17025: Practical Benefits of Implementing a Quality System\".&#32;<i>Journal of AOAC International<\/i>&#32;<b>86<\/b>&#32;(5): 1038\u20131044.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093%2Fjaoac%2F86.5.1038\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/jaoac\/86.5.1038<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+17025%3A+Practical+Benefits+of+Implementing+a+Quality+System&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+AOAC+International&amp;rft.aulast=Honsa%2C+J.D.%3B+McIntyre%2C+D.A.&amp;rft.au=Honsa%2C+J.D.%3B+McIntyre%2C+D.A.&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.volume=86&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=1038%E2%80%931044&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1093%2Fjaoac%2F86.5.1038&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110000049\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.526 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.022 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6175\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 39336\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 17427\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/96\/US_Navy_100714-N-3852A-118_Hull_Systems_Technician_monitors_nitrogen_tank.jpg"],"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_timestamp":1704907029,"0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_type":"article","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_title":"ISO\/IEC 12207","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_plaintext":"\n\nISO\/IEC 12207From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_12207?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207<\/a>\nCategories: Design and development standardsSoftware standardsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 22 June 2018, at 22:01.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,306 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-ISO_IEC_12207 rootpage-ISO_IEC_12207 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ISO\/IEC 12207<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_12207?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_12207\" data-key=\"ee1dab1cc8d418c7364804835b424f4c\">article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171709\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.128 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.245 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 95\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 240.193 1 wikipedia:ISO\/IEC_12207\n100.00% 240.193 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10658-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171709 and revision id 33472. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_images":[],"0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_timestamp":1704907029,"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_type":"article","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_title":"ISO 9000","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_plaintext":"\n\nISO 9000From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search A General Motors assembly plant advertises its ISO 9001 certification.\nISO 9000 is a family of standards related to quality management systems and designed to help organizations ensure that they meet the needs of customers and other stakeholders.&#91;1&#93; The standards are published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and are available through national standards bodies. ISO 9000 deals with the fundamentals of quality management systems &#91;2&#93;, including the eight management principles on which the family of standards is based.&#91;2&#93;&#91;3&#93;\nISO 9001 deals with the requirements that organizations wishing to meet the standard have to fulfill.&#91;4&#93; Third-party certification bodies provide independent confirmation that organizations meet the requirements of ISO 9001. Over a million organizations in over 170 countries&#91;5&#93; are independently certified, making ISO 9001 one of the most widely used management tools in the world today. Despite widespread use, however, the ISO certification process has been criticized at times as being wasteful and not being useful for all organizations.&#91;6&#93;&#91;7&#93;&#91;8&#93;&#91;9&#93;&#91;10&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n\n1.1 Changes to ISO 9000 \n\n\n2 Adoption of the standard \n3 Criticisms of the standard \n4 Further reading \n5 External links \n6 Notes \n7 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nThe ISO 9000 family of standards was originally built on several British standards developed in the early 1970s: BS 9000, BS 5179, and BS 5750. These quality assurance standards were initially related to the electronics manufacturing industry and set guidelines on managing supply-side quality through auditing and contractual documentation.&#91;11&#93; However, the history of ISO 9000 can be traced back even further to the publication of the United States Department of Defense MIL-Q-9858 standard in 1959. MIL-Q-9858 was revised into the NATO AQAP series of standards in 1969, which in turn were revised into the BS 5179 series of guidance standards published in 1974, and finally revised into the BS 5750 series of requirements standards in 1979.&#91;12&#93;&#91;13&#93;\nAs the idea of company certification of meeting a certain level of quality became more attractive, the push for a more rigorous international standard (primarily led by the British Standards Institute [BSI]&#91;14&#93;) resulted in the creation of the ISO 9000 family in 1987.&#91;11&#93; Originally based on BS 5750, the ISO 9000 family started out with three quality management models and a set of guidelines for following them&#91;15&#93;&#91;16&#93;:\n\nISO 9001:1987 Model for quality assurance in design, development, production, installation, and servicing\nISO 9002:1987 Model for quality assurance in production, installation, and servicing\nISO 9003:1987 Model for quality assurance in final inspection and test\nISO 9004.1:1987 Quality management and quality system elements - Part 1: Guidelines\nChanges to ISO 9000 \nIn 1994, the ISO 9000 standards were updated to place focus on the importance of quality control and preventative action, and emphasize the need for the documentation of procedures.&#91;16&#93;&#91;17&#93;\nIn 2000, ISO 9001, 9002, and 9003 were combined into ISO 9001:2000, with a major shift in focus towards quality management versus quality control as well as a focus on process management, \"the monitoring and optimizing of a company's tasks and activities, instead of just inspecting the final product.\"&#91;17&#93; It directed manufacturers to carefully examine client requirements in order to design and improve processes and improve customer satisfaction.&#91;16&#93;\nThe 2008 changes to ISO 9001 were minimal, clarifying and simplifying language while making it more consistent with other standards.&#91;17&#93;&#91;16&#93;\nThe ISO 9004 guidelines document was updated in 2009 \"to promote a sustainable business approach\" that focused on all stakeholders.&#91;16&#93;\nAn updated version of ISO 9001 is expected at the end of 2015 if the ISO members vote favorably in the second quarter of 2015.&#91;18&#93; With the revision the scope of the standard will not change. An essential change, however, will affect the structure. The new ISO 9001:2015 will follow the so-called high-level structure. This, and the uniform use of core texts and terms, will enable an identical structure for all management systems.&#91;19&#93; \n\nAdoption of the standard \nThe global adoption of ISO 9001 may be attributable to a number of factors. Many major purchasers require their suppliers to hold ISO 9001 certification. In addition to several stakeholders' benefits, a number of studies have identified significant workflow and financial benefits for organizations certified to ISO 9001. Examples include:\n1. In 2002, Heras et al. found superior return on assets compared to otherwise similar organizations without certification and demonstrated that this was statistically significant and not a function of organization size.&#91;20&#93; \n2. A 2003 study of 146 Singapore-based companies by Chow-Chua et al. found improved financial performance, though with the caveat \"that while certification leads to better overall financial performance, non\u2010listed certified firms experience better documentation procedures, higher perceived quality of products or services, and more effective communication among employees than listed certified firms.\"&#91;21&#93;\n3. That same year Rajan and Tamimi showed that ISO 9001 certification resulted in superior stock market performance and suggested that shareholders were richly rewarded for investing in the certified companies.&#91;22&#93;\n4. In 2005, Corbett et al. showed in 2005 similar superior performance, atating that \"three years after certification, the certified firms do display strongly significant abnormal performance under all control-group specifications.\"&#91;23&#93; \n5. That same year, Sharma linked increases in \"operating efficiency, growth in sales, and overall financial performance\" gains with ISO 9000 certification.&#91;24&#93; \n6. Naveha and Marcus claimed in 2007 that manufacturers in the U.S. automotive industry that implemented ISO 9001 saw superior operational performance soon after.&#91;25&#93;\n7. A 2011 survey from The British Assessment Bureau showing 44 percent of their certified clients had won new business due to becoming certified.&#91;26&#93;\n8. More recently, in 2019, Domingues et al. surveyed a worldwide collection of IRCA (International Register of Certified Auditors) QM ISO 9001 Auditors, noting that \"relying on third-party auditor's feedback brings a more independent perspective than studies based on quality managers or consultants' views.\" They hypothesized that organizations seeking certification would see the most sustainable business improvements by turning to quality auditors. The authors indeed found that having \"competent and experienced auditors is essential to ensure a credible and accountable certification process to all stakeholders,\" which aligned well with other research \"that found that organizations that adopt early planning, carry on ISO 9001:2015 training, and ensure they have the necessary competences, reported the soundest benefits and fewer difficulties in successfully implementing ISO 9001:2015.\"&#91;27&#93;\nWhile the connection between superior financial performance and ISO 9001 may be seen from the examples cited, there remains no proof of direct causation, though longitudinal studies such as those of Corbett et al.&#91;23&#93; may suggest it. Other researchers such as Heras et al. have suggested that while there is some evidence of this, the improvement is partly driven by the fact that there is a tendency for better performing companies to seek ISO 9001 certification.&#91;20&#93;\n\nCriticisms of the standard \nA common criticism of the ISO 9000 family of standards is the amount of money, time, and paperwork required for registration. In 2003, writing for Quality Magazine, engineer Scott Dalgleish emphasized that \"[u]nder ISO, every quality system enhancement triggers enormous documentation changes that make quality managers question whether the benefits of the change are worth the effort.\"&#91;28&#93; In a piece for Inc. magazine in 2005, journalist Stephanie Clifford told the story of Delaware North Companies, which spent nearly 18 months and $115,000 just to certify their guest services management division.&#91;6&#93;\nOthers have chosen not to adopt the standard because of the perceived risks and uncertainty of not knowing if there are direct relationships to improved quality as well as doubts about what kind and how many resources will be needed. Other perceived risks include how much certification will cost, increased bureaucratic processes, and risk of poor company image if the certification process fails.&#91;29&#93; Critics like John Seddon, a leading global authority on the service industry, claim ISO 9001 promotes specification, control, and procedures rather than understanding and improvement.&#91;8&#93; Others like business improvement specialist Jim Wade have argued that ISO 9001 is effective as a guideline, but that promoting it as a standard \"helps to mislead companies into thinking that certification means better quality, ... [undermining] the need for an organization to set its own quality standards.\"&#91;30&#93; In short, Wade argues that reliance on the specifications of ISO 9001 does not guarantee a successful quality system.\nThe standard has been seen as especially prone to failure when a company is interested in certification before quality.&#91;8&#93; Certifications have in fact often been based on customer contractual requirements rather than a desire to actually improve quality.&#91;31&#93;&#91;32&#93; \"If you just want the certificate on the wall, chances are you will create a paper system that doesn't have much to do with the way you actually run your business,\" said ISO's Roger Frost in 2001.&#91;32&#93; Certification by an independent auditor is often seen as the problem area, and according to Barnes, it \"has become a vehicle to increase consulting services.\"&#91;31&#93;\n\nFurther reading \nAbuhav, I.&#32;(2017).&#32;ISO 9001:2015 - A Complete Guide to Quality Management Systems.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;428.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781498733212.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NmUlDgAAQBAJ . &#160; \nExternal links \nISO 9000 at the International Organization for Standardization\nNotes \nThis article reuses a few elements from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Poksinska, B.; J\u00f6rn Dahlgaard, J.; Antoni, M.&#32;(2002).&#32;\"The state of ISO 9000 certification: A study of Swedish organizations\".&#32;The TQM Magazine&#32;14&#32;(5): 297\u2013306.&#32;doi:10.1108\/09544780210439734. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 Tsim, Y.; Yeung, V.; Leung, E.&#32;(2002).&#32;\"An adaptation to ISO 9001:2000 for certified organisations\".&#32;Managerial Auditing Journal&#32;17&#32;(5): 245\u201350.&#32;doi:10.1108\/02686900210429669. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Beattie, K.R.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Implementing ISO 9000: A study of its benefits among Australian organizations\".&#32;Total Quality Management&#32;10&#32;(1): 95\u2013106.&#32;doi:10.1080\/0954412998090. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 9001:2015 Quality management systems \u2014 Requirements\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;September 2015.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62085.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 9000 Family Quality Management\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso-9001-quality-management.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 Clifford, S.&#32;(1 May 2005).&#32;\"So many standards to follow, so little payoff\".&#32;Inc. Magazine.&#32;https:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wilson, I.&#32;(4 June 2010).&#32;\"Is ISO the way to go? Some say, Not So\".&#32;Westgard QC, Inc.&#32;http:\/\/james.westgard.com\/the_westgard_rules\/2010\/06\/iso-not-so.html .&#32;Retrieved 28 February 2012 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 8.2 Seddon, J.&#32;(18 November 2000).&#32;\"The 'quality' you can't feel\".&#32;The Guardian.&#32;https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/money\/2000\/nov\/19\/workandcareers.madeleinebunting .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Seddon, J.&#32;(2000).&#32;\"Chapter 1: A Brief History of ISO 9000 - Where did we go wrong?\".&#32;The Case Against ISO 9000&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;Oak Tree Press.&#32;ISBN&#160;1860761739.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 18 January 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120118194114\/http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 O'Connor, P.D.T.&#32;(1991).&#32;\"ISO 9000: Help or Hoax\".&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 16 June 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130616091145\/http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 11.0 11.1 \"The history of ISO 9000\".&#32;The British Assessment Bureau.&#32;4 April 2012.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 04 August 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130804070737\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000\/ .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Miura, A.&#32;(September 2004).&#32;\"MIL-Q-9858A, the Origin of ISO 9001\".&#32;Tech Journal.&#32;ASQ.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 10 August 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170810051200\/http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Lamprecht, James L.&#32;(2000).&#32;\"Chapter 12: The ISO 9000 Phenomenon and the Privatization of Military Standards\".&#32;Quality and Power in the Supply Chain: What Industry Does for the Sake of Quality.&#32;Newnes.&#32;pp.&#160;125\u2013148.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780750673433.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fSFlJSZLgfgC&amp;pg=PA132 .&#32;Retrieved 19 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 9001 Whitepaper: The history and future of ISO 9001\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;BSI.&#32;March 2014.&#32;https:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-IN\/Resources\/ISO%209001\/ISO-9001-Whitepaper-the-history-and-future-of-ISO%209001.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"History of ISO 9000 at a glance\".&#32;Standards Consultants Ltd.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 08 January 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140108051024\/http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 \"ISO 9000:1987\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/16529.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 17.0 17.1 17.2 \"History and Evolution of ISO 9000\".&#32;Kaizen Consulting Group.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 11 June 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130611083052\/http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Calabrese, R.&#32;(3 December 2014).&#32;\"Countdown to ISO 9001:2015\".&#32;Quality Digest.&#32;Quality Circle Institute, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/countdown-iso-90012015.html .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Croft, N.H.&#32;(28 August 2012).&#32;\"ISO 9001:2015 and beyond - Preparing for the next 25 years of quality management standards\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 16 February 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150216111440\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633 .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 20.0 20.1 Heras,&#32;I\u00f1aki&#59;&#32;Dick,&#32;Gavin P.M.&#59;&#32;Casades\u00fas,&#32;Mart\u00ed&#32;(2002).&#32;\"ISO 9000 registration's impact on sales and profitability: A longitudinal analysis of performance before and after accreditation\".&#32;International Journal of Quality &amp; Reliability Management&#32;19&#32;(6): 774\u2013791.&#32;doi:10.1108\/02656710210429618. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Chow-Chua,&#32;Clare&#59;&#32;Goh,&#32;Mark&#59;&#32;Wan,&#32;Tan Boon&#32;(2003).&#32;\"Does ISO 9000 certification improve business performance?\".&#32;International Journal of Quality &amp; Reliability Management&#32;20&#32;(8): 936\u2013953.&#32;doi:10.1108\/02656710310493643. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Rajan,&#32;Murli&#59;&#32;Tamimi,&#32;Nabil&#32;(2003).&#32;\"Payoff to ISO 9000 Registration\".&#32;The Journal of Investing&#32;12&#32;(1): 71\u201377.&#32;doi:10.3905\/joi.2003.319536. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 23.0 23.1 Corbett,&#32;Charles J.&#59;&#32;Montes-Sancho,&#32;Mar\u00eda J.&#59;&#32;Kirsch,&#32;David A.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"The Financial Impact of ISO 9000 Certification in the United States: An Empirical Analysis\".&#32;Management Science&#32;51&#32;(7): 1607\u201316.&#32;doi:10.1287\/mnsc.1040.0358. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sharma,&#32;Divesh S.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"The association between ISO 9000 certification and financial performance\".&#32;The International Journal of Accounting&#32;40&#32;(2): 151\u2013172.&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.intacc.2005.01.011. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Naveh,&#32;Eitan&#59;&#32;Marcus,&#32;Alfred&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Financial performance, ISO 9000 standard and safe driving practices effects on accident rate in the U.S. Motor carrier industry\".&#32;Accident Analysis &amp; Prevention&#32;39&#32;(4): 731\u2013742.&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.aap.2006.11.004. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 9001 proven to help win new business\".&#32;The British Assessment Bureau.&#32;25 May 2011.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 28 July 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130728164740\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Domingues, J.P.; Reis, A.M.; Fonseca, L.M. et al.&#32;(2019).&#32;\"The Added Value of the ISO 9001:2015 International Standard from an Auditor's Perspective: A CB-SEM Based Evaluation\".&#32;International Journal for Quality Research&#32;13&#32;(4): 967\u201386.&#32;doi:10.24874\/IJQR13.04-15. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Dalgleish, S.&#32;(5 May 2003).&#32;\"ISO 9000: More Hindrance than Help\".&#32;Quality Magazine.&#32;BNP Media.&#32;https:\/\/www.qualitymag.com\/articles\/84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sroufe, Robert; Curkovic, Sime&#32;(July 2008).&#32;\"An examination of ISO 9000:2000 and supply chain quality assurance\".&#32;Journal of Operations Management&#32;26&#32;(4): 503\u2013520.&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.jom.2007.06.006. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wade, Jim&#32;(May\u2013June 2002).&#32;\"Is ISO 9000 really a standard?\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;ISO Management Systems.&#32;pp. 17\u201320.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 03 January 2007.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070103143212\/http:\/\/www.bin.co.uk\/IMS_May_2002.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 31.0 31.1 Barnes, F.&#32;(22 March 2000).&#32;\"Good Business Sense Is the Key to Confronting ISO 9000\".&#32;AllBusiness.&#32;AllBusiness.com, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000.-a073182519 .&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 32.0 32.1 Henricks, Mark&#32;(01 Decenber 2001).&#32;\"ISO a Go-Go\".&#32;Entrepreneur Magazine.&#32;Entrepreneur Media, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.entrepreneur.com\/article\/46342 .&#32;Retrieved 19 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000<\/a>\nCategory: Production standardsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 8 January 2022, at 01:01.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 26,061 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-ISO_9000 rootpage-ISO_9000 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ISO 9000<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Janesville_GM_Assembly_Plant_-_ISO_9001_Certified_sign_(3549915451).jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"3da7a4e566deb147b80af46bf15c34ac\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/Janesville_GM_Assembly_Plant_-_ISO_9001_Certified_sign_%283549915451%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Janesville_GM_Assembly_Plant_-_ISO_9001_Certified_sign_(3549915451).jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"3da7a4e566deb147b80af46bf15c34ac\"><\/a><\/div>A General Motors assembly plant advertises its ISO 9001 certification.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>ISO 9000 <\/b> is a family of standards related to quality management systems and designed to help organizations ensure that they meet the needs of customers and other stakeholders.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PoksinskaTheState02_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PoksinskaTheState02-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The standards are published by the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) and are available through national standards bodies. ISO 9000 deals with the fundamentals of quality management systems <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TsimAnAdapt02_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TsimAnAdapt02-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, including the eight management principles on which the family of standards is based.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TsimAnAdapt02_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TsimAnAdapt02-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BeattieImplem10_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BeattieImplem10-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>ISO 9001 deals with the requirements that organizations wishing to meet the standard have to fulfill.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Third-party certification bodies provide independent confirmation that organizations meet the requirements of ISO 9001. Over a million organizations in over 170 countries<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> are independently certified, making ISO 9001 one of the most widely used management tools in the world today. Despite widespread use, however, the ISO certification process has been criticized at times as being wasteful and not being useful for all organizations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-clifford_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-clifford-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-wilson_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-wilson-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Seddon_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seddon-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-seddon2_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-seddon2-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OConnor_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OConnor-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The ISO 9000 family of standards was originally built on several British standards developed in the early 1970s: BS 9000, BS 5179, and BS 5750. These quality assurance standards were initially related to the electronics manufacturing industry and set guidelines on managing supply-side quality through auditing and contractual documentation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-His90001_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-His90001-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, the history of ISO 9000 can be traced back even further to the publication of the United States Department of Defense MIL-Q-9858 standard in 1959. MIL-Q-9858 was revised into the NATO AQAP series of standards in 1969, which in turn were revised into the BS 5179 series of guidance standards published in 1974, and finally revised into the BS 5750 series of requirements standards in 1979.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Miura_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Miura-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Lamprecht_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Lamprecht-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As the idea of company certification of meeting a certain level of quality became more attractive, the push for a more rigorous international standard (primarily led by the British Standards Institute [BSI]<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BSI9000_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BSI9000-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>) resulted in the creation of the ISO 9000 family in 1987.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-His90001_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-His90001-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Originally based on BS 5750, the ISO 9000 family started out with three quality management models and a set of guidelines for following them<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-His90002_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-His90002-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>ISO 9001:1987 Model for quality assurance in design, development, production, installation, and servicing<\/li>\n<li>ISO 9002:1987 Model for quality assurance in production, installation, and servicing<\/li>\n<li>ISO 9003:1987 Model for quality assurance in final inspection and test<\/li>\n<li>ISO 9004.1:1987 Quality management and quality system elements - Part 1: Guidelines<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Changes_to_ISO_9000\">Changes to ISO 9000<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 1994, the ISO 9000 standards were updated to place focus on the importance of quality control and preventative action, and emphasize the need for the documentation of procedures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaizen_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaizen-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2000, ISO 9001, 9002, and 9003 were combined into ISO 9001:2000, with a major shift in focus towards quality management versus quality control as well as a focus on process management, \"the monitoring and optimizing of a company's tasks and activities, instead of just inspecting the final product.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaizen_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaizen-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup> It directed manufacturers to carefully examine client requirements in order to design and improve processes and improve customer satisfaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The 2008 changes to ISO 9001 were minimal, clarifying and simplifying language while making it more consistent with other standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaizen_17-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaizen-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The ISO 9004 guidelines document was updated in 2009 \"to promote a sustainable business approach\" that focused on all stakeholders.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An updated version of ISO 9001 is expected at the end of 2015 if the ISO members vote favorably in the second quarter of 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Countdown_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Countdown-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup> With the revision the scope of the standard will not change. An essential change, however, will affect the structure. The new ISO 9001:2015 will follow the so-called high-level structure. This, and the uniform use of core texts and terms, will enable an identical structure for all management systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nigel_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nigel-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Adoption_of_the_standard\">Adoption of the standard<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The global adoption of ISO 9001 may be attributable to a number of factors. Many major purchasers require their suppliers to hold ISO 9001 certification. In addition to several stakeholders' benefits, a number of studies have identified significant <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a> and financial benefits for organizations certified to ISO 9001. Examples include:\n<\/p><p><b>1.<\/b> In 2002, Heras <i>et al.<\/i> found superior return on assets compared to otherwise similar organizations without certification and demonstrated that this was statistically significant and not a function of organization size.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Heras_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Heras-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><b>2.<\/b> A 2003 study of 146 Singapore-based companies by Chow-Chua <i>et al.<\/i> found improved financial performance, though with the caveat \"that while certification leads to better overall financial performance, non\u2010listed certified firms experience better documentation procedures, higher perceived quality of products or services, and more effective communication among employees than listed certified firms.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChowChua_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChowChua-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>3.<\/b> That same year Rajan and Tamimi showed that ISO 9001 certification resulted in superior stock market performance and suggested that shareholders were richly rewarded for investing in the certified companies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rajan_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rajan-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>4.<\/b> In 2005, Corbett <i>et al.<\/i> showed in 2005 similar superior performance, atating that \"three years after certification, the certified firms do display strongly significant abnormal performance under all control-group specifications.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Corbett_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Corbett-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><b>5.<\/b> That same year, Sharma linked increases in \"operating efficiency, growth in sales, and overall financial performance\" gains with ISO 9000 certification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sharma2005_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sharma2005-24\">&#91;24&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><b>6.<\/b> Naveha and Marcus claimed in 2007 that manufacturers in the U.S. automotive industry that implemented ISO 9001 saw superior operational performance soon after.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Naveh_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Naveh-25\">&#91;25&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>7.<\/b> A 2011 survey from The British Assessment Bureau showing 44 percent of their certified clients had won new business due to becoming certified.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BAB44_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BAB44-26\">&#91;26&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>8.<\/b> More recently, in 2019, Domingues <i>et al.<\/i> surveyed a worldwide collection of IRCA (International Register of Certified Auditors) QM ISO 9001 Auditors, noting that \"relying on third-party auditor's feedback brings a more independent perspective than studies based on quality managers or consultants' views.\" They hypothesized that organizations seeking certification would see the most sustainable business improvements by turning to quality auditors. The authors indeed found that having \"competent and experienced auditors is essential to ensure a credible and accountable certification process to all stakeholders,\" which aligned well with other research \"that found that organizations that adopt early planning, carry on ISO 9001:2015 training, and ensure they have the necessary competences, reported the soundest benefits and fewer difficulties in successfully implementing ISO 9001:2015.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DominguesTheAdded19_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DominguesTheAdded19-27\">&#91;27&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While the connection between superior financial performance and ISO 9001 may be seen from the examples cited, there remains no proof of direct causation, though longitudinal studies such as those of Corbett <i>et al.<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Corbett_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Corbett-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup> may suggest it. Other researchers such as Heras <i>et al.<\/i> have suggested that while there is some evidence of this, the improvement is partly driven by the fact that there is a tendency for better performing companies to seek ISO 9001 certification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Heras_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Heras-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Criticisms_of_the_standard\">Criticisms of the standard<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A common criticism of the ISO 9000 family of standards is the amount of money, time, and paperwork required for registration. In 2003, writing for <i>Quality Magazine<\/i>, engineer Scott Dalgleish emphasized that \"[u]nder ISO, every quality system enhancement triggers enormous documentation changes that make quality managers question whether the benefits of the change are worth the effort.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dalgleish_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dalgleish-28\">&#91;28&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In a piece for <i>Inc.<\/i> magazine in 2005, journalist Stephanie Clifford told the story of Delaware North Companies, which spent nearly 18 months and $115,000 just to certify their guest services management division.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-clifford_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-clifford-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Others have chosen not to adopt the standard because of the perceived risks and uncertainty of not knowing if there are direct relationships to improved quality as well as doubts about what kind and how many resources will be needed. Other perceived risks include how much certification will cost, increased bureaucratic processes, and risk of poor company image if the certification process fails.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sroufe_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sroufe-29\">&#91;29&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Critics like John Seddon, a leading global authority on the service industry, claim ISO 9001 promotes specification, control, and procedures rather than understanding and improvement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Seddon_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seddon-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Others like business improvement specialist Jim Wade have argued that ISO 9001 is effective as a guideline, but that promoting it as a standard \"helps to mislead companies into thinking that certification means better quality, ... [undermining] the need for an organization to set its own quality standards.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Wade_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Wade-30\">&#91;30&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In short, Wade argues that reliance on the specifications of ISO 9001 does not guarantee a successful quality system.\n<\/p><p>The standard has been seen as especially prone to failure when a company is interested in certification before quality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Seddon_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seddon-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Certifications have in fact often been based on customer contractual requirements rather than a desire to actually improve quality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Barnes_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Barnes-31\">&#91;31&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Henricks_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Henricks-32\">&#91;32&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \"If you just want the certificate on the wall, chances are you will create a paper system that doesn't have much to do with the way you actually run your business,\" said ISO's Roger Frost in 2001.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Henricks_32-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Henricks-32\">&#91;32&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Certification by an independent auditor is often seen as the problem area, and according to Barnes, it \"has become a vehicle to increase consulting services.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Barnes_31-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Barnes-31\">&#91;31&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Abuhav, I.&#32;(2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NmUlDgAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>ISO 9001:2015 - A Complete Guide to Quality Management Systems<\/i><\/a>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;428.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781498733212<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NmUlDgAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NmUlDgAAQBAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001%3A2015+-+A+Complete+Guide+to+Quality+Management+Systems&amp;rft.aulast=Abuhav%2C+I.&amp;rft.au=Abuhav%2C+I.&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B428&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781498733212&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNmUlDgAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso-9001-quality-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">ISO 9000<\/a> at the International Organization for Standardization<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article reuses a few elements from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_9000\" data-key=\"225abbe7cfb1a96ba955acf58227e5dd\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-PoksinskaTheState02-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PoksinskaTheState02_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Poksinska, B.; J\u00f6rn Dahlgaard, J.; Antoni, M.&#32;(2002).&#32;\"The state of ISO 9000 certification: A study of Swedish organizations\".&#32;<i>The TQM Magazine<\/i>&#32;<b>14<\/b>&#32;(5): 297\u2013306.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108%2F09544780210439734\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/09544780210439734<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+state+of+ISO+9000+certification%3A+A+study+of+Swedish+organizations&amp;rft.jtitle=The+TQM+Magazine&amp;rft.aulast=Poksinska%2C+B.%3B+J%C3%B6rn+Dahlgaard%2C+J.%3B+Antoni%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Poksinska%2C+B.%3B+J%C3%B6rn+Dahlgaard%2C+J.%3B+Antoni%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=297%E2%80%93306&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1108%2F09544780210439734&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TsimAnAdapt02-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-TsimAnAdapt02_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-TsimAnAdapt02_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Tsim, Y.; Yeung, V.; Leung, E.&#32;(2002).&#32;\"An adaptation to ISO 9001:2000 for certified organisations\".&#32;<i>Managerial Auditing Journal<\/i>&#32;<b>17<\/b>&#32;(5): 245\u201350.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108%2F02686900210429669\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/02686900210429669<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=An+adaptation+to+ISO+9001%3A2000+for+certified+organisations&amp;rft.jtitle=Managerial+Auditing+Journal&amp;rft.aulast=Tsim%2C+Y.%3B+Yeung%2C+V.%3B+Leung%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Tsim%2C+Y.%3B+Yeung%2C+V.%3B+Leung%2C+E.&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.volume=17&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=245%E2%80%9350&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1108%2F02686900210429669&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BeattieImplem10-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BeattieImplem10_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Beattie, K.R.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Implementing ISO 9000: A study of its benefits among Australian organizations\".&#32;<i>Total Quality Management<\/i>&#32;<b>10<\/b>&#32;(1): 95\u2013106.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1080%2F0954412998090\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/0954412998090<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Implementing+ISO+9000%3A+A+study+of+its+benefits+among+Australian+organizations&amp;rft.jtitle=Total+Quality+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Beattie%2C+K.R.&amp;rft.au=Beattie%2C+K.R.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=95%E2%80%93106&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1080%2F0954412998090&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62085.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001:2015 Quality management systems \u2014 Requirements\"<\/a>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;September 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62085.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62085.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001%3A2015+Quality+management+systems+%E2%80%94+Requirements&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=September+2015&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F62085.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso-9001-quality-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9000 Family Quality Management\"<\/a>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso-9001-quality-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso-9001-quality-management.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9000+Family+Quality+Management&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso-9001-quality-management.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-clifford-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-clifford_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-clifford_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Clifford, S.&#32;(1 May 2005).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"So many standards to follow, so little payoff\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Inc. Magazine<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=So+many+standards+to+follow%2C+so+little+payoff&amp;rft.atitle=Inc.+Magazine&amp;rft.aulast=Clifford%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Clifford%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=1+May+2005&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inc.com%2Fmagazine%2F20050501%2Fmanagement.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-wilson-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-wilson_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wilson, I.&#32;(4 June 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/james.westgard.com\/the_westgard_rules\/2010\/06\/iso-not-so.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is ISO the way to go? Some say, Not So\"<\/a>.&#32;Westgard QC, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/james.westgard.com\/the_westgard_rules\/2010\/06\/iso-not-so.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/james.westgard.com\/the_westgard_rules\/2010\/06\/iso-not-so.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Is+ISO+the+way+to+go%3F+Some+say%2C+Not+So&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Wilson%2C+I.&amp;rft.au=Wilson%2C+I.&amp;rft.date=4+June+2010&amp;rft.pub=Westgard+QC%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjames.westgard.com%2Fthe_westgard_rules%2F2010%2F06%2Fiso-not-so.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Seddon-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Seddon_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Seddon_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Seddon_8-2\">8.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Seddon, J.&#32;(18 November 2000).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/money\/2000\/nov\/19\/workandcareers.madeleinebunting\" target=\"_blank\">\"The 'quality' you can't feel\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Guardian<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/money\/2000\/nov\/19\/workandcareers.madeleinebunting\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/money\/2000\/nov\/19\/workandcareers.madeleinebunting<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+%27quality%27+you+can%27t+feel&amp;rft.atitle=The+Guardian&amp;rft.aulast=Seddon%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Seddon%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=18+November+2000&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fmoney%2F2000%2Fnov%2F19%2Fworkandcareers.madeleinebunting&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-seddon2-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-seddon2_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Seddon, J.&#32;(2000).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120118194114\/http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: A Brief History of ISO 9000 - Where did we go wrong?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Case Against ISO 9000<\/i>&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;Oak Tree Press.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1860761739.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 18 January 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120118194114\/http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120118194114\/http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+A+Brief+History+of+ISO+9000+-+Where+did+we+go+wrong%3F&amp;rft.atitle=The+Case+Against+ISO+9000&amp;rft.aulast=Seddon%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Seddon%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Oak+Tree+Press&amp;rft.isbn=1860761739&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120118194114%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.systemsthinking.co.uk%2F3-1-article.asp&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OConnor-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OConnor_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">O'Connor, P.D.T.&#32;(1991).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130616091145\/http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9000: Help or Hoax\"<\/a>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 16 June 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130616091145\/http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130616091145\/http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9000%3A+Help+or+Hoax&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=O%27Connor%2C+P.D.T.&amp;rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+P.D.T.&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130616091145%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.pat-oconnor.co.uk%2Fiso9000.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-His90001-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-His90001_11-0\">11.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-His90001_11-1\">11.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130804070737\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The history of ISO 9000\"<\/a>.&#32;The British Assessment Bureau.&#32;4 April 2012.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 04 August 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130804070737\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130804070737\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+history+of+ISO+9000&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=4+April+2012&amp;rft.pub=The+British+Assessment+Bureau&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130804070737%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-assessment.co.uk%2Farticles%2Fthe-history-of-iso-9000%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Miura-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Miura_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Miura, A.&#32;(September 2004).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170810051200\/http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629\" target=\"_blank\">\"MIL-Q-9858A, the Origin of ISO 9001\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Tech Journal<\/i>.&#32;ASQ.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 10 August 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170810051200\/http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170810051200\/http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=MIL-Q-9858A%2C+the+Origin+of+ISO+9001&amp;rft.atitle=Tech+Journal&amp;rft.aulast=Miura%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Miura%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=September+2004&amp;rft.pub=ASQ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170810051200%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fasq.org%2Ffdc%2F2012%2F06%2Fmil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html%3Fshl%3D109629&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Lamprecht-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Lamprecht_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Lamprecht, James L.&#32;(2000).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fSFlJSZLgfgC&pg=PA132\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 12: The ISO 9000 Phenomenon and the Privatization of Military Standards\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Quality and Power in the Supply Chain: What Industry Does for the Sake of Quality<\/i>.&#32;Newnes.&#32;pp.&#160;125\u2013148.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780750673433<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fSFlJSZLgfgC&pg=PA132\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fSFlJSZLgfgC&amp;pg=PA132<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+12%3A+The+ISO+9000+Phenomenon+and+the+Privatization+of+Military+Standards&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+and+Power+in+the+Supply+Chain%3A+What+Industry+Does+for+the+Sake+of+Quality&amp;rft.aulast=Lamprecht%2C+James+L.&amp;rft.au=Lamprecht%2C+James+L.&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B125%E2%80%93148&amp;rft.pub=Newnes&amp;rft.isbn=9780750673433&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfSFlJSZLgfgC%26pg%3DPA132&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BSI9000-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BSI9000_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-IN\/Resources\/ISO%209001\/ISO-9001-Whitepaper-the-history-and-future-of-ISO%209001.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001 Whitepaper: The history and future of ISO 9001\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;BSI.&#32;March 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-IN\/Resources\/ISO%209001\/ISO-9001-Whitepaper-the-history-and-future-of-ISO%209001.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-IN\/Resources\/ISO%209001\/ISO-9001-Whitepaper-the-history-and-future-of-ISO%209001.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001+Whitepaper%3A+The+history+and+future+of+ISO+9001&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=March+2014&amp;rft.pub=BSI&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bsigroup.com%2FLocalFiles%2Fen-IN%2FResources%2FISO%25209001%2FISO-9001-Whitepaper-the-history-and-future-of-ISO%25209001.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-His90002-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-His90002_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140108051024\/http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview\" target=\"_blank\">\"History of ISO 9000 at a glance\"<\/a>.&#32;Standards Consultants Ltd.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 08 January 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140108051024\/http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140108051024\/http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=History+of+ISO+9000+at+a+glance&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Standards+Consultants+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140108051024%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.standardsconsultants.com%2Fiso-9000-overview&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9000-1987-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-0\">16.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-1\">16.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-2\">16.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-3\">16.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-4\">16.4<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/16529.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9000:1987\"<\/a>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/16529.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/16529.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9000%3A1987&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F16529.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Kaizen-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kaizen_17-0\">17.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kaizen_17-1\">17.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kaizen_17-2\">17.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130611083052\/http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"History and Evolution of ISO 9000\"<\/a>.&#32;Kaizen Consulting Group.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 11 June 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130611083052\/http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130611083052\/http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=History+and+Evolution+of+ISO+9000&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Kaizen+Consulting+Group&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130611083052%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.kcg.com.sg%2Fhistory-iso9000.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Countdown-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Countdown_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Calabrese, R.&#32;(3 December 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/countdown-iso-90012015.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Countdown to ISO 9001:2015\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Quality Digest<\/i>.&#32;Quality Circle Institute, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/countdown-iso-90012015.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/countdown-iso-90012015.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Countdown+to+ISO+9001%3A2015&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+Digest&amp;rft.aulast=Calabrese%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Calabrese%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=3+December+2014&amp;rft.pub=Quality+Circle+Institute%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qualitydigest.com%2Finside%2Fquality-insider-article%2Fcountdown-iso-90012015.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Nigel-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Nigel_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Croft, N.H.&#32;(28 August 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150216111440\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001:2015 and beyond - Preparing for the next 25 years of quality management standards\"<\/a>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 16 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150216111440\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150216111440\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001%3A2015+and+beyond+-+Preparing+for+the+next+25+years+of+quality+management+standards&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Croft%2C+N.H.&amp;rft.au=Croft%2C+N.H.&amp;rft.date=28+August+2012&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150216111440%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fhome%2Fnews_index%2Fnews_archive%2Fnews.htm%3Frefid%3DRef1633&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Heras-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Heras_20-0\">20.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Heras_20-1\">20.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Heras,&#32;I\u00f1aki&#59;&#32;Dick,&#32;Gavin P.M.&#59;&#32;Casades\u00fas,&#32;Mart\u00ed&#32;(2002).&#32;\"ISO 9000 registration's impact on sales and profitability: A longitudinal analysis of performance before and after accreditation\".&#32;<i>International Journal of Quality &amp; Reliability Management<\/i>&#32;<b>19<\/b>&#32;(6): 774\u2013791.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108%2F02656710210429618\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/02656710210429618<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+9000+registration%27s+impact+on+sales+and+profitability%3A+A+longitudinal+analysis+of+performance+before+and+after+accreditation&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Quality+%26+Reliability+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Heras&amp;rft.aufirst=I%C3%B1aki&amp;rft.au=Heras%2C%26%2332%3BI%C3%B1aki&amp;rft.au=Dick%2C%26%2332%3BGavin+P.M.&amp;rft.au=Casades%C3%BAs%2C%26%2332%3BMart%C3%AD&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=774%E2%80%93791&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1108%2F02656710210429618&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChowChua-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChowChua_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Chow-Chua,&#32;Clare&#59;&#32;Goh,&#32;Mark&#59;&#32;Wan,&#32;Tan Boon&#32;(2003).&#32;\"Does ISO 9000 certification improve business performance?\".&#32;<i>International Journal of Quality &amp; Reliability Management<\/i>&#32;<b>20<\/b>&#32;(8): 936\u2013953.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108%2F02656710310493643\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/02656710310493643<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Does+ISO+9000+certification+improve+business+performance%3F&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Quality+%26+Reliability+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Chow-Chua&amp;rft.aufirst=Clare&amp;rft.au=Chow-Chua%2C%26%2332%3BClare&amp;rft.au=Goh%2C%26%2332%3BMark&amp;rft.au=Wan%2C%26%2332%3BTan+Boon&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.volume=20&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=936%E2%80%93953&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1108%2F02656710310493643&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Rajan-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Rajan_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Rajan,&#32;Murli&#59;&#32;Tamimi,&#32;Nabil&#32;(2003).&#32;\"Payoff to ISO 9000 Registration\".&#32;<i>The Journal of Investing<\/i>&#32;<b>12<\/b>&#32;(1): 71\u201377.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3905%2Fjoi.2003.319536\" target=\"_blank\">10.3905\/joi.2003.319536<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Payoff+to+ISO+9000+Registration&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Investing&amp;rft.aulast=Rajan&amp;rft.aufirst=Murli&amp;rft.au=Rajan%2C%26%2332%3BMurli&amp;rft.au=Tamimi%2C%26%2332%3BNabil&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.volume=12&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=71%E2%80%9377&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.3905%2Fjoi.2003.319536&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Corbett-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Corbett_23-0\">23.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Corbett_23-1\">23.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Corbett,&#32;Charles J.&#59;&#32;Montes-Sancho,&#32;Mar\u00eda J.&#59;&#32;Kirsch,&#32;David A.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"The Financial Impact of ISO 9000 Certification in the United States: An Empirical Analysis\".&#32;<i>Management Science<\/i>&#32;<b>51<\/b>&#32;(7): 1607\u201316.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1287%2Fmnsc.1040.0358\" target=\"_blank\">10.1287\/mnsc.1040.0358<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+Financial+Impact+of+ISO+9000+Certification+in+the+United+States%3A+An+Empirical+Analysis&amp;rft.jtitle=Management+Science&amp;rft.aulast=Corbett&amp;rft.aufirst=Charles+J.&amp;rft.au=Corbett%2C%26%2332%3BCharles+J.&amp;rft.au=Montes-Sancho%2C%26%2332%3BMar%C3%ADa+J.&amp;rft.au=Kirsch%2C%26%2332%3BDavid+A.&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.volume=51&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=1607%E2%80%9316&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1287%2Fmnsc.1040.0358&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Sharma2005-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Sharma2005_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Sharma,&#32;Divesh S.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"The association between ISO 9000 certification and financial performance\".&#32;<i>The International Journal of Accounting<\/i>&#32;<b>40<\/b>&#32;(2): 151\u2013172.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.intacc.2005.01.011\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.intacc.2005.01.011<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+association+between+ISO+9000+certification+and+financial+performance&amp;rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Accounting&amp;rft.aulast=Sharma&amp;rft.aufirst=Divesh+S.&amp;rft.au=Sharma%2C%26%2332%3BDivesh+S.&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.volume=40&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=151%E2%80%93172&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.intacc.2005.01.011&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Naveh-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Naveh_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Naveh,&#32;Eitan&#59;&#32;Marcus,&#32;Alfred&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Financial performance, ISO 9000 standard and safe driving practices effects on accident rate in the U.S. Motor carrier industry\".&#32;<i>Accident Analysis &amp; Prevention<\/i>&#32;<b>39<\/b>&#32;(4): 731\u2013742.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.aap.2006.11.004\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.aap.2006.11.004<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Financial+performance%2C+ISO+9000+standard+and+safe+driving+practices+effects+on+accident+rate+in+the+U.S.+Motor+carrier+industry&amp;rft.jtitle=Accident+Analysis+%26+Prevention&amp;rft.aulast=Naveh&amp;rft.aufirst=Eitan&amp;rft.au=Naveh%2C%26%2332%3BEitan&amp;rft.au=Marcus%2C%26%2332%3BAlfred&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.volume=39&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=731%E2%80%93742&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.aap.2006.11.004&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BAB44-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BAB44_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130728164740\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001 proven to help win new business\"<\/a>.&#32;The British Assessment Bureau.&#32;25 May 2011.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 July 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130728164740\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130728164740\/http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001+proven+to+help+win+new+business&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=25+May+2011&amp;rft.pub=The+British+Assessment+Bureau&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130728164740%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-assessment.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fiso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DominguesTheAdded19-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DominguesTheAdded19_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Domingues, J.P.; Reis, A.M.; Fonseca, L.M. et al.&#32;(2019).&#32;\"The Added Value of the ISO 9001:2015 International Standard from an Auditor's Perspective: A CB-SEM Based Evaluation\".&#32;<i>International Journal for Quality Research<\/i>&#32;<b>13<\/b>&#32;(4): 967\u201386.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.24874%2FIJQR13.04-15\" target=\"_blank\">10.24874\/IJQR13.04-15<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+Added+Value+of+the+ISO+9001%3A2015+International+Standard+from+an+Auditor%27s+Perspective%3A+A+CB-SEM+Based+Evaluation&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+for+Quality+Research&amp;rft.aulast=Domingues%2C+J.P.%3B+Reis%2C+A.M.%3B+Fonseca%2C+L.M.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Domingues%2C+J.P.%3B+Reis%2C+A.M.%3B+Fonseca%2C+L.M.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=967%E2%80%9386&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.24874%2FIJQR13.04-15&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dalgleish-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Dalgleish_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Dalgleish, S.&#32;(5 May 2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitymag.com\/articles\/84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9000: More Hindrance than Help\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Quality Magazine<\/i>.&#32;BNP Media<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitymag.com\/articles\/84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.qualitymag.com\/articles\/84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9000%3A+More+Hindrance+than+Help&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+Magazine&amp;rft.aulast=Dalgleish%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Dalgleish%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=5+May+2003&amp;rft.pub=BNP+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qualitymag.com%2Farticles%2F84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Sroufe-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Sroufe_29-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Sroufe, Robert; Curkovic, Sime&#32;(July 2008).&#32;\"An examination of ISO 9000:2000 and supply chain quality assurance\".&#32;<i>Journal of Operations Management<\/i>&#32;<b>26<\/b>&#32;(4): 503\u2013520.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.jom.2007.06.006\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.jom.2007.06.006<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=An+examination+of+ISO+9000%3A2000+and+supply+chain+quality+assurance&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Operations+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Sroufe%2C+Robert%3B+Curkovic%2C+Sime&amp;rft.au=Sroufe%2C+Robert%3B+Curkovic%2C+Sime&amp;rft.date=July+2008&amp;rft.volume=26&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=503%E2%80%93520&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.jom.2007.06.006&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Wade-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Wade_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wade, Jim&#32;(May\u2013June 2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070103143212\/http:\/\/www.bin.co.uk\/IMS_May_2002.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is ISO 9000 really a standard?\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>ISO Management Systems<\/i>.&#32;pp. 17\u201320.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/livelinkgetfile-isocs?nodeId=15013106\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 January 2007<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070103143212\/http:\/\/www.bin.co.uk\/IMS_May_2002.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070103143212\/http:\/\/www.bin.co.uk\/IMS_May_2002.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Is+ISO+9000+really+a+standard%3F&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+Management+Systems&amp;rft.aulast=Wade%2C+Jim&amp;rft.au=Wade%2C+Jim&amp;rft.date=May%E2%80%93June+2002&amp;rft.pages=pp.+17%E2%80%9320&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20070103143212%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.bin.co.uk%2FIMS_May_2002.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Barnes-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Barnes_31-0\">31.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Barnes_31-1\">31.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Barnes, F.&#32;(22 March 2000).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000.-a073182519\" target=\"_blank\">\"Good Business Sense Is the Key to Confronting ISO 9000\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>AllBusiness<\/i>.&#32;AllBusiness.com, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000.-a073182519\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000.-a073182519<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 16 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000&amp;rft.atitle=AllBusiness&amp;rft.aulast=Barnes%2C+F.&amp;rft.au=Barnes%2C+F.&amp;rft.date=22+March+2000&amp;rft.pub=AllBusiness.com%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreelibrary.com%2FGood%2BBusiness%2BSense%2BIs%2Bthe%2BKey%2Bto%2BConfronting%2BISO%2B9000.-a073182519&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Henricks-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Henricks_32-0\">32.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Henricks_32-1\">32.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Henricks, Mark&#32;(01 Decenber 2001).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.entrepreneur.com\/article\/46342\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO a Go-Go\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Entrepreneur Magazine<\/i>.&#32;Entrepreneur Media, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.entrepreneur.com\/article\/46342\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.entrepreneur.com\/article\/46342<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+a+Go-Go&amp;rft.atitle=Entrepreneur+Magazine&amp;rft.aulast=Henricks%2C+Mark&amp;rft.au=Henricks%2C+Mark&amp;rft.date=01+Decenber+2001&amp;rft.pub=Entrepreneur+Media%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.entrepreneur.com%2Farticle%2F46342&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171708\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/Janesville_GM_Assembly_Plant_-_ISO_9001_Certified_sign_%283549915451%29.jpg"],"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_timestamp":1704907027,"e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_type":"article","e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_title":"ISO 15189","e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189","e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_plaintext":"\n\nISO 15189From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchISO standard\nISO 15189 Medical laboratories \u2014 Requirements for quality and competence is an international standard that specifies the quality management system requirements particular to medical laboratories. The standard was developed by the International Organisation for Standardization's Technical Committee 212 (ISO\/TC 212). ISO\/TC 212 assigned ISO 15189 to a working group to prepare the standard based on the details of ISO\/IEC 17025:1999 General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories.[1] This working group included provision of advice to medical laboratory users, including specifics on the collection of patient samples, the interpretation of test results, acceptable turnaround times, how testing is to be provided in a medical emergency, and the lab's role in the education and training of health care staff.[1] While the standard is based on ISO\/IEC 17025 and ISO 9001, it is a unique document that takes into consideration the specific requirements of the medical environment and the importance of the medical laboratory to patient care.[2]\n\n\n\nHistory \nThe first version of the standard was published in 2003, and it was revised in 2007 to align more closely to ISO\/IEC 17025.[1] A third edition of the standard was published in 2012, which revised the layout again and added a section on laboratory information management.[3]\nStarting in 2010, it took four years for the Kenya National HIV Reference Laboratory to gain ISO 15189 accreditation.[4]\nIn 2015 Plebani et al pointed out that \"despite its growing global recognition by the main scientific organizations in the field of laboratory medicine, in many countries only a small number of laboratories are currently accredited\" to ISO 15189.[5]\nIn 2019 the question was asked \"How Does ISO 15189 Laboratory Accreditation Support the Delivery of Healthcare in Ethiopia?\" and answered by a systematic review.[6]\nIn 2021 it became apparent that the International Health Regulations was a driver for ISO 15189 accreditation when the UKHSA provided training to EPHI staff.[7]\nIn 2022 the 4th edition of ISO 15189 was published.\n\nSee also \nQuality management system\nList of ISO standards\nExternal links \nEntry in ISO Standards catalogue \nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c Pereira, P. (February 2017). \"ISO 15189:2012 Medical laboratories - Requirements for quality and competence\". Westgard QC. Retrieved 28 November 2017 . \n\n^ \"Laboratory Quality Management System Handbook\" (PDF) . World Health Organization. 2011. \n\n^ Rej, R. (11 September 2013). \"What's new in ISO 15189: 2012?\" (PDF) . Association of Public Health Laboratories. Retrieved 28 November 2017 . \n\n^ Gachuki, Thomas; Sewe, Risper; Mwangi, Jane; Turgeon, David; Garcia, Mary; Luman, Elizabeth T.; Umuro, Mamo (2014). \"Attaining ISO 15189 accreditation through SLMTA: A journey by Kenya's National HIV Reference Laboratory\". African Journal of Laboratory Medicine. 3 (2): 216. doi:10.4102\/ajlm.v3i2.216. PMC&#160;4703332 . PMID&#160;26753130. S2CID&#160;17192412. \n\n^ Plebani, Mario; Sciacovelli, Laura; Chiozza, Maria Laura; Panteghini, Mauro (2015). \"Once upon a time: A tale of ISO 15189 accreditation\". Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine. 53 (8): 1127\u20131129. doi:10.1515\/cclm-2015-0355 . PMID&#160;25992514. S2CID&#160;207448605. \n\n^ Adane, Kasaw; Girma, Mekonnen; Deress, Teshiwal (1970). \"How Does ISO 15189 Laboratory Accreditation Support the Delivery of Healthcare in Ethiopia? A Systematic Review\". Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences. 29 (2): 259\u2013264. doi:10.4314\/ejhs.v29i2.13. PMC&#160;6460445 . PMID&#160;31011274. \n\n^ \"ISO 15189 medical laboratory training provided to EPHI staff\". The Global Health Network. International Health Regulations Strengthening Project. 28 October 2021. \n\n\nvteISO standards by standard number List of ISO standards \u2013 ISO romanizations \u2013 IEC standards1\u20139999\n1\n2\n3\n4\n6\n7\n9\n16\n17\n31\n-0\n-1\n-3\n-4\n-5\n-6\n-7\n-8\n-9\n-10\n-11\n-12\n-13\n68-1\n128\n216\n217\n226\n228\n233\n259\n261\n262\n302\n306\n361\n500\n518\n519\n639\n-1\n-2\n-3\n-5\n-6\n646\n657\n668\n690\n704\n732\n764\n838\n843\n860\n898\n965\n999\n1000\n1004\n1007\n1073-1\n1073-2\n1155\n1413\n1538\n1629\n1745\n1989\n2014\n2015\n2022\n2033\n2047\n2108\n2145\n2146\n2240\n2281\n2533\n2709\n2711\n2720\n2788\n2848\n2852\n3029\n3103\n3166\n-1\n-2\n-3\n3297\n3307\n3601\n3602\n3864\n3901\n3950\n3977\n4031\n4157\n4165\n4217\n4909\n5218\n5426\n5427\n5428\n5725\n5775\n5776\n5800\n5807\n5964\n6166\n6344\n6346\n6373\n6385\n6425\n6429\n6438\n6523\n6709\n6943\n7001\n7002\n7010\n7027\n7064\n7098\n7185\n7200\n7498\n-1\n7637\n7736\n7810\n7811\n7812\n7813\n7816\n7942\n8000\n8093\n8178\n8217\n8373\n8501-1\n8571\n8583\n8601\n8613\n8632\n8651\n8652\n8691\n8805\/8806\n8807\n8820-5\n8859\n-1\n-2\n-3\n-4\n-5\n-6\n-7\n-8\n-8-I\n-9\n-10\n-11\n-12\n-13\n-14\n-15\n-16\n8879\n9000\/9001\n9036\n9075\n9126\n9141\n9227\n9241\n9293\n9314\n9362\n9407\n9496\n9506\n9529\n9564\n9592\/9593\n9594\n9660\n9797-1\n9897\n9899\n9945\n9984\n9985\n9995\n10000\u201319999\n10006\n10007\n10116\n10118-3\n10160\n10161\n10165\n10179\n10206\n10218\n10279\n10303\n-11\n-21\n-22\n-28\n-238\n10383\n10585\n10589\n10628\n10646\n10664\n10746\n10861\n10957\n10962\n10967\n11073\n11170\n11179\n11404\n11544\n11783\n11784\n11785\n11801\n11889\n11898\n11940 (-2)\n11941\n11941 (TR)\n11992\n12006\n12052\n12182\n12207\n12234-2\n12620\n13211\n-1\n-2\n13216\n13250\n13399\n13406-2\n13450\n13485\n13490\n13567\n13568\n13584\n13616\n13816\n14000\n14031\n14224\n14289\n14396\n14443\n14496\n-2\n-3\n-6\n-10\n-11\n-12\n-14\n-17\n-20\n14617\n14644\n14649\n14651\n14698\n14764\n14882\n14971\n15022\n15189\n15288\n15291\n15292\n15398\n15408\n15444\n-3\n-9\n15445\n15438\n15504\n15511\n15686\n15693\n15706\n-2\n15707\n15897\n15919\n15924\n15926\n15926 WIP\n15930\n16023\n16262\n16355-1\n16485\n16612-2\n16750\n16949 (TS)\n17024\n17025\n17100\n17203\n17369\n17442\n17506\n17799\n18004\n18014\n18181\n18245\n18629\n18916\n19005\n19011\n19092\n-1\n-2\n19114\n19115\n19125\n19136\n19407\n19439\n19500\n19501\n19502\n19503\n19505\n19506\n19507\n19508\n19509\n19510\n19600\n19752\n19757\n19770\n19775-1\n19794-5\n19831\n20000\u201329999\n20000\n20022\n20121\n20400\n20802\n21000\n21047\n21122\n21500\n21827\n22000\n22275\n22300\n22301\n22395\n22537\n23000\n23090-3\n23270\n23271\n23360\n24517\n24613\n24617\n24707\n25178\n25964\n26000\n26262\n26300\n26324\n27000 series\n27000\n27001\n27002\n27005\n27006\n27729\n28000\n29110\n29148\n29199-2\n29500\n30000+\n30170\n31000\n32000\n37001\n38500\n40500\n42010\n45001\n50001\n55000\n56000\n80000\n\n Category\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189<\/a>\nCategories: Laboratory informatics standardsQuality standardsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 28 November 2017, at 23:24.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 7,378 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-ISO_15189 rootpage-ISO_15189 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ISO 15189<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">ISO standard<\/div>\n<p><i><b>ISO 15189 Medical laboratories \u2014 Requirements for quality and competence<\/b><\/i> is an international standard that specifies the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_management_system\" title=\"Quality management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d64fd726a87573213d8dce6e9f2fe22f\">quality management system<\/a> requirements particular to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_laboratory\" title=\"Medical laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf9459b1af950b8cf84d574d3318b78f\">medical laboratories<\/a>. The standard was developed by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organisation_for_Standardization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"International Organisation for Standardization\" data-key=\"7914da2099e98b3432c5bc135abb80cd\">International Organisation for Standardization<\/a>'s Technical Committee 212 (ISO\/TC 212). ISO\/TC 212 assigned ISO 15189 to a working group to prepare the standard based on the details of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"150dd5fbb859fb5a1317fff4e7a237bf\">ISO\/IEC 17025:1999<\/a> <i>General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PereiraISO15189_17_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PereiraISO15189_17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> This working group included provision of advice to medical laboratory users, including specifics on the collection of patient samples, the interpretation of test results, acceptable turnaround times, how testing is to be provided in a medical emergency, and the lab's role in the education and training of health care staff.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PereiraISO15189_17_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PereiraISO15189_17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> While the standard is based on ISO\/IEC 17025 and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_9001\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 9001\" data-key=\"45cf4657ea69b334ee95b95c9187f373\">ISO 9001<\/a>, it is a unique document that takes into consideration the specific requirements of the medical environment and the importance of the medical laboratory to patient care.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lqms_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lqms-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The first version of the standard was published in 2003, and it was revised in 2007 to align more closely to ISO\/IEC 17025.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PereiraISO15189_17_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PereiraISO15189_17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> A third edition of the standard was published in 2012, which revised the layout again and added a section on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aeae8b5837c8036a820ad3734624b8d7\">laboratory information management<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RejWhats13_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RejWhats13-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Starting in 2010, it took four years for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kenya\" title=\"Kenya\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"29c37ecadf09448591b3afd64cae4970\">Kenya<\/a> National HIV to gain ISO 15189 accreditation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-gachuki14_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-gachuki14-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2015 Plebani <i>et al<\/i> pointed out that \"despite its growing global recognition by the main scientific organizations in the field of laboratory medicine, in many countries only a small number of laboratories are currently accredited\" to ISO 15189.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-plebani15_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-plebani15-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2019 the question was asked \"How Does ISO 15189 Laboratory Accreditation Support the Delivery of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Healthcare\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Healthcare\" data-key=\"f1ffeab9b2f3909caea44907180a439a\">Healthcare<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethiopia\" title=\"Ethiopia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff0d062d77a74d6d5931c21ea3f843ba\">Ethiopia<\/a>?\" and answered by a systematic review.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-adane19_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-adane19-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2021 it became apparent that the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Health_Regulations\" title=\"International Health Regulations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7372fedccd8fccd0b24f5d6fd174ea5\">International Health Regulations<\/a> was a driver for ISO 15189 accreditation when the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UKHSA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UKHSA\" data-key=\"423e8a3c79282c8242ad8b87a75c4073\">UKHSA<\/a> provided training to staff.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tghni_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tghni-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2022 the 4th edition of ISO 15189 was published.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_management_system\" title=\"Quality management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d64fd726a87573213d8dce6e9f2fe22f\">Quality management system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_ISO_standards\" title=\"List of ISO standards\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf170ea08d8b9c028769b2401bd4949f\">List of ISO standards<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"official-website\"><span class=\"url\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/store\/catalogue_ics\/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=56115\" target=\"_blank\">Entry in ISO Standards catalogue<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-PereiraISO15189_17-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-PereiraISO15189_17_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-PereiraISO15189_17_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-PereiraISO15189_17_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPereira,_P.2017\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Pereira, P. (February 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.westgard.com\/iso-15189-2012-requirements-1.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 15189:2012 Medical laboratories - Requirements for quality and competence\"<\/a>. Westgard QC<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+15189%3A2012+Medical+laboratories+-+Requirements+for+quality+and+competence&amp;rft.pub=Westgard+QC&amp;rft.date=2017-02&amp;rft.au=Pereira%2C+P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.westgard.com%2Fiso-15189-2012-requirements-1.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-lqms-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-lqms_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.who.int\/ihr\/publications\/lqms_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Quality Management System Handbook\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. World Health Organization. 2011.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+Quality+Management+System+Handbook&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fihr%2Fpublications%2Flqms_en.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RejWhats13-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-RejWhats13_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRej,_R.2013\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Rej, R. (11 September 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/mrc\/documents\/lss_2013sept11_qif-presentation-whats-new-in-iso-15189(2012).pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"What's new in ISO 15189: 2012?\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Association of Public Health Laboratories<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=What%27s+new+in+ISO+15189%3A+2012%3F&amp;rft.pub=Association+of+Public+Health+Laboratories&amp;rft.date=2013-09-11&amp;rft.au=Rej%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aphl.org%2Fmrc%2Fdocuments%2Flss_2013sept11_qif-presentation-whats-new-in-iso-15189%282012%29.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-gachuki14-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-gachuki14_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGachukiSeweMwangiTurgeon2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Gachuki, Thomas; Sewe, Risper; Mwangi, Jane; Turgeon, David; Garcia, Mary; Luman, Elizabeth T.; Umuro, Mamo (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4703332\" target=\"_blank\">\"Attaining ISO 15189 accreditation through SLMTA: A journey by Kenya's National HIV Reference Laboratory\"<\/a>. <i>African Journal of Laboratory Medicine<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (2): 216. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4102%2Fajlm.v3i2.216\" target=\"_blank\">10.4102\/ajlm.v3i2.216<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4703332\" target=\"_blank\">4703332<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/26753130\" target=\"_blank\">26753130<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:17192412\" target=\"_blank\">17192412<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=African+Journal+of+Laboratory+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Attaining+ISO+15189+accreditation+through+SLMTA%3A+A+journey+by+Kenya%27s+National+HIV+Reference+Laboratory&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=216&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4703332%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17192412%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26753130&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4102%2Fajlm.v3i2.216&amp;rft.aulast=Gachuki&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft.au=Sewe%2C+Risper&amp;rft.au=Mwangi%2C+Jane&amp;rft.au=Turgeon%2C+David&amp;rft.au=Garcia%2C+Mary&amp;rft.au=Luman%2C+Elizabeth+T.&amp;rft.au=Umuro%2C+Mamo&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4703332&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-plebani15-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-plebani15_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPlebaniSciacovelliChiozzaPanteghini2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Plebani, Mario; Sciacovelli, Laura; Chiozza, Maria Laura; Panteghini, Mauro (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515%2Fcclm-2015-0355\" target=\"_blank\">\"Once upon a time: A tale of ISO 15189 accreditation\"<\/a>. <i>Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine<\/i>. <b>53<\/b> (8): 1127\u20131129. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515%2Fcclm-2015-0355\" target=\"_blank\">10.1515\/cclm-2015-0355<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/25992514\" target=\"_blank\">25992514<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:207448605\" target=\"_blank\">207448605<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinical+Chemistry+and+Laboratory+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Once+upon+a+time%3A+A+tale+of+ISO+15189+accreditation&amp;rft.volume=53&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=1127-1129&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207448605%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25992514&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fcclm-2015-0355&amp;rft.aulast=Plebani&amp;rft.aufirst=Mario&amp;rft.au=Sciacovelli%2C+Laura&amp;rft.au=Chiozza%2C+Maria+Laura&amp;rft.au=Panteghini%2C+Mauro&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1515%252Fcclm-2015-0355&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-adane19-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-adane19_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAdaneGirmaDeress1970\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Adane, Kasaw; Girma, Mekonnen; Deress, Teshiwal (1970). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6460445\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Does ISO 15189 Laboratory Accreditation Support the Delivery of Healthcare in Ethiopia? A Systematic Review\"<\/a>. <i>Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences<\/i>. <b>29<\/b> (2): 259\u2013264. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4314%2Fejhs.v29i2.13\" target=\"_blank\">10.4314\/ejhs.v29i2.13<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6460445\" target=\"_blank\">6460445<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31011274\" target=\"_blank\">31011274<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Ethiopian+Journal+of+Health+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=How+Does+ISO+15189+Laboratory+Accreditation+Support+the+Delivery+of+Healthcare+in+Ethiopia%3F+A+Systematic+Review&amp;rft.volume=29&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=259-264&amp;rft.date=1970&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6460445%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31011274&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4314%2Fejhs.v29i2.13&amp;rft.aulast=Adane&amp;rft.aufirst=Kasaw&amp;rft.au=Girma%2C+Mekonnen&amp;rft.au=Deress%2C+Teshiwal&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6460445&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-tghni-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-tghni_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/gphihr.tghn.org\/news\/iso-15189-medical-laboratory-training-provided-ephi-staff\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 15189 medical laboratory training provided to EPHI staff\"<\/a>. 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International Health Regulations Strengthening Project. 28 October 2021.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+15189+medical+laboratory+training+provided+to+EPHI+staff&amp;rft.date=2021-10-28&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgphihr.tghn.org%2Fnews%2Fiso-15189-medical-laboratory-training-provided-ephi-staff%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO+15189\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1372\nCached time: 20240106034848\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.299 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.402 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 701\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 57229\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 416\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 8\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 31247\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.172\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4512640\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 307.885 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>41.43% 127.550 1 Template:Reflist\n31.56% 97.155 1 Template:ISO_standards\n30.68% 94.452 1 Template:Navbox\n23.43% 72.135 2 Template:Cite_web\n19.75% 60.819 1 Template:Short_description\n 9.90% 30.474 2 Template:Pagetype\n 8.44% 25.986 3 Template:Cite_journal\n 6.36% 19.578 4 Template:Main_other\n 5.61% 17.284 1 Template:SDcat\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:6057715-0!canonical and timestamp 20240106034848 and revision id 1168342750. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_15189\" data-key=\"41c39a8e9b081c91ae7e4049656e9972\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110045610\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.143 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.338 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 67318\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 303.473 1 wikipedia:ISO_15189\n100.00% 303.473 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10352-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110045609 and revision id 32087. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_images":[],"e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2_timestamp":1704907027,"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_type":"article","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_title":"Health Level 7","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_plaintext":"\n\nHealth Level 7From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search The Reference Information Model (RIM) is an important component of the HL7 v3.0 standard and is based on XML.\nHealth Level Seven (HL7) is an international non-profit volunteer-based organization involved with the development of international health care informatics interoperability standards.&#91;1&#93; The HL7 community consists of health care experts and information scientists collaborating to create standards for the exchange, management, and integration of electronic health care information.\nThe term \"HL7\" is also used to refer to some of the specific standards created by the organization (e.g., HL7 v2.x, v3.0, HL7 RIM).&#91;2&#93; HL7 and its members provide a framework (and related standards) for the exchange, integration, sharing, and retrieval of electronic health information. v2.x of the standards, which support clinical practice and the management, delivery, and evaluation of health services, are the most commonly used in the world.&#91;3&#93; \n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Standards \n\n2.1 Reference Information Model (RIM) \n2.2 Clinical Document Architecture (CDA) \n2.3 Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW) \n2.4 Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) \n\n\n3 Further reading \n4 External links \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nThe International Organization for Standardization (ISO) got involved with standardizing network exchanges of data between computers around 1979, creating the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) standards model. These formal OSI standards ranged across seven levels, from OSI Level 1 (physical layer, e.g. communication over coaxial cable) to OSI Level 7 (application layer, e.g. communication between clinical software). By 1981, researchers at University of California - San Francisco had created a proprietary protocol that unbeknownst to them at the time fit under the OSI Level 7 model. The protocol was developed for clinical purposes such that \"computers exchanged several core messages, including the synchronization of patient admission-discharge-transfer information, orders from clinical areas, and the display of textual results to the clinical areas.\"&#91;4&#93; \nBy 1985, Simborg Systems (which developed hospital information systems) sought to have a non-proprietary protocol created because \"standardization efforts at the time was either fragmented, in a different direction or with a different scope.\"&#91;4&#93; This led to a push to create a new standards organization, with initial meetings occurring at the end of March 1987. The meetings produced the term \"HL7\" and prompted a non-profit organization to be created, eventually known as Health Level Seven International. Version 1.0 of the HL7 specification was released in October 1987. The direction of HL7 was largely led by Simborg Systems; however, with greater practical use seen in furthering the protocol and non-profit, the first non-Simborg Systems chairperson, Ed Hammond, took the reigns in 1989.&#91;4&#93; By June 1990, Version 2.1 was published and included mechanisms for results reporting and billing. By the early- to mid-1990s news of HL7 was beginning to spread to international clinical sectors, particularly parts of Europe, including Netherlands, Germany, Canada, Japan, Australia, and the United Kingdom.&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93;\nIn June 1994 the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) awarded Health Level 7 International status as an accredited standards developer. Version 2.2 became an official ANSI standard in February 1996. HL7 had roughly 1,700 members from various health care industries around the globe by the late 1990s.&#91;5&#93;\nVersion 3.0 of the HL7 standard was released in late 2005, which internationalized it and made it more consistent and precise.&#91;6&#93; Where the 2.x standards eventually received wide adoption for their flexibility and available implementation options, the 3.0 standards, in contrast, departed from that flexibility in order to be more \"definite and testable, and provide the ability to certify vendors' conformance.\"&#91;7&#93; In 2009, Corepoint Health reported that most HL7 messaging was occurring using 2.3 and 2.3.1 models, with 3.0-based messages representing only a tiny fraction of all interfaces&#91;8&#93;; in 2012 Corepoint Health's Rob Brull estimated that more than 90 percent of all healthcare systems were still utilizing 2.x models.&#91;9&#93; That trend continued, with several experts proclaiming the standard to be more or less a failure.&#91;10&#93;&#91;11&#93;\nIn early 2012, HL7 announced the HL7 FHIR (Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources) initiative, which would utilize the best aspects of both 2.x and 3.0 standards, optimally resulting in a standard that is 20 percent the size of 3.0 but still meet the operation requirements of 80 percent of systems using the standard.&#91;12&#93; FHIR is being built on RESTful web services and provides modular, extensible \"resources\" to provide some flexibility but within a more fixed framework.&#91;13&#93; In December 2014, HL7 announced the Argonaut Project, meant \"to hasten current FHIR development efforts in order to create practical and focused guidelines and profiles for FHIR by the spring of 2015.\"&#91;14&#93;\n\nStandards \nIn total HL7 develops conceptual standards (e.g., HL7 RIM), document standards (e.g., HL7 CDA), application standards (e.g., HL7 CCOW), and messaging standards (e.g., HL7 v2.x and v3.0). Messaging standards are particularly important because they define how information is packaged and communicated from one party to another. Such standards set the language, structure, and data types required for seamless integration from one system to another.&#91;15&#93; Business use of the HL7 standards requires a paid organizational membership in HL7, Inc. HL7 members can access standards for free, and non-members can buy the standards from HL7 or ANSI.\nHL7 v2.x and 3.0 are the primary standards from the organization. They provide a framework for data exchange among clinical and healthcare systems in an ideal format. The 2.x standards are flexible, with several implementation options, loosely geared towards \"clinical interface specialists\" working to move clinical data in the application space. The 3.0 standards are designed to be more fixed, precise, and international, geared towards governments and end users of clinical applications.&#91;8&#93; \nWhile HL7 v2.x and 3.0 are the primary standards, a few other important standards and components are associated with HL7, as detailed below.\n\n Reference Information Model (RIM) \nThe Reference Information Model (RIM) is an important component of the HL7 Version 3 standard. RIM expresses the data content needed in a specific clinical or administrative context and provides an explicit representation of the semantic and lexical connections that exist between the information carried in the fields of HL7 messages.&#91;16&#93; The standard is accepted as official by the ISO as ISO\/HL7 21731; the original was approved in 2006, with a revised version appearing in 2014.&#91;17&#93;\n\n Clinical Document Architecture (CDA) \nThe Clinical Document Architecture (CDA) is an XML-based markup standard intended to specify the encoding, structure, and semantics of clinical documents for exchange.&#91;18&#93; The standard is accepted as official by the ISO as ISO\/HL7 27932; the most current version comes from 2009.&#91;19&#93;\n\n Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW) \nThe Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW) family of standards are designed to enable disparate applications to share user context and patient context in real-time, particularly at the user-interface level. CCOW implementations typically require a CCOW vault system to manage user security between applications. The primary standard under CCOW is the Context Management Specifications (CCOW), which \"serves as the basis for ensuring secure and consistent access to patient information from heterogeneous sources.\"&#91;20&#93; This standard is accepted as official by ANSI as ANSI\/HL7 CMS V1.6.\n\n Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) \nThe Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) standard was announced in 2012. FHIR was originally built on RESTful web services and provides modular, extensible \"resources\" to provide some flexibility but within a more fixed framework. During the development phase of FHIR, the driving fundamental principles were&#91;21&#93;:\n\nprioritize implementers as the target user of the standard;\nprovide a flexible framework for interoperability;\nlimit complexity to where it's most needed;\nkeep conformance requirement minimal but also provide varying degrees of rigor;\nleverage open source development principles;\nmake the standard available without cost;\nsupport multiple exchange architectures;\nleverage common web technologies;\nmake the standard forward and backward compatible; and\ndesign, publish, and implement associated specifications using widely available tools.\nIn February 2014, Health Level Seven International published FHIR as a \"Draft Standard for Trial Use\" (DSTU), Release 1, version DSTU 1 (v0.0.82).&#91;22&#93; By December 2014, a broad cross-section of stakeholders committed to the Argonaut Project&#91;23&#93;, which was dedicated to providing accelerated funding and political will to publish FHIR implementation guides and profiles for query\/response interoperability and document retrieval by the spring of 2015. It would then be possible for medical records systems to migrate from the current practice of exchanging complex clinical document architecture (CDA) documents and instead exchange sets of simpler, more modular and interoperable FHIR JSON objects.&#91;24&#93; By August 2016, the CEO of HL7 was suggesting that although still a draft standard, FHIR was already capable of providing valuable features to early adopters.&#91;25&#93; In March 2017, the first standards for trial use or STU version of FHIR was released as Release 3. It included coverage of a variety of clinical workflows, a resource description framework format, and a variety of other updates.&#91;26&#93; Revision 4 was released in January 2019, with the key takeaway that \"applications that implement the normative parts of R4 no longer risk being non-conformant to the standard,\" with those normative parts largely being \"the RESTful API, the XML and JSON formats, the terminology layer, the conformance framework as well as Patient and Observation resources.\"&#91;27&#93;\n\nFurther reading \nIntroduction to HL7 Standards\nSpronk, Ren\u00e9&#32;(5 September 2014).&#32;\"The Early History of Health Level 7\".&#32;Ringholm BV.&#32;http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm . &#160; \nExternal links \nHealth Level 7 International\nHL7 Wiki\nHL7 FHIR\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"About Health Level Seven International\".&#32;Health Level Seven International.&#32;http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/about\/index.cfm .&#32;Retrieved 02 March 2012 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Healthcare Interoperability Glossary\".&#32;Corepoint Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 15 January 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160115213217\/http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/resource-center\/healthcare-interoperability-glossary .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Shaver, D.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"The HL7 Evolution - Comparing HL7 Versions 2 and 3\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Corepoint Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 03 March 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Spronk, Ren\u00e9&#32;(5 September 2014).&#32;\"The Early History of Health Level 7\".&#32;Ringholm BV.&#32;http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm .&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 Di Lima, Sara N.; Johns, Lisa T.; Liebler, Joan Gratto&#32;(1998).&#32;A Practical Introduction to Health Information Management.&#32;Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780834212312.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vX_zVaMlR8sC&amp;pg=PA90 .&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Shaver, D.&#32;(5 October 2006).&#32;\"What Is HL7 Version 3 or V3?\".&#32;Health Standards.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 15 April 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200415214840\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"HL7 Version 3 Product Suite\".&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;15 May 2014.&#32;http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=186 .&#32;Retrieved 18 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 Shaver, D.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"The HL7 Evolution: Comparing HL7 Version 2 to Version 3, Including a History of Version 2\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Corepoint Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 03 March 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 McNickle, M.&#32;(25 April 2012).&#32;\"8 common questions about HL7\".&#32;Healthcare IT News.&#32;HIMSS Media.&#32;https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/8-common-questions-about-hl7 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Morin, J.&#32;(4 January 2011).&#32;\"Will HL7 V3 Adoption Take Off in 2011? 5 Points and 1 Caveat\".&#32;Caristix Blog.&#32;Caristix.&#32;https:\/\/caristix.com\/blog\/2011\/01\/will-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Grieve, G.&#32;(15 August 2011).&#32;\"HL7 needs a fresh look because V3 has failed\".&#32;Health Intersections Blog.&#32;Health Intersections Pty. Ltd.&#32;http:\/\/www.healthintersections.com.au\/?p=476 .&#32;Retrieved 18 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 McKenzie, L.&#32;(February 2012).&#32;\"HL7\u2019s Next Generation Standard is Coming: Keep Calm, Carry On\".&#32;Healthcare Information Management &amp; Communications Canada&#32;26&#32;(1).&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 09 January 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140109022012\/http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Brull, R.&#32;(26 March 2013).&#32;\"5 Things to Know About HL7 FHIR\".&#32;Health Standards Blog.&#32;Health Standards.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 16 July 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170716071425\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Kern, C.&#32;(12 December 2014).&#32;\"HL7 Advancing FHIR\".&#32;Health IT Outcomes.&#32;Jameson Publishing.&#32;https:\/\/www.healthitoutcomes.com\/doc\/hl-advancing-fhir-0001 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Kim, K.&#32;(July 2005).&#32;\"Creating Clinical Data Standards in Health Care: Five Case Studies\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;California HealthCare Foundation.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 10 September 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120910215044\/http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"HL7 Reference Information Model\".&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/rim.cfm .&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/HL7 21731:2006\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/40399.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Boone, Keith W.&#32;(2011).&#32;The CDA Book.&#32;Springer Science &amp; Business Media.&#32;pp.&#160;17\u201321.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rwa6DDB4jY8C&amp;pg=PA17 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/HL7 27932:2009\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/44429.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Product CCOW\".&#32;HL7 Wiki.&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;27 October 2010.&#32;https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Product_CCOW .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Fundamental Principles of FHIR\".&#32;HL7 Wiki.&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;17 September 2014.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 17 November 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141117041614\/https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 =HL7 International&#32;(February 2014).&#32;\"HL7 Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources Specification 'FHIR', Release 1\".&#32;http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=343 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n\n\u2191 HL7 International&#32;(4 December 2014).&#32;\"HL7 Launches Joint Argonaut Project to Advance FHIR\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/documentcenter\/public\/pressreleases\/HL7_PRESS_20141204.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Braunstein, M.&#32;(26 January 2015).&#32;\"Can Argonaut Project Make Exchanging Health Data Easier?\".&#32;InformationWeek.&#32;https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/strategic-cio\/can-argonaut-project-make-exchanging-health-data-easier- .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Murphy, K.&#32;(9 August 2016).&#32;\"Health IT Standard FHIR Ready to Advance Interoperability\".&#32;EHR Intelligence.&#32;https:\/\/ehrintelligence.com\/news\/health-it-standard-fhir-ready-to-advance-interoperability .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Miliard, M.&#32;(22 March 2017).&#32;\"HL7 publishes a new version of its FHIR specification\".&#32;Healthcare IT News.&#32;https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-publishes-new-version-its-fhir-specification .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sullivan, T.&#32;(2 January 2019).&#32;\"HL7 releases FHIR 4\".&#32;Healthcare IT News.&#32;https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-releases-fhir-4 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7<\/a>\nCategories: Communication protocols and standardsHealth informaticsHealth standardsStandards organizationsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 8 January 2022, at 00:53.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 33,227 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Health_Level_7 rootpage-Health_Level_7 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Health Level 7<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:552px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:HL7_Reference_Information_Model.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8e925aa26de89f4ff8ca5fc5541ac42\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f8\/HL7_Reference_Information_Model.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:HL7_Reference_Information_Model.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"b8e925aa26de89f4ff8ca5fc5541ac42\"><\/a><\/div>The Reference Information Model (RIM) is an important component of the HL7 v3.0 standard and is based on XML.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Health Level Seven<\/b> (<b>HL7<\/b>) is an international non-profit volunteer-based organization involved with the development of international health care informatics interoperability standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7About_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7About-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The HL7 community consists of health care experts and information scientists collaborating to create standards for the exchange, management, and integration of electronic health care information.\n<\/p><p>The term \"HL7\" is also used to refer to some of the specific standards created by the organization (e.g., HL7 v2.x, v3.0, HL7 RIM).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7BatchProtocol_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7BatchProtocol-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> HL7 and its members provide a framework (and related standards) for the exchange, integration, sharing, and retrieval of electronic health information. v2.x of the standards, which support clinical practice and the management, delivery, and evaluation of health services, are the most commonly used in the world.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShaverTheHL7_10_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShaverTheHL7_10-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) got involved with standardizing network exchanges of data between computers around 1979, creating the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) standards model. These formal OSI standards ranged across seven levels, from OSI Level 1 (physical layer, e.g. communication over coaxial cable) to OSI Level 7 (application layer, e.g. communication between clinical software). By 1981, researchers at University of California - San Francisco had created a proprietary protocol that unbeknownst to them at the time fit under the OSI Level 7 model. The protocol was developed for clinical purposes such that \"computers exchanged several core messages, including the synchronization of patient admission-discharge-transfer information, orders from clinical areas, and the display of textual results to the clinical areas.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>By 1985, Simborg Systems (which developed <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital_information_system\" title=\"Hospital information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8385de7b1f39a39d793f8ce349b448d\">hospital information systems<\/a>) sought to have a non-proprietary protocol created because \"standardization efforts at the time was either fragmented, in a different direction or with a different scope.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This led to a push to create a new standards organization, with initial meetings occurring at the end of March 1987. The meetings produced the term \"HL7\" and prompted a non-profit organization to be created, eventually known as Health Level Seven International. Version 1.0 of the HL7 specification was released in October 1987. The direction of HL7 was largely led by Simborg Systems; however, with greater practical use seen in furthering the protocol and non-profit, the first non-Simborg Systems chairperson, Ed Hammond, took the reigns in 1989.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> By June 1990, Version 2.1 was published and included mechanisms for results reporting and billing. By the early- to mid-1990s news of HL7 was beginning to spread to international clinical sectors, particularly parts of Europe, including Netherlands, Germany, Canada, Japan, Australia, and the United Kingdom.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PractDiLama_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PractDiLama-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In June 1994 the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/American_National_Standards_Institute\" title=\"American National Standards Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a3da6ae9a20adfa068187109b058ff4\">American National Standards Institute<\/a> (ANSI) awarded Health Level 7 International status as an accredited standards developer. Version 2.2 became an official ANSI standard in February 1996. HL7 had roughly 1,700 members from various health care industries around the globe by the late 1990s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PractDiLama_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PractDiLama-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Version 3.0 of the HL7 standard was released in late 2005, which internationalized it and made it more consistent and precise.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL730_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL730-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Where the 2.x standards eventually received wide adoption for their flexibility and available implementation options, the 3.0 standards, in contrast, departed from that flexibility in order to be more \"definite and testable, and provide the ability to certify vendors' conformance.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Three_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Three-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In 2009, Corepoint Health reported that most HL7 messaging was occurring using 2.3 and 2.3.1 models, with 3.0-based messages representing only a tiny fraction of all interfaces<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CH09_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CH09-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>; in 2012 Corepoint Health's Rob Brull estimated that more than 90 percent of all healthcare systems were still utilizing 2.x models.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8Common_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8Common-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> That trend continued, with several experts proclaiming the standard to be more or less a failure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cari11_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cari11-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HI11_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HI11-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In early 2012, HL7 announced the HL7 FHIR (Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources) initiative, which would utilize the best aspects of both 2.x and 3.0 standards, optimally resulting in a standard that is 20 percent the size of 3.0 but still meet the operation requirements of 80 percent of systems using the standard.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FHIR12_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FHIR12-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup> FHIR is being built on RESTful web services and provides modular, extensible \"resources\" to provide some flexibility but within a more fixed framework.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7StandardFHIR_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7StandardFHIR-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In December 2014, HL7 announced the Argonaut Project, meant \"to hasten current FHIR development efforts in order to create practical and focused guidelines and profiles for FHIR by the spring of 2015.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FHIRArgo_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FHIRArgo-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards\">Standards<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In total HL7 develops conceptual standards (e.g., HL7 RIM), document standards (e.g., HL7 CDA), application standards (e.g., HL7 CCOW), and messaging standards (e.g., HL7 v2.x and v3.0). Messaging standards are particularly important because they define how information is packaged and communicated from one party to another. Such standards set the language, structure, and data types required for seamless integration from one system to another.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KimCreating05_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KimCreating05-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Business use of the HL7 standards requires a paid organizational membership in HL7, Inc. HL7 members can access standards for free, and non-members can buy the standards from HL7 or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ANSI\" data-key=\"682431568a190846c1164f8943aedded\">ANSI<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>HL7 v2.x and 3.0 are the primary standards from the organization. They provide a framework for data exchange among clinical and healthcare systems in an ideal format. The 2.x standards are flexible, with several implementation options, loosely geared towards \"clinical interface specialists\" working to move clinical data in the application space. The 3.0 standards are designed to be more fixed, precise, and international, geared towards governments and end users of clinical applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CH09_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CH09-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>While HL7 v2.x and 3.0 are the primary standards, a few other important standards and components are associated with HL7, as detailed below.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Reference_Information_Model_(RIM)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reference_Information_Model_.28RIM.29\">Reference Information Model (RIM)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Reference Information Model (RIM) is an important component of the HL7 Version 3 standard. RIM expresses the data content needed in a specific clinical or administrative context and provides an explicit representation of the semantic and lexical connections that exist between the information carried in the fields of HL7 messages.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RIM_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RIM-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The standard is accepted as official by the ISO as ISO\/HL7 21731; the original was approved in 2006, with a revised version appearing in 2014.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO21731_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO21731-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Clinical_Document_Architecture_(CDA)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Clinical_Document_Architecture_.28CDA.29\">Clinical Document Architecture (CDA)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Clinical Document Architecture (CDA) is an XML-based markup standard intended to specify the encoding, structure, and semantics of clinical documents for exchange.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDABook_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDABook-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The standard is accepted as official by the ISO as ISO\/HL7 27932; the most current version comes from 2009.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO27932_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO27932-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Clinical_Context_Object_Workgroup_(CCOW)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Clinical_Context_Object_Workgroup_.28CCOW.29\">Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW) family of standards are designed to enable disparate applications to share user context and patient context in real-time, particularly at the user-interface level. CCOW implementations typically require a CCOW vault system to manage user security between applications. The primary standard under CCOW is the Context Management Specifications (CCOW), which \"serves as the basis for ensuring secure and consistent access to patient information from heterogeneous sources.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CCOWWiki_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CCOWWiki-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This standard is accepted as official by ANSI as ANSI\/HL7 CMS V1.6.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Fast_Healthcare_Interoperability_Resources_(FHIR)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fast_Healthcare_Interoperability_Resources_.28FHIR.29\">Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) standard was announced in 2012. FHIR was originally built on RESTful web services and provides modular, extensible \"resources\" to provide some flexibility but within a more fixed framework. During the development phase of FHIR, the driving fundamental principles were<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FHIRPrinc_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FHIRPrinc-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>prioritize implementers as the target user of the standard;<\/li>\n<li>provide a flexible framework for interoperability;<\/li>\n<li>limit complexity to where it's most needed;<\/li>\n<li>keep conformance requirement minimal but also provide varying degrees of rigor;<\/li>\n<li>leverage open source development principles;<\/li>\n<li>make the standard available without cost;<\/li>\n<li>support multiple exchange architectures;<\/li>\n<li>leverage common web technologies;<\/li>\n<li>make the standard forward and backward compatible; and<\/li>\n<li>design, publish, and implement associated specifications using widely available tools.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In February 2014, Health Level Seven International published FHIR as a \"Draft Standard for Trial Use\" (DSTU), Release 1, version DSTU 1 (v0.0.82).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Fast14-1_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Fast14-1-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup> By December 2014, a broad cross-section of stakeholders committed to the Argonaut Project<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, which was dedicated to providing accelerated funding and political will to publish FHIR implementation guides and profiles for query\/response interoperability and document retrieval by the spring of 2015. It would then be possible for medical records systems to migrate from the current practice of exchanging complex clinical document architecture (CDA) documents and instead exchange sets of simpler, more modular and interoperable FHIR JSON objects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BraunsteinCanArgo15_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BraunsteinCanArgo15-24\">&#91;24&#93;<\/a><\/sup> By August 2016, the CEO of HL7 was suggesting that although still a draft standard, FHIR was already capable of providing valuable features to early adopters.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MurphyHealth16_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MurphyHealth16-25\">&#91;25&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In March 2017, the first standards for trial use or STU version of FHIR was released as Release 3. It included coverage of a variety of clinical workflows, a resource description framework format, and a variety of other updates.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MiliardHL717_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MiliardHL717-26\">&#91;26&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Revision 4 was released in January 2019, with the key takeaway that \"applications that implement the normative parts of R4 no longer risk being non-conformant to the standard,\" with those normative parts largely being \"the RESTful API, the XML and JSON formats, the terminology layer, the conformance framework as well as Patient and Observation resources.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SullivanHL7_19_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SullivanHL7_19-27\">&#91;27&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/index.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">Introduction to HL7 Standards<\/a><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"citation web\">Spronk, Ren\u00e9&#32;(5 September 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Early History of Health Level 7\"<\/a>.&#32;Ringholm BV<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Early+History+of+Health+Level+7&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Spronk%2C+Ren%C3%A9&amp;rft.au=Spronk%2C+Ren%C3%A9&amp;rft.date=5+September+2014&amp;rft.pub=Ringholm+BV&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ringholm.com%2Fdocs%2Fthe_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Health Level 7 International<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Main_Page\" target=\"_blank\">HL7 Wiki<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=FHIR\" target=\"_blank\">HL7 FHIR<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7About-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7About_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/about\/index.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">\"About Health Level Seven International\"<\/a>.&#32;Health Level Seven International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/about\/index.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/about\/index.cfm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 02 March 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+Health+Level+Seven+International&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Health+Level+Seven+International&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fabout%2Findex.cfm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7BatchProtocol-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7BatchProtocol_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160115213217\/http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/resource-center\/healthcare-interoperability-glossary\" target=\"_blank\">\"Healthcare Interoperability Glossary\"<\/a>.&#32;Corepoint Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#H\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 15 January 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160115213217\/http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/resource-center\/healthcare-interoperability-glossary\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160115213217\/http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/resource-center\/healthcare-interoperability-glossary<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Healthcare+Interoperability+Glossary&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Corepoint+Health&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160115213217%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.corepointhealth.com%2Fresource-center%2Fhealthcare-interoperability-glossary&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShaverTheHL7_10-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ShaverTheHL7_10_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Shaver, D.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The HL7 Evolution - Comparing HL7 Versions 2 and 3\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Corepoint Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 March 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+HL7+Evolution+-+Comparing+HL7+Versions+2+and+3&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Shaver%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Shaver%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pub=Corepoint+Health&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160303221932%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fcorepointhealth.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fwhitepapers%2Fhl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-2\">4.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-3\">4.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Spronk, Ren\u00e9&#32;(5 September 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Early History of Health Level 7\"<\/a>.&#32;Ringholm BV<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Early+History+of+Health+Level+7&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Spronk%2C+Ren%C3%A9&amp;rft.au=Spronk%2C+Ren%C3%A9&amp;rft.date=5+September+2014&amp;rft.pub=Ringholm+BV&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ringholm.com%2Fdocs%2Fthe_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PractDiLama-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PractDiLama_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PractDiLama_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Di Lima, Sara N.; Johns, Lisa T.; Liebler, Joan Gratto&#32;(1998).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vX_zVaMlR8sC&pg=PA90\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A Practical Introduction to Health Information Management<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780834212312<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vX_zVaMlR8sC&pg=PA90\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vX_zVaMlR8sC&amp;pg=PA90<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+Practical+Introduction+to+Health+Information+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Di+Lima%2C+Sara+N.%3B+Johns%2C+Lisa+T.%3B+Liebler%2C+Joan+Gratto&amp;rft.au=Di+Lima%2C+Sara+N.%3B+Johns%2C+Lisa+T.%3B+Liebler%2C+Joan+Gratto&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&amp;rft.isbn=9780834212312&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvX_zVaMlR8sC%26pg%3DPA90&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL730-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL730_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Shaver, D.&#32;(5 October 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200415214840\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is HL7 Version 3 or V3?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health Standards<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 15 April 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200415214840\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200415214840\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+Is+HL7+Version+3+or+V3%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Health+Standards&amp;rft.aulast=Shaver%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Shaver%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=5+October+2006&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200415214840%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fhealthstandards.com%2Fblog%2F2006%2F10%2F05%2Fwhat-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7Three-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Three_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=186\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 Version 3 Product Suite\"<\/a>.&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;15 May 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=186\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=186<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+Version+3+Product+Suite&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=15+May+2014&amp;rft.pub=Health+Level+7+International&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fimplement%2Fstandards%2Fproduct_brief.cfm%3Fproduct_id%3D186&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CH09-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CH09_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CH09_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Shaver, D.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The HL7 Evolution: Comparing HL7 Version 2 to Version 3, Including a History of Version 2\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Corepoint Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 March 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303221932\/http:\/\/corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+HL7+Evolution%3A+Comparing+HL7+Version+2+to+Version+3%2C+Including+a+History+of+Version+2&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Shaver%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Shaver%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pub=Corepoint+Health&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160303221932%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fcorepointhealth.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fwhitepapers%2Fhl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8Common-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-8Common_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">McNickle, M.&#32;(25 April 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/8-common-questions-about-hl7\" target=\"_blank\">\"8 common questions about HL7\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Healthcare IT News<\/i>.&#32;HIMSS Media<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/8-common-questions-about-hl7\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/8-common-questions-about-hl7<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=8+common+questions+about+HL7&amp;rft.atitle=Healthcare+IT+News&amp;rft.aulast=McNickle%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=McNickle%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=25+April+2012&amp;rft.pub=HIMSS+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthcareitnews.com%2Fnews%2F8-common-questions-about-hl7&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cari11-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Cari11_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Morin, J.&#32;(4 January 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/caristix.com\/blog\/2011\/01\/will-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Will HL7 V3 Adoption Take Off in 2011? 5 Points and 1 Caveat\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Caristix Blog<\/i>.&#32;Caristix<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/caristix.com\/blog\/2011\/01\/will-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/caristix.com\/blog\/2011\/01\/will-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Will+HL7+V3+Adoption+Take+Off+in+2011%3F+5+Points+and+1+Caveat&amp;rft.atitle=Caristix+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Morin%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Morin%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=4+January+2011&amp;rft.pub=Caristix&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcaristix.com%2Fblog%2F2011%2F01%2Fwill-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HI11-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HI11_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Grieve, G.&#32;(15 August 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthintersections.com.au\/?p=476\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 needs a fresh look because V3 has failed\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health Intersections Blog<\/i>.&#32;Health Intersections Pty. Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthintersections.com.au\/?p=476\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.healthintersections.com.au\/?p=476<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+needs+a+fresh+look+because+V3+has+failed&amp;rft.atitle=Health+Intersections+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Grieve%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Grieve%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=15+August+2011&amp;rft.pub=Health+Intersections+Pty.+Ltd&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthintersections.com.au%2F%3Fp%3D476&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FHIR12-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FHIR12_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">McKenzie, L.&#32;(February 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140109022012\/http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7\u2019s Next Generation Standard is Coming: Keep Calm, Carry On\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Healthcare Information Management &amp; Communications Canada<\/i>&#32;<b>26<\/b>&#32;(1).&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 09 January 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140109022012\/http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140109022012\/http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=HL7%E2%80%99s+Next+Generation+Standard+is+Coming%3A+Keep+Calm%2C+Carry+On&amp;rft.jtitle=Healthcare+Information+Management+%26+Communications+Canada&amp;rft.aulast=McKenzie%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=McKenzie%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=February+2012&amp;rft.volume=26&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140109022012%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthcareimc.com%2Fnode%2F515&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7StandardFHIR-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7StandardFHIR_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Brull, R.&#32;(26 March 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170716071425\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"5 Things to Know About HL7 FHIR\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health Standards Blog<\/i>.&#32;Health Standards.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 16 July 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170716071425\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170716071425\/http:\/\/healthstandards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=5+Things+to+Know+About+HL7+FHIR&amp;rft.atitle=Health+Standards+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Brull%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Brull%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=26+March+2013&amp;rft.pub=Health+Standards&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170716071425%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fhealthstandards.com%2Fblog%2F2013%2F03%2F26%2Fhl7-fhir%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FHIRArgo-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FHIRArgo_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Kern, C.&#32;(12 December 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthitoutcomes.com\/doc\/hl-advancing-fhir-0001\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 Advancing FHIR\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health IT Outcomes<\/i>.&#32;Jameson Publishing<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthitoutcomes.com\/doc\/hl-advancing-fhir-0001\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.healthitoutcomes.com\/doc\/hl-advancing-fhir-0001<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+Advancing+FHIR&amp;rft.atitle=Health+IT+Outcomes&amp;rft.aulast=Kern%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Kern%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=12+December+2014&amp;rft.pub=Jameson+Publishing&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthitoutcomes.com%2Fdoc%2Fhl-advancing-fhir-0001&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KimCreating05-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KimCreating05_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Kim, K.&#32;(July 2005).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120910215044\/http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Creating Clinical Data Standards in Health Care: Five Case Studies\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;California HealthCare Foundation.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 10 September 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120910215044\/http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120910215044\/http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Creating+Clinical+Data+Standards+in+Health+Care%3A+Five+Case+Studies&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Kim%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Kim%2C+K.&amp;rft.date=July+2005&amp;rft.pub=California+HealthCare+Foundation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120910215044%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.kathykim.com%2Fsitebuildercontent%2Fsitebuilderfiles%2FClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RIM-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RIM_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/rim.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 Reference Information Model\"<\/a>.&#32;Health Level 7 International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/rim.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/rim.cfm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+Reference+Information+Model&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Health+Level+7+International&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fimplement%2Fstandards%2Frim.cfm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO21731-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO21731_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/40399.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/HL7 21731:2006\"<\/a>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/40399.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/40399.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FHL7+21731%3A2006&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F40399.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDABook-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDABook_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Boone, Keith W.&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rwa6DDB4jY8C&pg=PA17\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The CDA Book<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Springer Science &amp; Business Media.&#32;pp.&#160;17\u201321<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rwa6DDB4jY8C&pg=PA17\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rwa6DDB4jY8C&amp;pg=PA17<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+CDA+Book&amp;rft.aulast=Boone%2C+Keith+W.&amp;rft.au=Boone%2C+Keith+W.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B17%E2%80%9321&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Drwa6DDB4jY8C%26pg%3DPA17&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO27932-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO27932_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/44429.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/HL7 27932:2009\"<\/a>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/44429.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/44429.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FHL7+27932%3A2009&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F44429.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CCOWWiki-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CCOWWiki_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Product_CCOW\" target=\"_blank\">\"Product CCOW\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>HL7 Wiki<\/i>.&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;27 October 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Product_CCOW\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Product_CCOW<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Product+CCOW&amp;rft.atitle=HL7+Wiki&amp;rft.date=27+October+2010&amp;rft.pub=Health+Level+7+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwiki.hl7.org%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DProduct_CCOW&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FHIRPrinc-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FHIRPrinc_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141117041614\/https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR\" target=\"_blank\">\"Fundamental Principles of FHIR\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>HL7 Wiki<\/i>.&#32;Health Level 7 International.&#32;17 September 2014.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 17 November 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141117041614\/https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141117041614\/https:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Fundamental+Principles+of+FHIR&amp;rft.atitle=HL7+Wiki&amp;rft.date=17+September+2014&amp;rft.pub=Health+Level+7+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20141117041614%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwiki.hl7.org%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DFundamental_Principles_of_FHIR&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7Fast14-1-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Fast14-1_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation news\">=HL7 International&#32;(February 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=343\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources Specification 'FHIR', Release 1\"<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=343\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=343<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+Fast+Healthcare+Interoperability+Resources+Specification+%27FHIR%27%2C+Release+1&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=%3DHL7+International&amp;rft.au=%3DHL7+International&amp;rft.date=February+2014&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fimplement%2Fstandards%2Fproduct_brief.cfm%3Fproduct_id%3D343&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">HL7 International&#32;(4 December 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/documentcenter\/public\/pressreleases\/HL7_PRESS_20141204.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 Launches Joint Argonaut Project to Advance FHIR\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF)<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/documentcenter\/public\/pressreleases\/HL7_PRESS_20141204.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/documentcenter\/public\/pressreleases\/HL7_PRESS_20141204.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+Launches+Joint+Argonaut+Project+to+Advance+FHIR&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=HL7+International&amp;rft.au=HL7+International&amp;rft.date=4+December+2014&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fdocumentcenter%2Fpublic%2Fpressreleases%2FHL7_PRESS_20141204.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BraunsteinCanArgo15-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BraunsteinCanArgo15_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Braunstein, M.&#32;(26 January 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/strategic-cio\/can-argonaut-project-make-exchanging-health-data-easier-\" target=\"_blank\">\"Can Argonaut Project Make Exchanging Health Data Easier?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>InformationWeek<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/strategic-cio\/can-argonaut-project-make-exchanging-health-data-easier-\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/strategic-cio\/can-argonaut-project-make-exchanging-health-data-easier-<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Can+Argonaut+Project+Make+Exchanging+Health+Data+Easier%3F&amp;rft.atitle=InformationWeek&amp;rft.aulast=Braunstein%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Braunstein%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=26+January+2015&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2Fstrategic-cio%2Fcan-argonaut-project-make-exchanging-health-data-easier-&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MurphyHealth16-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MurphyHealth16_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Murphy, K.&#32;(9 August 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ehrintelligence.com\/news\/health-it-standard-fhir-ready-to-advance-interoperability\" target=\"_blank\">\"Health IT Standard FHIR Ready to Advance Interoperability\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>EHR Intelligence<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/ehrintelligence.com\/news\/health-it-standard-fhir-ready-to-advance-interoperability\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/ehrintelligence.com\/news\/health-it-standard-fhir-ready-to-advance-interoperability<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Health+IT+Standard+FHIR+Ready+to+Advance+Interoperability&amp;rft.atitle=EHR+Intelligence&amp;rft.aulast=Murphy%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Murphy%2C+K.&amp;rft.date=9+August+2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fehrintelligence.com%2Fnews%2Fhealth-it-standard-fhir-ready-to-advance-interoperability&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MiliardHL717-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MiliardHL717_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Miliard, M.&#32;(22 March 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-publishes-new-version-its-fhir-specification\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 publishes a new version of its FHIR specification\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Healthcare IT News<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-publishes-new-version-its-fhir-specification\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-publishes-new-version-its-fhir-specification<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+publishes+a+new+version+of+its+FHIR+specification&amp;rft.atitle=Healthcare+IT+News&amp;rft.aulast=Miliard%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Miliard%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=22+March+2017&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthcareitnews.com%2Fnews%2Fhl7-publishes-new-version-its-fhir-specification&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SullivanHL7_19-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SullivanHL7_19_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Sullivan, T.&#32;(2 January 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-releases-fhir-4\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 releases FHIR 4\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Healthcare IT News<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-releases-fhir-4\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/hl7-releases-fhir-4<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HL7+releases+FHIR+4&amp;rft.atitle=Healthcare+IT+News&amp;rft.aulast=Sullivan%2C+T.&amp;rft.au=Sullivan%2C+T.&amp;rft.date=2+January+2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthcareitnews.com%2Fnews%2Fhl7-releases-fhir-4&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110012022\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.662 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.145 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 19515\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 124617\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 56291\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 40548\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 279.524 1 -total\n 88.38% 247.050 1 Template:Reflist\n 75.52% 211.084 28 Template:Citation\/core\n 69.22% 193.492 24 Template:Cite_web\n 13.47% 37.664 19 Template:Date\n 10.27% 28.701 2 Template:Cite_book\n 5.14% 14.376 48 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 4.76% 13.297 1 Template:Cite_journal\n 4.26% 11.894 1 Template:Cite_news\n 3.99% 11.141 1 Template:Citation\/identifier\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3385-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110012020 and revision id 45463. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f8\/HL7_Reference_Information_Model.jpg"],"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_timestamp":1704907027,"b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_type":"article","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_title":"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_plaintext":"\n\nHealth Insurance Portability and Accountability ActFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search\nThe Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) was enacted by the United States Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton in 1996. Its intended purpose was \"to improve portability and continuity of health insurance coverage in the group and individual markets; to combat waste, fraud, and abuse in health insurance and health care delivery; to promote the use of medical savings accounts; to improve access to long-term care services and coverage; [and] to simplify the administration of health insurance.\"&#91;1&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n\n1.1 Initial \n1.2 Amendments \n\n\n2 Structure \n\n2.1 Description \n\n\n3 Enforcement \n4 Assessed impact \n5 Audit guidelines and checklist \n6 Further reading \n7 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nInitial \nIn 1994, U.S. President Bill Clinton attempted to overhaul the national health care system but didn't receive the support he needed. In 1995, Senators Nancy Kassebaum (R-KS) and Edward Kennedy (D-MA) introduced a comparatively pared down proposal called the Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995 (S 11028), later referred to informally as the Kassebaum\/Kennedy Bill. The proposal called for health insurance portability for employees, medical savings accounts, increased deductibility of health insurance for the self-employed, and tax breaks for long-term care insurance.&#91;2&#93;&#91;3&#93; The legislation successfully made it out of the Senate Labor and Human Resources Committee on August 2, 1995&#91;4&#93;, only to be stalled \"because of opposition from conservative senators who shared industry concerns over the group-to-individual portability provisions.\"&#91;2&#93; \nWith desire to get some sort of health care reform legislation passed, Clinton referenced the stalled bill in his January 1996 State of the Union address on several occasions. Though some feared the ploy by Clinton would ultimately sink the bill, it inevitably resulted in bipartisan cooperation so no one side could take credit for the bill.&#91;4&#93; On February 7, 1996, the two parties agreed to further discuss the legislation in the House and Senate. This resulted in several events: the House of Representatives created an alternative bill (HR 3103) that drew on characteristics of S 11028, passing on March 28; the Senate passed a version of the original S 11028 on April 23 but without controversial attachments like medical savings accounts. However, differences between the House and Senate bills caused problems. \"The House bill, for example, included provisions allowing for medical savings accounts, a limit on monetary damages in medical malpractice lawsuits and a reduction in states' authority to regulate health insurance purchasing pools created by small businesses.\"&#91;2&#93; Additionally, a provision on mental health coverage was found on the Senate bill that was omitted from the House version. It took several weeks of debating to make concessions on these topics. \nA Republican-led compromise was offered on June 10, however debate raged on. It wasn't until a July 25 compromise between Kennedy and Ways and Means Committee Chairman Bill Archer (R-TX) on medical savings accounts that momentum shifted. Provisions on mental illness and medical malpractice were eventually dropped from the proposal on July 31, with both House and Senate agreeing on the final version on August 1 and August 2 respectively.&#91;2&#93; On August 21, 1996, the legislation was signed into law by President Clinton and codified as Public Law 104-191, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA).&#91;5&#93;&#91;1&#93;\n\nAmendments \nThe administrative simplification provisions in HIPAA meant more work had to be done in regards to the legislation. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) began work on the HIPAA Privacy Rule in 1999, \"which set out detailed regulations regarding the types of uses and disclosures of personally identifiable health information that are permitted by the covered entities.\"&#91;6&#93; However, large volumes of comments and Executive branch changes in 2000 slowed the process down.&#91;6&#93; Several more years of corrections and requests for comments followed, culminating in the release of the Final Rule on August 14, 2002 as 45 CFR Part 160 and Subparts A and E of Part 164.&#91;7&#93; Most health plans were expected to be in compliance by April 14, 2003, though some exceptions existed.\nDespite the Privacy Rule, many still argued that the legislation wasn't suitable enough to prevent mishandling of personal health information and that it was impeding research.&#91;6&#93; These concerns mixed with few incidents of enforcement in the first few years after the 2003 compliance date prompted additional review by the HHS.&#91;8&#93; On February 16, 2006, HHS issued the Final Rule regarding HIPAA enforcement, to be effective March 16, 2006.&#91;9&#93; \nAdditional updates to the enforcement rule came with the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act (HITECH) Act, enacted on February 17, 2009. The Act added \"several provisions that strengthen the civil and criminal enforcement of the HIPAA rules\" by adding categories of violations and tier levels of penalty amounts.&#91;10&#93; HIPAA and the HITECH statutes were further revised in January 2013 (effective March 26, 2013) \"to strengthen the privacy and security protection for individuals\u2019 health information,\" update the Breach Notification Rule, \"strengthen the privacy protections for genetic information,\" and revise other portions of HIPAA rules \"to improve their workability and effectiveness.\"&#91;11&#93;\n\nStructure \nHIPAA is divided into five titles, each with their own subtitles&#91;1&#93;:\nTitle I: Health Care Access, Portability, and Renewability\n\nSubtitle A - Group Market Rules\nSubtitle B - Individual Market Rules\nSubtitle C - General and Miscellaneous Provisions\nTitle II: Preventing Health Care Fraud and Abuse; Administrative Simplification; Medical Liability Reform\n\nSubtitle A - Fraud and Abuse Control Program\nSubtitle B - Revisions to Current Sanctions for Fraud and Abuse\nSubtitle C - Data Collection\nSubtitle D - Civil Monetary Penalties\nSubtitle E - Revisions to Criminal Law\nSubtitle F - Administrative Simplification\nSubtitle G - Duplication and Coordination of Medicare-Related Plans\nTitle III: Tax-Related Health Provisions\n\nSubtitle A - Medical Savings Accounts\nSubtitle B - Increase in Deduction for Health Insurance Costs of Self-Employed Individuals\nSubtitle C - Long-Term Care Services and Contracts\nSubtitle D - Treatment of Accelerated Death Benefits\nSubtitle E - State Insurance Pools\nSubtitle F - Organizations Subject to Section 833\nSubtitle G - IRA Distributions to the Unemployed\nSubtitle H - Organ and Tissue Donation Information Included With Income Tax Refund Payments\nTitle IV: Application and Enforcement of Group Health Plan Requirements\n\nSubtitle A - Application and Enforcement of Group Health Plan Requirements\nSubtitle B - Clarification of Certain Continuation Coverage Requirements\nTitle V: Revenue Offsets\n\nSubtitle A - Company-Owned Life Insurance\nSubtitle B - Treatment of Individuals Who Lose United States Citizenship\nSubtitle C - Repeal of Financial Institution Transition Rule to Interest Allocation Rules\nDescription \nTitle I of HIPAA contains three subtitles that protect health insurance coverage for workers and their families when they change or lose their jobs. \nTitle II of HIPAA contains seven subtitles. One of the most important for expanding HIPAA is Subtitle F, the Administrative Simplification (AS) provisions, requiring the establishment of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers. Title II also addresses the security and privacy of health data, with the intent of improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the nation's health care system by encouraging the widespread use of electronic data interchange in the U.S. health care system.\nTitle III of HIPAA modifies the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) to revise available tax deductions for health insurance, clarify how pre-tax money could be applied health payments, and regulate long-term care services and how they're contracted. Other tax-related issues like IRA distribution and organ donor tax refund payments are covered by this title, in total spread out over eight subtitles.\nTitle IV of HIPAA modifies both the IRC and the Public Health Service Act (PHSA) to describe requirements for and enforcement of how group health plans could legally manage and cover patients' pre-existing conditions as well as their continuation of coverage. This information is supplied over two subtitles.\nTitle V of HIPAA contains three subtitles that amend the IRC concerning miscellaneous issues such as interest deductions on loans related to company-owned life insurance, how individuals who lose their U.S. citizenship shall be treated tax-wise, and the removal of certain limitations on interest allocation.\n\nEnforcement \nOn February 16, 2006, HHS issued the Final Rule regarding HIPAA enforcement. It became effective on March 16, 2006. The Enforcement Rule set civil money penalties for violating HIPAA rules and established procedures for investigations and hearings for HIPAA violations. Before the enforcement rule, the deterrent effects of the legislation seemed negligible, with few prosecutions for violations.&#91;8&#93; Enforcement operations were ratcheted up further with the passage of the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act (HITECH) in 2009, which greatly increased the financial penalties that could be applied to entities in non-compliance.&#91;12&#93;\nBy the end of 2014, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Resources (HHS) reported investigating 106,522 HIPAA complaints against national pharmacy chains, major health care centers, insurance groups, hospital chains and other small providers since April 2003. The HHS reported 23,314 of those cases had been resolved by requiring changes in privacy practice or by corrective action. 10,566 cases were investigated and found that HIPAA was followed correctly. Another 68,412 cases were found to be ineligible for enforcement because, for example, a violation occurred before HIPAA became effective, a case was withdrawn by the pursuer, or an activity did not actually violate the rules.&#91;13&#93;\nAccording to the HHS, the most commonly investigated compliance issue, by order of frequency, have been&#91;13&#93;:\n\nincorrectly used or revealed protected health information (PHI);\ninsufficient protection mechanisms for PHI;\ninsufficient mechanisms for patients to access their PHI;\ninsufficient administrative protections and tools for managing electronic PHI; and\nusage and disclosure of more PHI than minimally necessary.\nThe HHS also stated the entities most likely to be responsible for infractions, by order of frequency, have been&#91;13&#93;:\n\nprivate practices;\ngeneral hospitals;\noutpatient facilities;\npharmacies; and\nhealth plans (group health plans and health insurance issuers).\nAssessed impact \nThe enactment of HIPAA caused major changes in the way physicians and medical centers operate. The complex legalities and potentially stiff penalties associated with HIPAA, as well as the increase in paperwork and the cost of its implementation, were causes for concern among physicians and medical centers. Many of those concerns were expressed in an August 2006 paper published in the journal Annals of Internal Medicine.&#91;14&#93; It mentioned a University of Michigan study that demonstrated how the implementation of the HIPAA Privacy rule resulted in a drop from 96 percent to 34 percent in the proportion of follow-up surveys completed by study patients being followed after a heart attack.&#91;15&#93; \nBy 2013, views on the impact of HIPAA were mixed. Leon Rodriguez, director of the HHS' Office for Civil Rights said of HIPAA:\n\nWhereas many thought HIPAA would \"bankrupt\" healthcare, shut down research, and otherwise paralyze the industry, instead the industry has learned the benefits of the transaction and code set standards through the ease of electronic transactions. And the balance of the [HIPAA] Privacy and Security protections have paved the way to real benefits for consumers through greater access to quality care.&#91;12&#93; \nIn an article for the Houston Chronicle, writer and business consultant Lisa Dorward stated the following for patients requesting personal health information:\n\nDirect cost to patients is minimal; health care institutions can charge the patient only for copying and postage costs for delivery of the documents. On the other hand, costs to health care providers are high and can strain already overburdened budgets. Some clinics and hospitals have had to reconstruct or remodel existing registration areas to comply with HIPAA's privacy regulations.&#91;16&#93; \nWriting for the Loyola Consumer Law Review, attorney and legal writer Anna Colvert wrote:\n\nGenerally, HIPAA is considered a step in the right direction regarding patient privacy, and it has resulted in more descriptive and detailed privacy policies; however, it has not improved the online privacy practices of these organizations. While HIPAA is a solid foundation in protecting patients\u2019 healthcare information there is more work to be done...\"&#91;17&#93; \nA May 2013 Computerworld reported on a survey conducted by the Ponemon Institute that found 51 percent of respondents believed \"HIPAA compliance requirements can be a barrier to providing effective patient care\" and 59 percent \"cited the complexity of HIPAA requirements as a major barrier to modernizing the healthcare system.\"&#91;18&#93;\n\nAudit guidelines and checklist \nMain article: Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\/Audit guidelines and checklist\nFor those auditing computer systems and IT environments for their compliance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act and other regulations, a set of guidelines and checklist items may be useful. \n\r\n\nClick the link above for the full set of guidelines and checklist items as they relate to HIPAA.\n\nFurther reading \n\"Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996\".&#32;U.S. Government Publishing Office.&#32;https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191 . &#160; \n\"S. 1028 (104th): Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995\".&#32;GovTrack.us.&#32;Civic Impulse, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028 . &#160; \n\"Bill Makes Health Insurance \u2018Portable\u2019\".&#32;CQ Almanac 1996&#32;52: 6-28\u20136-39.&#32;1997.&#32;https:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479 . &#160; \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 \"Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996\".&#32;U.S. Government Publishing Office.&#32;https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 \"Bill Makes Health Insurance \u2018Portable\u2019\".&#32;CQ Almanac 1996&#32;52: 6-28\u20136-39.&#32;1997.&#32;http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479 .&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"S. 1028 (104th): Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995\".&#32;GovTrack.us.&#32;Civic Impulse, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028 .&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 Hiebert-White, J.&#32;(September-October 1996).&#32;\"Who Won What in the Kassebaum\/Kennedy Struggle?\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Health Progress&#32;77&#32;(5).&#32;https:\/\/www.chausa.org\/docs\/default-source\/health-progress\/health-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Starr, P.&#32;(22 August 1996).&#32;\"The Signing of the Kennedy-Kassebaum Bill\".&#32;The Electronic Policy Network.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 29 January 1998.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980129180414\/http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html .&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 6.2 Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Health Research and the Privacy of Health Information: The HIPAA Privacy Rule&#32;(2009).&#32;Nass, S. J.; Levit, L. A.; Gostin, L. O..&#32;ed.&#32;Beyond the HIPAA Privacy Rule: Enhancing Privacy, Improving Health Through Research.&#32;National Academies Press.&#32;Bookshelf ID NBK9576.&#32;https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK9576\/ .&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The Privacy Rule\".&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.&#32;https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/privacy\/index.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 Stein, R.&#32;(5 June 2006).&#32;\"Medical Privacy Law Nets No Fines\".&#32;The Washington Post.&#32;https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2006\/06\/04\/AR2006060400672.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The HIPAA Enforcement Rule\".&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.&#32;https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/enforcement-rule\/index.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"HITECH Act Enforcement Interim Final Rule\".&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.&#32;https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/hitech-act-enforcement-interim-final-rule\/index.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Office for Civil Rights, Department of Health and Human Services&#32;(25 January 2013).&#32;\"Modifications to the HIPAA Privacy, Security, Enforcement, and Breach Notification Rules Under the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act and the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act; Other Modifications to the HIPAA Rules\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Federal Register&#32;78&#32;(17).&#32;https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2013-01-25\/pdf\/2013-01073.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 12.0 12.1 Solove, D.J.&#32;(April 2013).&#32;\"HIPAA Turns 10: Analyzing the Past, Present and Future Impact\".&#32;Journal of AHIMA&#32;84&#32;(4): 22\u201328.&#32;https:\/\/library.ahima.org\/doc?oid=106325 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 13.0 13.1 13.2 \"Enforcement Highlights\".&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.&#32;15 January 2015.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 11 February 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150211170207\/http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html .&#32;Retrieved 11 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wilson, J.F.&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act Privacy Rule Causes Ongoing Concerns among Clinicians and Researchers\".&#32;Annals of Internal Medicine&#32;145&#32;(4): 313\u20136.&#32;doi:10.7326\/0003-4819-145-4-200608150-00019.&#32;PMID&#160;16908928. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Potential Impact of the HIPAA Privacy Rule on Data Collection in a Registry of Patients With Acute Coronary Syndrome\".&#32;Archives of Internal Medicine&#32;165&#32;(10): 1125\u20139.&#32;2005.&#32;doi:10.1001\/archinte.165.10.1125.&#32;PMID&#160;15911725. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Dorward, L..&#32;\"The Positive and Negative Effects of HIPAA Employment Laws\".&#32;Houston Chronicle.&#32;Hearst Newspapers, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/smallbusiness.chron.com\/positive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Colvert, Anna&#32;(2013).&#32;\"HIPAA'S Influence on Consumers: Friend or Foe?\".&#32;Loyola Consumer Law Review&#32;25&#32;(4): 431\u2013447.&#32;https:\/\/lawecommons.luc.edu\/lclr\/vol25\/iss4\/6\/ .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Mearian, L.&#32;(7 May 2013).&#32;\"HIPAA rules, outdated tech cost U.S. hospitals $8.3B a year\".&#32;Computerworld.&#32;Computerworld, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2496995\/hipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act<\/a>\nCategories: Health informaticsHealth standardsRegulatory informationNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 8 January 2022, at 00:43.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 71,338 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act rootpage-Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:HIPAA_Screenshot.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"f43d76e7dcca207ca031bdff3314d856\"><img alt=\"HIPAA Screenshot.png\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/HIPAA_Screenshot.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<p>The <b>Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996<\/b> (<b>HIPAA<\/b>) was enacted by the United States Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton in 1996. Its intended purpose was \"to improve portability and continuity of health insurance coverage in the group and individual markets; to combat waste, fraud, and abuse in health insurance and health care delivery; to promote the use of medical savings accounts; to improve access to long-term care services and coverage; [and] to simplify the administration of health insurance.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HIPAAGPO-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Initial\">Initial<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 1994, U.S. President Bill Clinton attempted to overhaul the national health care system but didn't receive the support he needed. In 1995, Senators Nancy Kassebaum (R-KS) and Edward Kennedy (D-MA) introduced a comparatively pared down proposal called the Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995 (S 11028), later referred to informally as the Kassebaum\/Kennedy Bill. The proposal called for health insurance portability for employees, medical savings accounts, increased deductibility of health insurance for the self-employed, and tax breaks for long-term care insurance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11028Legal_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11028Legal-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The legislation successfully made it out of the Senate Labor and Human Resources Committee on August 2, 1995<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HiebertHIPAA_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HiebertHIPAA-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, only to be stalled \"because of opposition from conservative senators who shared industry concerns over the group-to-individual portability provisions.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>With desire to get some sort of health care reform legislation passed, Clinton referenced the stalled bill in his January 1996 State of the Union address on several occasions. Though some feared the ploy by Clinton would ultimately sink the bill, it inevitably resulted in bipartisan cooperation so no one side could take credit for the bill.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HiebertHIPAA_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HiebertHIPAA-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> On February 7, 1996, the two parties agreed to further discuss the legislation in the House and Senate. This resulted in several events: the House of Representatives created an alternative bill (HR 3103) that drew on characteristics of S 11028, passing on March 28; the Senate passed a version of the original S 11028 on April 23 but without controversial attachments like medical savings accounts. However, differences between the House and Senate bills caused problems. \"The House bill, for example, included provisions allowing for medical savings accounts, a limit on monetary damages in medical malpractice lawsuits and a reduction in states' authority to regulate health insurance purchasing pools created by small businesses.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, a provision on mental health coverage was found on the Senate bill that was omitted from the House version. It took several weeks of debating to make concessions on these topics. \n<\/p><p>A Republican-led compromise was offered on June 10, however debate raged on. It wasn't until a July 25 compromise between Kennedy and Ways and Means Committee Chairman Bill Archer (R-TX) on medical savings accounts that momentum shifted. Provisions on mental illness and medical malpractice were eventually dropped from the proposal on July 31, with both House and Senate agreeing on the final version on August 1 and August 2 respectively.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> On August 21, 1996, the legislation was signed into law by President Clinton and codified as Public Law 104-191, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StarrHIPAA_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StarrHIPAA-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HIPAAGPO-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Amendments\">Amendments<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The administrative simplification provisions in HIPAA meant more work had to be done in regards to the legislation. The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services\" title=\"United States Department of Health and Human Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efa106bcbb93039b1a6c3c596daedec3\">U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<\/a> (HHS) began work on the HIPAA Privacy Rule in 1999, \"which set out detailed regulations regarding the types of uses and disclosures of personally identifiable health information that are permitted by the covered entities.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrivRule_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrivRule-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, large volumes of comments and Executive branch changes in 2000 slowed the process down.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrivRule_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrivRule-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Several more years of corrections and requests for comments followed, culminating in the release of the Final Rule on August 14, 2002 as 45 CFR Part 160 and Subparts A and E of Part 164.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSFinalPriv_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSFinalPriv-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Most health plans were expected to be in compliance by April 14, 2003, though some exceptions existed.\n<\/p><p>Despite the Privacy Rule, many still argued that the legislation wasn't suitable enough to prevent mishandling of personal health information and that it was impeding research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrivRule_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrivRule-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> These concerns mixed with few incidents of enforcement in the first few years after the 2003 compliance date prompted additional review by the HHS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SteinFines_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SteinFines-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> On February 16, 2006, HHS issued the Final Rule regarding HIPAA enforcement, to be effective March 16, 2006.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSEnfo_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSEnfo-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Additional updates to the enforcement rule came with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Information_Technology_for_Economic_and_Clinical_Health_Act\" title=\"Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89c9e20984bbda2e628b6d1d28ec3ad5\">Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act<\/a> (HITECH) Act, enacted on February 17, 2009. The Act added \"several provisions that strengthen the civil and criminal enforcement of the HIPAA rules\" by adding categories of violations and tier levels of penalty amounts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSHITECH_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSHITECH-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> HIPAA and the HITECH statutes were further revised in January 2013 (effective March 26, 2013) \"to strengthen the privacy and security protection for individuals\u2019 health information,\" update the Breach Notification Rule, \"strengthen the privacy protections for genetic information,\" and revise other portions of HIPAA rules \"to improve their workability and effectiveness.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FR01073_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FR01073-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>HIPAA is divided into five titles, each with their own subtitles<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HIPAAGPO-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p><b>Title I<\/b>: Health Care Access, Portability, and Renewability\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Group Market Rules<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Individual Market Rules<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle C - General and Miscellaneous Provisions<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Title II<\/b>: Preventing Health Care Fraud and Abuse; Administrative Simplification; Medical Liability Reform\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Fraud and Abuse Control Program<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Revisions to Current Sanctions for Fraud and Abuse<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle C - Data Collection<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle D - Civil Monetary Penalties<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle E - Revisions to Criminal Law<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle F - Administrative Simplification<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle G - Duplication and Coordination of Medicare-Related Plans<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Title III<\/b>: Tax-Related Health Provisions\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Medical Savings Accounts<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Increase in Deduction for Health Insurance Costs of Self-Employed Individuals<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle C - Long-Term Care Services and Contracts<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle D - Treatment of Accelerated Death Benefits<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle E - State Insurance Pools<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle F - Organizations Subject to Section 833<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle G - IRA Distributions to the Unemployed<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle H - Organ and Tissue Donation Information Included With Income Tax Refund Payments<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Title IV<\/b>: Application and Enforcement of Group Health Plan Requirements\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Application and Enforcement of Group Health Plan Requirements<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Clarification of Certain Continuation Coverage Requirements<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Title V<\/b>: Revenue Offsets\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Company-Owned Life Insurance<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Treatment of Individuals Who Lose United States Citizenship<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle C - Repeal of Financial Institution Transition Rule to Interest Allocation Rules<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Description\">Description<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Title I of HIPAA contains three subtitles that protect health insurance coverage for workers and their families when they change or lose their jobs. \n<\/p><p>Title II of HIPAA contains seven subtitles. One of the most important for expanding HIPAA is Subtitle F, the Administrative Simplification (AS) provisions, requiring the establishment of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers. Title II also addresses the security and privacy of health data, with the intent of improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the nation's health care system by encouraging the widespread use of electronic data interchange in the U.S. health care system.\n<\/p><p>Title III of HIPAA modifies the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) to revise available tax deductions for health insurance, clarify how pre-tax money could be applied health payments, and regulate long-term care services and how they're contracted. Other tax-related issues like IRA distribution and organ donor tax refund payments are covered by this title, in total spread out over eight subtitles.\n<\/p><p>Title IV of HIPAA modifies both the IRC and the Public Health Service Act (PHSA) to describe requirements for and enforcement of how group health plans could legally manage and cover patients' pre-existing conditions as well as their continuation of coverage. This information is supplied over two subtitles.\n<\/p><p>Title V of HIPAA contains three subtitles that amend the IRC concerning miscellaneous issues such as interest deductions on loans related to company-owned life insurance, how individuals who lose their U.S. citizenship shall be treated tax-wise, and the removal of certain limitations on interest allocation.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Enforcement\">Enforcement<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>On February 16, 2006, HHS issued the Final Rule regarding HIPAA enforcement. It became effective on March 16, 2006. The Enforcement Rule set civil money penalties for violating HIPAA rules and established procedures for investigations and hearings for HIPAA violations. Before the enforcement rule, the deterrent effects of the legislation seemed negligible, with few prosecutions for violations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SteinFines_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SteinFines-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Enforcement operations were ratcheted up further with the passage of the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act (HITECH) in 2009, which greatly increased the financial penalties that could be applied to entities in non-compliance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Solove10_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Solove10-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By the end of 2014, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Resources (HHS) reported investigating 106,522 HIPAA complaints against national pharmacy chains, major health care centers, insurance groups, hospital chains and other small providers since April 2003. The HHS reported 23,314 of those cases had been resolved by requiring changes in privacy practice or by corrective action. 10,566 cases were investigated and found that HIPAA was followed correctly. Another 68,412 cases were found to be ineligible for enforcement because, for example, a violation occurred before HIPAA became effective, a case was withdrawn by the pursuer, or an activity did not actually violate the rules.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSEnforceArch-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>According to the HHS, the most commonly investigated compliance issue, by order of frequency, have been<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSEnforceArch-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>incorrectly used or revealed protected health information (PHI);<\/li>\n<li>insufficient protection mechanisms for PHI;<\/li>\n<li>insufficient mechanisms for patients to access their PHI;<\/li>\n<li>insufficient administrative protections and tools for managing electronic PHI; and<\/li>\n<li>usage and disclosure of more PHI than minimally necessary.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The HHS also stated the entities most likely to be responsible for infractions, by order of frequency, have been<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_13-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSEnforceArch-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>private practices;<\/li>\n<li>general hospitals;<\/li>\n<li>outpatient facilities;<\/li>\n<li>pharmacies; and<\/li>\n<li>health plans (group health plans and health insurance issuers).<\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Assessed_impact\">Assessed impact<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The enactment of HIPAA caused major changes in the way physicians and medical centers operate. The complex legalities and potentially stiff penalties associated with HIPAA, as well as the increase in paperwork and the cost of its implementation, were causes for concern among physicians and medical centers. Many of those concerns were expressed in an August 2006 paper published in the journal <i>Annals of Internal Medicine<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilsonAnnals_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilsonAnnals-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> It mentioned a University of Michigan study that demonstrated how the implementation of the HIPAA Privacy rule resulted in a drop from 96 percent to 34 percent in the proportion of follow-up surveys completed by study patients being followed after a heart attack.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Armstrong_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Armstrong-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>By 2013, views on the impact of HIPAA were mixed. Leon Rodriguez, director of the HHS' Office for Civil Rights said of HIPAA:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Whereas many thought HIPAA would \"bankrupt\" healthcare, shut down research, and otherwise paralyze the industry, instead the industry has learned the benefits of the transaction and code set standards through the ease of electronic transactions. And the balance of the [HIPAA] Privacy and Security protections have paved the way to real benefits for consumers through greater access to quality care.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Solove10_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Solove10-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote> \n<p>In an article for the <i>Houston Chronicle<\/i>, writer and business consultant Lisa Dorward stated the following for patients requesting personal health information:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Direct cost to patients is minimal; health care institutions can charge the patient only for copying and postage costs for delivery of the documents. On the other hand, costs to health care providers are high and can strain already overburdened budgets. Some clinics and hospitals have had to reconstruct or remodel existing registration areas to comply with HIPAA's privacy regulations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DorwardHIPAA_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DorwardHIPAA-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote> \n<p>Writing for the <i>Loyola Consumer Law Review<\/i>, attorney and legal writer Anna Colvert wrote:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Generally, HIPAA is considered a step in the right direction regarding patient privacy, and it has resulted in more descriptive and detailed privacy policies; however, it has not improved the online privacy practices of these organizations. While HIPAA is a solid foundation in protecting patients\u2019 healthcare information there is more work to be done...\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Colvert_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Colvert-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote> \n<p>A May 2013 <i>Computerworld<\/i> reported on a survey conducted by the Ponemon Institute that found 51 percent of respondents believed \"HIPAA compliance requirements can be a barrier to providing effective patient care\" and 59 percent \"cited the complexity of HIPAA requirements as a major barrier to modernizing the healthcare system.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mearian_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mearian-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\">Audit guidelines and checklist<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"rellink relarticle mainarticle\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\/Audit guidelines and checklist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"696695ca2ef0d0aa853c4e3efba250c4\">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\/Audit guidelines and checklist<\/a><\/div>\n<p>For those auditing computer systems and IT environments for their compliance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act and other regulations, a set of guidelines and checklist items may be useful. \n<br \/>\n<\/p><p>Click the link above for the full set of guidelines and checklist items as they relate to HIPAA.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Government Publishing Office<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Public+Law+104+-+191+-+Health+Insurance+Portability+and+Accountability+Act+of+1996&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Publishing+Office&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fapp%2Fdetails%2FPLAW-104publ191&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028\" target=\"_blank\">\"S. 1028 (104th): Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>GovTrack.us<\/i>.&#32;Civic Impulse, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=S.+1028+%28104th%29%3A+Health+Insurance+Reform+Act+of+1995&amp;rft.atitle=GovTrack.us&amp;rft.pub=Civic+Impulse%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fbills%2F104%2Fs1028&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bill Makes Health Insurance \u2018Portable\u2019\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>CQ Almanac 1996<\/i>&#32;<b>52<\/b>: 6-28\u20136-39.&#32;1997<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Bill+Makes+Health+Insurance+%E2%80%98Portable%E2%80%99&amp;rft.jtitle=CQ+Almanac+1996&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.volume=52&amp;rft.pages=6-28%E2%80%936-39&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.cqpress.com%2Fcqalmanac%2Fdocument.php%3Fid%3Dcqal96-1092479&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HIPAAGPO-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Government Publishing Office<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/PLAW-104publ191<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Public+Law+104+-+191+-+Health+Insurance+Portability+and+Accountability+Act+of+1996&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Publishing+Office&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fapp%2Fdetails%2FPLAW-104publ191&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bill Makes Health Insurance \u2018Portable\u2019\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>CQ Almanac 1996<\/i>&#32;<b>52<\/b>: 6-28\u20136-39.&#32;1997<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Bill+Makes+Health+Insurance+%E2%80%98Portable%E2%80%99&amp;rft.jtitle=CQ+Almanac+1996&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.volume=52&amp;rft.pages=6-28%E2%80%936-39&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.cqpress.com%2Fcqalmanac%2Fdocument.php%3Fid%3Dcqal96-1092479&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11028Legal-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-11028Legal_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028\" target=\"_blank\">\"S. 1028 (104th): Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>GovTrack.us<\/i>.&#32;Civic Impulse, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=S.+1028+%28104th%29%3A+Health+Insurance+Reform+Act+of+1995&amp;rft.atitle=GovTrack.us&amp;rft.pub=Civic+Impulse%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fbills%2F104%2Fs1028&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HiebertHIPAA-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HiebertHIPAA_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HiebertHIPAA_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Hiebert-White, J.&#32;(September-October 1996).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.chausa.org\/docs\/default-source\/health-progress\/health-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Who Won What in the Kassebaum\/Kennedy Struggle?\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Health Progress<\/i>&#32;<b>77<\/b>&#32;(5)<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.chausa.org\/docs\/default-source\/health-progress\/health-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.chausa.org\/docs\/default-source\/health-progress\/health-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Who+Won+What+in+the+Kassebaum%2FKennedy+Struggle%3F&amp;rft.jtitle=Health+Progress&amp;rft.aulast=Hiebert-White%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Hiebert-White%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=September-October+1996&amp;rft.volume=77&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chausa.org%2Fdocs%2Fdefault-source%2Fhealth-progress%2Fhealth-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-StarrHIPAA-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-StarrHIPAA_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Starr, P.&#32;(22 August 1996).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980129180414\/http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Signing of the Kennedy-Kassebaum Bill\"<\/a>.&#32;The Electronic Policy Network.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 29 January 1998<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980129180414\/http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980129180414\/http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Signing+of+the+Kennedy-Kassebaum+Bill&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Starr%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Starr%2C+P.&amp;rft.date=22+August+1996&amp;rft.pub=The+Electronic+Policy+Network&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F19980129180414%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fepn.org%2Flibrary%2Fsigning.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PrivRule-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PrivRule_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PrivRule_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PrivRule_6-2\">6.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Health Research and the Privacy of Health Information: The HIPAA Privacy Rule&#32;(2009).&#32;Nass, S. J.; Levit, L. A.; Gostin, L. O..&#32;ed.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK9576\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Beyond the HIPAA Privacy Rule: Enhancing Privacy, Improving Health Through Research<\/i><\/a>.&#32;National Academies Press.&#32;Bookshelf ID NBK9576<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK9576\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK9576\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Beyond+the+HIPAA+Privacy+Rule%3A+Enhancing+Privacy%2C+Improving+Health+Through+Research&amp;rft.aulast=Institute+of+Medicine+%28US%29+Committee+on+Health+Research+and+the+Privacy+of+Health+Information%3A+The+HIPAA+Privacy+Rule&amp;rft.au=Institute+of+Medicine+%28US%29+Committee+on+Health+Research+and+the+Privacy+of+Health+Information%3A+The+HIPAA+Privacy+Rule&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK9576%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HHSFinalPriv-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSFinalPriv_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/privacy\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Privacy Rule\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/privacy\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/privacy\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Privacy+Rule&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Fhipaa%2Ffor-professionals%2Fprivacy%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SteinFines-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SteinFines_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SteinFines_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Stein, R.&#32;(5 June 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2006\/06\/04\/AR2006060400672.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Medical Privacy Law Nets No Fines\"<\/a>.&#32;The Washington Post<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2006\/06\/04\/AR2006060400672.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2006\/06\/04\/AR2006060400672.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Medical+Privacy+Law+Nets+No+Fines&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Stein%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Stein%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=5+June+2006&amp;rft.pub=The+Washington+Post&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F06%2F04%2FAR2006060400672.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HHSEnfo-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSEnfo_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/enforcement-rule\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The HIPAA Enforcement Rule\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/enforcement-rule\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/enforcement-rule\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+HIPAA+Enforcement+Rule&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Fhipaa%2Ffor-professionals%2Fspecial-topics%2Fenforcement-rule%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HHSHITECH-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSHITECH_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/hitech-act-enforcement-interim-final-rule\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"HITECH Act Enforcement Interim Final Rule\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/hitech-act-enforcement-interim-final-rule\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/hipaa\/for-professionals\/special-topics\/hitech-act-enforcement-interim-final-rule\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HITECH+Act+Enforcement+Interim+Final+Rule&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Fhipaa%2Ffor-professionals%2Fspecial-topics%2Fhitech-act-enforcement-interim-final-rule%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FR01073-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FR01073_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Office for Civil Rights, Department of Health and Human Services&#32;(25 January 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2013-01-25\/pdf\/2013-01073.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Modifications to the HIPAA Privacy, Security, Enforcement, and Breach Notification Rules Under the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act and the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act; Other Modifications to the HIPAA Rules\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Federal Register<\/i>&#32;<b>78<\/b>&#32;(17)<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2013-01-25\/pdf\/2013-01073.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2013-01-25\/pdf\/2013-01073.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Modifications+to+the+HIPAA+Privacy%2C+Security%2C+Enforcement%2C+and+Breach+Notification+Rules+Under+the+Health+Information+Technology+for+Economic+and+Clinical+Health+Act+and+the+Genetic+Information+Nondiscrimination+Act%3B+Other+Modifications+to+the+HIPAA+Rules&amp;rft.jtitle=Federal+Register&amp;rft.aulast=Office+for+Civil+Rights%2C+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&amp;rft.au=Office+for+Civil+Rights%2C+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&amp;rft.date=25+January+2013&amp;rft.volume=78&amp;rft.issue=17&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fcontent%2Fpkg%2FFR-2013-01-25%2Fpdf%2F2013-01073.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Solove10-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Solove10_12-0\">12.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Solove10_12-1\">12.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Solove, D.J.&#32;(April 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/library.ahima.org\/doc?oid=106325\" target=\"_blank\">\"HIPAA Turns 10: Analyzing the Past, Present and Future Impact\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Journal of AHIMA<\/i>&#32;<b>84<\/b>&#32;(4): 22\u201328<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/library.ahima.org\/doc?oid=106325\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/library.ahima.org\/doc?oid=106325<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=HIPAA+Turns+10%3A+Analyzing+the+Past%2C+Present+and+Future+Impact&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+AHIMA&amp;rft.aulast=Solove%2C+D.J.&amp;rft.au=Solove%2C+D.J.&amp;rft.date=April+2013&amp;rft.volume=84&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=22%E2%80%9328&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.ahima.org%2Fdoc%3Foid%3D106325&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HHSEnforceArch-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_13-0\">13.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_13-1\">13.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_13-2\">13.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150211170207\/http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Enforcement Highlights\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.&#32;15 January 2015.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 11 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150211170207\/http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150211170207\/http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 11 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Enforcement+Highlights&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=15+January+2015&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150211170207%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Focr%2Fprivacy%2Fhipaa%2Fenforcement%2Fhighlights%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WilsonAnnals-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WilsonAnnals_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Wilson, J.F.&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act Privacy Rule Causes Ongoing Concerns among Clinicians and Researchers\".&#32;<i>Annals of Internal Medicine<\/i>&#32;<b>145<\/b>&#32;(4): 313\u20136.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.7326%2F0003-4819-145-4-200608150-00019\" target=\"_blank\">10.7326\/0003-4819-145-4-200608150-00019<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/16908928\" target=\"_blank\">16908928<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Health+Insurance+Portability+and+Accountability+Act+Privacy+Rule+Causes+Ongoing+Concerns+among+Clinicians+and+Researchers&amp;rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Internal+Medicine&amp;rft.aulast=Wilson%2C+J.F.&amp;rft.au=Wilson%2C+J.F.&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.volume=145&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=313%E2%80%936&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.7326%2F0003-4819-145-4-200608150-00019&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/16908928&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Armstrong-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Armstrong_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">\"Potential Impact of the HIPAA Privacy Rule on Data Collection in a Registry of Patients With Acute Coronary Syndrome\".&#32;<i>Archives of Internal Medicine<\/i>&#32;<b>165<\/b>&#32;(10): 1125\u20139.&#32;2005.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1001%2Farchinte.165.10.1125\" target=\"_blank\">10.1001\/archinte.165.10.1125<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/15911725\" target=\"_blank\">15911725<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Potential+Impact+of+the+HIPAA+Privacy+Rule+on+Data+Collection+in+a+Registry+of+Patients+With+Acute+Coronary+Syndrome&amp;rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Internal+Medicine&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.volume=165&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=1125%E2%80%939&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1001%2Farchinte.165.10.1125&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/15911725&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DorwardHIPAA-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DorwardHIPAA_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Dorward, L..&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/smallbusiness.chron.com\/positive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Positive and Negative Effects of HIPAA Employment Laws\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Houston Chronicle<\/i>.&#32;Hearst Newspapers, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/smallbusiness.chron.com\/positive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/smallbusiness.chron.com\/positive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Positive+and+Negative+Effects+of+HIPAA+Employment+Laws&amp;rft.atitle=Houston+Chronicle&amp;rft.aulast=Dorward%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Dorward%2C+L.&amp;rft.pub=Hearst+Newspapers%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsmallbusiness.chron.com%2Fpositive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Colvert-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Colvert_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Colvert, Anna&#32;(2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lawecommons.luc.edu\/lclr\/vol25\/iss4\/6\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"HIPAA'S Influence on Consumers: Friend or Foe?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Loyola Consumer Law Review<\/i>&#32;<b>25<\/b>&#32;(4): 431\u2013447<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/lawecommons.luc.edu\/lclr\/vol25\/iss4\/6\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/lawecommons.luc.edu\/lclr\/vol25\/iss4\/6\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=HIPAA%27S+Influence+on+Consumers%3A+Friend+or+Foe%3F&amp;rft.jtitle=Loyola+Consumer+Law+Review&amp;rft.aulast=Colvert%2C+Anna&amp;rft.au=Colvert%2C+Anna&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.volume=25&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=431%E2%80%93447&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flawecommons.luc.edu%2Flclr%2Fvol25%2Fiss4%2F6%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mearian-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Mearian_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Mearian, L.&#32;(7 May 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2496995\/hipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"HIPAA rules, outdated tech cost U.S. hospitals $8.3B a year\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Computerworld<\/i>.&#32;Computerworld, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2496995\/hipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2496995\/hipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HIPAA+rules%2C+outdated+tech+cost+U.S.+hospitals+%248.3B+a+year&amp;rft.atitle=Computerworld&amp;rft.aulast=Mearian%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Mearian%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=7+May+2013&amp;rft.pub=Computerworld%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Farticle%2F2496995%2Fhipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171706\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.619 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.097 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 14081\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 97187\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 38266\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/HIPAA_Screenshot.png"],"b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_timestamp":1704907025,"64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_type":"article","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_title":"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_plaintext":"\n\nClinical Laboratory Improvement AmendmentsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search \nThe Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA) of 1988 is a United States federal statute and regulatory standards program that applies to all clinical laboratory testing performed on humans in the United States, except clinical trials and basic research.&#91;1&#93; \n\r\n\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 CLIA program \n3 CLIA waived tests \n\n3.1 List of tests \n\n\n4 See also \n5 Further reading \n6 External links \n7 Notes \n8 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nOn December 5, 1967, the U.S. enacted Public Law 90-174, which included in Section 5 the \"Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967.\" CLIA '67 set regulations on the licensing of clinical laboratories and the movement of samples in and out of them across state lines. Laboratories would be eligible for a full, partial, or exempt CLIA-67 license, depending on the laboratory's conducted tests.&#91;2&#93; \nHowever, by the mid-1980s the relevancy of CLIA '67 to a vastly changed procedural and technological clinical laboratory landscape began to be questioned. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health for Planning and Evaluation (ASPE) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services commissioned a study to assess the effectiveness of federal regulations affecting clinical laboratories and their goal of protecting the public health. On April 8, 1986, the Final Report on Assessment of Clinical Laboratory Regulations by Michael L. Kenney and Don P. Greenberg was submitted to the ASPE.&#91;3&#93;\n\nThe analysis found that many federal regulations are technically obsolescent and many may be operationally unnecessary as a result of changing laboratory technology and changed federal reimbursement policies. Among changes recommended by the HHS-funded analysis are: (a) the regulatory classification system based upon physical location of laboratories is no longer appropriate and should be replaced with a classification system reflecting laboratory functions; (b) a single, uniform set of federal regulations should be developed that covers all civilian laboratories receiving federal reimbursement or operating in interstate commerce; (c) a revised federal regulatory system should emphasize measures of performance such as personnel and inspection requirements; and (d) clinical laboratory regulations should be based upon objective data to the maximum extent possible.&#91;3&#93;\nOn August 5, 1988, a new set of proposed regulations were put forth by the Health Care Financing Administration as Medicare, Medicaid and CLIA Programs; Revision of the Clinical Laboratory Regulations for the Medicare, Medicaid, and Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967 Programs. The proposal aspired \"to remove outdated, obsolete and redundant requirements, make provision for new technologies, place increased reliance on outcome measures of performance, and emphasize the responsibilities and duties of personnel rather than the formal credentialing requirements and detailed personnel standards in existing regulations.\"&#91;4&#93; This ultimately led to the proposal becoming law on October 31, 1988 under Public Law 100-578 as the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988.&#91;5&#93; \nRegulations for implementing CLIA continued to be developed afterwards, with the Department of Health and Human Services considering thousands of comments to the proposed regulations. The final regulations were published February 28, 1992, set to be effective on September 1 of the same year. The new CLIA '88 put into place regulations concerning test complexity, certification, proficiency testing, patient test management, personnel requirements, quality assurance, and other processes in the clinical laboratory.&#91;6&#93; However, phase-in effective dates were extended on several occasions afterwards: on December 6, 1994 in the Federal Register (59 FR 62606), May 12, 1997 in the Federal Register (62 FR 25855), October 14, 1998 in the Federal Register (63 FR 55031), and December 29, 2000 in the Federal Register (65 FR 82941).&#91;7&#93;\nOn January 24, 2003, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services submitted their final rule (68 FR 3639), effective April 24, 2003, affecting QC requirements for laboratories and qualification requirements for lab directors. The final rule also made revisions to 42 CFR 493, including the renaming, reorganizing, and consolidation of similar requirements into one section, the deletion of duplicate requirements, and the rewording of the requirements to better clarify their original intent. It also addressed requirements regarding the entire testing process, making those requirement better correlate with the workflow of a lab specimen in the laboratory, from acquisition to reporting of results, including the subdivision of testing into pre-analytic, analytic, and post-analytic phases.&#91;7&#93;&#91;8&#93;\nIn the fall of 2019, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Director of Laboratory Systems Reynolds Salerno requested comments from its Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee (CLIAC), as well as from the public, in regards to how CLIA regulations should be revised. \u201cIt\u2019s a dramatic step for the government to ask the laboratory community how to revise the CLIA regulations,\u201d Salerno told Dark Daily.&#91;9&#93; During the November CLIAC meeting, attendees reviewed CLIAC's 23 recommendations it had made prior (April 2019) in regards to updates to CLIA, grouped into CLIA personnel requirement changes, nontraditional test workflow (big data- and machine learning-driven) changes, and changes related to next-generation sequencing testing, workflows, and best practices.&#91;10&#93;&#91;11&#93;\n\nCLIA program \nThe CLIA program sets standards and issues certificates for clinical laboratory testing. CLIA defines a clinical laboratory as any facility which performs laboratory testing on specimens derived from humans for the purpose of providing information for:\n\ndiagnosis, prevention, or treatment of disease or impairment.\nhealth assessments.\nThe CLIA program is designed to ensure the accuracy, reliability, and timeliness of test results regardless of where the test was performed. Each specific laboratory system, assay, and examination is graded for level of complexity by assigning scores of \"1,\" \"2,\" or \"3\" for each of seven criteria. A test scored as a \"1\" is the lowest level of complexity, while a test scored \"3\" indicates the highest level. A score of \"2\" is assigned when the characteristics for a particular test are ranked primarily between low- and high-level in description.&#91;12&#93;\nThe seven criteria for categorization are:\n\nKnowledge\nTraining and experience\nReagents and materials preparation\nCharacteristics of operational steps\nCalibration, quality control, and proficiency testing materials\nTest system troubleshooting and equipment maintenance\nInterpretation and judgment\nThe Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) has the primary responsibility for the operation of the CLIA program. Within CMS, the program is implemented by the Center for Medicaid and State Operations, Survey and Certification Group, and the Division of Laboratory Services.\nThe CLIA Program is funded by user fees collected from over 317,000 laboratories&#91;13&#93;, most located in the United States.&#91;14&#93;\n\nCLIA waived tests \nUnder CLIA, tests and test systems that meet risk, error, and complexity requirements are issued a CLIA certificate of waiver.&#91;15&#93;&#91;14&#93; In its 2017 document Administrative Procedures for CLIA Categorization - Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advises its staff that a medical testing device originally rated moderately complex could receive a waiver \"if the device is simple to use and the sponsor demonstrates in studies conducted at the intended use sites that the test is accurate and poses an insignificant risk of erroneous results.\"&#91;16&#93;\nWhile a waived test is deemed to have an acceptably low level of risk, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reminds administrators and recipients of such tests that no test is 100 percent safe&#91;15&#93;:\n\nAlthough CLIA requires that waived tests must be simple and have a low risk for erroneous results, this does not mean that waived tests are completely error-proof. Errors can occur anywhere in the testing process, particularly when the manufacturer's instructions are not followed and when testing personnel are not familiar with all aspects of the test system. Some waived tests have potential for serious health impacts if performed incorrectly... To decrease the risk of erroneous results, the test needs to be performed correctly, by trained personnel and in an environment where good laboratory practices are followed. \nIn November 2007, the CLIA waiver provisions were revised by the United States Congress to make it clear that tests approved by the FDA for home use automatically qualify for CLIA waiver.&#91;17&#93;\n\nList of tests \nA list of tests categorized by the FDA as waived since 2000 can be found at the FDA website. As of January 2022, the list includes slightly more than 4,600 unique approved CLIA-waived test devices.\n\nSee also \nCenters for Medicare and Medicaid Services\nClinical laboratory\nFurther reading \nKenney, Michael L.&#32;(February 1987).&#32;\"Quality Assurance in Changing Times: Proposals for Reform and Research in the Clinical Laboratory Field\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Clinical Chemistry&#32;33&#32;(2): 328\u2013336.&#32;doi:10.1093\/clinchem\/33.2.328.&#32;PMID&#160;3542302.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 24 March 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140324170132\/http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf . &#160; \nExternal links \n42 CFR 493 at the U.S. Government Printing Office\nCLIA Law &amp; Regulations at CDC\nChronology of CLIA Related Documents in the Federal Register &amp; Code of Federal Regulations\nNotes \nA couple elements of this article are reused from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)\".&#32;Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.&#32;26 March 2020.&#32;https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/regulations-and-guidance\/legislation\/clia .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Public Law 90-174\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;United States Statutes at Large, Volume 81.&#32;1967.&#32;https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-81\/pdf\/STATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 Kenney, M.L.&#32;(1987).&#32;\"Quality Assurance in Changing Times: Proposals for Reform and Research in the Clinical Laboratory Field\".&#32;Clinical Chemistry&#32;33&#32;(2): 328\u201336.&#32;doi:10.1093\/clinchem\/33.2.328.&#32;PMID&#160;3542302. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Singer, Donald C.; Upton, Ronald P.&#32;(1993).&#32;\"Appendix F: Proposed Revision of the Clinical Laboratory Regulations for Medicare, Medicaid, and Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967 - Department of Health and Human Services: Health Care Financing Administration\".&#32;Guidelines for Laboratory Quality Auditing.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;273\u2013402.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780824787844.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=tTm3hfom96sC&amp;pg=PA273&amp;lpg=PA273 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Public Law 100-578\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;United States Statutes at Large, Volume 102.&#32;1988.&#32;https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-102\/pdf\/STATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Regulations for Implementing the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988: A Summary\".&#32;Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report&#32;41&#32;(RR-2): 1\u201317.&#32;28 February 1992.&#32;PMID&#160;1538689.&#32;https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/00016177.htm .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 \"Medicare, Medicaid, and CLIA Programs; Laboratory Requirements Relating to Quality Systems and Certain Personnel Qualifications; Final Rule\".&#32;Federal Register&#32;68&#32;(16): 3639\u20133714.&#32;24 January 2003.&#32;PMID&#160;12545998.&#32;https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2003-01-24\/html\/03-1230.htm .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Act (CLIA) - Legislative History\".&#32;New Mexico Department of Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 09 March 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140309070758\/http:\/\/dhi.health.state.nm.us\/CLIA\/clia_history.php .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Burns, J.&#32;(16 October 2019).&#32;\"Federal Advisory Committee Seeks Public Comments on Revising CLIA Regulations, says Keynote Speaker at 13th Annual Lab Quality Confab in Atlanta\".&#32;Dark Daily.&#32;https:\/\/www.darkdaily.com\/2019\/10\/16\/federal-advisory-committee-seeks-public-comments-on-revising-clia-regulations-says-keynote-speaker-at-13th-annual-lab-quality-confab-in-atlanta\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee&#32;(7 November 2019).&#32;\"CLIAC Summary Report November 6\u20137, 2019, Atlanta, Georgia\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/summary\/cliac0919_summary.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee&#32;(1 October 2019).&#32;\"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee (CLIAC) Recommendations Table\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/CLIAC_RecommendationsTable_10012019.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"CLIA Categorizations\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;25 February 2020.&#32;https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/ivd-regulatory-assistance\/clia-categorizations .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"CLIA Update \u2013 October 2021 - Laboratories by Type of Facility\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.&#32;October 2021.&#32;https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/downloads\/factype.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 14.0 14.1 \"CLIA Program and Medicare Laboratory Services\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.&#32;October 2018.&#32;https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Outreach-and-Education\/Medicare-Learning-Network-MLN\/MLNProducts\/downloads\/CLIABrochure.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 15.0 15.1 \"Waived Tests\".&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;16 December 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/labquality\/waived-tests.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Administrative Procedures for CLIA Categorization - Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;October 2017.&#32;https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/administrative-procedures-clia-categorization .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"IVD Regulatory Assistance - CLIA Waivers\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;19 June 2009.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 02 February 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120202233933\/http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments<\/a>\nCategories: Health standardsRegulatory informationNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 8 January 2022, at 00:35.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 55,906 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments rootpage-Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:252px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:CLIA_Logo.gif\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"95937dc5e763206f7c10a9d5e85eb6d9\"><img alt=\"CLIA Logo.gif\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/8\/8b\/CLIA_Logo.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"250\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:CLIA_Logo.gif\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"95937dc5e763206f7c10a9d5e85eb6d9\"><\/a><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The <b>Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments<\/b> (<b>CLIA<\/b>) of 1988 is a United States federal statute and regulatory standards program that applies to all <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_laboratory\" title=\"Clinical laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"307bcdf1bdbcd1bb167cee435b7a5463\">clinical laboratory<\/a> testing performed on humans in the United States, except clinical trials and basic research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CMSAboutCLIA_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CMSAboutCLIA-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>On December 5, 1967, the U.S. enacted Public Law 90-174, which included in Section 5 the \"Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967.\" CLIA '67 set regulations on the licensing of clinical laboratories and the movement of samples in and out of them across state lines. Laboratories would be eligible for a full, partial, or exempt CLIA-67 license, depending on the laboratory's conducted tests.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIA67Doc_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIA67Doc-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>However, by the mid-1980s the relevancy of CLIA '67 to a vastly changed procedural and technological clinical laboratory landscape began to be questioned. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health for Planning and Evaluation (ASPE) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services commissioned a study to assess the effectiveness of federal regulations affecting clinical laboratories and their goal of protecting the public health. On April 8, 1986, the <i>Final Report on Assessment of Clinical Laboratory Regulations<\/i> by Michael L. Kenney and Don P. Greenberg was submitted to the ASPE.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KenneyQACLIA_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KenneyQACLIA-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>The analysis found that many federal regulations are technically obsolescent and many may be operationally unnecessary as a result of changing laboratory technology and changed federal reimbursement policies. Among changes recommended by the HHS-funded analysis are: (a) the regulatory classification system based upon physical location of laboratories is no longer appropriate and should be replaced with a classification system reflecting laboratory functions; (b) a single, uniform set of federal regulations should be developed that covers all civilian laboratories receiving federal reimbursement or operating in interstate commerce; (c) a revised federal regulatory system should emphasize measures of performance such as personnel and inspection requirements; and (d) clinical laboratory regulations should be based upon objective data to the maximum extent possible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KenneyQACLIA_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KenneyQACLIA-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>On August 5, 1988, a new set of proposed regulations were put forth by the Health Care Financing Administration as <i>Medicare, Medicaid and CLIA Programs; Revision of the Clinical Laboratory Regulations for the Medicare, Medicaid, and Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967 Programs<\/i>. The proposal aspired \"to remove outdated, obsolete and redundant requirements, make provision for new technologies, place increased reliance on outcome measures of performance, and emphasize the responsibilities and duties of personnel rather than the formal credentialing requirements and detailed personnel standards in existing regulations.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SingerGLQA_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SingerGLQA-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This ultimately led to the proposal becoming law on October 31, 1988 under Public Law 100-578 as the <i>Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIA88Doc_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIA88Doc-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Regulations for implementing CLIA continued to be developed afterwards, with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services\" title=\"United States Department of Health and Human Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efa106bcbb93039b1a6c3c596daedec3\">Department of Health and Human Services<\/a> considering thousands of comments to the proposed regulations. The final regulations were published February 28, 1992, set to be effective on September 1 of the same year. The new CLIA '88 put into place regulations concerning test complexity, certification, proficiency testing, patient test management, personnel requirements, quality assurance, and other processes in the clinical laboratory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MMERFeb2892_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MMERFeb2892-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, phase-in effective dates were extended on several occasions afterwards: on December 6, 1994 in the Federal Register (59 FR 62606), May 12, 1997 in the Federal Register (62 FR 25855), October 14, 1998 in the Federal Register (63 FR 55031), and December 29, 2000 in the Federal Register (65 FR 82941).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68FR3639_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68FR3639-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On January 24, 2003, the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Medicare_and_Medicaid_Services\" title=\"Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"654b4449e4816e190325b420c264df1a\">Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services<\/a> submitted their final rule (68 FR 3639), effective April 24, 2003, affecting QC requirements for laboratories and qualification requirements for lab directors. The final rule also made revisions to 42 CFR 493, including the renaming, reorganizing, and consolidation of similar requirements into one section, the deletion of duplicate requirements, and the rewording of the requirements to better clarify their original intent. It also addressed requirements regarding the entire testing process, making those requirement better correlate with the workflow of a lab specimen in the laboratory, from acquisition to reporting of results, including the subdivision of testing into pre-analytic, analytic, and post-analytic phases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68FR3639_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68FR3639-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NewMexH_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NewMexH-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the fall of 2019, the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"176aa9c9513251c328d864d1e724e814\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/a>'s Director of Laboratory Systems Reynolds Salerno requested comments from its Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee (CLIAC), as well as from the public, in regards to how CLIA regulations should be revised. \u201cIt\u2019s a dramatic step for the government to ask the laboratory community how to revise the CLIA regulations,\u201d Salerno told Dark Daily.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BurnsFederal19_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BurnsFederal19-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> During the November CLIAC meeting, attendees reviewed CLIAC's 23 recommendations it had made prior (April 2019) in regards to updates to CLIA, grouped into CLIA personnel requirement changes, nontraditional test workflow (big data- and machine learning-driven) changes, and changes related to next-generation sequencing testing, workflows, and best practices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIACSumm19_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIACSumm19-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIACClinical19_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIACClinical19-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"CLIA_program\">CLIA program<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The CLIA program sets standards and issues certificates for clinical laboratory testing. CLIA defines a clinical laboratory as any facility which performs <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> testing on specimens derived from humans for the purpose of providing information for:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of disease or impairment.<\/li>\n<li>health assessments.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The CLIA program is designed to ensure the accuracy, reliability, and timeliness of test results regardless of where the test was performed. Each specific laboratory system, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Assay\" title=\"Assay\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea17cf4415e898e1838538495235ef71\">assay<\/a>, and examination is graded for level of complexity by assigning scores of \"1,\" \"2,\" or \"3\" for each of seven criteria. A test scored as a \"1\" is the lowest level of complexity, while a test scored \"3\" indicates the highest level. A score of \"2\" is assigned when the characteristics for a particular test are ranked primarily between low- and high-level in description.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDAIVDReg_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDAIVDReg-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The seven criteria for categorization are:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Knowledge<\/li>\n<li>Training and experience<\/li>\n<li>Reagents and materials preparation<\/li>\n<li>Characteristics of operational steps<\/li>\n<li>Calibration, quality control, and proficiency testing materials<\/li>\n<li>Test system troubleshooting and equipment maintenance<\/li>\n<li>Interpretation and judgment<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Medicare_and_Medicaid_Services\" title=\"Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"654b4449e4816e190325b420c264df1a\">Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services<\/a> (CMS) has the primary responsibility for the operation of the CLIA program. Within CMS, the program is implemented by the Center for Medicaid and State Operations, Survey and Certification Group, and the Division of Laboratory Services.\n<\/p><p>The CLIA Program is funded by user fees collected from over 317,000 laboratories<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIADec13_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIADec13-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, most located in the United States.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIABroch_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIABroch-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"CLIA_waived_tests\">CLIA waived tests<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Under CLIA, tests and test systems that meet risk, error, and complexity requirements are issued a CLIA certificate of waiver.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDCWaived_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDCWaived-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIABroch_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIABroch-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In its 2017 document <i>Administrative Procedures for CLIA Categorization - Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff<\/i>, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advises its staff that a medical testing device originally rated moderately complex could receive a waiver \"if the device is simple to use and the sponsor demonstrates in studies conducted at the intended use sites that the test is accurate and poses an insignificant risk of erroneous results.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APCC_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APCC-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While a waived test is deemed to have an acceptably low level of risk, the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"176aa9c9513251c328d864d1e724e814\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/a> (CDC) reminds administrators and recipients of such tests that no test is 100 percent safe<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDCWaived_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDCWaived-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Although CLIA requires that waived tests must be simple and have a low risk for erroneous results, this does not mean that waived tests are completely error-proof. Errors can occur anywhere in the testing process, particularly when the manufacturer's instructions are not followed and when testing personnel are not familiar with all aspects of the test system. Some waived tests have potential for serious health impacts if performed incorrectly... To decrease the risk of erroneous results, the test needs to be performed correctly, by trained personnel and in an environment where good laboratory practices are followed. <\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>In November 2007, the CLIA waiver provisions were revised by the United States Congress to make it clear that tests approved by the FDA for home use automatically qualify for CLIA waiver.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDAWaivers_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDAWaivers-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"List_of_tests\">List of tests<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A list of tests categorized by the FDA as waived since 2000 can be found at the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfClia\/testswaived.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">FDA website<\/a>. As of January 2022, the list includes slightly more than 4,600 unique approved CLIA-waived test devices.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Medicare_and_Medicaid_Services\" title=\"Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"654b4449e4816e190325b420c264df1a\">Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_laboratory\" title=\"Clinical laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"307bcdf1bdbcd1bb167cee435b7a5463\">Clinical laboratory<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kenney, Michael L.&#32;(February 1987).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140324170132\/http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quality Assurance in Changing Times: Proposals for Reform and Research in the Clinical Laboratory Field\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Clinical Chemistry<\/i>&#32;<b>33<\/b>&#32;(2): 328\u2013336.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093%2Fclinchem%2F33.2.328\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/clinchem\/33.2.328<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/3542302\" target=\"_blank\">3542302<\/a>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 24 March 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140324170132\/http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140324170132\/http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+Assurance+in+Changing+Times%3A+Proposals+for+Reform+and+Research+in+the+Clinical+Laboratory+Field&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinical+Chemistry&amp;rft.aulast=Kenney%2C+Michael+L.&amp;rft.au=Kenney%2C+Michael+L.&amp;rft.date=February+1987&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=328%E2%80%93336&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1093%2Fclinchem%2F33.2.328&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/3542302&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140324170132%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.clinchem.org%2Fcontent%2F33%2F2%2F328.full.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/app\/details\/CFR-2011-title42-vol5\/CFR-2011-title42-vol5-part493\" target=\"_blank\">42 CFR 493 at the U.S. Government Printing Office<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/clia\/law-regulations.html\" target=\"_blank\">CLIA Law &amp; Regulations at CDC<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/clia\/clia-documents.html\" target=\"_blank\">Chronology of CLIA Related Documents in the Federal Register &amp; Code of Federal Regulations<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A couple elements of this article are reused from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\" data-key=\"6082c2c0befe98aa562693faa1ddcedb\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-CMSAboutCLIA-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CMSAboutCLIA_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/regulations-and-guidance\/legislation\/clia\" target=\"_blank\">\"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)\"<\/a>.&#32;Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.&#32;26 March 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/regulations-and-guidance\/legislation\/clia\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/regulations-and-guidance\/legislation\/clia<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Amendments+%28CLIA%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=26+March+2020&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Medicare+and+Medicaid+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cms.gov%2Fregulations-and-guidance%2Flegislation%2Fclia&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIA67Doc-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIA67Doc_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-81\/pdf\/STATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Law 90-174\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>United States Statutes at Large, Volume 81<\/i>.&#32;1967<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-81\/pdf\/STATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-81\/pdf\/STATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Public+Law+90-174&amp;rft.atitle=United+States+Statutes+at+Large%2C+Volume+81&amp;rft.date=1967&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fcontent%2Fpkg%2FSTATUTE-81%2Fpdf%2FSTATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KenneyQACLIA-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KenneyQACLIA_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KenneyQACLIA_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kenney, M.L.&#32;(1987).&#32;\"Quality Assurance in Changing Times: Proposals for Reform and Research in the Clinical Laboratory Field\".&#32;<i>Clinical Chemistry<\/i>&#32;<b>33<\/b>&#32;(2): 328\u201336.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093%2Fclinchem%2F33.2.328\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/clinchem\/33.2.328<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/3542302\" target=\"_blank\">3542302<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+Assurance+in+Changing+Times%3A+Proposals+for+Reform+and+Research+in+the+Clinical+Laboratory+Field&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinical+Chemistry&amp;rft.aulast=Kenney%2C+M.L.&amp;rft.au=Kenney%2C+M.L.&amp;rft.date=1987&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=328%E2%80%9336&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1093%2Fclinchem%2F33.2.328&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/3542302&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SingerGLQA-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SingerGLQA_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Singer, Donald C.; Upton, Ronald P.&#32;(1993).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=tTm3hfom96sC&pg=PA273&lpg=PA273\" target=\"_blank\">\"Appendix F: Proposed Revision of the Clinical Laboratory Regulations for Medicare, Medicaid, and Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967 - Department of Health and Human Services: Health Care Financing Administration\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Guidelines for Laboratory Quality Auditing<\/i>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;273\u2013402.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780824787844<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=tTm3hfom96sC&pg=PA273&lpg=PA273\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=tTm3hfom96sC&amp;pg=PA273&amp;lpg=PA273<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Appendix+F%3A+Proposed+Revision+of+the+Clinical+Laboratory+Regulations+for+Medicare%2C+Medicaid%2C+and+Clinical+Laboratories+Improvement+Act+of+1967+-+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services%3A+Health+Care+Financing+Administration&amp;rft.atitle=Guidelines+for+Laboratory+Quality+Auditing&amp;rft.aulast=Singer%2C+Donald+C.%3B+Upton%2C+Ronald+P.&amp;rft.au=Singer%2C+Donald+C.%3B+Upton%2C+Ronald+P.&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B273%E2%80%93402&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9780824787844&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.ca%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtTm3hfom96sC%26pg%3DPA273%26lpg%3DPA273&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIA88Doc-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIA88Doc_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-102\/pdf\/STATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Law 100-578\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>United States Statutes at Large, Volume 102<\/i>.&#32;1988<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-102\/pdf\/STATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/STATUTE-102\/pdf\/STATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Public+Law+100-578&amp;rft.atitle=United+States+Statutes+at+Large%2C+Volume+102&amp;rft.date=1988&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fcontent%2Fpkg%2FSTATUTE-102%2Fpdf%2FSTATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MMERFeb2892-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MMERFeb2892_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/00016177.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Regulations for Implementing the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988: A Summary\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report<\/i>&#32;<b>41<\/b>&#32;(RR-2): 1\u201317.&#32;28 February 1992.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/1538689\" target=\"_blank\">1538689<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/00016177.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/00016177.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Regulations+for+Implementing+the+Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Amendments+of+1988%3A+A+Summary&amp;rft.jtitle=Morbidity+and+Mortality+Weekly+Report&amp;rft.date=28+February+1992&amp;rft.volume=41&amp;rft.issue=RR-2&amp;rft.pages=1%E2%80%9317&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/1538689&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fmmwr%2Fpreview%2Fmmwrhtml%2F00016177.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-68FR3639-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-68FR3639_7-0\">7.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-68FR3639_7-1\">7.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2003-01-24\/html\/03-1230.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Medicare, Medicaid, and CLIA Programs; Laboratory Requirements Relating to Quality Systems and Certain Personnel Qualifications; Final Rule\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Federal Register<\/i>&#32;<b>68<\/b>&#32;(16): 3639\u20133714.&#32;24 January 2003.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12545998\" target=\"_blank\">12545998<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2003-01-24\/html\/03-1230.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/FR-2003-01-24\/html\/03-1230.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Medicare%2C+Medicaid%2C+and+CLIA+Programs%3B+Laboratory+Requirements+Relating+to+Quality+Systems+and+Certain+Personnel+Qualifications%3B+Final+Rule&amp;rft.jtitle=Federal+Register&amp;rft.date=24+January+2003&amp;rft.volume=68&amp;rft.issue=16&amp;rft.pages=3639%E2%80%933714&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/12545998&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fcontent%2Fpkg%2FFR-2003-01-24%2Fhtml%2F03-1230.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NewMexH-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NewMexH_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140309070758\/http:\/\/dhi.health.state.nm.us\/CLIA\/clia_history.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Act (CLIA) - Legislative History\"<\/a>.&#32;New Mexico Department of Health.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dhi.health.state.nm.us\/CLIA\/clia_history.php\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 09 March 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140309070758\/http:\/\/dhi.health.state.nm.us\/CLIA\/clia_history.php\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140309070758\/http:\/\/dhi.health.state.nm.us\/CLIA\/clia_history.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Act+%28CLIA%29+-+Legislative+History&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=New+Mexico+Department+of+Health&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140309070758%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fdhi.health.state.nm.us%2FCLIA%2Fclia_history.php&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BurnsFederal19-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BurnsFederal19_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Burns, J.&#32;(16 October 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.darkdaily.com\/2019\/10\/16\/federal-advisory-committee-seeks-public-comments-on-revising-clia-regulations-says-keynote-speaker-at-13th-annual-lab-quality-confab-in-atlanta\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Federal Advisory Committee Seeks Public Comments on Revising CLIA Regulations, says Keynote Speaker at 13th Annual Lab Quality Confab in Atlanta\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Dark Daily<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.darkdaily.com\/2019\/10\/16\/federal-advisory-committee-seeks-public-comments-on-revising-clia-regulations-says-keynote-speaker-at-13th-annual-lab-quality-confab-in-atlanta\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.darkdaily.com\/2019\/10\/16\/federal-advisory-committee-seeks-public-comments-on-revising-clia-regulations-says-keynote-speaker-at-13th-annual-lab-quality-confab-in-atlanta\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Federal+Advisory+Committee+Seeks+Public+Comments+on+Revising+CLIA+Regulations%2C+says+Keynote+Speaker+at+13th+Annual+Lab+Quality+Confab+in+Atlanta&amp;rft.atitle=Dark+Daily&amp;rft.aulast=Burns%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Burns%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=16+October+2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darkdaily.com%2F2019%2F10%2F16%2Ffederal-advisory-committee-seeks-public-comments-on-revising-clia-regulations-says-keynote-speaker-at-13th-annual-lab-quality-confab-in-atlanta%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIACSumm19-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIACSumm19_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee&#32;(7 November 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/summary\/cliac0919_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CLIAC Summary Report November 6\u20137, 2019, Atlanta, Georgia\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/summary\/cliac0919_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/summary\/cliac0919_summary.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CLIAC+Summary+Report+November+6%E2%80%937%2C+2019%2C+Atlanta%2C+Georgia&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Advisory+Committee&amp;rft.au=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Advisory+Committee&amp;rft.date=7+November+2019&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcliac%2Fdocs%2Fsummary%2Fcliac0919_summary.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIACClinical19-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIACClinical19_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee&#32;(1 October 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/CLIAC_RecommendationsTable_10012019.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Advisory Committee (CLIAC) Recommendations Table\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/CLIAC_RecommendationsTable_10012019.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/cliac\/docs\/CLIAC_RecommendationsTable_10012019.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Advisory+Committee+%28CLIAC%29+Recommendations+Table&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Advisory+Committee&amp;rft.au=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Advisory+Committee&amp;rft.date=1+October+2019&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcliac%2Fdocs%2FCLIAC_RecommendationsTable_10012019.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDAIVDReg-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDAIVDReg_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/ivd-regulatory-assistance\/clia-categorizations\" target=\"_blank\">\"CLIA Categorizations\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;25 February 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/ivd-regulatory-assistance\/clia-categorizations\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/ivd-regulatory-assistance\/clia-categorizations<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CLIA+Categorizations&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=25+February+2020&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fmedical-devices%2Fivd-regulatory-assistance%2Fclia-categorizations&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIADec13-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIADec13_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/downloads\/factype.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CLIA Update \u2013 October 2021 - Laboratories by Type of Facility\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.&#32;October 2021<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/downloads\/factype.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/downloads\/factype.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CLIA+Update+%E2%80%93+October+2021+-+Laboratories+by+Type+of+Facility&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=October+2021&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Medicare+and+Medicaid+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cms.gov%2FRegulations-and-Guidance%2FLegislation%2FCLIA%2Fdownloads%2Ffactype.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIABroch-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIABroch_14-0\">14.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIABroch_14-1\">14.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Outreach-and-Education\/Medicare-Learning-Network-MLN\/MLNProducts\/downloads\/CLIABrochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CLIA Program and Medicare Laboratory Services\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.&#32;October 2018<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Outreach-and-Education\/Medicare-Learning-Network-MLN\/MLNProducts\/downloads\/CLIABrochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Outreach-and-Education\/Medicare-Learning-Network-MLN\/MLNProducts\/downloads\/CLIABrochure.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CLIA+Program+and+Medicare+Laboratory+Services&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=October+2018&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Medicare+and+Medicaid+Services&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cms.gov%2FOutreach-and-Education%2FMedicare-Learning-Network-MLN%2FMLNProducts%2Fdownloads%2FCLIABrochure.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDCWaived-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDCWaived_15-0\">15.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDCWaived_15-1\">15.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/labquality\/waived-tests.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Waived Tests\"<\/a>.&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;16 December 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/labquality\/waived-tests.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/labquality\/waived-tests.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Waived+Tests&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=16+December+2019&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Flabquality%2Fwaived-tests.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-APCC-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-APCC_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/administrative-procedures-clia-categorization\" target=\"_blank\">\"Administrative Procedures for CLIA Categorization - Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;October 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/administrative-procedures-clia-categorization\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/administrative-procedures-clia-categorization<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Administrative+Procedures+for+CLIA+Categorization+-+Guidance+for+Industry+and+Food+and+Drug+Administration+Staff&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=October+2017&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fregulatory-information%2Fsearch-fda-guidance-documents%2Fadministrative-procedures-clia-categorization&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDAWaivers-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDAWaivers_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120202233933\/http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"IVD Regulatory Assistance - CLIA Waivers\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;19 June 2009.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 02 February 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120202233933\/http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120202233933\/http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=IVD+Regulatory+Assistance+-+CLIA+Waivers&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=19+June+2009&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120202233933%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fmedicaldevices%2Fdeviceregulationandguidance%2Fivdregulatoryassistance%2Fucm124202.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240109181902\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.401 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.536 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 12700\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 95865\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 40863\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 28616\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 439.138 1 -total\n 71.75% 315.082 18 Template:Citation\/core\n 71.38% 313.460 1 Template:Reflist\n 37.95% 166.671 13 Template:Cite_web\n 35.24% 154.752 4 Template:Cite_journal\n 16.74% 73.515 7 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 11.34% 49.778 1 Template:Cite_book\n 11.30% 49.621 13 Template:Date\n 5.61% 24.651 25 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 4.05% 17.766 7 Template:Only_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:4907-0!canonical and timestamp 20240109181901 and revision id 45460. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/8\/8b\/CLIA_Logo.gif"],"64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_timestamp":1704907025,"74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_type":"article","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_title":"ASTM E1578","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_plaintext":"\n\nASTM E1578From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchASTM E1578 (titled Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics) is an active standard developed by ASTM International, specifically Subcommittee E13.15 on Analytical Data. According to a 2012 press release from the committee, the standard exists primarily because \"the use of electronic laboratory notebooks, cloud computing, and the adoption of lean principles has lead to an evolution in the use of LIMS and related analytics currently employed across laboratory environments.\"&#91;1&#93; \nAs of January 2022&#91;update&#93;, seven goals are associates with the standard as it relates to laboratory information management systems and other laboratory informatics applications&#91;2&#93;:\n\nto provide educational material to those new to laboratory informatics\nto provide educational material to those already applying laboratory informatics to laboratories and associated areas\nto provide educational material to those who develop and distribute laboratory informatics applications and instrumentation\nto describe and recommend a standardized body of terminology to both developers and users\nto describe and recommend a body of requirements that are essential to system functions\nto provide recommendations for tasks and documentation secondarily related to laboratory informatics, including costing, implementation, and training\nto provide recommendations for integrating laboratory informatics applications and processes into workflow\nHistory \nThe standard was previously released as E1578-93 (1993), E1578-93(1999) (1999), E1578-06 (2006), and E1578-13 (2013).&#91;2&#93; ASTM E1578 not only covers applications of informatics to general laboratories but also to environmental, life science, medical, industrial, and public sector labs. The 2018 update brought with it new insights into laboratory informatics tools and how to integrate them into laboratory workflow, and with other hardware and software. And though relatively in their infancy in laboratory application, the revision added content about the application of the internet of things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and smart objects to the laboratory.&#91;2&#93;&#91;3&#93;\n\nExternal links \nASTM E1578-18 at ASTM International\nReferences \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM Molecular Spectroscopy Committee Invites Participation in Revision of Laboratory Information Management Systems Standard\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;7 March 2012.&#32;https:\/\/newsroom.astm.org\/astm-molecular-spectroscopy-committee-invites-participation-revision-laboratory-information .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 \"ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;23 August 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jones, J.&#32;(2018).&#32;\"ASTM 1578 (Scope &amp; Elements of Laboratory Informatics)\".&#32;MindMeister.&#32;https:\/\/cdn2.mindmeister.com\/943721819\/astm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics?fullscreen=1 .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578<\/a>\nCategories: Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2022All articles containing potentially dated statementsDesign and development standardsLaboratory informatics standardsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 1 April 2022, at 19:10.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 11,410 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-ASTM_E1578 rootpage-ASTM_E1578 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ASTM E1578<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>ASTM E1578<\/b> (titled <i>Standard Guide for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">Laboratory Informatics<\/a><\/i>) is an active standard developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM International<\/a>, specifically Subcommittee E13.15 on Analytical Data. According to a 2012 press release from the committee, the standard exists primarily because \"the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f\">cloud computing<\/a>, and the adoption of lean principles has lead to an evolution in the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LIMS\" data-key=\"21b7bfebbba300be00cdbb84cddb338d\">LIMS<\/a> and related analytics currently employed across <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> environments.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME13.15_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME13.15-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>As of January 2022<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, seven goals are associates with the standard as it relates to laboratory information management systems and other laboratory informatics applications<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>to provide educational material to those new to laboratory informatics<\/li>\n<li>to provide educational material to those already applying laboratory informatics to laboratories and associated areas<\/li>\n<li>to provide educational material to those who develop and distribute laboratory informatics applications and instrumentation<\/li>\n<li>to describe and recommend a standardized body of terminology to both developers and users<\/li>\n<li>to describe and recommend a body of requirements that are essential to system functions<\/li>\n<li>to provide recommendations for tasks and documentation secondarily related to laboratory informatics, including costing, implementation, and training<\/li>\n<li>to provide recommendations for integrating laboratory informatics applications and processes into workflow<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The standard was previously released as E1578-93 (1993), E1578-93(1999) (1999), E1578-06 (2006), and E1578-13 (2013).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> ASTM E1578 not only covers applications of informatics to general laboratories but also to environmental, life science, medical, industrial, and public sector labs. The 2018 update brought with it new insights into laboratory informatics tools and how to integrate them into laboratory <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a>, and with other hardware and software. And though relatively in their infancy in laboratory application, the revision added content about the application of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things\" title=\"Internet of things\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f\">internet of things<\/a> (IoT), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI), and smart objects to the laboratory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JonesASTME1578_18_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JonesASTME1578_18-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html\" target=\"_blank\">ASTM E1578-18 at ASTM International<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTME13.15-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME13.15_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/newsroom.astm.org\/astm-molecular-spectroscopy-committee-invites-participation-revision-laboratory-information\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM Molecular Spectroscopy Committee Invites Participation in Revision of Laboratory Information Management Systems Standard\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International.&#32;7 March 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/newsroom.astm.org\/astm-molecular-spectroscopy-committee-invites-participation-revision-laboratory-information\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/newsroom.astm.org\/astm-molecular-spectroscopy-committee-invites-participation-revision-laboratory-information<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+Molecular+Spectroscopy+Committee+Invites+Participation+in+Revision+of+Laboratory+Information+Management+Systems+Standard&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=7+March+2012&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewsroom.astm.org%2Fastm-molecular-spectroscopy-committee-invites-participation-revision-laboratory-information&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ASTM_E1578\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTME1578-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International.&#32;23 August 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578-18+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=23+August+2019&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2Fe1578-18.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ASTM_E1578\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JonesASTME1578_18-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-JonesASTME1578_18_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jones, J.&#32;(2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn2.mindmeister.com\/943721819\/astm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics?fullscreen=1\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM 1578 (Scope &amp; Elements of Laboratory Informatics)\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>MindMeister<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn2.mindmeister.com\/943721819\/astm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics?fullscreen=1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cdn2.mindmeister.com\/943721819\/astm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics?fullscreen=1<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+1578+%28Scope+%26+Elements+of+Laboratory+Informatics%29&amp;rft.atitle=MindMeister&amp;rft.aulast=Jones%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdn2.mindmeister.com%2F943721819%2Fastm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics%3Ffullscreen%3D1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ASTM_E1578\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110122303\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.073 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.090 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 2198\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 14435\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 6107\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 17\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 4676\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 68.794 1 -total\n 59.31% 40.804 3 Template:Cite_web\n 50.12% 34.480 3 Template:Citation\/core\n 31.58% 21.726 1 Template:As_of\n 23.75% 16.340 1 Template:DMCA\n 18.87% 12.983 1 Template:Dated_maintenance_category\n 12.27% 8.443 3 Template:Date\n 9.92% 6.823 1 Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME\n 6.81% 4.682 4 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 5.07% 3.485 1 Template:Ns_has_subpages\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:6343-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110122303 and revision id 47181. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_images":[],"74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_timestamp":1704907025,"da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_type":"article","da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_title":"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board","da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board","da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_plaintext":"\n\nANSI-ASQ National Accreditation BoardFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchThe ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board (ANAB) is an international non-profit, non-governmental, independent organization and accrediting body that provides accreditation and training services for numerous types of laboratories. ANAB offers accreditation programs and training courses for the communications, energy, environmental, food and beverage, forensic, and manufacturing industries.&#91;1&#93;&#91;2&#93; Over the years, the organization has also acquired other accrediting organizations such as Forensic Quality Services, Inc. (FQS) and Laboratory Accreditation Bureau (L-A-B), adding their accreditation programs to ANAB's offerings.&#91;3&#93;&#91;4&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Clarification of accreditation offerings \n3 Accreditation and compliance \n4 External links \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nANAB's predecessor was the Registrar Accreditation Board (RAB), founded on November 13, 1989&#91;5&#93; as an affiliate of the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC; later just the ASQ) \"to develop a program to evaluate the quality of services offered by [quality system] registrars.\"&#91;6&#93;&#91;7&#93; Teaming up with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), RAB began development of the American National Accreditation Program for Registrars of Quality Systems sometime between 1990 and December 1991.&#91;8&#93;&#91;6&#93; RAB would eventually get certified by the NQA (National Quality Assurance) and begin offering an ISO 9000 auditor certification program in 1992.&#91;6&#93;&#91;9&#93; \nNeeds changed, however, and RAB was replaced by the ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board on January 1, 2005. As a partnership between ANSI and the ASQ, the restructuring was done for several reasons: \"to comply with a new international requirement that a national accreditation body be a legal entity,\" and to split off auditor certification and training activities from its original management systems accreditation services.&#91;5&#93;&#91;9&#93; The organization would later add accreditation services for testing and calibration labs, judged to be missing component by the company, through the acquisition of Assured Calibration and Laboratory Accreditation Select Services (ACLASS) in October 2007.&#91;10&#93;&#91;11&#93; ANAB expanded their laboratory accreditation services further with the acquisition of Forensic Quality Services, Inc. (FQS) in November 2011, expanding into realm of forensic testing and inspection.&#91;3&#93;&#91;5&#93; However, with all these offerings, the company realized \"the use of three different brands has caused confusion in the marketplace.\" ANAB announced in November 2014 that it would be \"operating as a single brand\" under the ANAB label beginning in January 2015.&#91;5&#93;&#91;12&#93;\nIn December 2015, ANAB announced it had made another acquisition, this time agreeing to take on the Accreditation Services Bureau (A-S-B) d.b.a. Laboratory Accreditation Bureau (L-A-B) in order to expand its testing and calibration laboratory accreditation services. Despite its November 2014 announcement of brand integration, however, ANAB stated that it at least initially \"will maintain the L-A-B brand and L-A-B customers will continue to be accredited under the L-A-B symbol.\"&#91;4&#93;\nOn April 22, 2016, ANAB announced yet another acquisition, this time signing \"an affiliation agreement with The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD\/LAB), merging ASCLD\/LAB into ANAB.\"&#91;13&#93; ANAB stated that with the merger ASCLD\/LAB employees would be kept, the ASCLD\/LAB brand would be maintained, and \"current ASCLD\/LAB customers will continue to be accredited under the ASCLD\/LAB accreditation symbol.\"&#91;13&#93;\n\nClarification of accreditation offerings \nPer ANAB's decision in 2014 to unify brands, the ACLASS testing and calibration lab accreditation programs and the FQS forensic accreditation lab\/crime unit programs were essentially moved under the ANAB accreditation program brand, beginning on January 1, 2015.&#91;5&#93;&#91;12&#93; For example, the former FQS ISO\/IEC 17020 program is now the ANAB ISO\/IEC 17020 Accreditation Program for Forensic Inspection Agencies&#91;14&#93;, and the FQS ISO\/IEC 17025 program is the ANAB ISO\/IEC 17025 Accreditation Program for Forensic Testing Laboratories.&#91;15&#93;\nThe exception to this appears to be the accreditation programs offered by L-A-B, acquired in December 2015. Covering areas of accreditation such as the energy, environmental, food and beverage, forensic science, and manufacturing industries, the L-A-B accreditation programs will remain under the L-A-B brand and symbol.&#91;4&#93;&#91;16&#93;\n\nAccreditation and compliance \nANAB offers tens of different accreditation programs for laboratories and testing centers, each with their own varying requirements.&#91;17&#93; Application review, on-site assessments, quality review, and, if necessary, corrective action resolutions are conducted before the final review and accreditation decision. The ANAB website does not make it clear, but the accreditation likely lasts for two years&#91;18&#93; as long as the lab remains compliant and maintains obligations such as notification of significant changes to primary policies, resources, organization, and legal ownership.\nAfter acceptance, ANAB will use the renewal assessment process to ensure a lab's compliance with the body's accreditation standards. In the unusual case of a laboratory failing to pay fees, provide audit and certification staticis, or comply with any of the body's other accreditation requirements, ANAB may choose to place the lab on suspension. Once on suspension, the affected lab must satisfy certain conditions before being able to again operate and eventually be reinstated, though the reinstatement process may vary slightly by infraction or accreditation program.&#91;19&#93; In extreme cases of non-compliance, ANAB can also choose to completely withdraw the lab's accreditation.&#91;20&#93;Template:Broken link\n\nExternal links \nANAB accreditation programs\nANAB training programs\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"ANAB ANSI National Accreditation Board\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ANAB Training Institute\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/training .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(29 November 2011).&#32;\"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board Acquires FQS\".&#32;Quality Digest.&#32;https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-news\/ansi-asq-national-accreditation-board-acquires-fqs-112911.html .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 4.2 ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(28 December 2015).&#32;\"ANAB Acquires Laboratory Accreditation Bureau\".&#32;Thomas.&#32;https:\/\/news.thomasnet.com\/companystory\/anab-acquires-laboratory-accreditation-bureau-20052541\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(13 November 2014).&#32;\"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board to Move to Single ANAB Brand\".&#32;ANSI.&#32;https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2014\/12\/ansiasq-national-accreditation-board-to-move-to-single-anab-brand-15 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 6.2 Breitenberg, Maureen&#32;(1993).&#32;Questions and Answers on Quality, the ISO 9000 Standard Series, Quality System Registration, and Related Issues.&#32;National Institute of Standards and Technology.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780788104091.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=gqUgJU9-Z-AC&amp;pg=PA14 .&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Stratton, John H.&#32;(1992).&#32;\"What is the Registrar Accreditation Board?\".&#32;Quality Progress&#32;25&#32;(1): 67\u201369.&#32;https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-progress\/articles\/what-is-the-registrar-accreditation-board?id=73d6c5ab25cc475e8fa6a8a83e3a1883 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Lofgren, George; Fortlage, Pail; Stranak, Barbara et al.&#32;(1995).&#32;\"Registrar Accreditation Board: Working to serve U.S. business and industry\".&#32;Annual Quality Congress&#32;49: 425\u2013433.&#32;https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/articles\/registrar-accreditation-board-working-to-serve-us-business-and-industry?id=67ec804e077a43fd90dc3b2c8b27a16a .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 9.0 9.1 Charantimath, Poornima M..&#32;\"Chapter 18: Quality Audit\".&#32;Total Quality Management&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.&#32;pp.&#160;546\u2013572.&#32;ISBN&#160;9788131732625.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=h7US1hlgV_IC&amp;pg=PA566 .&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"How and Why ANAB Came to Be\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;25 March 2009.&#32;http:\/\/anab.org\/about-anab\/history\/ .&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wang, Wego&#32;(2010).&#32;Reverse Engineering: Technology of Reinvention.&#32;Boca Raton, Florida:&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;357.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781439806319.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z3J8lrFKBJsC&amp;pg=PA15 .&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 12.0 12.1 ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(13 January 2015).&#32;\"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board Moves to the Single ANAB Brand\".&#32;Vimeo, LLC.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 06 February 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160206225118\/https:\/\/vimeo.com\/116691772 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 13.0 13.1 \"ANAB and ASCLD\/LAB Merge Forensics Operations\".&#32;American National Standards Institute.&#32;22 April 2016.&#32;https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2016\/04\/anab-and-ascldlab-merge-forensics-operations-22 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/IEC 17020 Inspection Body Accreditation: How It Works\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/inspection-body-accreditation .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/IEC 17025 Forensic Accreditation\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/en\/forensic-accreditation\/iso-iec-17025-forensic-labs .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"L-A-B Recognition\".&#32;Lab Accreditation Bureau.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 05 March 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160305224323\/http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/about-lab\/lab-recognition\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ANAB Home\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Frequently Asked Questions about the Contracting of On-site Assessments\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Florida Health.&#32;http:\/\/www.floridahealth.gov\/programs-and-services\/public-health-laboratories\/laboratory-services\/environmental-laboratory-certification\/env-lab-cert-faq.html .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Accreditation Rule 11\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;1 January 2014.&#32;pp. 2.&#32;http:\/\/complaints.anab.org\/media\/45826\/ar11.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 February 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Guidance on Use of the ACLASS and FQS Accreditation Symbol and ILAC Laboratory Combined MRA Mark\".&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;1 August 2012.&#32;http:\/\/search.anab.org\/media\/2024\/aclass-fqs-guidance-symbol-mra-mark-usage.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 February 2016 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board<\/a>\nCategory: Accrediting organizationsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 8 January 2022, at 00:13.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 14,066 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board rootpage-ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>The <b>ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<\/b> (<b>ANAB<\/b>) is an international non-profit, non-governmental, independent organization and accrediting body that provides accreditation and training services for numerous types of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratories<\/a>. ANAB offers accreditation programs and training courses for the communications, energy, environmental, food and beverage, forensic, and manufacturing industries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABAccredProgs_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABAccredProgs-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABTrainProgs_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABTrainProgs-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Over the years, the organization has also acquired other accrediting organizations such as Forensic Quality Services, Inc. (FQS) and Laboratory Accreditation Bureau (L-A-B), adding their accreditation programs to ANAB's offerings.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FQSAcq_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FQSAcq-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABAcq_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABAcq-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ANAB's predecessor was the Registrar Accreditation Board (RAB), founded on November 13, 1989<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle14-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> as an affiliate of the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC; later just the ASQ) \"to develop a program to evaluate the quality of services offered by [quality system] registrars.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BreitenbergQuest93_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BreitenbergQuest93-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StrattonWhat92_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StrattonWhat92-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Teaming up with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/American_National_Standards_Institute\" title=\"American National Standards Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a3da6ae9a20adfa068187109b058ff4\">American National Standards Institute<\/a> (ANSI), RAB began development of the American National Accreditation Program for Registrars of Quality Systems sometime between 1990 and December 1991.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LofgrenReg95_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LofgrenReg95-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BreitenbergQuest93_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BreitenbergQuest93-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> RAB would eventually get certified by the NQA (National Quality Assurance) and begin offering an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000<\/a> auditor certification program in 1992.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BreitenbergQuest93_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BreitenbergQuest93-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CharantimathTotal11_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CharantimathTotal11-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Needs changed, however, and RAB was replaced by the ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board on January 1, 2005. As a partnership between ANSI and the ASQ, the restructuring was done for several reasons: \"to comply with a new international requirement that a national accreditation body be a legal entity,\" and to split off auditor certification and training activities from its original management systems accreditation services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle14-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CharantimathTotal11_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CharantimathTotal11-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The organization would later add accreditation services for testing and calibration labs, judged to be missing component by the company, through the acquisition of Assured Calibration and Laboratory Accreditation Select Services (ACLASS) in October 2007.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABHist_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABHist-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WangRev10_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WangRev10-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> ANAB expanded their laboratory accreditation services further with the acquisition of Forensic Quality Services, Inc. (FQS) in November 2011, expanding into realm of forensic testing and inspection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FQSAcq_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FQSAcq-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle14-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, with all these offerings, the company realized \"the use of three different brands has caused confusion in the marketplace.\" ANAB announced in November 2014 that it would be \"operating as a single brand\" under the ANAB label beginning in January 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle14-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle2Vid_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle2Vid-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In December 2015, ANAB announced it had made another acquisition, this time agreeing to take on the Accreditation Services Bureau (A-S-B) d.b.a. Laboratory Accreditation Bureau (L-A-B) in order to expand its testing and calibration laboratory accreditation services. Despite its November 2014 announcement of brand integration, however, ANAB stated that it at least initially \"will maintain the L-A-B brand and L-A-B customers will continue to be accredited under the L-A-B symbol.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABAcq_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABAcq-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On April 22, 2016, ANAB announced yet another acquisition, this time signing \"an affiliation agreement with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\" title=\"The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f364a7d9dca831de0caaaba41cf0b7ea\">The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board<\/a> (ASCLD\/LAB), merging ASCLD\/LAB into ANAB.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANSIANAB16-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup> ANAB stated that with the merger ASCLD\/LAB employees would be kept, the ASCLD\/LAB brand would be maintained, and \"current ASCLD\/LAB customers will continue to be accredited under the ASCLD\/LAB accreditation symbol.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANSIANAB16-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Clarification_of_accreditation_offerings\">Clarification of accreditation offerings<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Per ANAB's decision in 2014 to unify brands, the ACLASS testing and calibration lab accreditation programs and the FQS forensic accreditation lab\/crime unit programs were essentially moved under the ANAB accreditation program brand, beginning on January 1, 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle14-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSingle2Vid_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSingle2Vid-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup> For example, the former FQS ISO\/IEC 17020 program is now the ANAB ISO\/IEC 17020 Accreditation Program for Forensic Inspection Agencies<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANAB17020Forensics_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANAB17020Forensics-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, and the FQS <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a> program is the ANAB ISO\/IEC 17025 Accreditation Program for Forensic Testing Laboratories.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANAB17025Forensics_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANAB17025Forensics-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The exception to this appears to be the accreditation programs offered by L-A-B, acquired in December 2015. Covering areas of accreditation such as the energy, environmental, food and beverage, forensic science, and manufacturing industries, the L-A-B accreditation programs will remain under the L-A-B brand and symbol.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABAcq_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABAcq-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABRecog_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABRecog-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Accreditation_and_compliance\">Accreditation and compliance<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ANAB offers tens of different accreditation programs for laboratories and testing centers, each with their own varying requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABAccredProgsGen_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABAccredProgsGen-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Application review, on-site assessments, quality review, and, if necessary, corrective action resolutions are conducted before the final review and accreditation decision. The ANAB website does not make it clear, but the accreditation likely lasts for two years<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABOnsite_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABOnsite-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup> as long as the lab remains compliant and maintains obligations such as notification of significant changes to primary policies, resources, organization, and legal ownership.\n<\/p><p>After acceptance, ANAB will use the renewal assessment process to ensure a lab's compliance with the body's accreditation standards. In the unusual case of a laboratory failing to pay fees, provide audit and certification staticis, or comply with any of the body's other accreditation requirements, ANAB may choose to place the lab on suspension. Once on suspension, the affected lab must satisfy certain conditions before being able to again operate and eventually be reinstated, though the reinstatement process may vary slightly by infraction or accreditation program.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABRule11_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABRule11-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In extreme cases of non-compliance, ANAB can also choose to completely withdraw the lab's accreditation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANABSymbol_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANABSymbol-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">ANAB accreditation programs<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/training\" target=\"_blank\">ANAB training programs<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABAccredProgs-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABAccredProgs_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANAB ANSI National Accreditation Board\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANAB+ANSI+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanab.ansi.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABTrainProgs-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABTrainProgs_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/training\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANAB Training Institute\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/training\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/training<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANAB+Training+Institute&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanab.ansi.org%2Ftraining&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FQSAcq-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FQSAcq_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FQSAcq_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(29 November 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-news\/ansi-asq-national-accreditation-board-acquires-fqs-112911.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board Acquires FQS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Quality Digest<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-news\/ansi-asq-national-accreditation-board-acquires-fqs-112911.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-news\/ansi-asq-national-accreditation-board-acquires-fqs-112911.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board+Acquires+FQS&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+Digest&amp;rft.aulast=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.au=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.date=29+November+2011&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qualitydigest.com%2Finside%2Fquality-insider-news%2Fansi-asq-national-accreditation-board-acquires-fqs-112911.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LABAcq-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABAcq_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABAcq_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABAcq_4-2\">4.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(28 December 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/news.thomasnet.com\/companystory\/anab-acquires-laboratory-accreditation-bureau-20052541\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANAB Acquires Laboratory Accreditation Bureau\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Thomas<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/news.thomasnet.com\/companystory\/anab-acquires-laboratory-accreditation-bureau-20052541\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/news.thomasnet.com\/companystory\/anab-acquires-laboratory-accreditation-bureau-20052541\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANAB+Acquires+Laboratory+Accreditation+Bureau&amp;rft.atitle=Thomas&amp;rft.aulast=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.au=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.date=28+December+2015&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.thomasnet.com%2Fcompanystory%2Fanab-acquires-laboratory-accreditation-bureau-20052541%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABSingle14-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-2\">5.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-3\">5.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle14_5-4\">5.4<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(13 November 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2014\/12\/ansiasq-national-accreditation-board-to-move-to-single-anab-brand-15\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board to Move to Single ANAB Brand\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2014\/12\/ansiasq-national-accreditation-board-to-move-to-single-anab-brand-15\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2014\/12\/ansiasq-national-accreditation-board-to-move-to-single-anab-brand-15<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board+to+Move+to+Single+ANAB+Brand&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.au=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.date=13+November+2014&amp;rft.pub=ANSI&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ansi.org%2Fnews%2Fstandards-news%2Fall-news%2F2014%2F12%2Fansiasq-national-accreditation-board-to-move-to-single-anab-brand-15&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BreitenbergQuest93-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BreitenbergQuest93_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BreitenbergQuest93_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BreitenbergQuest93_6-2\">6.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Breitenberg, Maureen&#32;(1993).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=gqUgJU9-Z-AC&pg=PA14\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Questions and Answers on Quality, the ISO 9000 Standard Series, Quality System Registration, and Related Issues<\/i><\/a>.&#32;National Institute of Standards and Technology.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780788104091<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=gqUgJU9-Z-AC&pg=PA14\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=gqUgJU9-Z-AC&amp;pg=PA14<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Questions+and+Answers+on+Quality%2C+the+ISO+9000+Standard+Series%2C+Quality+System+Registration%2C+and+Related+Issues&amp;rft.aulast=Breitenberg%2C+Maureen&amp;rft.au=Breitenberg%2C+Maureen&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&amp;rft.isbn=9780788104091&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgqUgJU9-Z-AC%26pg%3DPA14&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-StrattonWhat92-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-StrattonWhat92_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Stratton, John H.&#32;(1992).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-progress\/articles\/what-is-the-registrar-accreditation-board?id=73d6c5ab25cc475e8fa6a8a83e3a1883\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is the Registrar Accreditation Board?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Quality Progress<\/i>&#32;<b>25<\/b>&#32;(1): 67\u201369<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-progress\/articles\/what-is-the-registrar-accreditation-board?id=73d6c5ab25cc475e8fa6a8a83e3a1883\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-progress\/articles\/what-is-the-registrar-accreditation-board?id=73d6c5ab25cc475e8fa6a8a83e3a1883<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+the+Registrar+Accreditation+Board%3F&amp;rft.jtitle=Quality+Progress&amp;rft.aulast=Stratton%2C+John+H.&amp;rft.au=Stratton%2C+John+H.&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.volume=25&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=67%E2%80%9369&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasq.org%2Fquality-progress%2Farticles%2Fwhat-is-the-registrar-accreditation-board%3Fid%3D73d6c5ab25cc475e8fa6a8a83e3a1883&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LofgrenReg95-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LofgrenReg95_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Lofgren, George; Fortlage, Pail; Stranak, Barbara et al.&#32;(1995).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/articles\/registrar-accreditation-board-working-to-serve-us-business-and-industry?id=67ec804e077a43fd90dc3b2c8b27a16a\" target=\"_blank\">\"Registrar Accreditation Board: Working to serve U.S. business and industry\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Annual Quality Congress<\/i>&#32;<b>49<\/b>: 425\u2013433<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/articles\/registrar-accreditation-board-working-to-serve-us-business-and-industry?id=67ec804e077a43fd90dc3b2c8b27a16a\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/articles\/registrar-accreditation-board-working-to-serve-us-business-and-industry?id=67ec804e077a43fd90dc3b2c8b27a16a<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Registrar+Accreditation+Board%3A+Working+to+serve+U.S.+business+and+industry&amp;rft.jtitle=Annual+Quality+Congress&amp;rft.aulast=Lofgren%2C+George%3B+Fortlage%2C+Pail%3B+Stranak%2C+Barbara+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Lofgren%2C+George%3B+Fortlage%2C+Pail%3B+Stranak%2C+Barbara+et+al.&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.volume=49&amp;rft.pages=425%E2%80%93433&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasq.org%2Fquality-resources%2Farticles%2Fregistrar-accreditation-board-working-to-serve-us-business-and-industry%3Fid%3D67ec804e077a43fd90dc3b2c8b27a16a&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CharantimathTotal11-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CharantimathTotal11_9-0\">9.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CharantimathTotal11_9-1\">9.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Charantimath, Poornima M..&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=h7US1hlgV_IC&pg=PA566\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 18: Quality Audit\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Total Quality Management<\/i>&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.&#32;pp.&#160;546\u2013572.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9788131732625<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=h7US1hlgV_IC&pg=PA566\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=h7US1hlgV_IC&amp;pg=PA566<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+18%3A+Quality+Audit&amp;rft.atitle=Total+Quality+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Charantimath%2C+Poornima+M.&amp;rft.au=Charantimath%2C+Poornima+M.&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B546%E2%80%93572&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Dorling+Kindersley+%28India%29+Pvt.+Ltd&amp;rft.isbn=9788131732625&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh7US1hlgV_IC%26pg%3DPA566&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABHist-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABHist_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/anab.org\/about-anab\/history\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How and Why ANAB Came to Be\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;25 March 2009<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/anab.org\/about-anab\/history\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/anab.org\/about-anab\/history\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+and+Why+ANAB+Came+to+Be&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=25+March+2009&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanab.org%2Fabout-anab%2Fhistory%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WangRev10-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WangRev10_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Wang, Wego&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z3J8lrFKBJsC&pg=PA15\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Reverse Engineering: Technology of Reinvention<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Boca Raton, Florida:&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;357.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781439806319<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z3J8lrFKBJsC&pg=PA15\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z3J8lrFKBJsC&amp;pg=PA15<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 10 February 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Reverse+Engineering%3A+Technology+of+Reinvention&amp;rft.aulast=Wang%2C+Wego&amp;rft.au=Wang%2C+Wego&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B357&amp;rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+Florida&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781439806319&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz3J8lrFKBJsC%26pg%3DPA15&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABSingle2Vid-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle2Vid_12-0\">12.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSingle2Vid_12-1\">12.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board&#32;(13 January 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160206225118\/https:\/\/vimeo.com\/116691772\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board Moves to the Single ANAB Brand\"<\/a>.&#32;Vimeo, LLC.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/vimeo.com\/116691772\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 06 February 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160206225118\/https:\/\/vimeo.com\/116691772\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160206225118\/https:\/\/vimeo.com\/116691772<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board+Moves+to+the+Single+ANAB+Brand&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.au=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft.date=13+January+2015&amp;rft.pub=Vimeo%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160206225118%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fvimeo.com%2F116691772&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANSIANAB16-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_13-0\">13.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_13-1\">13.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2016\/04\/anab-and-ascldlab-merge-forensics-operations-22\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANAB and ASCLD\/LAB Merge Forensics Operations\"<\/a>.&#32;American National Standards Institute.&#32;22 April 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2016\/04\/anab-and-ascldlab-merge-forensics-operations-22\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news\/standards-news\/all-news\/2016\/04\/anab-and-ascldlab-merge-forensics-operations-22<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANAB+and+ASCLD%2FLAB+Merge+Forensics+Operations&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=22+April+2016&amp;rft.pub=American+National+Standards+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ansi.org%2Fnews%2Fstandards-news%2Fall-news%2F2016%2F04%2Fanab-and-ascldlab-merge-forensics-operations-22&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANAB17020Forensics-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANAB17020Forensics_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/inspection-body-accreditation\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17020 Inspection Body Accreditation: How It Works\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/inspection-body-accreditation\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/inspection-body-accreditation<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17020+Inspection+Body+Accreditation%3A+How+It+Works&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanab.ansi.org%2Finspection-body-accreditation&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANAB17025Forensics-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANAB17025Forensics_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/en\/forensic-accreditation\/iso-iec-17025-forensic-labs\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025 Forensic Accreditation\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/en\/forensic-accreditation\/iso-iec-17025-forensic-labs\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/en\/forensic-accreditation\/iso-iec-17025-forensic-labs<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025+Forensic+Accreditation&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanab.ansi.org%2Fen%2Fforensic-accreditation%2Fiso-iec-17025-forensic-labs&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LABRecog-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABRecog_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160305224323\/http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/about-lab\/lab-recognition\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"L-A-B Recognition\"<\/a>.&#32;Lab Accreditation Bureau.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/about-lab\/lab-recognition\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 05 March 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160305224323\/http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/about-lab\/lab-recognition\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160305224323\/http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/about-lab\/lab-recognition\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=L-A-B+Recognition&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Lab+Accreditation+Bureau&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160305224323%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fl-a-b.com%2Fabout-lab%2Flab-recognition%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABAccredProgsGen-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABAccredProgsGen_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANAB Home\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/anab.ansi.org\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANAB+Home&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanab.ansi.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABOnsite-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABOnsite_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.floridahealth.gov\/programs-and-services\/public-health-laboratories\/laboratory-services\/environmental-laboratory-certification\/env-lab-cert-faq.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Frequently Asked Questions about the Contracting of On-site Assessments\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Florida Health<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.floridahealth.gov\/programs-and-services\/public-health-laboratories\/laboratory-services\/environmental-laboratory-certification\/env-lab-cert-faq.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.floridahealth.gov\/programs-and-services\/public-health-laboratories\/laboratory-services\/environmental-laboratory-certification\/env-lab-cert-faq.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions+about+the+Contracting+of+On-site+Assessments&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Florida+Health&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.floridahealth.gov%2Fprograms-and-services%2Fpublic-health-laboratories%2Flaboratory-services%2Fenvironmental-laboratory-certification%2Fenv-lab-cert-faq.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABRule11-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABRule11_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/complaints.anab.org\/media\/45826\/ar11.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Accreditation Rule 11\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;1 January 2014.&#32;pp. 2<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/complaints.anab.org\/media\/45826\/ar11.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/complaints.anab.org\/media\/45826\/ar11.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 February 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Accreditation+Rule+11&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=1+January+2014&amp;rft.pages=pp.+2&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcomplaints.anab.org%2Fmedia%2F45826%2Far11.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANABSymbol-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANABSymbol_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/search.anab.org\/media\/2024\/aclass-fqs-guidance-symbol-mra-mark-usage.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Guidance on Use of the ACLASS and FQS Accreditation Symbol and ILAC Laboratory Combined MRA Mark\"<\/a>.&#32;ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board.&#32;1 August 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/search.anab.org\/media\/2024\/aclass-fqs-guidance-symbol-mra-mark-usage.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/search.anab.org\/media\/2024\/aclass-fqs-guidance-symbol-mra-mark-usage.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 February 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Guidance+on+Use+of+the+ACLASS+and+FQS+Accreditation+Symbol+and+ILAC+Laboratory+Combined+MRA+Mark&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=1+August+2012&amp;rft.pub=ANSI-ASQ+National+Accreditation+Board&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.anab.org%2Fmedia%2F2024%2Faclass-fqs-guidance-symbol-mra-mark-usage.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171705\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.279 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.320 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 13200\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 88700\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 35185\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 32483\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 273.307 1 -total\n 99.19% 271.097 1 Template:Reflist\n 71.64% 195.788 20 Template:Citation\/core\n 54.18% 148.091 15 Template:Cite_web\n 20.73% 56.666 3 Template:Cite_book\n 9.84% 26.902 8 Template:Date\n 9.79% 26.748 2 Template:Cite_journal\n 7.10% 19.397 3 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 5.09% 13.917 25 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 1.89% 5.161 6 Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:7953-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171704 and revision id 45458. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_images":[],"da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4_timestamp":1704907024,"f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_type":"article","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_title":"40 CFR Part 3","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_plaintext":"\n\n40 CFR Part 3From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchThe Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations Part 3 (40 CFR Part 3) \u2014 sometimes referred to as the Cross-Media Electronic Reporting Rule (CROMERR) \u2014 provides for electronic reporting (in lieu of a paper document) to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Within this part, requirements are created to ensure that electronic reporting to the EPA is enacted in a satisfactory way to satisfy federal or authorized program reporting requirements, including those requiring an electronic signature.&#91;1&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Structure \n\n2.1 Subpart A \n2.2 Subpart B \n2.3 Subpart C \n2.4 Subpart D \n\n\n3 Central Data Exchange \n4 Further reading \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nOn August 31, 2001, the EPA \"published a notice of proposed rulemaking, announcing the goal of making electronic reporting and electronic recordkeeping available under EPA regulatory programs.\"&#91;2&#93; However, the EPA had been working on plans related to such a proposal (referred to as Cross-Media Electronic Reporting) well before, stating in its review of its final rule that the process actually \"reflects more than ten years of interaction with stakeholders,\" including \"electronic reporting pilot projects conducted with state agency partners, including the States of Pennsylvania, New York, Arizona, and several others.\"&#91;2&#93; This also involved collaboration with more than half of U.S. states in May 1997 on the State Electronic Commerce\/Electronic Data Interchange Steering Committee (SEES) and a series of conferences starting in 1999 to acquire stakeholders' thoughts. Public commenting closed on February 27, 2002, with the EPA receiving 184 collection of written comments. The EPA made additional adjustments to the proposal, which culminated in a final version of CROMERR that was codified into Title 40 as Part 3 on October 13, 2005 and made effective January 11, 2006.&#91;2&#93;\nOn December 24, 2008, minor adjustments were made to CROMERR that extended compliance dates for existing systems making the transition to electronic filing to the EPA.&#91;3&#93;\n\nStructure \nThe structure of Part 3 is as follows:\nSubpart A \u2014 General Provisions\n\n\u00a7 3.1 Who does this part apply to?\n\u00a7 3.2 How does this part provide for electronic reporting?\n\u00a7 3.3 What definitions are applicable to this part?\n\u00a7 3.4 How does this part affect enforcement and compliance provisions of Title 40?\nSubpart B \u2014 Electronic Reporting to EPA\n\n\u00a7 3.10 What are the requirements for electronic reporting to EPA?\n\u00a7 3.20 How will EPA provide notice of changes to the Central Data Exchange?\nSubpart C \u2014 [Reserved]\nSubpart D \u2014 Electronic Reporting Under EPA-Authorized State, Tribe, and Local Programs\n\n\u00a7 3.1000 How does a state, tribe, or local government revise or modify its authorized program to allow electronic reporting?\n\u00a7 3.2000 What are the requirements authorized state, tribe, and local programs' reporting systems must meet?\nAppendix 1 to Part 3 Priority Reports\nSubpart A \nThis is essentially the preamble of the regulations, explaining to what and who the regulations apply as well as how they'll apply. Definitions of common terms appearing in the regulations can also be found here, including a description of electronic signature devices.\n\nSubpart B \nThis section covers the requirements applicable to electronic record formats and their submission to the EPA's Central Data Exchange (CDX) or other related EPA systems. It also provides guidelines on how the EPA will notify CDX users of hardware and software changes that affect transmission.\n\nSubpart C \nSubpart C is blank, \"reserved for future EPA electronic recordkeeping requirements.\"&#91;2&#93;\n\nSubpart D \nThis final section provides in-depth requirements for revising state, local, and tribal government programs for electronic submissions as well as outlining the reporting system requirements. In particular it lays out a list of requirements for data generated from electronic document receiving systems, including security, audit trail, quality control, and electronic signatures.\n\nCentral Data Exchange \nThe EPA's Central Data Exchange (CDX) is used by EPA offices, local and state governments, private industries, and Indian tribes required to submit environmental data related to more than 60 programs in the United States, including the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program, the RadNet program, and the Verify engine and vehicle compliance program.&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93; The EPA touts CDX as an important component of operations as well as meeting 40 CFR Part 3 compliance, claiming reductions in reporting burdens, cost, and data transfer times as well as increases in data quality and compliance.&#91;6&#93;\nAs of mid-February 2015, the CDX had more than 296,000 registered users submitting data to 63 data feeds, with 10 additional data flows in development.&#91;7&#93;\n\nFurther reading \nEPA CROMERR portal\nCROMERR Fact Sheet (PDF)\n\"Cross-Media Electronic Reporting\".&#32;Federal Register.&#32;OFR\/GPO.&#32;13 October 2005.&#32;https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting . &#160; \n\"CROMERR 101: Fundamentals for States, Tribes, and Local Governments\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf . &#160; \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 40: Protection of Environment - Part 3: Cross-media Electronic Reporting\".&#32;U.S. Government Printing Office.&#32;13 April 2020.&#32;https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 \"Cross-Media Electronic Reporting\".&#32;Federal Register.&#32;OFR\/GPO.&#32;13 October 2005.&#32;https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"CROMERR 101: Fundamentals for States, Tribes, and Local Governments\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;August 2015.&#32;https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"About CDX\".&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;https:\/\/cdx.epa.gov\/About\/AboutRegulation .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Production Data Flows\".&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 17 October 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017114023\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"CDX Benefits\".&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 21 February 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150221135646\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Central Data Exchange\".&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 09 February 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209185915\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/ .&#32;Retrieved 09 February 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3<\/a>\nCategory: Regulatory informationNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 January 2022, at 20:45.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 12,512 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-40_CFR_Part_3 rootpage-40_CFR_Part_3 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">40 CFR Part 3<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>The <b>Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations Part 3<\/b> (<b>40 CFR Part 3<\/b>) \u2014 sometimes referred to as the Cross-Media Electronic Reporting Rule (CROMERR) \u2014 provides for electronic reporting (in lieu of a paper document) to the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"877b052e12328aa52f6f7c3f2d56f99a\">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<\/a> (EPA). Within this part, requirements are created to ensure that electronic reporting to the EPA is enacted in a satisfactory way to satisfy federal or authorized program reporting requirements, including those requiring an electronic signature.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>On August 31, 2001, the EPA \"published a notice of proposed rulemaking, announcing the goal of making electronic reporting and electronic recordkeeping available under EPA regulatory programs.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70FR59848_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70FR59848-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, the EPA had been working on plans related to such a proposal (referred to as Cross-Media Electronic Reporting) well before, stating in its review of its final rule that the process actually \"reflects more than ten years of interaction with stakeholders,\" including \"electronic reporting pilot projects conducted with state agency partners, including the States of Pennsylvania, New York, Arizona, and several others.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70FR59848_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70FR59848-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This also involved collaboration with more than half of U.S. states in May 1997 on the State Electronic Commerce\/Electronic Data Interchange Steering Committee (SEES) and a series of conferences starting in 1999 to acquire stakeholders' thoughts. Public commenting closed on February 27, 2002, with the EPA receiving 184 collection of written comments. The EPA made additional adjustments to the proposal, which culminated in a final version of CROMERR that was codified into Title 40 as Part 3 on October 13, 2005 and made effective January 11, 2006.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70FR59848_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70FR59848-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On December 24, 2008, minor adjustments were made to CROMERR that extended compliance dates for existing systems making the transition to electronic filing to the EPA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CROMERRTrain_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CROMERRTrain-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The structure of Part 3 is as follows:\n<\/p><p><b>Subpart A \u2014 General Provisions<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 3.1 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">Who does this part apply to?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.2 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">How does this part provide for electronic reporting?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.3 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">What definitions are applicable to this part?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.4 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">How does this part affect enforcement and compliance provisions of Title 40?<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart B \u2014 Electronic Reporting to EPA<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 3.10 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">What are the requirements for electronic reporting to EPA?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.20 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">How will EPA provide notice of changes to the Central Data Exchange?<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart C \u2014 [Reserved]<\/b>\n<\/p><p><b>Subpart D \u2014 Electronic Reporting Under EPA-Authorized State, Tribe, and Local Programs<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 3.1000 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">How does a state, tribe, or local government revise or modify its authorized program to allow electronic reporting?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.2000 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">What are the requirements authorized state, tribe, and local programs' reporting systems must meet?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>Appendix 1 to Part 3 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">Priority Reports<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_A\">Subpart A<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This is essentially the preamble of the regulations, explaining to what and who the regulations apply as well as how they'll apply. Definitions of common terms appearing in the regulations can also be found here, including a description of electronic signature devices.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_B\">Subpart B<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section covers the requirements applicable to electronic record formats and their submission to the EPA's Central Data Exchange (CDX) or other related EPA systems. It also provides guidelines on how the EPA will notify CDX users of hardware and software changes that affect transmission.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_C\">Subpart C<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Subpart C is blank, \"reserved for future EPA electronic recordkeeping requirements.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70FR59848_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70FR59848-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_D\">Subpart D<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This final section provides in-depth requirements for revising state, local, and tribal government programs for electronic submissions as well as outlining the reporting system requirements. In particular it lays out a list of requirements for data generated from electronic document receiving systems, including security, audit trail, quality control, and electronic signatures.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Central_Data_Exchange\">Central Data Exchange<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The EPA's Central Data Exchange (CDX) is used by EPA offices, local and state governments, private industries, and Indian tribes required to submit environmental data related to more than 60 programs in the United States, including the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program, the RadNet program, and the Verify engine and vehicle compliance program.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDXAbout_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDXAbout-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDXProd_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDXProd-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The EPA touts CDX as an important component of operations as well as meeting 40 CFR Part 3 compliance, claiming reductions in reporting burdens, cost, and data transfer times as well as increases in data quality and compliance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDXBenis_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDXBenis-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As of mid-February 2015, the CDX had more than 296,000 registered users submitting data to 63 data feeds, with 10 additional data flows in development.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDXArchFeb15_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDXArchFeb15-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cromerr\" target=\"_blank\">EPA CROMERR portal<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nepis.epa.gov\/Exe\/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P10072YW.TXT\" target=\"_blank\">CROMERR Fact Sheet<\/a> (PDF)<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cross-Media Electronic Reporting\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Federal Register<\/i>.&#32;OFR\/GPO.&#32;13 October 2005<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cross-Media+Electronic+Reporting&amp;rft.atitle=Federal+Register&amp;rft.date=13+October+2005&amp;rft.pub=OFR%2FGPO&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.federalregister.gov%2Fdocuments%2F2005%2F10%2F13%2F05-19601%2Fcross-media-electronic-reporting&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CROMERR 101: Fundamentals for States, Tribes, and Local Governments\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CROMERR+101%3A+Fundamentals+for+States%2C+Tribes%2C+and+Local+Governments&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fsites%2Fproduction%2Ffiles%2F2015-08%2Fdocuments%2Fcromerr_101_course_summary.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 40: Protection of Environment - Part 3: Cross-media Electronic Reporting\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Government Printing Office.&#32;13 April 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-40\/part-3<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Electronic+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+40%3A+Protection+of+Environment+-+Part+3%3A+Cross-media+Electronic+Reporting&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=13+April+2020&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcurrent%2Ftitle-40%2Fpart-3&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-70FR59848-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-70FR59848_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-70FR59848_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-70FR59848_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-70FR59848_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cross-Media Electronic Reporting\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Federal Register<\/i>.&#32;OFR\/GPO.&#32;13 October 2005<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cross-Media+Electronic+Reporting&amp;rft.atitle=Federal+Register&amp;rft.date=13+October+2005&amp;rft.pub=OFR%2FGPO&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.federalregister.gov%2Fdocuments%2F2005%2F10%2F13%2F05-19601%2Fcross-media-electronic-reporting&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CROMERRTrain-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CROMERRTrain_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CROMERR 101: Fundamentals for States, Tribes, and Local Governments\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;August 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2015-08\/documents\/cromerr_101_course_summary.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CROMERR+101%3A+Fundamentals+for+States%2C+Tribes%2C+and+Local+Governments&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=August+2015&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2015-08%2Fdocuments%2Fcromerr_101_course_summary.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDXAbout-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDXAbout_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cdx.epa.gov\/About\/AboutRegulation\" target=\"_blank\">\"About CDX\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cdx.epa.gov\/About\/AboutRegulation\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cdx.epa.gov\/About\/AboutRegulation<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+CDX&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdx.epa.gov%2FAbout%2FAboutRegulation&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDXProd-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDXProd_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017114023\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Production Data Flows\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 17 October 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017114023\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017114023\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Production+Data+Flows&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20141017114023%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcdx%2Fprojects%2Fproduction.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDXBenis-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDXBenis_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150221135646\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"CDX Benefits\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 21 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150221135646\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150221135646\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CDX+Benefits&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150221135646%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcdx%2Fbenefits%2Findex.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDXArchFeb15-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDXArchFeb15_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209185915\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Central Data Exchange\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 09 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209185915\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209185915\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 09 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Central+Data+Exchange&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150209185915%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcdx%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171704\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.135 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.156 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5777\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 35228\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 15857\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 9960\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_images":[],"f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_timestamp":1704907024,"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_type":"article","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_title":"21 CFR Part 11","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_plaintext":"\n\n21 CFR Part 11From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchThe Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations Part 11 (21 CFR Part 11) provides compliance information regarding the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) guidelines on electronic records and electronic signatures. Within this part, requirements are created to help ensure security, integrity, and confidentially of electronic records and to ensure electronic signatures are as legally binding as hand-written signatures.&#91;1&#93;\nPractically speaking, Part 11 requires drug makers, medical device manufacturers, biotech and biologics companies, contract research organizations, and other FDA-regulated industries, with some specific exceptions, to implement controls, including audits, system validations, audit trails, electronic signatures, and documentation for closed and open software and systems involved in processing specific electronic data. This primarily includes data to be maintained by the FDA predicate rules and data used to demonstrate compliance to a predicate rule. (A predicate rule is any requirement set forth in the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, the Public Health Service Act, or any FDA regulation other than Part 11.&#91;2&#93;) The rule also applies to submissions made to the FDA in electronic format, but not to paper submissions by electronic methods, though paper submissions may eventually be prohibited by the FDA.&#91;3&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Structure \n\n2.1 Subpart A \n2.2 Subpart B \n2.3 Subpart C \n\n\n3 Audit guidelines and checklist \n4 Further reading \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nBy the early 1990s, food and drug manufacturers approached the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) about the possibility of electronic submissions with electronic signatures. However, at that time the government did not allow for digital signatures. In July 1992, the FDA began soliciting comments about the process of using electronic signatures.&#91;4&#93;\nIn March 1997, the FDA issued Part 11 regulations which, in the words of the FDA, were \"intended to permit the widest possible use of electronic technology, compatible with FDA's responsibility to protect the public health.\"&#91;2&#93; Various keynote speeches by FDA insiders early in the 21st century (in addition to compliance guides and draft guidance documents)&#91;2&#93; as well as strong efforts by the FDA to motivate industry to move to e-filing&#91;5&#93; resulted in many companies like Eli Lilly&#91;6&#93;, Agilent Technologies&#91;7&#93;, and other businesses rapidly being forced to change their methods and systems to adapt to the new standards.&#91;2&#93;&#91;8&#93;\nHowever, many entities expressed concerns about the Title 11 conditions, including concerns the regulations would \"unnecessarily restrict\" the use of technology, add significant compliance costs beyond what was intended, and stifle technological innovation while reducing public health benefit.&#91;2&#93; In November 2002, the FDA released the guidance document \"Guidance for Industry 21 CFR Part 11; Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures, Electronic Copies of Electronic Records\" to the public for commenting.&#91;9&#93; On February 3, 2003, the FDA withdrew that document, stating \"we wanted to minimize industry time spent reviewing and commenting on the draft guidance when that draft guidance may no longer represent our approach under the [current good manufacturing practice] initiative,\" adding it would afterwards \"intend to exercise enforcement discretion with regard to certain Part 11 requirements.\"&#91;2&#93; Further guidance documents were withdrawn later that month, culminating in a final guidance document in August 2003 stating the government body would re-examine Part 11 and make necessary changes.&#91;2&#93;&#91;10&#93; However, the FDA reiterated despite its retraction of the guidance documents \"21 CFR Part 11 is not going away, and neither is the agency's demand for electronic record integrity.\"&#91;11&#93; The retraction of guidance and change in policy, however, led many IT members in the pharmaceutical and life sciences industry in late 2004 to state one of the key problems they face as the lack of clear guidelines from the FDA about what is required for compliance.&#91;12&#93;\nThe FDA had indicated it would produce a revised version of Part 11 by the end of 2006, after its Third Annual FDA Information Management Summit had concluded.&#91;13&#93; Those revisions never arrived, and little in the way of updates on the topic arrived.&#91;14&#93; On July 8, 2010, the FDA announced it would begin to audit facilities working with drugs \"in an effort to evaluate industry's compliance and understanding of Part 11 in light of the enforcement discretion,\"&#91;15&#93; leaving some to wonder if this was an indicator the regulation and\/or its guidance would finally see a revision.&#91;16&#93;&#91;17&#93;\nWith an increase in violations of data integrity in current good manufacturing practice (CGMP) inspections in the mid-2010s, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration eventually issued draft guidance in April 2016 for implementing the data integrity requirements of 21 CFR Parts 210\u2013212, as well as clarifying how electronic signature and record-keeping requirements in 21 CFR Part 11 apply.&#91;18&#93; That guidance was finalized in December 2018, encouraging firms to \"implement meaningful and effective strategies to manage their data integrity risks based on their process understanding and knowledge management of technologies and business models.\"&#91;19&#93;\n\nStructure \nThe structure of Part 11 is as follows:\nSubpart A \u2014 General Provisions\n\n\u00a7 11.1 Scope\n\u00a7 11.2 Implementation\n\u00a7 11.3 Definitions\nSubpart B \u2014 Electronic Records\n\n\u00a7 11.10 Controls for closed systems\n\u00a7 11.30 Controls for open systems\n\u00a7 11.50 Signature manifestations\n\u00a7 11.70 Signature\/record linking\nSubpart C \u2014 Electronic Signatures\n\n\u00a7 11.100 General requirements\n\u00a7 11.200 Electronic signature components and controls\n\u00a7 11.300 Controls for identification codes\/passwords\nSubpart A \nThis is essentially the preamble of the regulations, explaining to what and who the regulations apply as well as how they'll apply. Definitions of common terms appearing in the regulations can also be found here, including a clarification in the difference between a digital and electronic signature.\n\nSubpart B \nThis section covers the requirements applicable to electronic records and their management. Several requirements are addressed, including \"how to ensure the authenticity, integrity, and, when appropriate, the confidentiality of electronic records\"; what content a signature should contain; and how electronic records and their signatures should be linked. It also covers topics like system validation, data traceability, audit control, and version control. \n\nSubpart C \nThis final section addresses the requirements specific to electronic signatures and their use. General requirements for electronic signatures, their components and controls, and password controls are all addressed. Additionally, this section addresses requirements for more advanced biometric-based signatures.\n\nAudit guidelines and checklist \nMain article: 21 CFR Part 11\/Audit guidelines and checklist\nFor those auditing computer systems and IT environments for their compliance with 21 CFR Part 11 and other regulations, a set of guidelines and checklist items may be useful. \n\r\n\nClick the link above for the full set of guidelines and checklist items.\n\nFurther reading \n\"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\".&#32;U.S. Government Printing Office.&#32;https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11 . &#160; \n\"CFR - Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21 - Part 11 Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=11 . &#160; \nHuber, L.&#32;(15 November 2012).&#32;\"Tutorial: 21 CFR Part 11 - Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures\".&#32;LabCompliance.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 03 January 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/ . &#160; \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\".&#32;U.S. Government Printing Office.&#32;13 April 2020.&#32;https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 \"Part 11, Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures \u2014 Scope and Application\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;August 2003.&#32;https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/part-11-electronic-records-electronic-signatures-scope-and-application .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Huber, L.&#32;(15 November 2012).&#32;\"Tutorial: 21 CFR Part 11 - Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures\".&#32;LabCompliance.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 03 January 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/ .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jackson, W.&#32;(1 June 2000).&#32;\"FDA offers electronic option\".&#32;GCN.&#32;https:\/\/gcn.com\/2000\/06\/fda-offers-electronic-option\/276201\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Greenemeier, L.&#32;(25 February 2002).&#32;\"FDA Moving To E-Filing\".&#32;InformationWeek.&#32;https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/fda-moving-to-e-filing .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Greenemeier, L.&#32;(18 February 2002).&#32;\"Lilly Cures Inefficiency With IT\".&#32;InformationWeek.&#32;https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/lilly-cures-inefficiency-with-it .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Agilent Introduces Security Pack for Analytical Laboratories\".&#32;Laboratory Network.&#32;20 June 2000.&#32;https:\/\/www.laboratorynetwork.com\/doc\/agilent-introduces-security-pack-for-analytic-0001 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Harrold, D.&#32;(1 April 2002).&#32;\"'I'm from the Government, and I'm Here to Help You!'\".&#32;Control Engineering.&#32;https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/im-from-the-government-and-im-here-to-help-you\/ .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Control Engineering Staff&#32;(3 January 2003).&#32;\"FDA releases 21 CFR Part 11 guidance document\".&#32;Control Engineering.&#32;https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/fda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document\/ .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"FDA plans to amend 21 CFR Part 11 rules\".&#32;Outsourcing-Pharma.&#32;4 September 2003.&#32;https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2003\/09\/05\/FDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 June, T.M.&#32;(July 2003).&#32;\"Quality Assurance, Safety and 21 CFR Part 11: These three old friends are here to stay\".&#32;Quality Digest.&#32;https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/july03\/articles\/04_article.shtml .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Complying with US Food and Drug Administration(FDA) data regulations is proving a struggle for IT departments in pharmaceutical and life science companies\".&#32;Storage Networking Solutions.&#32;17 November 2004.&#32;http:\/\/snseurope.info\/article\/12833\/Complying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration(FDA)-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies .&#32;Retrieved 06 April 2013 . &#160; &#91;dead link &#93; \n\n\u2191 Reymond, E.&#32;(24 October 2006).&#32;\"FDA to review electronic signature regulation\".&#32;Outsourcing-Pharma.&#32;https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2006\/10\/24\/FDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Miller, George&#32;(13 November 2009).&#32;\"Don't sweat the Part 11 stuff\".&#32;FierceBiotechIT.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 22 February 2010.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100222094358\/http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"FDA To Conduct Inspections Focusing on 21 CFR 11 (Part 11) requirements relating to human drugs\".&#32;U.S. FDA.&#32;8 July 2010.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 15 November 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171115154911\/https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Barsky, Emma; Grunbaum, Len&#32;(25 July 2010).&#32;\"Part 11: How Will FDA Enforce?\".&#32;GxP Perspectives.&#32;http:\/\/gxpperspectives.com\/2010\/07\/25\/part-11-how-will-fda-enforce\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 April 2013 . &#160; &#91;dead link &#93; \n\n\u2191 Appel, Ken&#32;(28 July 2010).&#32;\"Audit Alert! - Clarity on e-Records: FDA to Re-Evaluate 21 CFR 11\".&#32;Pharmaceutical Processing.&#32;http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/blogs\/2010\/07\/audit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11 .&#32;Retrieved 06 April 2013 . &#160; &#91;dead link &#93; \n\n\u2191 U.S. Food and Drug Administration&#32;(April 2016).&#32;\"Data Integrity and Compliance with CGMP Guidance for Industry - Draft Guidance\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/files\/drugs\/published\/Data-Integrity-and-Compliance-With-Current-Good-Manufacturing-Practice-Guidance-for-Industry.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 U.S. Food and Drug Administration&#32;(December 2018).&#32;\"Data Integrity and Compliance With Drug CGMP Questions and Answers Guidance for Industry\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/data-integrity-and-compliance-drug-cgmp-questions-and-answers-guidance-industry .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11<\/a>\nCategories: All articles with dead external linksArticles with dead external linksRegulatory informationNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 7 January 2022, at 23:27.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 59,238 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-21_CFR_Part_11 rootpage-21_CFR_Part_11 skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">21 CFR Part 11<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>The <b>Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations Part 11<\/b> (<b>21 CFR Part 11<\/b>) provides <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"Regulatory compliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca\">compliance<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> regarding the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) guidelines on electronic records and . Within this part, requirements are created to help ensure security, integrity, and confidentially of electronic records and to ensure electronic signatures are as legally binding as hand-written signatures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21CFR11.40ecfr_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21CFR11.40ecfr-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Practically speaking, Part 11 requires drug makers, medical device manufacturers, biotech and biologics companies, contract research organizations, and other FDA-regulated industries, with some specific exceptions, to implement controls, including audits, system validations, audit trails, electronic signatures, and documentation for closed and open software and systems involved in processing specific electronic data. This primarily includes data to be maintained by the FDA predicate rules and data used to demonstrate compliance to a predicate rule. (A predicate rule is any requirement set forth in the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, the Public Health Service Act, or any FDA regulation other than Part 11.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>) The rule also applies to submissions made to the FDA in electronic format, but not to paper submissions by electronic methods, though paper submissions may eventually be prohibited by the FDA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tut21CFR11_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tut21CFR11-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>By the early 1990s, food and drug manufacturers approached the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) about the possibility of electronic submissions with electronic signatures. However, at that time the government did not allow for digital signatures. In July 1992, the FDA began soliciting comments about the process of using electronic signatures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GCN00Art_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GCN00Art-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In March 1997, the FDA issued Part 11 regulations which, in the words of the FDA, were \"intended to permit the widest possible use of electronic technology, compatible with FDA's responsibility to protect the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_informatics\" title=\"Public health informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd\">public health<\/a>.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Various keynote speeches by FDA insiders early in the 21st century (in addition to compliance guides and draft guidance documents)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> as well as strong efforts by the FDA to motivate industry to move to e-filing<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IWEfilingFDA_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IWEfilingFDA-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> resulted in many companies like Eli Lilly<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IWLillyPart11_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IWLillyPart11-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Agilent_Technologies,_Inc.\" title=\"Agilent Technologies, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dcea1a676a012bcbe3af9562dd17f8a0\">Agilent Technologies<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabNetAgilent00_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabNetAgilent00-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, and other businesses rapidly being forced to change their methods and systems to adapt to the new standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CEPart11Art_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CEPart11Art-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, many entities expressed concerns about the Title 11 conditions, including concerns the regulations would \"unnecessarily restrict\" the use of technology, add significant compliance costs beyond what was intended, and stifle technological innovation while reducing public health benefit.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In November 2002, the FDA released the guidance document \"Guidance for Industry 21 CFR Part 11; Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures, Electronic Copies of Electronic Records\" to the public for commenting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CEGuideDocFDA1_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CEGuideDocFDA1-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> On February 3, 2003, the FDA withdrew that document, stating \"we wanted to minimize industry time spent reviewing and commenting on the draft guidance when that draft guidance may no longer represent our approach under the [current good manufacturing practice] initiative,\" adding it would afterwards \"intend to exercise enforcement discretion with regard to certain Part 11 requirements.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Further guidance documents were withdrawn later that month, culminating in a final guidance document in August 2003 stating the government body would re-examine Part 11 and make necessary changes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-inPharmaFDAFinal03_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-inPharmaFDAFinal03-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, the FDA reiterated despite its retraction of the guidance documents \"21 CFR Part 11 is not going away, and neither is the agency's demand for electronic record integrity.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QDPart11StillEnforced_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QDPart11StillEnforced-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The retraction of guidance and change in policy, however, led many IT members in the pharmaceutical and life sciences industry in late 2004 to state one of the key problems they face as the lack of clear guidelines from the FDA about what is required for compliance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SNSSurveyUKIT_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SNSSurveyUKIT-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The FDA had indicated it would produce a revised version of Part 11 by the end of 2006, after its Third Annual FDA <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">Information Management<\/a> Summit had concluded.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-inPharmaFDA2006_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-inPharmaFDA2006-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Those revisions never arrived, and little in the way of updates on the topic arrived.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FBFDA09_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FBFDA09-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> On July 8, 2010, the FDA announced it would begin to audit facilities working with drugs \"in an effort to evaluate industry's compliance and understanding of Part 11 in light of the enforcement discretion,\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDAAnnounceJul8_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDAAnnounceJul8-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> leaving some to wonder if this was an indicator the regulation and\/or its guidance would finally see a revision.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GxPEnforce_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GxPEnforce-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PharmProcEnforce_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PharmProcEnforce-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>With an increase in violations of data integrity in current good manufacturing practice (CGMP) inspections in the mid-2010s, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration eventually issued draft guidance in April 2016 for implementing the data integrity requirements of 21 CFR Parts 210\u2013212, as well as clarifying how electronic signature and record-keeping requirements in 21 CFR Part 11 apply.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDAData16_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDAData16-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup> That guidance was finalized in December 2018, encouraging firms to \"implement meaningful and effective strategies to manage their data integrity risks based on their process understanding and knowledge management of technologies and business models.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDAData18_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDAData18-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The structure of Part 11 is as follows:\n<\/p><p><b>Subpart A \u2014 General Provisions<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 11.1 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.1\" target=\"_blank\">Scope<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.2 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.2\" target=\"_blank\">Implementation<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.3 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.3\" target=\"_blank\">Definitions<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart B \u2014 Electronic Records<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 11.10 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.10\" target=\"_blank\">Controls for closed systems<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.30 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.30\" target=\"_blank\">Controls for open systems<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.50 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.50\" target=\"_blank\">Signature manifestations<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.70 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.70\" target=\"_blank\">Signature\/record linking<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart C \u2014 Electronic Signatures<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 11.100 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.100\" target=\"_blank\">General requirements<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.200 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.200\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic signature components and controls<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.300 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.300\" target=\"_blank\">Controls for identification codes\/passwords<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_A\">Subpart A<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This is essentially the preamble of the regulations, explaining to what and who the regulations apply as well as how they'll apply. Definitions of common terms appearing in the regulations can also be found here, including a clarification in the difference between a digital and electronic signature.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_B\">Subpart B<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section covers the requirements applicable to electronic records and their management. Several requirements are addressed, including \"how to ensure the authenticity, integrity, and, when appropriate, the confidentiality of electronic records\"; what content a signature should contain; and how electronic records and their signatures should be linked. It also covers topics like system validation, data traceability, audit control, and version control. \n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_C\">Subpart C<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This final section addresses the requirements specific to electronic signatures and their use. General requirements for electronic signatures, their components and controls, and password controls are all addressed. Additionally, this section addresses requirements for more advanced biometric-based signatures.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\">Audit guidelines and checklist<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"rellink relarticle mainarticle\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\/Audit guidelines and checklist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe02b08755967e133508d460928f12c2\">21 CFR Part 11\/Audit guidelines and checklist<\/a><\/div>\n<p>For those auditing computer systems and IT environments for their compliance with 21 CFR Part 11 and other regulations, a set of guidelines and checklist items may be useful. \n<br \/>\n<\/p><p>Click the link above for the full set of guidelines and checklist items.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Government Printing Office<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Electronic+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+21%3A+Food+and+Drugs+-+Part+11%3A+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcurrent%2Ftitle-21%2Fpart-11&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=11\" target=\"_blank\">\"CFR - Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21 - Part 11 Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=11\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=11<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CFR+-+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+21+-+Part+11+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcdrh%2Fcfdocs%2Fcfcfr%2Fcfrsearch.cfm%3Fcfrpart%3D11&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">Huber, L.&#32;(15 November 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tutorial: 21 CFR Part 11 - Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;LabCompliance.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 January 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Tutorial%3A+21+CFR+Part+11+-+Electronic+Records+and+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Huber%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Huber%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=15+November+2012&amp;rft.pub=LabCompliance&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20180103191244%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.labcompliance.com%2Ftutorial%2Fpart11%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-21CFR11.40ecfr-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-21CFR11.40ecfr_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Government Printing Office.&#32;13 April 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/part-11<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Electronic+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+21%3A+Food+and+Drugs+-+Part+11%3A+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=13+April+2020&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcurrent%2Ftitle-21%2Fpart-11&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-4\">2.4<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-5\">2.5<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-6\">2.6<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/part-11-electronic-records-electronic-signatures-scope-and-application\" target=\"_blank\">\"Part 11, Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures \u2014 Scope and Application\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;August 2003<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/part-11-electronic-records-electronic-signatures-scope-and-application\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/part-11-electronic-records-electronic-signatures-scope-and-application<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Part+11%2C+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures+%E2%80%94+Scope+and+Application&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=August+2003&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fregulatory-information%2Fsearch-fda-guidance-documents%2Fpart-11-electronic-records-electronic-signatures-scope-and-application&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Tut21CFR11-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Tut21CFR11_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Huber, L.&#32;(15 November 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tutorial: 21 CFR Part 11 - Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;LabCompliance.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 January 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180103191244\/http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Tutorial%3A+21+CFR+Part+11+-+Electronic+Records+and+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Huber%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Huber%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=15+November+2012&amp;rft.pub=LabCompliance&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20180103191244%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.labcompliance.com%2Ftutorial%2Fpart11%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GCN00Art-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GCN00Art_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jackson, W.&#32;(1 June 2000).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/gcn.com\/2000\/06\/fda-offers-electronic-option\/276201\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA offers electronic option\"<\/a>.&#32;GCN<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/gcn.com\/2000\/06\/fda-offers-electronic-option\/276201\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/gcn.com\/2000\/06\/fda-offers-electronic-option\/276201\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FDA+offers+electronic+option&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Jackson%2C+W.&amp;rft.au=Jackson%2C+W.&amp;rft.date=1+June+2000&amp;rft.pub=GCN&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgcn.com%2F2000%2F06%2Ffda-offers-electronic-option%2F276201%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IWEfilingFDA-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-IWEfilingFDA_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Greenemeier, L.&#32;(25 February 2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/fda-moving-to-e-filing\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA Moving To E-Filing\"<\/a>.&#32;InformationWeek<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/fda-moving-to-e-filing\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/fda-moving-to-e-filing<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FDA+Moving+To+E-Filing&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Greenemeier%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Greenemeier%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=25+February+2002&amp;rft.pub=InformationWeek&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2Fit-life%2Ffda-moving-to-e-filing&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IWLillyPart11-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-IWLillyPart11_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Greenemeier, L.&#32;(18 February 2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/lilly-cures-inefficiency-with-it\" target=\"_blank\">\"Lilly Cures Inefficiency With IT\"<\/a>.&#32;InformationWeek<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/lilly-cures-inefficiency-with-it\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/it-life\/lilly-cures-inefficiency-with-it<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Lilly+Cures+Inefficiency+With+IT&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Greenemeier%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Greenemeier%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=18+February+2002&amp;rft.pub=InformationWeek&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2Fit-life%2Flilly-cures-inefficiency-with-it&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LabNetAgilent00-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabNetAgilent00_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.laboratorynetwork.com\/doc\/agilent-introduces-security-pack-for-analytic-0001\" target=\"_blank\">\"Agilent Introduces Security Pack for Analytical Laboratories\"<\/a>.&#32;Laboratory Network.&#32;20 June 2000<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.laboratorynetwork.com\/doc\/agilent-introduces-security-pack-for-analytic-0001\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.laboratorynetwork.com\/doc\/agilent-introduces-security-pack-for-analytic-0001<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Agilent+Introduces+Security+Pack+for+Analytical+Laboratories&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=20+June+2000&amp;rft.pub=Laboratory+Network&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.laboratorynetwork.com%2Fdoc%2Fagilent-introduces-security-pack-for-analytic-0001&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CEPart11Art-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CEPart11Art_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Harrold, D.&#32;(1 April 2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/im-from-the-government-and-im-here-to-help-you\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"'I'm from the Government, and I'm Here to Help You!'\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Control Engineering<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/im-from-the-government-and-im-here-to-help-you\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/im-from-the-government-and-im-here-to-help-you\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=%27I%27m+from+the+Government%2C+and+I%27m+Here+to+Help+You%21%27&amp;rft.atitle=Control+Engineering&amp;rft.aulast=Harrold%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Harrold%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=1+April+2002&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.controleng.com%2Farticles%2Fim-from-the-government-and-im-here-to-help-you%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CEGuideDocFDA1-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CEGuideDocFDA1_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Control Engineering Staff&#32;(3 January 2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/fda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA releases 21 CFR Part 11 guidance document\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Control Engineering<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/fda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.controleng.com\/articles\/fda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FDA+releases+21+CFR+Part+11+guidance+document&amp;rft.atitle=Control+Engineering&amp;rft.aulast=Control+Engineering+Staff&amp;rft.au=Control+Engineering+Staff&amp;rft.date=3+January+2003&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.controleng.com%2Farticles%2Ffda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-inPharmaFDAFinal03-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-inPharmaFDAFinal03_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2003\/09\/05\/FDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA plans to amend 21 CFR Part 11 rules\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Outsourcing-Pharma<\/i>.&#32;4 September 2003<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2003\/09\/05\/FDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2003\/09\/05\/FDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FDA+plans+to+amend+21+CFR+Part+11+rules&amp;rft.atitle=Outsourcing-Pharma&amp;rft.date=4+September+2003&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.outsourcing-pharma.com%2FArticle%2F2003%2F09%2F05%2FFDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-QDPart11StillEnforced-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-QDPart11StillEnforced_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">June, T.M.&#32;(July 2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/july03\/articles\/04_article.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quality Assurance, Safety and 21 CFR Part 11: These three old friends are here to stay\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Quality Digest<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/july03\/articles\/04_article.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/july03\/articles\/04_article.shtml<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Quality+Assurance%2C+Safety+and+21+CFR+Part+11%3A+These+three+old+friends+are+here+to+stay&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+Digest&amp;rft.aulast=June%2C+T.M.&amp;rft.au=June%2C+T.M.&amp;rft.date=July+2003&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qualitydigest.com%2Fjuly03%2Farticles%2F04_article.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SNSSurveyUKIT-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SNSSurveyUKIT_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/snseurope.info\/article\/12833\/Complying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration(FDA)-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies\" target=\"_blank\">\"Complying with US Food and Drug Administration(FDA) data regulations is proving a struggle for IT departments in pharmaceutical and life science companies\"<\/a>.&#32;Storage Networking Solutions.&#32;17 November 2004<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/snseurope.info\/article\/12833\/Complying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration(FDA)-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/snseurope.info\/article\/12833\/Complying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration(FDA)-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Complying+with+US+Food+and+Drug+Administration%28FDA%29+data+regulations+is+proving+a+struggle+for+IT+departments+in+pharmaceutical+and+life+science+companies&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=17+November+2004&amp;rft.pub=Storage+Networking+Solutions&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsnseurope.info%2Farticle%2F12833%2FComplying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration%28FDA%29-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">&#91;<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Wikipedia:Link rot\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\"\">dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>&#93;<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-inPharmaFDA2006-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-inPharmaFDA2006_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Reymond, E.&#32;(24 October 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2006\/10\/24\/FDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA to review electronic signature regulation\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Outsourcing-Pharma<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2006\/10\/24\/FDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.outsourcing-pharma.com\/Article\/2006\/10\/24\/FDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FDA+to+review+electronic+signature+regulation&amp;rft.atitle=Outsourcing-Pharma&amp;rft.aulast=Reymond%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Reymond%2C+E.&amp;rft.date=24+October+2006&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.outsourcing-pharma.com%2FArticle%2F2006%2F10%2F24%2FFDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FBFDA09-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FBFDA09_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Miller, George&#32;(13 November 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100222094358\/http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13\" target=\"_blank\">\"Don't sweat the Part 11 stuff\"<\/a>.&#32;FierceBiotechIT.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 22 February 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100222094358\/http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100222094358\/http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Don%27t+sweat+the+Part+11+stuff&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Miller%2C+George&amp;rft.au=Miller%2C+George&amp;rft.date=13+November+2009&amp;rft.pub=FierceBiotechIT&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20100222094358%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.fiercebiotechit.com%2Fstory%2Fdont-sweat-part-11-stuff%2F2009-11-13&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDAAnnounceJul8-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDAAnnounceJul8_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171115154911\/https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA To Conduct Inspections Focusing on 21 CFR 11 (Part 11) requirements relating to human drugs\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. FDA.&#32;8 July 2010.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 15 November 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171115154911\/https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171115154911\/https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FDA+To+Conduct+Inspections+Focusing+on+21+CFR+11+%28Part+11%29+requirements+relating+to+human+drugs&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=8+July+2010&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+FDA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20171115154911%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2FAboutFDA%2FCentersOffices%2FOfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco%2FCDER%2Fucm204012.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GxPEnforce-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GxPEnforce_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Barsky, Emma; Grunbaum, Len&#32;(25 July 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/gxpperspectives.com\/2010\/07\/25\/part-11-how-will-fda-enforce\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Part 11: How Will FDA Enforce?\"<\/a>.&#32;GxP Perspectives<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/gxpperspectives.com\/2010\/07\/25\/part-11-how-will-fda-enforce\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/gxpperspectives.com\/2010\/07\/25\/part-11-how-will-fda-enforce\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Part+11%3A+How+Will+FDA+Enforce%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Barsky%2C+Emma%3B+Grunbaum%2C+Len&amp;rft.au=Barsky%2C+Emma%3B+Grunbaum%2C+Len&amp;rft.date=25+July+2010&amp;rft.pub=GxP+Perspectives&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgxpperspectives.com%2F2010%2F07%2F25%2Fpart-11-how-will-fda-enforce%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">&#91;<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Wikipedia:Link rot\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\"\">dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>&#93;<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PharmProcEnforce-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PharmProcEnforce_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Appel, Ken&#32;(28 July 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/blogs\/2010\/07\/audit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11\" target=\"_blank\">\"Audit Alert! - Clarity on e-Records: FDA to Re-Evaluate 21 CFR 11\"<\/a>.&#32;Pharmaceutical Processing<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/blogs\/2010\/07\/audit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/blogs\/2010\/07\/audit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Audit+Alert%21+-+Clarity+on+e-Records%3A+FDA+to+Re-Evaluate+21+CFR+11&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Appel%2C+Ken&amp;rft.au=Appel%2C+Ken&amp;rft.date=28+July+2010&amp;rft.pub=Pharmaceutical+Processing&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pharmpro.com%2Fblogs%2F2010%2F07%2Faudit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">&#91;<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Wikipedia:Link rot\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\"\">dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>&#93;<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDAData16-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDAData16_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">U.S. Food and Drug Administration&#32;(April 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/files\/drugs\/published\/Data-Integrity-and-Compliance-With-Current-Good-Manufacturing-Practice-Guidance-for-Industry.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Integrity and Compliance with CGMP Guidance for Industry - Draft Guidance\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/files\/drugs\/published\/Data-Integrity-and-Compliance-With-Current-Good-Manufacturing-Practice-Guidance-for-Industry.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/files\/drugs\/published\/Data-Integrity-and-Compliance-With-Current-Good-Manufacturing-Practice-Guidance-for-Industry.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Integrity+and+Compliance+with+CGMP+Guidance+for+Industry+-+Draft+Guidance&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft.au=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft.date=April+2016&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Ffiles%2Fdrugs%2Fpublished%2FData-Integrity-and-Compliance-With-Current-Good-Manufacturing-Practice-Guidance-for-Industry.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDAData18-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDAData18_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">U.S. Food and Drug Administration&#32;(December 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/data-integrity-and-compliance-drug-cgmp-questions-and-answers-guidance-industry\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Integrity and Compliance With Drug CGMP Questions and Answers Guidance for Industry\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/data-integrity-and-compliance-drug-cgmp-questions-and-answers-guidance-industry\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/data-integrity-and-compliance-drug-cgmp-questions-and-answers-guidance-industry<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Integrity+and+Compliance+With+Drug+CGMP+Questions+and+Answers+Guidance+for+Industry&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft.au=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft.date=December+2018&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fregulatory-information%2Fsearch-fda-guidance-documents%2Fdata-integrity-and-compliance-drug-cgmp-questions-and-answers-guidance-industry&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110004018\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.305 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.428 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 15597\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 108206\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 49921\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 30979\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.060\/7 seconds\nLua virtual size: 5603328\/52428800 bytes\nLua estimated memory usage: 0 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 387.542 1 -total\n 87.13% 337.678 1 Template:Reflist\n 46.65% 180.776 22 Template:Cite_web\n 43.36% 168.047 22 Template:Citation\/core\n 41.84% 162.137 3 Template:Dead_link\n 40.52% 157.030 2 Template:Fix\n 34.32% 133.017 2 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_images":[],"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_timestamp":1704907024,"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_type":"article","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_title":"Workflow","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_plaintext":"\n\nWorkflowFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchPattern of activity often with a result\nWikimedia developer workflow\nAn IMRAD model for developing research articles\n\nA workflow is a generic term for orchestrated and repeatable patterns of activity, enabled by the systematic organization of resources into processes that transform materials, provide services, or process information.[1] It can be depicted as a sequence of operations, the work of a person or group,[2] the work of an organization of staff, or one or more simple or complex mechanisms.\nFrom a more abstract or higher-level perspective, workflow may be considered a view or representation of real work.[3] The flow being described may refer to a document, service, or product that is being transferred from one step to another.\nWorkflows may be viewed as one fundamental building block to be combined with other parts of an organization's structure such as information technology, teams, projects and hierarchies.[4]\n\n\n\nHistorical development \nThe development of the concept of a workflow occurred above a series of loosely defined, overlapping eras.\n\nBeginnings in manufacturing \nThe modern history of workflows can be traced to Frederick Taylor[5] and Henry Gantt, although the term \"workflow\" was not in use as such during their lifetimes.[6] One of the earliest instances of the term \"work flow\" was in a railway engineering journal from 1921.[7]\nTaylor and Gantt launched the study of the deliberate, rational organization of work, primarily in the context of manufacturing. This gave rise to time and motion studies.[8] Related concepts include job shops and queuing systems (Markov chains).[9][10]\nThe 1948 book Cheaper by the Dozen introduced the emerging concepts to the context of family life.\n\nMaturation and growth \nThe invention of the typewriter and the copier helped spread the study of the rational organization of labor from the manufacturing shop floor to the office. Filing systems and other sophisticated systems for managing physical information flows evolved. Several events likely contributed to the development of formalized information workflows. First, the field of optimization theory matured and developed mathematical optimization techniques. For example, Soviet mathematician and economist Leonid Kantorovich developed the seeds of linear programming in 1939 through efforts to solve a plywood manufacturer's production optimization issues.[11][12] Second, World War II and the Apollo program drove process improvement forward with their demands for the rational organization of work.[13][14][15]\n\nQuality era \nIn the post-war era, the work of W. Edwards Deming and Joseph M. Juran led to a focus on quality, first in Japanese companies, and more globally from the 1980s: there were various movements ranging from total quality management to Six Sigma, and then more qualitative notions of business process re-engineering.[16] This led to more efforts to improve workflows, in knowledge economy sectors as well as in manufacturing. Variable demands on workflows were recognised when the theory of critical paths and moving bottlenecks was considered.[17]\n\nWorkflow management \nBasu and Kumar note that the term \"workflow management\" has been used to refer to tasks associated with the flow of information through the value chain rather than the flow of material goods: they characterise the definition, analysis and management of information as \"workflow management\". They note that workflow can be managed within a single organisation, where distinct roles are allocated to individual resources, and also across multiple organisations or distributed locations, where attention needs to be paid to the interactions between activities which are located at the organizational or locational boundaries. The transmission of information from one organization to another is a critical issue in this inter-organizational context and raises the importance of tasks they describe as \"validation\", \"verification\" and \"data usage analysis\".[18]\n\nWorkflow management systems \nMain article: Workflow management system\nA workflow management system (WfMS) is a software system for setting up, performing, and monitoring a defined sequence of processes and tasks, with the broad goals of increasing productivity, reducing costs, becoming more agile, and improving information exchange within an organization.[19] These systems may be process-centric or data-centric, and they may represent the workflow as graphical maps. A workflow management system may also include an extensible interface so that external software applications can be integrated and provide support for wide area workflows that provide faster response times and improved productivity.[19]\n\nRelated concepts \nThe concept of workflow is closely related to several fields in operations research and other areas that study the nature of work, either quantitatively or qualitatively, such as artificial intelligence (in particular, the sub-discipline of AI planning) and ethnography. The term \"workflow\" is more commonly used in particular industries, such as in printing or professional domains such as clinical laboratories, where it may have particular specialized meanings.\n\nProcesses: A process is a more general notion than workflow and can apply to, for example, physical or biological processes, whereas a workflow is typically a process or collection of processes described in the context of work, such as all processes occurring in a machine shop.\nPlanning and scheduling: A plan is a description of the logically necessary, partially ordered set of activities required to accomplish a specific goal given certain starting conditions. A plan, when augmented with a schedule and resource allocation calculations, completely defines a particular instance of systematic processing in pursuit of a goal. A workflow may be viewed as an often optimal or near-optimal realization of the mechanisms required to execute the same plan repeatedly.[20]\nFlow control: This is a control concept applied to workflows, to distinguish from static control of buffers of material or orders, to mean a more dynamic control of flow speed and flow volumes in motion and in process. Such orientation to dynamic aspects is the basic foundation to prepare for more advanced job shop controls, such as just-in-time or just-in-sequence.\nIn-transit visibility: This monitoring concept applies to transported material as well as to work in process or work in progress, i.e., workflows.\nExamples \nBusiness Process Modelling\n\nThe following examples illustrate the variety of workflows seen in various contexts:\n\nIn machine shops, particularly job shops and flow shops, the flow of a part through the various processing stations is a workflow.\nInsurance claims processing is an example of an information-intensive, document-driven workflow.[21]\nWikipedia editing can be modeled as a stochastic workflow.\nThe Getting Things Done system is a model of personal workflow management for information workers.\nIn software development, support and other industries, the concept of follow-the-sun describes a process of passing unfinished work across time zones.[22]\nIn traditional offset and digital printing, the concept of workflow represents the process, people, and usually software technology (RIPs raster image processors or DFE digital front end) controllers that play a part in pre\/post processing of print-related files, e.g., PDF pre-flight checking to make certain that fonts are embedded or that the imaging output to plate or digital press will be able to render the document intent properly for the image-output capabilities of the press that will print the final image.\nIn scientific experiments, the overall process (tasks and data flow) can be described as a directed acyclic graph (DAG). This DAG is referred to as a workflow, e.g., Brain Imaging workflows.[23][24]\nIn healthcare data analysis, a workflow can be identified or used to represent a sequence of steps which compose a complex data analysis.[25][26]\nIn service-oriented architectures, an application can be represented through an executable workflow, where different, possibly geographically distributed, service components interact to provide the corresponding functionality under the control of a workflow management system.[27]\nIn shared services, an application can be in the practice of developing robotic process automation (called RPA or RPAAI for self-guided RPA 2.0 based on artificial intelligence) which results in the deployment of attended or unattended software agents to an organization's environment. These software agents, or robots, are deployed to perform pre-defined structured and repetitive sets of business tasks or processes. Artificial intelligence software robots are deployed to handle unstructured data sets and are deployed after performing and deploying robotic process automation.\nFeatures and phenomenology \nModeling: Workflow problems can be modeled and analyzed using graph-based formalisms like Petri nets.\nMeasurement: Many of the concepts used to measure scheduling systems in operations research are useful for measuring general workflows. These include throughput, processing time, and other regular metrics.\nSpecialized connotations: The term \"workflow\" has specialized connotations in information technology, document management, and imaging. Since 1993, one trade consortium specifically focused on workflow management and the interoperability of workflow management systems, the Workflow Management Coalition.[28]\nScientific workflow systems: These found wide acceptance in the fields of bioinformatics and cheminformatics in the early 2000s, when they met the need for multiple interconnected tools that handle multiple data formats and large data quantities. Also, the paradigm of scientific workflows resembles the well-established practice of Perl programming in life science research organizations, making this adoption a natural step towards more structured infrastructure setup.\nHuman-machine interaction: Several conceptualizations of mixed-initiative workflows have been studied, particularly in the military, where automated agents play roles just as humans do. For innovative, adaptive, and collaborative human work, the techniques of human interaction management are required.\nWorkflow analysis: Workflow systems allow users to develop executable processes with no familiarity with formal programming concepts. Automated workflow analysis techniques can help users analyze the properties of user workflows to conduct verification of certain properties before executing them, e.g., analyzing flow control or data flow. Examples of tools based on formal analysis frameworks have been developed and used for the analysis of scientific workflows and can be extended to the analysis of other types of workflows.[29]\nWorkflow improvement theories \nSeveral workflow improvement theories have been proposed and implemented in the modern workplace. These include:\n\nSix Sigma\nTotal Quality Management\nBusiness Process Reengineering\nLean systems\nTheory of Constraints\nEvaluation of resources, both physical and human, is essential to evaluate hand-off points and potential to create smoother transitions between tasks.[30]\n\nComponents \nA workflow can usually be described using formal or informal flow diagramming techniques, showing directed flows between processing steps. Single processing steps or components of a workflow can basically be defined by three parameters:\n\ninput description: the information, material and energy required to complete the step\ntransformation rules: algorithms which may be carried out by people or machines, or both\noutput description: the information, material, and energy produced by the step and provided as input to downstream steps\nComponents can only be plugged together if the output of one previous (set of) component(s) is equal to the mandatory input requirements of the following component(s). Thus, the essential description of a component actually comprises only input and output that are described fully in terms of data types and their meaning (semantics). The algorithms' or rules' descriptions need only be included when there are several alternative ways to transform one type of input into one type of output \u2013 possibly with different accuracy, speed, etc.\nWhen the components are non-local services that are invoked remotely via a computer network, such as Web services, additional descriptors (such as QoS and availability) also must be considered.[31]\n\nApplications \nMain article: Workflow application\n This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2018 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nMany software systems exist to support workflows in particular domains. Such systems manage tasks such as automatic routing, partially automated processing, and integration between different functional software applications and hardware systems that contribute to the value-addition process underlying the workflow. There are also software suppliers using the technology process driven messaging service based upon three elements:[citation needed ]\n\nStandard Objects\nWorkflow Objects\nWorkflow\nSee also \nBioinformatics workflow management systems\nBusiness process automation\nBusiness process management\nBusiness process modeling\nComputer-supported collaboration\nDRAKON visual language for business process modeling\nEnterprise content management\nProcess architecture\nProcess mining\nProcess-driven application\nWorkflow engine\nWorkforce modeling\nBusiness process reengineering\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"Business Process Management Center of Excellence Glossary\" (PDF) . 27 October 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 31 March 2015 . \n\n^ See e.g., ISO 12052:2006, ISO.org \n\n^ See e.g., ISO\/TR 16044:2004, ISO.org \n\n^ \"Work Flow Automation\". Archived from the original on 2013-09-07. Retrieved 31 March 2015 . \n\n^ Taylor, 1919 \n\n^ Ngram Viewer \n\n^ Lawrence Saunders; S. R. Blundstone (1921). The Railway Engineer. \n\n^ Michael Chatfield; Richard Vangermeersch (5 February 2014). The History of Accounting (RLE Accounting): An International Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp.&#160;269\u2013. ISBN&#160;978-1-134-67545-6. \n\n^ Michael L. Pinedo (7 January 2012). Scheduling: Theory, Algorithms, and Systems. Springer. ISBN&#160;978-1-4614-2361-4. \n\n^ Ngram Viewer \n\n^ Katseneliboigen, A. (1990). \"Chapter 17: Nobel and Lenin Prize Laureate L.V. Kantorovich: The Political Dilemma in Scientific Creativity\". The Soviet Union: Empire, Nation, and System. Transaction Publishers. pp.&#160;405\u2013424. ISBN&#160;978-0887383328. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Choudhury, K. (2002). \"Chapter 11: Leonid Kantorovich (1912\u20131986): A Pioneer of the Theory of Optimum Resource Allocation and a Laureate of 1975\". In Wahid, A.N.M. (ed.). Frontiers of Economics: Nobel Laureates of the Twentieth Century. Greenwood Press. pp.&#160;93\u201398. ISBN&#160;978-0313320736. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Smith, J.L. (July 2009). \"The History of Modern Quality\". PeoriaMagazines.com. Central Illinois Business Publishers, Inc. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Shrader, C.R. (2009). \"Chapter 9: ORSA and the Army, 1942\u20131995 - An Assessment\" (PDF) . History of Operations Research in the United States Army: Volume III, 1973\u20131995. Vol.&#160;3. United States Army. pp.&#160;277\u2013288. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Robins Jr., C.H. (2007). \"Program and Project Management Improvement Initiatives\" (PDF) . ASK Magazine. 26: 50\u201354. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-24. \n\n^ Michael Hammer; James Champy (13 October 2009). Reengineering the Corporation: Manifesto for Business Revolution, A. HarperCollins. ISBN&#160;978-0-06-180864-7. \n\n^ Goldratt, Eliyahu M.\"My saga to improve production.\" MANAGEMENT TODAY-LONDON- (1996). \n\n^ Basu, A. and Kumar, A., Research Commentary: Workflow Management Issues in e-Business, Information Systems Research, volume 13, no. 1, March 2002, pp. 1-14, accessed 1 December 2022 \n\n^ a b Elmagarmid, A.; Du, W. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Workflow Management: State of the Art Versus State of the Products\". In Do\u011fa\u00e7, A.; Kalinichenko, L.; \u00d6zsu, T.; Sheth, A. (eds.). Workflow Management Systems and Interoperability. Springer Science &amp; Business Media. pp.&#160;1\u201317. ISBN&#160;9783642589089. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ Artem M. Chirkin, Sergey V. Kovalchuk (2014). \"Towards Better Workflow Execution Time Estimation\". IERI Procedia. 10: 216\u2013223. doi:10.1016\/j.ieri.2014.09.080 . \n\n^ Havey, M. (2005). \"Chapter 10: Example: Human Workflow in Insurance Claims Processing\". Essential Business Process Modeling. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;255\u2013284. ISBN&#160;9780596008437. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ Follow-the-sun process \n\n^ Brain Image Registration Analysis Workflow for fMRI Studies on Global Grids, Computer.org \n\n^ A grid workflow environment for brain imaging analysis on distributed systems, Wiley.com \n\n^ Bj\u00f8rner, Thomas; Schr\u00f8der, Morten (23 August 2019). \"Advantages and challenges of using mobile ethnography in a hospital case study: WhatsApp as a method to identify perceptions and practices\". Qualitative Research in Medicine and Healthcare. 3 (2). doi:10.4081\/qrmh.2019.7795 . \n\n^ Huser, V.; Rasmussen, L. V.; Oberg, R.; Starren, J. B. (2011). \"Implementation of workflow engine technology to deliver basic clinical decision support functionality\". BMC Medical Research Methodology. 11: 43. doi:10.1186\/1471-2288-11-43 . PMC&#160;3079703 . PMID&#160;21477364. \n\n^ Service-Oriented Architecture and Business Process Choreography in an Order Management Scenario: Rationale, Concepts, Lessons Learned, ACM.org \n\n^ \"Introduction to the Workflow Management Coalition\". Workflow Management Coalition. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ Curcin, V.; Ghanem, M.; Guo, Y. (2010). \"The design and implementation of a workflow analysis tool\" (PDF) . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 368 (1926): 4193\u2013208. Bibcode:2010RSPTA.368.4193C. doi:10.1098\/rsta.2010.0157. PMID&#160;20679131. S2CID&#160;7997426. \n\n^ Alvord, Brice (2013). Creating A Performance Based Culture In Your Workplace. Lulu.com. ISBN&#160;978-1105576072. \n\n^ D. Kyriazis; et&#160;al. (June 2008). \"An innovative workflow mapping mechanism for Grids in the frame of Quality of Service\". Future Generation Computer Systems. 24 (6): 498\u2013511. doi:10.1016\/j.future.2007.07.009. \n\n\nFurther reading \nRyan K. L. Ko, Stephen S. G. Lee, Eng Wah Lee (2009) Business Process Management (BPM) Standards: A Survey. In: Business Process Management Journal, Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Volume 15 Issue 5. ISSN&#160;1463-7154. PDF\nKhalid Belhajjame, Christine Collet, Genoveva Vargas-Solar: A Flexible Workflow Model for Process-Oriented Applications. WISE (1) 2001, IEEE CS, 2001.\nLayna Fischer (ed.): 2007 BPM and Workflow Handbook, Future Strategies Inc., ISBN&#160;978-0-9777527-1-3\nLayna Fischer: Workflow Handbook 2005, Future Strategies, ISBN&#160;0-9703509-8-8\nLayna Fischer: Excellence in Practice, Volume V: Innovation and Excellence in Workflow and Business Process Management, ISBN&#160;0-9703509-5-3\nThomas L. Friedman: The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, ISBN&#160;0-374-29288-4\nKeith Harrison-Broninski. Human Interactions: The Heart and Soul of Business Process Management. ISBN&#160;0-929652-44-4\nHolly Yu: Content and Work Flow Management for Library Websites: Case Studies, Information Science Publishing, ISBN&#160;1-59140-534-3\nWil van der Aalst, Kees van Hee: Workflow Management: Models, Methods, and Systems, B&amp;T, ISBN&#160;0-262-72046-9\nSetrag Khoshafian, Marek Buckiewicz: Introduction to Groupware, Workflow and Workgroup Computing, John Wiley &amp; Sons, ISBN&#160;0-471-02946-7\nRashid N. Kahn: Understanding Workflow Automation: A Guide to Enhancing Customer Loyalty, Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-061918-3\nDan C. Marinescu: Internet-Based Workflow Management: Towards a Semantic Web, John Wiley &amp; Sons, ISBN&#160;0-471-43962-2\nFrank Leymann, Dieter Roller: Production Workflow: Concepts and Techniques, Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-021753-0\nMichael Jackson, Graham Twaddle: Business Process Implementation: Building Workflow Systems, Addison-Wesley, ISBN&#160;0-201-17768-4\nAlec Sharp, Patrick McDermott: Workflow Modeling, Artech House Publishers, ISBN&#160;1-58053-021-4\nToni Hupp: Designing Work Groups, Jobs, and Work Flow, Pfeiffer &amp; Company, ISBN&#160;0-7879-0063-X\nGary Poyssick, Steve Hannaford: Workflow Reengineering, Adobe, ISBN&#160;1-56830-265-7\nDave Chaffey: Groupware, Workflow and Intranets: Reengineering the Enterprise with Collaborative Software, Digital Press, ISBN&#160;1-55558-184-6\nWolfgang Gruber: Modeling and Transformation of Workflows With Temporal Constraints, IOS Press, ISBN&#160;1-58603-416-2\nAndrzej Cichocki, Marek Rusinkiewicz, Darrell Woelk: Workflow and Process Automation Concepts and Technology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN&#160;0-7923-8099-1\nAlan R. Simon, William Marion: Workgroup Computing: Workflow, Groupware, and Messaging, McGraw-Hill, ISBN&#160;0-07-057628-9\nPenny Ann Dolin: Exploring Digital Workflow, Delmar Thomson Learning, ISBN&#160;1-4018-9654-5\nGary Poyssick: Managing Digital Workflow, Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-010911-8\nFrank J. Romano: PDF Printing &amp; Workflow, Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-020837-X\nJames G. Kobielus: Workflow Strategies, Hungry Minds, ISBN&#160;0-7645-3012-7\nAlan Rickayzen, Jocelyn Dart, Carsten Brennecke: Practical Workflow for SAP, Galileo, ISBN&#160;1-59229-006-X\nAlan Pelz-Sharpe, Angela Ashenden: E-process: Workflow for the E-business, Ovum, ISBN&#160;1-902566-65-3\nStanislaw Wrycza: Systems Development Methods for Databases, Enterprise Modeling, and Workflow Management, Kluwer Academic\/Plenum Publishers, ISBN&#160;0-306-46299-0\nDatabase Support for Workflow Management, Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN&#160;0-7923-8414-8\nMatthew Searle: Developing With Oracle Workflow\nV. Curcin and M. Ghanem, Scientific workflow systems - can one size fit all? paper in CIBEC'08 comparing scientific workflow systems.\nExternal links \n\n\n \nLook up workflow in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\n\nWorkflow Patterns\nWorkflow Management Coalition\nAuthority control databases: National \nGermany \nCzech Republic \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 21 September 2022, at 15:38.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 15,569 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Workflow rootpage-Workflow skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Workflow<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Pattern of activity often with a result<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:MediaWiki-Wikimedia_Git-Gerrit_workflow.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7edcac1398387c54f466abe25a06172\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/31\/MediaWiki-Wikimedia_Git-Gerrit_workflow.svg\/170px-MediaWiki-Wikimedia_Git-Gerrit_workflow.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"203\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikimedia_Foundation\" title=\"Wikimedia Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cb17db82e9c5b860e6af82a8fee456f\">Wikimedia<\/a> developer workflow<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wineglass_model_for_IMRaD_structure..png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"eaa68e1096b240b43e879fdcb7dc08b1\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/75\/Wineglass_model_for_IMRaD_structure..png\/220px-Wineglass_model_for_IMRaD_structure..png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"163\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IMRAD\" title=\"IMRAD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f269efe59296b7963fb1e609a5f748e4\">IMRAD<\/a> model for developing research articles<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>A <b>workflow<\/b> is a generic term for orchestrated and repeatable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pattern\" title=\"Pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a94e18ca968394d05fbd59fb8c129d93\">patterns<\/a> of activity, enabled by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System\" title=\"System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca080f9487afe3b315fe16a2d522534\">systematic<\/a> organization of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource\" title=\"Resource\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c7cd6da7942777a503a806b9efabd61\">resources<\/a> into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process\" title=\"Process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3115fb894cf5395d1e8ee118f27bccb8\">processes<\/a> that transform materials, provide services, or process information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ca_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ca-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> It can be depicted as a sequence of operations, the work of a person or group,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> the work of an organization of staff, or one or more simple or complex mechanisms.\n<\/p><p>From a more abstract or higher-level perspective, workflow may be considered a view or representation of real work.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The flow being described may refer to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document\" title=\"Document\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f0fd03f08b691946949dcab005c763f\">document<\/a>, service, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_(business)\" title=\"Product (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56bd07708a3bfd57d684969dc2feb35e\">product<\/a> that is being transferred from one step to another.\n<\/p><p>Workflows may be viewed as one fundamental building block to be combined with other parts of an organization's structure such as information technology, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Team\" title=\"Team\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21e1148cb2114293f9acd673a7a947ef\">teams<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project\" title=\"Project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f05b38496b9578ab9149bf3fa7c4ea82\">projects<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchical_organization\" title=\"Hierarchical organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6314ecef4610d5ae2357fbb4b50a182d\">hierarchies<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nocsmart_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nocsmart-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Historical_development\">Historical development<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The development of the concept of a workflow occurred above a series of loosely defined, overlapping eras.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Beginnings_in_manufacturing\">Beginnings in manufacturing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The modern history of workflows can be traced to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor\" title=\"Frederick Winslow Taylor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9757851a201d8a90bd3a3089cd00f759\">Frederick Taylor<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Henry_Gantt\" title=\"Henry Gantt\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48b9c4f8cc94b1e02d99c57c412a5211\">Henry Gantt<\/a>, although the term \"workflow\" was not in use as such during their lifetimes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> One of the earliest instances of the term \"work flow\" was in a railway engineering journal from 1921.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaundersBlundstone1921_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaundersBlundstone1921-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Taylor and Gantt launched the study of the deliberate, rational organization of work, primarily in the context of manufacturing. This gave rise to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_and_motion_studies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Time and motion studies\" data-key=\"98b054d970c1b7a4bac61754c3d7c571\">time and motion studies<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChatfieldVangermeersch2014_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChatfieldVangermeersch2014-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Related concepts include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Job_shop\" title=\"Job shop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01876bd39213b05f8431b397e6ec612b\">job shops<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Queuing_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Queuing systems\" data-key=\"a6aac17ea02f087216dbcb9b1295561e\">queuing systems<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markov_chain\" title=\"Markov chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb093cd2ce513984e63cc1e4890c5da8\">Markov chains<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pinedo2012_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pinedo2012-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The 1948 book <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cheaper_by_the_Dozen\" title=\"Cheaper by the Dozen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b88c12e16c038b2c9c350d8375c6934e\">Cheaper by the Dozen<\/a><\/i> introduced the emerging concepts to the context of family life.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Maturation_and_growth\">Maturation and growth<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The invention of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Typewriter\" title=\"Typewriter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25504ba78ea90d5a3043a8a990848eed\">typewriter<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Copier\" data-key=\"f9db9a9d4fe3e32f3495a9eb0717d22e\">copier<\/a> helped spread the study of the rational organization of labor from the manufacturing shop floor to the office. Filing systems and other sophisticated systems for managing physical <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a> flows evolved. Several events likely contributed to the development of formalized information workflows. First, the field of optimization theory matured and developed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">mathematical optimization<\/a> techniques. For example, Soviet mathematician and economist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leonid_Kantorovich\" title=\"Leonid Kantorovich\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96cc33e762dd442da550d8d0636f6b0f\">Leonid Kantorovich<\/a> developed the seeds of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_programming\" title=\"Linear programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"606d72e648726085146059985274aa49\">linear programming<\/a> in 1939 through efforts to solve a plywood manufacturer's production optimization issues.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KatseneliboigenTheSoviet90_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KatseneliboigenTheSoviet90-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WahidFrontiers02_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WahidFrontiers02-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Second, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_War_II\" title=\"World War II\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e84fed64df8fb7b478f5e52dbb470eb\">World War II<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apollo_program\" title=\"Apollo program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1114d4f4adc7157ee79700d1824c6cdd\">Apollo program<\/a> drove process improvement forward with their demands for the rational organization of work.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SmithTheHist09_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SmithTheHist09-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShraderHistory06_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShraderHistory06-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RobinsJrProgram07_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RobinsJrProgram07-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality_era\">Quality era<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the post-war era, the work of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W._Edwards_Deming\" title=\"W. Edwards Deming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"674575ae1283fd24f50baa51bbb92ff5\">W. Edwards Deming<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseph_M._Juran\" title=\"Joseph M. Juran\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"609b315e0f4990a7662cb2256c0694e3\">Joseph M. Juran<\/a> led to a focus on quality, first in Japanese companies, and more globally from the 1980s: there were various movements ranging from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_quality_management\" title=\"Total quality management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7ff8974e0ed3e523301170d7548c0c5\">total quality management<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Six_Sigma\" title=\"Six Sigma\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0be577435c2e3aecd2fbb7a226eb9558\">Six Sigma<\/a>, and then more qualitative notions of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_re-engineering\" title=\"Business process re-engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3477a9bef35b8abeeac0c56d503205a4\">business process re-engineering<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HammerChampy2009_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HammerChampy2009-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> This led to more efforts to improve workflows, in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_economy\" title=\"Knowledge economy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"132c5811eb564506dfc4214e98c5de15\">knowledge economy<\/a> sectors as well as in manufacturing. Variable demands on workflows were recognised when the theory of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Critical_path_method\" title=\"Critical path method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc711b5ef0ccb3636c7199d9f50bad2e\">critical paths<\/a> and moving bottlenecks was considered.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workflow_management\">Workflow management<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Basu and Kumar note that the term \"workflow management\" has been used to refer to tasks associated with the flow of information through the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Value_chain\" title=\"Value chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3d880dcb63554da62a8d558a3c1217e\">value chain<\/a> rather than the flow of material goods: they characterise the definition, analysis and management of information as \"workflow management\". They note that workflow can be managed within a single organisation, where distinct roles are allocated to individual resources, and also across multiple organisations or distributed locations, where attention needs to be paid to the interactions between activities which are located at the organizational or locational boundaries. The transmission of information from one organization to another is a critical issue in this inter-organizational context and raises the importance of tasks they describe as \"validation\", \"verification\" and \"data usage analysis\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workflow_management_systems\">Workflow management systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_management_system\" title=\"Workflow management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6431e43c8af23358c867106d508ce082\">Workflow management system<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_management_system\" title=\"Workflow management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6431e43c8af23358c867106d508ce082\">workflow management system<\/a> (WfMS) is a software system for setting up, performing, and monitoring a defined sequence of processes and tasks, with the broad goals of increasing productivity, reducing costs, becoming more agile, and improving information exchange within an organization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ElmagarmidWorkflow12_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ElmagarmidWorkflow12-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> These systems may be process-centric or data-centric, and they may represent the workflow as graphical maps. A workflow management system may also include an extensible interface so that external software applications can be integrated and provide support for wide area workflows that provide faster response times and improved productivity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ElmagarmidWorkflow12_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ElmagarmidWorkflow12-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Related_concepts\">Related concepts<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The concept of workflow is closely related to several fields in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">operations research<\/a> and other areas that study the nature of work, either quantitatively or qualitatively, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (in particular, the sub-discipline of AI planning) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethnography\" title=\"Ethnography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee4fa43ce4b93ba4cc1cd87abdc06ccd\">ethnography<\/a>. The term \"workflow\" is more commonly used in particular industries, such as in printing or professional domains such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Clinical laboratory\" data-key=\"612f93fa53c0d870cd26f542ee0b88a9\">clinical laboratories<\/a>, where it may have particular specialized meanings.\n<\/p>\n<ol><li><b>Processes<\/b>: A process is a more general notion than workflow and can apply to, for example, physical or biological processes, whereas a workflow is typically a process or collection of processes described in the context of work, such as all processes occurring in a machine shop.<\/li>\n<li><b>Planning and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Schedule_(project_management)\" title=\"Schedule (project management)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d53f71ae2c15d03d19ad3ec274c61949\">scheduling<\/a><\/b>: A plan is a description of the logically necessary, partially ordered set of activities required to accomplish a specific goal given certain starting conditions. A plan, when augmented with a schedule and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource_allocation\" title=\"Resource allocation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea0c5c883dd45b5f0cc1b26dec7b26f7\">resource allocation<\/a> calculations, completely defines a particular <i>instance<\/i> of systematic processing in pursuit of a goal. A workflow may be viewed as an often optimal or near-optimal realization of the mechanisms required to execute the same plan repeatedly.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flow_control_(data)\" title=\"Flow control (data)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1278bc31551cbe1aa5afb731a18e6593\">Flow control<\/a><\/b>: This is a control concept applied to workflows, to distinguish from static control of buffers of material or orders, to mean a more dynamic control of flow speed and flow volumes in motion and in process. Such orientation to dynamic aspects is the basic foundation to prepare for more advanced job shop controls, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Just-in-time_(business)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Just-in-time (business)\" data-key=\"f1b36ec1934b52e33f2dba237b5c565c\">just-in-time<\/a> or just-in-sequence.<\/li>\n<li><b>In-transit visibility<\/b>: This monitoring concept applies to transported material as well as to work in process or work in progress, i.e., workflows.<\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Examples\">Examples<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Business_Process_Modelling_Workflow_Schematic.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ad0eab6fda6bfcda483641005d0ae1e\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/74\/Business_Process_Modelling_Workflow_Schematic.svg\/220px-Business_Process_Modelling_Workflow_Schematic.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"118\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Business Process Modelling<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The following examples illustrate the variety of workflows seen in various contexts:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>In machine shops, particularly <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Job_shop\" title=\"Job shop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01876bd39213b05f8431b397e6ec612b\">job shops<\/a> and flow shops, the flow of a part through the various processing stations is a workflow.<\/li>\n<li>Insurance claims processing is an example of an information-intensive, document-driven workflow.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaveyEssential05_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaveyEssential05-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Wikipedia editing can be modeled as a stochastic workflow.<\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Getting_Things_Done\" title=\"Getting Things Done\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9433a83ac723bae83b8f83290255a11\">Getting Things Done<\/a> system is a model of personal workflow management for information workers.<\/li>\n<li>In software development, support and other industries, the concept of <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Follow-the-sun\" title=\"Follow-the-sun\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ef29d3fb68227343b21366955d0abce\">follow-the-sun<\/a><\/i> describes a process of passing unfinished work across time zones.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In traditional offset and digital printing, the concept of workflow represents the process, people, and usually software technology (RIPs raster image processors or DFE digital front end) controllers that play a part in pre\/post processing of print-related files, e.g., PDF pre-flight checking to make certain that fonts are embedded or that the imaging output to plate or digital press will be able to render the document intent properly for the image-output capabilities of the press that will print the final image.<\/li>\n<li>In scientific experiments, the overall process (tasks and data flow) can be described as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directed_acyclic_graph\" title=\"Directed acyclic graph\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ffc54b1becafa75ddce26d12f6300ea0\">directed acyclic graph<\/a> (DAG). This DAG is referred to as a workflow, e.g., Brain Imaging workflows.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In healthcare data analysis, a workflow can be identified or used to represent a sequence of steps which compose a complex data analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hf2010_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hf2010-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Service-oriented_architecture\" title=\"Service-oriented architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baeda155bcadf284dc1b57450100a5e3\">service-oriented architectures<\/a>, an application can be represented through an executable workflow, where different, possibly geographically distributed, service components interact to provide the corresponding functionality under the control of a workflow management system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shared_services\" title=\"Shared services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"472bc95815b1201a081b4228980ef1ab\">shared services<\/a>, an application can be in the practice of developing robotic process automation (called RPA or RPAAI for self-guided RPA 2.0 based on artificial intelligence) which results in the deployment of attended or unattended software agents to an organization's environment. These software agents, or robots, are deployed to perform pre-defined structured and repetitive sets of business tasks or processes. Artificial intelligence software robots are deployed to handle <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unstructured_data\" title=\"Unstructured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2cf4a063df1dfbf948f0824b167984c\">unstructured data<\/a> sets and are deployed after performing and deploying robotic process automation.<\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Features_and_phenomenology\">Features and phenomenology<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol><li>Modeling: Workflow problems can be modeled and analyzed using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graph_theory\" title=\"Graph theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66494bef3c8b6c132b662abbb64de32f\">graph<\/a>-based formalisms like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Petri_net\" title=\"Petri net\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"451973638a098a0bccb09eafc97b3f43\">Petri nets<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Measurement: Many of the concepts used to measure scheduling systems in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">operations research<\/a> are useful for measuring general workflows. These include throughput, processing time, and other regular metrics.<\/li>\n<li>Specialized connotations: The term \"workflow\" has specialized connotations in information technology, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Document management\" data-key=\"84ae20341cf0be32bb34be5744d7caec\">document management<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_imaging\" title=\"Document imaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d01584651c6799bcace84955d063f1b\">imaging<\/a>. Since 1993, one trade consortium specifically focused on workflow management and the interoperability of workflow management systems, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_Management_Coalition\" title=\"Workflow Management Coalition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdf473ab608cb3d0eec71818a66de801\">Workflow Management Coalition<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_workflow_system\" title=\"Scientific workflow system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42a462e48db2620295aa9c7896bdd969\">Scientific workflow systems<\/a>: These found wide acceptance in the fields of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01737c6289ef7671d2c932a51babe26b\">bioinformatics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cheminformatics\" title=\"Cheminformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c23d43efab9d8b91d88fac55cfcad92\">cheminformatics<\/a> in the early 2000s, when they met the need for multiple interconnected tools that handle multiple data formats and large data quantities. Also, the paradigm of scientific workflows resembles the well-established practice of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perl\" title=\"Perl\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0289e790706647de3328232cc36b6867\">Perl<\/a> programming in life science research organizations, making this adoption a natural step towards more structured infrastructure setup.<\/li>\n<li>Human-machine interaction: Several conceptualizations of mixed-initiative workflows have been studied, particularly in the military, where automated agents play roles just as humans do. For innovative, adaptive, and collaborative human work, the techniques of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_interaction_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human interaction management\" data-key=\"5aaac8142f7b6008b53ce27c300ee9c3\">human interaction management<\/a> are required.<\/li>\n<li>Workflow analysis: Workflow systems allow users to develop executable processes with no familiarity with formal programming concepts. Automated workflow analysis techniques can help users analyze the properties of user workflows to conduct verification of certain properties before executing them, e.g., analyzing flow control or data flow. Examples of tools based on formal analysis frameworks have been developed and used for the analysis of scientific workflows and can be extended to the analysis of other types of workflows.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workflow_improvement_theories\">Workflow improvement theories<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Several workflow improvement theories have been proposed and implemented in the modern workplace. These include:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Six_Sigma\" title=\"Six Sigma\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0be577435c2e3aecd2fbb7a226eb9558\">Six Sigma<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_Quality_Management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Total Quality Management\" data-key=\"b2de7e31ba49c51c58b3be3fe8e9599c\">Total Quality Management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_Process_Reengineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business Process Reengineering\" data-key=\"9aafe1ae52a0c79824ebee24ff308dcc\">Business Process Reengineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lean_manufacturing\" title=\"Lean manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b188b1c560ee0ed6744b64fbdcfd8a8\">Lean<\/a> systems<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_Constraints\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Theory of Constraints\" data-key=\"4e6adbc97e28c28645329207054f0343\">Theory of Constraints<\/a><\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Evaluation of resources, both physical and human, is essential to evaluate hand-off points and potential to create smoother transitions between tasks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Components\">Components<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A workflow can usually be described using formal or informal flow diagramming techniques, showing directed flows between processing steps. Single processing steps or components of a workflow can basically be defined by three parameters:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>input description: the information, material and energy required to complete the step<\/li>\n<li>transformation rules: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithm\" title=\"Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b91430604726f884a846b998f41902e\">algorithms<\/a> which may be carried out by people or machines, or both<\/li>\n<li>output description: the information, material, and energy produced by the step and provided as input to downstream steps<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Components can only be plugged together if the output of one previous (set of) component(s) is equal to the mandatory input requirements of the following component(s). Thus, the essential description of a component actually comprises only input and output that are described fully in terms of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_type\" title=\"Data type\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3beae0a1a0ef5c72cb4cf9a31d42812f\">data types<\/a> and their meaning (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantics\" title=\"Semantics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74dfd4c30b765f279ab114a98bb29fbc\">semantics<\/a>). The algorithms' or rules' descriptions need only be included when there are several alternative ways to transform one type of input into one type of output \u2013 possibly with different accuracy, speed, etc.\n<\/p><p>When the components are non-local services that are invoked remotely via a computer network, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_service\" title=\"Web service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e72dffc79d570a758fb072280ae0ca6e\">Web services<\/a>, additional descriptors (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_of_service\" title=\"Quality of service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c56f9ddc8bd39c0b2e32a48b0f5bc004\">QoS<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability\" title=\"Availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"852165c687e5f61ae873818e8645f987\">availability<\/a>) also must be considered.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_application\" title=\"Workflow application\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"510f7737f87ae24c068911ecc007f35f\">Workflow application<\/a><\/div>\n\n<p>Many software systems exist to support workflows in particular domains. Such systems manage tasks such as automatic routing, partially automated processing, and integration between different functional software applications and hardware systems that contribute to the value-addition process underlying the workflow. There are also software suppliers using the technology <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_driven_messaging_service\" title=\"Process driven messaging service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7abf08bb4827019c112424ddc1b69be\">process driven messaging service<\/a> based upon three elements:<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"Couldn't find a source for any of this, and main article has no citations as well. (January 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Standard Objects<\/li>\n<li>Workflow Objects<\/li>\n<li>Workflow<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics_workflow_management_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bioinformatics workflow management systems\" data-key=\"9783f5c223a56336056479c3cba51832\">Bioinformatics workflow management systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_automation\" title=\"Business process automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6961c6e95c105b9a05bf46f6e116c7d\">Business process automation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">Business process management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_modeling\" title=\"Business process modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9715c2f913e0cf460e06594cdf1926de\">Business process modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer-supported_collaboration\" title=\"Computer-supported collaboration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dface0bc80d9b5201bfe89720e0c1143\">Computer-supported collaboration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DRAKON\" title=\"DRAKON\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81691cc325aff5c9ccefa112a414ae72\">DRAKON visual language for business process modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_content_management\" title=\"Enterprise content management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c41c797e73c520a9ca95ccbdf23ca7e\">Enterprise content management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_architecture\" title=\"Process architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1cae545f7bdb9d10abfdbfc3571c7e9a\">Process architecture<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_mining\" title=\"Process mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d79e4c479ad793a0fed95c8594b6324\">Process mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process-driven_application\" title=\"Process-driven application\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d3b7d4ac36909c2706b7b4437e23426\">Process-driven application<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_engine\" title=\"Workflow engine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c3b45676d701747ace4f17b7e735f19\">Workflow engine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workforce_modeling\" title=\"Workforce modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6ca6d5cc5a94d5e4ac4503a6b33241a\">Workforce modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_reengineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business process reengineering\" data-key=\"b2557bdd893725411890e399d34a9697\">Business process reengineering<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ca-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ca_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170131011831\/https:\/\/www.ftb.ca.gov\/aboutFTB\/Projects\/ITSP\/BPM_Glossary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Business Process Management Center of Excellence Glossary\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 27 October 2009. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ftb.ca.gov\/aboutFTB\/Projects\/ITSP\/BPM_Glossary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 31 January 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 March<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Business+Process+Management+Center+of+Excellence+Glossary&amp;rft.date=2009-10-27&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ftb.ca.gov%2FaboutFTB%2FProjects%2FITSP%2FBPM_Glossary.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See e.g., ISO 12052:2006, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\" target=\"_blank\">ISO.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See e.g., ISO\/TR 16044:2004, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\" target=\"_blank\">ISO.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-nocsmart-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-nocsmart_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130907014418\/http:\/\/nocsmart.com\/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=17&Itemid=135\" target=\"_blank\">\"Work Flow Automation\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nocsmart.com\/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=17&Itemid=135\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2013-09-07<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 March<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Work+Flow+Automation&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nocsmart.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D17%26Itemid%3D135&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Taylor, 1919<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/ngrams\/graph?content=workflow%2Cwork+flow%2C+work-flow&year_start=1800&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cworkflow%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cwork%20flow%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cwork%20-%20flow%3B%2Cc0\" target=\"_blank\">Ngram Viewer <\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SaundersBlundstone1921-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaundersBlundstone1921_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLawrence_SaundersS._R._Blundstone1921\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lawrence Saunders; S. R. Blundstone (1921). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=nBbnAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Railway Engineer<\/i><\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Railway+Engineer&amp;rft.date=1921&amp;rft.au=Lawrence+Saunders&amp;rft.au=S.+R.+Blundstone&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnBbnAAAAMAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChatfieldVangermeersch2014-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChatfieldVangermeersch2014_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMichael_ChatfieldRichard_Vangermeersch2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_Chatfield\" title=\"Michael Chatfield\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5557d9bb5890fc3120f0d583c63963\">Michael Chatfield<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richard_Vangermeersch\" title=\"Richard Vangermeersch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43ff03719831dd1bf783d0e44ea00212\">Richard Vangermeersch<\/a> (5 February 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=DmnMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA269\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The History of Accounting (RLE Accounting): An International Encyclopedia<\/i><\/a>. Routledge. pp.&#160;269\u2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-134-67545-6<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+History+of+Accounting+%28RLE+Accounting%29%3A+An+International+Encyclopedia&amp;rft.pages=269-&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2014-02-05&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-134-67545-6&amp;rft.au=Michael+Chatfield&amp;rft.au=Richard+Vangermeersch&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDmnMAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA269&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Pinedo2012-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Pinedo2012_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMichael_L._Pinedo2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Michael L. Pinedo (7 January 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QRiDnuXSnVwC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Scheduling: Theory, Algorithms, and Systems<\/i><\/a>. Springer. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4614-2361-4<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Scheduling%3A+Theory%2C+Algorithms%2C+and+Systems&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2012-01-07&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4614-2361-4&amp;rft.au=Michael+L.+Pinedo&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQRiDnuXSnVwC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/ngrams\/graph?content=job+shops%2Cflow+shops%2Cqueuing+systems&year_start=1800&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cjob%20shops%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cflow%20shops%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cqueuing%20systems%3B%2Cc0\" target=\"_blank\">Ngram Viewer<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KatseneliboigenTheSoviet90-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KatseneliboigenTheSoviet90_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKatseneliboigen,_A.1990\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Katseneliboigen, A. (1990). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=r3bYoKUYXaYC&pg=PA410\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 17: Nobel and Lenin Prize Laureate L.V. Kantorovich: The Political Dilemma in Scientific Creativity\"<\/a>. <i>The Soviet Union: Empire, Nation, and System<\/i>. Transaction Publishers. pp.&#160;405\u2013424. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0887383328<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+17%3A+Nobel+and+Lenin+Prize+Laureate+L.V.+Kantorovich%3A+The+Political+Dilemma+in+Scientific+Creativity&amp;rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Union%3A+Empire%2C+Nation%2C+and+System&amp;rft.pages=405-424&amp;rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.isbn=978-0887383328&amp;rft.au=Katseneliboigen%2C+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr3bYoKUYXaYC%26pg%3DPA410&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WahidFrontiers02-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WahidFrontiers02_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChoudhury,_K.2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Choudhury, K. (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=J9CwoSxpHXYC&pg=PA95\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 11: Leonid Kantorovich (1912\u20131986): A Pioneer of the Theory of Optimum Resource Allocation and a Laureate of 1975\"<\/a>. In Wahid, A.N.M. (ed.). <i>Frontiers of Economics: Nobel Laureates of the Twentieth Century<\/i>. Greenwood Press. pp.&#160;93\u201398. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0313320736<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+11%3A+Leonid+Kantorovich+%281912%E2%80%931986%29%3A+A+Pioneer+of+the+Theory+of+Optimum+Resource+Allocation+and+a+Laureate+of+1975&amp;rft.btitle=Frontiers+of+Economics%3A+Nobel+Laureates+of+the+Twentieth+Century&amp;rft.pages=93-98&amp;rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=978-0313320736&amp;rft.au=Choudhury%2C+K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ9CwoSxpHXYC%26pg%3DPA95&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SmithTheHist09-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SmithTheHist09_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSmith,_J.L.2009\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Smith, J.L. (July 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.peoriamagazines.com\/ibi\/2009\/jul\/history-modern-quality\" target=\"_blank\">\"The History of Modern Quality\"<\/a>. <i>PeoriaMagazines.com<\/i>. Central Illinois Business Publishers, Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=PeoriaMagazines.com&amp;rft.atitle=The+History+of+Modern+Quality&amp;rft.date=2009-07&amp;rft.au=Smith%2C+J.L.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peoriamagazines.com%2Fibi%2F2009%2Fjul%2Fhistory-modern-quality&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShraderHistory06-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ShraderHistory06_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShrader,_C.R.2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Shrader, C.R. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/history.army.mil\/html\/books\/operations_research_vol3\/CMH_70-110-1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 9: ORSA and the Army, 1942\u20131995 - An Assessment\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>History of Operations Research in the United States Army: Volume III, 1973\u20131995<\/i>. Vol.&#160;3. United States Army. pp.&#160;277\u2013288<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+9%3A+ORSA+and+the+Army%2C+1942%E2%80%931995+-+An+Assessment&amp;rft.btitle=History+of+Operations+Research+in+the+United+States+Army%3A+Volume+III%2C+1973%E2%80%931995&amp;rft.pages=277-288&amp;rft.pub=United+States+Army&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.au=Shrader%2C+C.R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2Foperations_research_vol3%2FCMH_70-110-1.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RobinsJrProgram07-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-RobinsJrProgram07_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRobins_Jr.,_C.H.2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Robins Jr., C.H. (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170124224957\/https:\/\/appel.nasa.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2013\/05\/NASA_APPEL_ASK_26po_program.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Program and Project Management Improvement Initiatives\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>ASK Magazine<\/i>. <b>26<\/b>: 50\u201354. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/appel.nasa.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2013\/05\/NASA_APPEL_ASK_26po_program.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 2017-01-24.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=ASK+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Program+and+Project+Management+Improvement+Initiatives&amp;rft.volume=26&amp;rft.pages=50-54&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.au=Robins+Jr.%2C+C.H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fappel.nasa.gov%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F2%2F2013%2F05%2FNASA_APPEL_ASK_26po_program.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HammerChampy2009-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HammerChampy2009_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMichael_HammerJames_Champy2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Michael Hammer; James Champy (13 October 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=mjvGTXgFl6cC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Reengineering the Corporation: Manifesto for Business Revolution, A<\/i><\/a>. HarperCollins. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-06-180864-7<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Reengineering+the+Corporation%3A+Manifesto+for+Business+Revolution%2C+A&amp;rft.pub=HarperCollins&amp;rft.date=2009-10-13&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-06-180864-7&amp;rft.au=Michael+Hammer&amp;rft.au=James+Champy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmjvGTXgFl6cC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Goldratt, Eliyahu M.<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.toc-goldratt.com\/content\/My-Saga-to-Improve-Production\" target=\"_blank\">\"My saga to improve production.\" MANAGEMENT TODAY-LONDON- (1996).<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Basu, A. and Kumar, A., <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/23015820\" target=\"_blank\">Research Commentary: Workflow Management Issues in e-Business<\/a>, <i>Information Systems Research<\/i>, volume 13, no. 1, March 2002, pp. 1-14, accessed 1 December 2022<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ElmagarmidWorkflow12-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ElmagarmidWorkflow12_19-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ElmagarmidWorkflow12_19-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFElmagarmidDu2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Elmagarmid, A.; Du, W. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FgSrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Workflow Management: State of the Art Versus State of the Products\"<\/a>. In Do\u011fa\u00e7, A.; Kalinichenko, L.; \u00d6zsu, T.; Sheth, A. (eds.). <i>Workflow Management Systems and Interoperability<\/i>. Springer Science &amp; Business Media. pp.&#160;1\u201317. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783642589089<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Workflow+Management%3A+State+of+the+Art+Versus+State+of+the+Products&amp;rft.btitle=Workflow+Management+Systems+and+Interoperability&amp;rft.pages=1-17&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9783642589089&amp;rft.aulast=Elmagarmid&amp;rft.aufirst=A.&amp;rft.au=Du%2C+W.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFgSrCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFArtem_M._Chirkin,_Sergey_V._Kovalchuk2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Artem M. Chirkin, Sergey V. Kovalchuk (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.ieri.2014.09.080\" target=\"_blank\">\"Towards Better Workflow Execution Time Estimation\"<\/a>. <i>IERI Procedia<\/i>. <b>10<\/b>: 216\u2013223. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.ieri.2014.09.080\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.ieri.2014.09.080<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IERI+Procedia&amp;rft.atitle=Towards+Better+Workflow+Execution+Time+Estimation&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.pages=216-223&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ieri.2014.09.080&amp;rft.au=Artem+M.+Chirkin%2C+Sergey+V.+Kovalchuk&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.ieri.2014.09.080&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HaveyEssential05-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HaveyEssential05_21-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHavey,_M.2005\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Havey, M. (2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=KtabAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA255\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 10: Example: Human Workflow in Insurance Claims Processing\"<\/a>. <i>Essential Business Process Modeling<\/i>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;255\u2013284. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780596008437<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+10%3A+Example%3A+Human+Workflow+in+Insurance+Claims+Processing&amp;rft.btitle=Essential+Business+Process+Modeling&amp;rft.pages=255-284&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.isbn=9780596008437&amp;rft.au=Havey%2C+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKtabAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA255&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ftp.hp.com\/pub\/services\/hardware\/info\/hw_globalsupportctr_59829873EN.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Follow-the-sun process<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Brain Image Registration Analysis Workflow for fMRI Studies on Global Grids, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www2.computer.org\/portal\/web\/csdl\/doi\/10.1109\/AINA.2009.13\" target=\"_blank\">Computer.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">A grid workflow environment for brain imaging analysis on distributed systems, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/cpe.1461\" target=\"_blank\">Wiley.com<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBj\u00f8rnerSchr\u00f8der2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bj\u00f8rner, Thomas; Schr\u00f8der, Morten (23 August 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4081%2Fqrmh.2019.7795\" target=\"_blank\">\"Advantages and challenges of using mobile ethnography in a hospital case study: WhatsApp as a method to identify perceptions and practices\"<\/a>. <i>Qualitative Research in Medicine and Healthcare<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (2). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4081%2Fqrmh.2019.7795\" target=\"_blank\">10.4081\/qrmh.2019.7795<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Qualitative+Research+in+Medicine+and+Healthcare&amp;rft.atitle=Advantages+and+challenges+of+using+mobile+ethnography+in+a+hospital+case+study%3A+WhatsApp+as+a+method+to+identify+perceptions+and+practices&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.date=2019-08-23&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4081%2Fqrmh.2019.7795&amp;rft.aulast=Bj%C3%B8rner&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft.au=Schr%C3%B8der%2C+Morten&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4081%252Fqrmh.2019.7795&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-hf2010-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-hf2010_26-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHuserRasmussenObergStarren2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Huser, V.; Rasmussen, L. V.; Oberg, R.; Starren, J. B. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3079703\" target=\"_blank\">\"Implementation of workflow engine technology to deliver basic clinical decision support functionality\"<\/a>. <i>BMC Medical Research Methodology<\/i>. <b>11<\/b>: 43. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186%2F1471-2288-11-43\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/1471-2288-11-43<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3079703\" target=\"_blank\">3079703<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/21477364\" target=\"_blank\">21477364<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BMC+Medical+Research+Methodology&amp;rft.atitle=Implementation+of+workflow+engine+technology+to+deliver+basic+clinical+decision+support+functionality&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.pages=43&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3079703%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21477364&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1471-2288-11-43&amp;rft.aulast=Huser&amp;rft.aufirst=V.&amp;rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+L.+V.&amp;rft.au=Oberg%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Starren%2C+J.+B.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3079703&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Service-Oriented Architecture and Business Process Choreography in an Order Management Scenario: Rationale, Concepts, Lessons Learned, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/doi.acm.org\/10.1145\/1094855.1094965\" target=\"_blank\">ACM.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/index.php\/about-us\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introduction to the Workflow Management Coalition\"<\/a>. Workflow Management Coalition<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Workflow+Management+Coalition&amp;rft.pub=Workflow+Management+Coalition&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wfmc.org%2Findex.php%2Fabout-us&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCurcinGhanemGuo2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Curcin, V.; Ghanem, M.; Guo, Y. (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/kclpure.kcl.ac.uk\/portal\/files\/60972131\/4193.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The design and implementation of a workflow analysis tool\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences<\/i>. <b>368<\/b> (1926): 4193\u2013208. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2010RSPTA.368.4193C\" target=\"_blank\">2010RSPTA.368.4193C<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098%2Frsta.2010.0157\" target=\"_blank\">10.1098\/rsta.2010.0157<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/20679131\" target=\"_blank\">20679131<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:7997426\" target=\"_blank\">7997426<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+A%3A+Mathematical%2C+Physical+and+Engineering+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=The+design+and+implementation+of+a+workflow+analysis+tool&amp;rft.volume=368&amp;rft.issue=1926&amp;rft.pages=4193-208&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.2010.0157&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7997426%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20679131&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010RSPTA.368.4193C&amp;rft.aulast=Curcin&amp;rft.aufirst=V.&amp;rft.au=Ghanem%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Guo%2C+Y.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkclpure.kcl.ac.uk%2Fportal%2Ffiles%2F60972131%2F4193.full.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAlvord2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Alvord, Brice (2013). <i>Creating A Performance Based Culture In Your Workplace<\/i>. Lulu.com. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1105576072<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Creating+A+Performance+Based+Culture+In+Your+Workplace&amp;rft.pub=Lulu.com&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=978-1105576072&amp;rft.aulast=Alvord&amp;rft.aufirst=Brice&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFD._Kyriazis2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">D. Kyriazis; et&#160;al. (June 2008). \"An innovative workflow mapping mechanism for Grids in the frame of Quality of Service\". <i>Future Generation Computer Systems<\/i>. <b>24<\/b> (6): 498\u2013511. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.future.2007.07.009\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.future.2007.07.009<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Future+Generation+Computer+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=An+innovative+workflow+mapping+mechanism+for+Grids+in+the+frame+of+Quality+of+Service&amp;rft.volume=24&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=498-511&amp;rft.date=2008-06&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.future.2007.07.009&amp;rft.au=D.+Kyriazis&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Ryan K. L. Ko, Stephen S. G. Lee, Eng Wah Lee (2009) Business Process Management (BPM) Standards: A Survey. In: Business Process Management Journal, Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Volume 15 Issue 5. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1463-7154\" target=\"_blank\">1463-7154<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/wayback.archive-it.org\/all\/20120917072604\/http:\/\/ryanko.files.wordpress.com\/2008\/03\/bpm-journal-koleelee-bpms-survey.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">PDF<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Khalid Belhajjame, Christine Collet, Genoveva Vargas-Solar: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/xpls\/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=996468\" target=\"_blank\">A Flexible Workflow Model for Process-Oriented Applications<\/a>. WISE (1) 2001, IEEE CS, 2001.<\/li>\n<li>Layna Fischer (ed.): 2007 BPM and Workflow Handbook, Future Strategies Inc., <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-9777527-1-3<\/li>\n<li>Layna Fischer: <i>Workflow Handbook 2005<\/i>, Future Strategies, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-9703509-8-8<\/li>\n<li>Layna Fischer: <i>Excellence in Practice, Volume V: Innovation and Excellence in Workflow and Business Process Management<\/i>, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-9703509-5-3<\/li>\n<li>Thomas L. Friedman: <i>The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century<\/i>, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-374-29288-4<\/li>\n<li>Keith Harrison-Broninski. <i>Human Interactions: The Heart and Soul of Business Process Management<\/i>. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-929652-44-4<\/li>\n<li>Holly Yu: <i>Content and Work Flow Management for Library Websites: Case Studies<\/i>, Information Science Publishing, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-59140-534-3<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wil_van_der_Aalst\" title=\"Wil van der Aalst\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d40c12880cf948846760975c0f4f3852\">Wil van der Aalst<\/a>, Kees van Hee: <i>Workflow Management: Models, Methods, and Systems<\/i>, B&amp;T, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-262-72046-9<\/li>\n<li>Setrag Khoshafian, Marek Buckiewicz: <i>Introduction to Groupware, Workflow and Workgroup Computing<\/i>, John Wiley &amp; Sons, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-471-02946-7<\/li>\n<li>Rashid N. Kahn: <i>Understanding Workflow Automation: A Guide to Enhancing Customer Loyalty<\/i>, Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-13-061918-3<\/li>\n<li>Dan C. Marinescu: <i>Internet-Based Workflow Management: Towards a Semantic Web<\/i>, John Wiley &amp; Sons, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-471-43962-2<\/li>\n<li>Frank Leymann, Dieter Roller: <i>Production Workflow: Concepts and Techniques<\/i>, Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-13-021753-0<\/li>\n<li>Michael Jackson, Graham Twaddle: <i>Business Process Implementation: Building Workflow Systems<\/i>, Addison-Wesley, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-201-17768-4<\/li>\n<li>Alec Sharp, Patrick McDermott: <i>Workflow Modeling<\/i>, Artech House Publishers, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-58053-021-4<\/li>\n<li>Toni Hupp: <i>Designing Work Groups, Jobs, and Work Flow<\/i>, Pfeiffer &amp; Company, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-7879-0063-X<\/li>\n<li>Gary Poyssick, Steve Hannaford: <i>Workflow Reengineering<\/i>, Adobe, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-56830-265-7<\/li>\n<li>Dave Chaffey: <i>Groupware, Workflow and Intranets: Reengineering the Enterprise with Collaborative Software<\/i>, Digital Press, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-55558-184-6<\/li>\n<li>Wolfgang Gruber: <i>Modeling and Transformation of Workflows With Temporal Constraints<\/i>, IOS Press, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-58603-416-2<\/li>\n<li>Andrzej Cichocki, Marek Rusinkiewicz, Darrell Woelk: <i>Workflow and Process Automation Concepts and Technology<\/i>, Kluwer Academic Publishers, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-7923-8099-1<\/li>\n<li>Alan R. Simon, William Marion: <i>Workgroup Computing: Workflow, Groupware, and Messaging<\/i>, McGraw-Hill, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-07-057628-9<\/li>\n<li>Penny Ann Dolin: <i>Exploring Digital Workflow<\/i>, Delmar Thomson Learning, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-4018-9654-5<\/li>\n<li>Gary Poyssick: <i>Managing Digital Workflow<\/i>, Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-13-010911-8<\/li>\n<li>Frank J. Romano: <i>PDF Printing &amp; Workflow<\/i>, Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-13-020837-X<\/li>\n<li>James G. Kobielus: <i>Workflow Strategies<\/i>, Hungry Minds, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-7645-3012-7<\/li>\n<li>Alan Rickayzen, Jocelyn Dart, Carsten Brennecke: <i>Practical Workflow for SAP<\/i>, Galileo, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-59229-006-X<\/li>\n<li>Alan Pelz-Sharpe, Angela Ashenden: <i>E-process: Workflow for the E-business<\/i>, Ovum, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1-902566-65-3<\/li>\n<li>Stanislaw Wrycza: <i>Systems Development Methods for Databases, Enterprise Modeling, and Workflow Management<\/i>, Kluwer Academic\/Plenum Publishers, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-306-46299-0<\/li>\n<li><i>Database Support for Workflow Management<\/i>, Kluwer Academic Publishers, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-7923-8414-8<\/li>\n<li>Matthew Searle: <i>Developing With Oracle Workflow<\/i><\/li>\n<li>V. Curcin and M. Ghanem, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/xpl\/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=4786077\" target=\"_blank\">Scientific workflow systems - can one size fit all?<\/a> paper in CIBEC'08 comparing scientific workflow systems.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.workflowpatterns.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Workflow Patterns<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Workflow Management Coalition<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1389\nCached time: 20240102043230\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.500 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.625 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 7656\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 76106\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 5530\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 6\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 119788\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.297\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 7712410\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 555.053 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>29.16% 161.872 1 Template:Reflist\n19.41% 107.728 27 Template:ISBN\n14.96% 83.055 1 Template:Authority_control\n12.58% 69.823 4 Template:Cite_web\n10.97% 60.862 1 Template:Short_description\n10.74% 59.618 28 Template:Catalog_lookup_link\n 8.82% 48.977 1 Template:More_citations_needed_section\n 7.98% 44.294 1 Template:More_citations_needed\n 7.51% 41.660 1 Template:Ambox\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:76656-0!canonical and timestamp 20240102043230 and revision id 1182664624. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow\" data-key=\"9a7b055462a00234621920f7bd77834c\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240109231635\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.125 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.315 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 89674\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 288.017 1 wikipedia:Workflow\n100.00% 288.017 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:133-0!canonical and timestamp 20240109231635 and revision id 49543. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_images":[],"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_timestamp":1704907023,"b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_type":"article","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_title":"Systems development life cycle","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Systems_development_life_cycle","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_plaintext":"\n\nSystems development life cycleFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_development_life_cycle?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Systems_development_life_cycle\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Systems_development_life_cycle<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementSoftware developmentHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 12 July 2018, at 20:06.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 4,361 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Systems_development_life_cycle rootpage-Systems_development_life_cycle skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Systems development life cycle<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_development_life_cycle?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_development_life_cycle\" data-key=\"3e10b60754dcc11d1f32334e2f41a76e\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171703\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.081 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.151 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 112\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 146.799 1 wikipedia:Systems_development_life_cycle\n100.00% 146.799 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10685-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171703 and revision id 33574. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Systems_development_life_cycle\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Systems_development_life_cycle<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_images":[],"b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_timestamp":1704907023,"738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_type":"article","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_title":"Stakeholder analysis","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_plaintext":"\n\nStakeholder analysisFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchProcess of identifying those affected by a project or event\nStakeholder analysis in conflict resolution, business administration, environmental health sciences decision making,[1] industrial ecology, public administration, and project management is the process of assessing a system and potential changes to it as they relate to relevant and interested parties known as stakeholders. This information is used to assess how the interests of those stakeholders should be addressed in a project plan, policy, program, or other action.[2] Stakeholder analysis is a key part of stakeholder management. A stakeholder analysis of an issue consists of weighing and balancing all of the competing demands on a firm by each of those who have a claim on it, in order to arrive at the firm's obligation in a particular case. A stakeholder analysis does not preclude the interests of the stakeholders overriding the interests of the other stakeholders affected, but it ensures that all affected will be considered.[3]\nStakeholder analysis is frequently used during the preparation phase of a project to assess the attitudes of the stakeholders regarding the potential changes. Stakeholder analysis can be done once or on a regular basis to track changes in stakeholder attitudes over time.[citation needed ]\n\n\n\nStakeholder types \nTypes of stakeholders include:[4]\n\nPrimary stakeholders: those ultimately most affected, either positively or negatively by an organization's actions\nSecondary stakeholders: the \"intermediaries,\" that is, persons or organizations who are indirectly affected by an organization's actions\nTertiary stakeholders: those who will be impacted the least\nOther types of stakeholders:\n\nKey stakeholders: those with significant influence upon or importance within an organization; can also belong to the other groups\nStakeholder mapping \nA Power-Interest matrix showing strategies to use based on the quadrant the stakeholders are categorised in.\n\nThe following list identifies some of the best known and most commonly used methods for stakeholder mapping:\n\nCameron et al. defined a process for ranking stakeholders based on needs and the relative importance of stakeholders to others in the network.[5]\nFletcher et al. defined a process for mapping stakeholder expectations based on value hierarchies and key performance indicators.[6]\nMitchell et al. proposed a classification of stakeholders based on power to influence, the legitimacy of each stakeholder's relationship with the organization, and the urgency of the stakeholder's claim on the organization. The results of this classification may assess the fundamental question of \"which groups are stakeholders deserving or requiring manager's attention, and which are not?\" This is salience \u2013 \"the degree to which managers give priority to competing stakeholder claims.\"[7]\nSavage et al. offer a way to classify stakeholders according to potential for threat and potential for cooperation.[8]\nTurner et al. have developed a process of identification, assessment of awareness, support, and influence, leading to strategies for communicating and assessing stakeholder satisfaction, and determining who is aware or ignorant and whether their attitude is supportive or opposing.[9]\nMapping techniques include the following analysis techniques being used by aid agencies, governments, or consultant groups:\n\nLynda Bourne's Stakeholder Circle, \"a five-step methodology that provides a flexible approach to understanding and managing the relationships within and around the activity\",[10] involves identification, prioritization, visualization, engagement, and monitoring of stakeholder aspects\n Aubrey Mendelow's power-interest matrix or grid, which considers stakeholder \"power and expectations (and therefore their likely interest) ... to determine the potential influence of stakeholder groups\"[11]\nMurray-Webster and Simon's three-dimensional grid mapping power, interest, and attitude, for better \"stimulating thought and informing the project or program manager in a truly meaningful way\"[12]\nImperial College London's influence-interest grid, \"plotting stakeholders on a graph in terms of their influence over the project and their interest in the project\"[13]\nThe former Office of Government Commerce's power-impact grid, mapping \"the level of impact of the change on [stakeholder] and the importance these stakeholders [have] to the success of the change project\".[14]\nStakeholder mapping procedure \nThe list of potential stakeholders for any project often exceeds both the time available for analysis and the capability to sensibly map and display the results.[15] The challenge is to focus on the right stakeholders who are currently important and to create a visual representation of this critical sub-set of the total community - the key stakeholders.[15]\n\nDevelop a categorised list of the members of the stakeholder community.\nStakeholders can be prioritized in some order.\nThe highest priority stakeholders are then translated into a visual representation (often a table or a graph).[8][16]\nThe power-interest matrix \nThe most common presentation style uses a two-dimensional matrix. Power and influence are commonly seen with a third dimension shown by the colour or size of the symbol representing the individual stakeholders, often the attitude. \nSome of the commonly used dimensions include:[4][11][12][13][14][16]\n\nPower (high, medium, low)\nInfluence (high or low)\nInterest\/Need (high, medium, low)\nSupport\/Attitude (positive, neutral, negative)\nThe salience model \nThe salience model[7] uses three dimensions: legitimacy (A), power (B), and urgency (C). It is represented in a Venn diagram, that has 8 regions each associated to a specific stakeholder type.\n\nThe Covalence model has eight regions each associated with a stakeholder type\n\nStakeholder types as described by the salience model:\n\nDiscretionary stakeholders: These stakeholders have little urgency or power and are unlikely to exert much pressure. They have legitimate claims. (yellow region)\nDormant stakeholders: These stakeholders have much power but no legitimacy or urgency and therefore are not likely to become heavily involved. (blue region)\nDemanding stakeholders: These stakeholders have little power or legitimacy but can make much \"noise\" because they want things to be addressed immediately. (red region)\nDominant stakeholders: These stakeholders have both formal power and legitimacy, but little urgency. They tend to have certain expectations that must be met. (green region)\nDangerous stakeholders: These stakeholders have power and urgency but are not really pertinent to the project. (purple region)\nDependent stakeholders: These stakeholders have urgent and legitimate stakes in the project but little power. These stakeholders may lean on another stakeholder group to have their voices heard. (orange region)\nDefinitive stakeholders: These stakeholders have power, legitimacy and urgency and therefore have the highest salience. (white region at the intersection of all other regions)\nNon-stakeholders: These stakeholders have no power, legitimacy or urgency. (outside the regions defined by the circles A, B, and C)\nBenefits \nStakeholder analysis helps with the identification of:[16][17][18]\n\nStakeholders' interests\nPotential risks and misunderstandings\nMechanisms to positively influence other stakeholders\nKey people to be informed about the project during the execution phase\nNegative stakeholders as well as their adverse effects on the project\nSee also \nActor analysis\nCrowdsourcing\nDepartment of Defense Architecture Framework\nParticipation (decision making)\nPublic consultation\nResponsibility assignment matrix\nStakeholder engagement software\nStakeholder theory\nStakeholder management\nReferences \n\n^ Coble, Yank; Coussens, Christine; Quinn, Kathleen, eds. (2009). \"4. Stakeholder Perspectives on Environmental Health Sciences Decision Making\". Environmental Health Sciences Decision Making: Risk Management, Evidence, and Ethics \u2013 Workshop Summary. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226\/12444. ISBN&#160;978-0-309-12454-6. PMID&#160;21210552. \n\n^ Ketema, D.M.; Chisholm, N.; Enright, P. (2017). \"Chapter 20: Examining the Characteristics of Stakeholders in Lake Tana Sub-basin Resource Use, Management and Governance\". In Stave, K.; Goshu, G.; Aynalem, S. (eds.). Social and Ecological System Dynamics. Springer. p.&#160;318. ISBN&#160;9783319457550. \n\n^ DeGeorge, R.T. (2010). Business Ethics. Pearson Education, Inc. p.&#160;192. ISBN&#160;9780205015108. \n\n^ a b De Mascia, S. (2016). Project Psychology: Using Psychological Models and Techniques to Create a Successful Project. CRC Press. pp.&#160;73\u201374. ISBN&#160;9781317075011. \n\n^ Cameron, B.G.; Seher, T.; Crawley, E.F. (2011). \"Goals for space exploration based on stakeholder value network considerations\". Acta Astronautica. 68 (11\u201312): 2088\u201397. Bibcode:2011AcAau..68.2088C. doi:10.1016\/j.actaastro.2010.11.003. \n\n^ Fletcher, A.; Guthrie, J.; Steane, P.; et&#160;al. (2003). \"Mapping stakeholder perceptions for a third sector organization\". Journal of Intellectual Capital. 4 (4): 505\u201327. doi:10.1108\/14691930310504536. \n\n^ a b Mitchell, R.K.; Agle, B.R.; Wood, D.J. (1997). \"Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What Really Counts\". The Academy of Management Review. 22 (4): 853\u201386. doi:10.2307\/259247. JSTOR&#160;259247. \n\n^ a b Savage, G.T.; Nix, T.W.; Whitehead, C.J.; Blair, J.D. (1991). \"Strategies for Assessing and Managing Organizational Stakeholders\". The Executive. 5 (2): 61\u201375. JSTOR&#160;4165008. \n\n^ Turner, J.R.; Grude, K.V.; Thurloway, L. (1999). The Project Manager As Change Agent: Leadership, Influence and Negotiation. McGraw-Hill Book Co Ltd. ISBN&#160;9780077077419. \n\n^ Bourne, L. (2012). Stakeholder Relationship Management: A Maturity Model for Organisational Implementation. Gower Publishing, Ltd. p.&#160;PT61. ISBN&#160;9780566091933. \n\n^ a b Botten, N. (2006). Management Accounting \u2013 Business Strategy. CIMA Publishing. pp.&#160;3\u20134. ISBN&#160;9780750680431. Once the power and expectations (and therefore their likely interest) has been established we can use a power interest matrix to assist the analysis. Mendelow (1991) has proposed such a matrix (Figure 1.4). If the stakeholders are plotted regularly this matrix can be used to determine the potential influence of stakeholder groups. \n\n^ a b Murray-Webster, R.; Simon, P. (2006). \"Making Sense of Stakeholder Mapping\" (PDF) . PM World Today. 8 (11): 1\u20134. \n\n^ a b \"Stakeholder management\" (PDF) . Imperial College London. 21 June 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2018 . \n\n^ a b \"Stakeholder Management Plan\" (PDF) . Office of Government Commerce. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 June 2008. Retrieved 6 July 2018 . \n\n^ a b Eden, C.; Ackermann, F. (2013). Making Strategy: The Journey of Strategic Management. SAGE. p.&#160;123. ISBN&#160;9781446265192. \n\n^ a b c Babou, S. (12 March 2008). \"What Is Stakeholder Analysis?\". The Project Management Hut. PM Hut. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2018 . \n\n^ Kimmich, C.; Janetschek, H.; Meyer-Ohlendorf, L.; et&#160;al. (2012). Methods for Stakeholder Analysis. Europaeischer Hochschulverlag GmbH &amp; Co KG. pp.&#160;3\u20134. ISBN&#160;9783867417808. \n\n^ Dwyer, J.; Hopwood, N. (2013). Management Strategies and Skills. McGraw-Hill Education Australia. p.&#160;360. ISBN&#160;9781743764930. \n\n\nvteIndustrial ecologyTools\nAgent-based model\nCost\u2013benefit analysis\nDPSIR\nEcolabel\nEcological footprint\nEnvironmental full-cost accounting\nEnvironmental impact assessment\nEnvironmental management system\nEIO-LCA\nInput\u2013output model\nIntegrated chain management\nISO 14000\nLife-cycle assessment\nLife-cycle cost analysis\nMaterial flow analysis\nMET Matrix\nStakeholder analysis\nConcepts\nCircular economy\nCradle-to-cradle design\nDematerialization\nEco-efficiency\nEco-industrial development\nEco-industrial park\nEcological modernization\nEfficient energy use\nExergy\nExtended producer responsibility\nIndustrial metabolism\nIndustrial symbiosis\nPolluter pays principle\nPrecautionary principle\nRebound effect\nWaste hierarchy\nWaste minimisation\nWaste valorization\nRelated fields\nCleaner production\nDesign for environment\nEarth systems engineering and management\nEcological economics\nEcological modernization\nEnvironmental economics\nGreen chemistry\nSustainable development\nUrban ecology\nUrban metabolism\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementSoftware developmentHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 20:43.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 4,024 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Stakeholder_analysis rootpage-Stakeholder_analysis skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Stakeholder analysis<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Process of identifying those affected by a project or event<\/div>\n<p><b>Stakeholder analysis<\/b> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conflict_resolution\" title=\"Conflict resolution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a32384edaeb87ea97d1edd719d1c3393\">conflict resolution<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_administration\" title=\"Business administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afab518c5ddf262ef4313681f22ca944\">business administration<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_health\" title=\"Environmental health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f918c75d4a04c8ebf805160b820d1d81\">environmental health sciences<\/a> decision making,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_ecology\" title=\"Industrial ecology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93d6c290ffec75fabb97f5eec3aee10d\">industrial ecology<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_administration\" title=\"Public administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2764cf7b610f9508386cf03a651245a6\">public administration<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_management\" title=\"Project management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6eafec51967ae43f1d3054bbbbcb85a\">project management<\/a> is the process of assessing a system and potential changes to it as they relate to relevant and interested parties known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_stakeholder\" title=\"Project stakeholder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f020ef5f57bcf75aae14e3df0beec1a\">stakeholders<\/a>. This information is used to assess how the interests of those stakeholders should be addressed in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project\" title=\"Project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f05b38496b9578ab9149bf3fa7c4ea82\">project<\/a> plan, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Policy\" title=\"Policy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1e53cac97ac6a1bb336545f75a474b3\">policy<\/a>, program, or other action.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KetemaExam17_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KetemaExam17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Stakeholder analysis is a key part of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_management\" title=\"Stakeholder management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8deb9061aab534803a05f37f98626fbc\">stakeholder management<\/a>. A stakeholder analysis of an issue consists of weighing and balancing all of the competing demands on a firm by each of those who have a claim on it, in order to arrive at the firm's obligation in a particular case. A stakeholder analysis does not preclude the interests of the stakeholders overriding the interests of the other stakeholders affected, but it ensures that all affected will be considered.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeGeorgeBusiness10_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeGeorgeBusiness10-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Stakeholder analysis is frequently used during the preparation phase of a project to assess the attitudes of the stakeholders regarding the potential changes. Stakeholder analysis can be done once or on a regular basis to track changes in stakeholder attitudes over time.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stakeholder_types\">Stakeholder types<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Types of stakeholders include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeMasciaProject16_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeMasciaProject16-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>Primary stakeholders<\/i>: those ultimately most affected, either positively or negatively by an organization's actions<\/li>\n<li><i>Secondary stakeholders<\/i>: the \"intermediaries,\" that is, persons or organizations who are indirectly affected by an organization's actions<\/li>\n<li><i>Tertiary stakeholders<\/i>: those who will be impacted the least<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Other types of stakeholders:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>Key stakeholders<\/i>: those with significant influence upon or importance within an organization; can also belong to the other groups<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stakeholder_mapping\">Stakeholder mapping<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Stakeholders_matrix.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a864e94e2e5b789fb9f6d6fa7b4378\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/77\/Stakeholders_matrix.svg\/250px-Stakeholders_matrix.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"248\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A Power-Interest matrix showing strategies to use based on the quadrant the stakeholders are categorised in.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The following list identifies some of the best known and most commonly used methods for stakeholder mapping:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Cameron <i>et al.<\/i> defined a process for ranking stakeholders based on needs and the relative importance of stakeholders to others in the network.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CameronGoals11_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CameronGoals11-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Fletcher <i>et al.<\/i> defined a process for mapping stakeholder expectations based on value hierarchies and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Performance_indicator\" title=\"Performance indicator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86a826562de559a457428c6d38607c4f\">key performance indicators<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FletcherMapping03_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FletcherMapping03-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Mitchell <i>et al.<\/i> proposed a classification of stakeholders based on power to influence, the legitimacy of each stakeholder's relationship with the organization, and the urgency of the stakeholder's claim on the organization. The results of this classification may assess the fundamental question of \"which groups are stakeholders deserving or requiring manager's attention, and which are not?\" This is salience \u2013 \"the degree to which managers give priority to competing stakeholder claims.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MitchellToward97_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MitchellToward97-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Savage <i>et al.<\/i> offer a way to classify stakeholders according to potential for threat and potential for cooperation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SavageStrat91_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SavageStrat91-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Turner <i>et al.<\/i> have developed a process of identification, assessment of awareness, support, and influence, leading to strategies for communicating and assessing stakeholder satisfaction, and determining who is aware or ignorant and whether their attitude is supportive or opposing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TurnerTheProject99_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TurnerTheProject99-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Mapping techniques include the following analysis techniques being used by aid agencies, governments, or consultant groups:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Lynda Bourne's Stakeholder Circle, \"a five-step methodology that provides a flexible approach to understanding and managing the relationships within and around the activity\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BourneStakeholder12_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BourneStakeholder12-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> involves identification, prioritization, visualization, engagement, and monitoring of stakeholder aspects<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-mendelow\"><\/span><b>Aubrey Mendelow'<\/b>s power-interest matrix or grid, which considers stakeholder \"power and expectations (and therefore their likely interest) ... to determine the potential influence of stakeholder groups\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BottenManage06_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BottenManage06-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Murray-Webster and Simon's three-dimensional grid mapping power, interest, and attitude, for better \"stimulating thought and informing the project or program manager in a truly meaningful way\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Murray-WebsterMaking06_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Murray-WebsterMaking06-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Imperial_College_London\" title=\"Imperial College London\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5ddeea653bcb35db739cf341c6eefeb\">Imperial College London<\/a>'s influence-interest grid, \"plotting stakeholders on a graph in terms of their influence over the project and their interest in the project\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ICLStake17_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ICLStake17-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The former <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_Government_Commerce\" title=\"Office of Government Commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d84da40d333819f9f7b991516fe003e0\">Office of Government Commerce<\/a>'s power-impact grid, mapping \"the level of impact of the change on [stakeholder] and the importance these stakeholders [have] to the success of the change project\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OGCArch06_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OGCArch06-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stakeholder_mapping_procedure\">Stakeholder mapping procedure<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The list of potential stakeholders for any project often exceeds both the time available for analysis and the capability to sensibly map and display the results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EdenMaking13_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EdenMaking13-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> The challenge is to focus on the right stakeholders who are currently important and to create a visual representation of this critical sub-set of the total community - the key stakeholders.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EdenMaking13_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EdenMaking13-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Develop a categorised list of the members of the stakeholder community.<\/li>\n<li>Stakeholders can be prioritized in some order.<\/li>\n<li>The highest priority stakeholders are then translated into a visual representation (often a table or a graph).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SavageStrat91_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SavageStrat91-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BabouArchWhat08-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_power-interest_matrix\">The power-interest matrix<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The most common presentation style uses a two-dimensional matrix. Power and influence are commonly seen with a third dimension shown by the colour or size of the symbol representing the individual stakeholders, often the attitude. \n<\/p><p>Some of the commonly used dimensions include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeMasciaProject16_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeMasciaProject16-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BottenManage06_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BottenManage06-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Murray-WebsterMaking06_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Murray-WebsterMaking06-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ICLStake17_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ICLStake17-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OGCArch06_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OGCArch06-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BabouArchWhat08-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Power (high, medium, low)<\/li>\n<li>Influence (high or low)<\/li>\n<li>Interest\/Need (high, medium, low)<\/li>\n<li>Support\/Attitude (positive, neutral, negative)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_salience_model\">The salience model<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The salience model<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MitchellToward97_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MitchellToward97-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> uses three dimensions: <i>legitimacy<\/i> (A), <i>power<\/i> (B), and <i>urgency<\/i> (C). It is represented in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Venn_diagram\" title=\"Venn diagram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f9b34a2007848fd562e84d6b4cc4803\">Venn diagram<\/a>, that has 8 regions each associated to a specific stakeholder type.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Venn_diagram_ABC_RGB.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"bdcb7c5ea2ede3ca43116b75d9fa3103\"><img alt=\"Venn diagram illustrating the 8 types of stakeholder of the Covalence model for stakeholder analysis\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a9\/Venn_diagram_ABC_RGB.png\/220px-Venn_diagram_ABC_RGB.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>The Covalence model has eight regions each associated with a stakeholder type<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Stakeholder types as described by the salience model:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li><i>Discretionary stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have little urgency or power and are unlikely to exert much pressure. They have legitimate claims. (yellow region)<\/li>\n<li><i>Dormant stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have much power but no legitimacy or urgency and therefore are not likely to become heavily involved. (blue region)<\/li>\n<li><i>Demanding stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have little power or legitimacy but can make much \"noise\" because they want things to be addressed immediately. (red region)<\/li>\n<li><i>Dominant stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have both formal power and legitimacy, but little urgency. They tend to have certain expectations that must be met. (green region)<\/li>\n<li><i>Dangerous stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have power and urgency but are not really pertinent to the project. (purple region)<\/li>\n<li><i>Dependent stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have urgent and legitimate stakes in the project but little power. These stakeholders may lean on another stakeholder group to have their voices heard. (orange region)<\/li>\n<li><i>Definitive stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have power, legitimacy and urgency and therefore have the highest salience. (white region at the intersection of all other regions)<\/li>\n<li><i>Non-stakeholders<\/i>: These stakeholders have no power, legitimacy or urgency. (outside the regions defined by the circles A, B, and C)<\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Benefits\">Benefits<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Stakeholder analysis helps with the identification of:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BabouArchWhat08-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KimmichMethods12_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KimmichMethods12-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DwyerManage13_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DwyerManage13-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Stakeholders' interests<\/li>\n<li>Potential risks and misunderstandings<\/li>\n<li>Mechanisms to positively influence other stakeholders<\/li>\n<li>Key people to be informed about the project during the execution phase<\/li>\n<li>Negative stakeholders as well as their adverse effects on the project<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Actor_analysis\" title=\"Actor analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faba4d71cd821ea225a531a67a9acd6e\">Actor analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crowdsourcing\" title=\"Crowdsourcing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48733729f7e2ec744b3fa4dd8a984584\">Crowdsourcing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Department_of_Defense_Architecture_Framework\" title=\"Department of Defense Architecture Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ef211a8a414fe8fbe436f1a72e42d1d\">Department of Defense Architecture Framework<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Participation_(decision_making)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Participation (decision making)\" data-key=\"47d97dacc610306752ecb445c78e6a5a\">Participation (decision making)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_consultation\" title=\"Public consultation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a315eca59bdb3513a86995c2a93a0f2\">Public consultation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Responsibility_assignment_matrix\" title=\"Responsibility assignment matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2abd9787d1955d00fd1fa72357532438\">Responsibility assignment matrix<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_engagement_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Stakeholder engagement software\" data-key=\"18abca55659e07ea1c049370ad65489a\">Stakeholder engagement software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_theory\" title=\"Stakeholder theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24c8c95953ba6394708767e0d32210d6\">Stakeholder theory<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_management\" title=\"Stakeholder management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8deb9061aab534803a05f37f98626fbc\">Stakeholder management<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCobleCoussensQuinn2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Coble, Yank; Coussens, Christine; Quinn, Kathleen, eds. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK50712\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"4. Stakeholder Perspectives on Environmental Health Sciences Decision Making\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK50714\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Environmental Health Sciences Decision Making: Risk Management, Evidence, and Ethics \u2013 Workshop Summary<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Washington,_D.C.\" title=\"Washington, D.C.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"203e4b5aa5a4f19ff02ae246e0bfaa16\">Washington, D.C.<\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_National_Academies_Press\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"The National Academies Press\" data-key=\"942bf651691bd7c7e0afdd4849e7fa65\">The National Academies Press<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17226%2F12444\" target=\"_blank\">10.17226\/12444<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-309-12454-6<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/21210552\" target=\"_blank\">21210552<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=4.+Stakeholder+Perspectives+on+Environmental+Health+Sciences+Decision+Making&amp;rft.btitle=Environmental+Health+Sciences+Decision+Making%3A+Risk+Management%2C+Evidence%2C+and+Ethics+%E2%80%93+Workshop+Summary.&amp;rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&amp;rft.pub=The+National+Academies+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21210552&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F12444&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-309-12454-6&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK50712%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KetemaExam17-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KetemaExam17_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKetema,_D.M.Chisholm,_N.Enright,_P.2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ketema, D.M.; Chisholm, N.; Enright, P. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vNifDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA318\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 20: Examining the Characteristics of Stakeholders in Lake Tana Sub-basin Resource Use, Management and Governance\"<\/a>. In Stave, K.; Goshu, G.; Aynalem, S. (eds.). <i>Social and Ecological System Dynamics<\/i>. Springer. p.&#160;318. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783319457550<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+20%3A+Examining+the+Characteristics+of+Stakeholders+in+Lake+Tana+Sub-basin+Resource+Use%2C+Management+and+Governance&amp;rft.btitle=Social+and+Ecological+System+Dynamics&amp;rft.pages=318&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=9783319457550&amp;rft.au=Ketema%2C+D.M.&amp;rft.au=Chisholm%2C+N.&amp;rft.au=Enright%2C+P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvNifDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA318&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DeGeorgeBusiness10-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DeGeorgeBusiness10_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDeGeorge,_R.T.2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">DeGeorge, R.T. (2010). <i>Business Ethics<\/i>. Pearson Education, Inc. p.&#160;192. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780205015108<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Business+Ethics&amp;rft.pages=192&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Education%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=9780205015108&amp;rft.au=DeGeorge%2C+R.T.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DeMasciaProject16-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DeMasciaProject16_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DeMasciaProject16_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDe_Mascia,_S.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">De Mascia, S. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=G5XsCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Project Psychology: Using Psychological Models and Techniques to Create a Successful Project<\/i><\/a>. 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(2011). \"Goals for space exploration based on stakeholder value network considerations\". <i>Acta Astronautica<\/i>. <b>68<\/b> (11\u201312): 2088\u201397. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2011AcAau..68.2088C\" target=\"_blank\">2011AcAau..68.2088C<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.actaastro.2010.11.003\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.actaastro.2010.11.003<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Acta+Astronautica&amp;rft.atitle=Goals+for+space+exploration+based+on+stakeholder+value+network+considerations&amp;rft.volume=68&amp;rft.issue=11%E2%80%9312&amp;rft.pages=2088-97&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.actaastro.2010.11.003&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011AcAau..68.2088C&amp;rft.au=Cameron%2C+B.G.&amp;rft.au=Seher%2C+T.&amp;rft.au=Crawley%2C+E.F.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FletcherMapping03-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FletcherMapping03_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFletcher,_A.Guthrie,_J.Steane,_P.2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Fletcher, A.; Guthrie, J.; Steane, P.; et&#160;al. (2003). \"Mapping stakeholder perceptions for a third sector organization\". <i>Journal of Intellectual Capital<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (4): 505\u201327. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108%2F14691930310504536\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/14691930310504536<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Intellectual+Capital&amp;rft.atitle=Mapping+stakeholder+perceptions+for+a+third+sector+organization&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=505-27&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2F14691930310504536&amp;rft.au=Fletcher%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Guthrie%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Steane%2C+P.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MitchellToward97-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-MitchellToward97_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-MitchellToward97_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMitchell,_R.K.Agle,_B.R.Wood,_D.J.1997\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Mitchell, R.K.; Agle, B.R.; Wood, D.J. (1997). \"Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What Really Counts\". <i>The Academy of Management Review<\/i>. <b>22<\/b> (4): 853\u201386. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307%2F259247\" target=\"_blank\">10.2307\/259247<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\" data-key=\"5452009cc6ddc0c9ed86584fc7a26cc8\">JSTOR<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/259247\" target=\"_blank\">259247<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Academy+of+Management+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Toward+a+Theory+of+Stakeholder+Identification+and+Salience%3A+Defining+the+Principle+of+Who+and+What+Really+Counts&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=853-86&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F259247&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F259247%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft.au=Mitchell%2C+R.K.&amp;rft.au=Agle%2C+B.R.&amp;rft.au=Wood%2C+D.J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SavageStrat91-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-SavageStrat91_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SavageStrat91_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSavage,_G.T.Nix,_T.W.Whitehead,_C.J.Blair,_J.D.1991\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Savage, G.T.; Nix, T.W.; Whitehead, C.J.; Blair, J.D. 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McGraw-Hill Book Co Ltd. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780077077419<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Project+Manager+As+Change+Agent%3A+Leadership%2C+Influence+and+Negotiation&amp;rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Book+Co+Ltd&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=9780077077419&amp;rft.au=Turner%2C+J.R.&amp;rft.au=Grude%2C+K.V.&amp;rft.au=Thurloway%2C+L.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BourneStakeholder12-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BourneStakeholder12_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBourne,_L.2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Bourne, L. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=8VJ2OzigQj4C&pg=PT61\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Stakeholder Relationship Management: A Maturity Model for Organisational Implementation<\/i><\/a>. Gower Publishing, Ltd. p.&#160;PT61. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780566091933<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Stakeholder+Relationship+Management%3A+A+Maturity+Model+for+Organisational+Implementation&amp;rft.pages=PT61&amp;rft.pub=Gower+Publishing%2C+Ltd&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9780566091933&amp;rft.au=Bourne%2C+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8VJ2OzigQj4C%26pg%3DPT61&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BottenManage06-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-BottenManage06_11-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BottenManage06_11-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBotten,_N.2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Botten, N. (2006). <i>Management Accounting \u2013 Business Strategy<\/i>. CIMA Publishing. pp.&#160;3\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780750680431<\/bdi>. <q>Once the power and expectations (and therefore their likely interest) has been established we can use a power interest matrix to assist the analysis. Mendelow (1991) has proposed such a matrix (Figure 1.4). If the stakeholders are plotted regularly this matrix can be used to determine the potential influence of stakeholder groups.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Management+Accounting+%E2%80%93+Business+Strategy&amp;rft.pages=3-4&amp;rft.pub=CIMA+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9780750680431&amp;rft.au=Botten%2C+N.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Murray-WebsterMaking06-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Murray-WebsterMaking06_12-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Murray-WebsterMaking06_12-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMurray-Webster,_R.Simon,_P.2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Murray-Webster, R.; Simon, P. (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/skat.ihmc.us\/rid=1JGD4CJZ4-F9CF0Y-1KM6\/SEMINAL%20stakeholder%20mapping%20in%203d.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Making Sense of Stakeholder Mapping\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>PM World Today<\/i>. <b>8<\/b> (11): 1\u20134.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PM+World+Today&amp;rft.atitle=Making+Sense+of+Stakeholder+Mapping&amp;rft.volume=8&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=1-4&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.au=Murray-Webster%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Simon%2C+P.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fskat.ihmc.us%2Frid%3D1JGD4CJZ4-F9CF0Y-1KM6%2FSEMINAL%2520stakeholder%2520mapping%2520in%25203d.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ICLStake17-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ICLStake17_13-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ICLStake17_13-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.imperial.ac.uk\/media\/imperial-college\/administration-and-support-services\/staff-development\/public\/impex\/Stakeholder-management-21jun17.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stakeholder management\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Imperial College London. 21 June 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Stakeholder+management&amp;rft.pub=Imperial+College+London&amp;rft.date=2017-06-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imperial.ac.uk%2Fmedia%2Fimperial-college%2Fadministration-and-support-services%2Fstaff-development%2Fpublic%2Fimpex%2FStakeholder-management-21jun17.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OGCArch06-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-OGCArch06_14-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-OGCArch06_14-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080620102145\/https:\/\/www.ogc.gov.uk\/documents\/Stakeholder_Management_Plan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stakeholder Management Plan\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Office of Government Commerce. 2006. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ogc.gov.uk\/documents\/Stakeholder_Management_Plan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 20 June 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Stakeholder+Management+Plan&amp;rft.pub=Office+of+Government+Commerce&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ogc.gov.uk%2Fdocuments%2FStakeholder_Management_Plan.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EdenMaking13-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-EdenMaking13_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EdenMaking13_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEden,_C.Ackermann,_F.2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Eden, C.; Ackermann, F. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=UnYWfXigU4UC&pg=PA123\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Making Strategy: The Journey of Strategic Management<\/i><\/a>. SAGE. p.&#160;123. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781446265192<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Making+Strategy%3A+The+Journey+of+Strategic+Management&amp;rft.pages=123&amp;rft.pub=SAGE&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781446265192&amp;rft.au=Eden%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Ackermann%2C+F.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUnYWfXigU4UC%26pg%3DPA123&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BabouArchWhat08-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_16-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBabou,_S.2008\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Babou, S. (12 March 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150222033454\/http:\/\/www.pmhut.com\/what-is-stakeholder-analysis\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is Stakeholder Analysis?\"<\/a>. <i>The Project Management Hut<\/i>. PM Hut. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pmhut.com\/what-is-stakeholder-analysis\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 22 February 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Project+Management+Hut&amp;rft.atitle=What+Is+Stakeholder+Analysis%3F&amp;rft.date=2008-03-12&amp;rft.au=Babou%2C+S.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pmhut.com%2Fwhat-is-stakeholder-analysis&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KimmichMethods12-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KimmichMethods12_17-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKimmich,_C.Janetschek,_H.Meyer-Ohlendorf,_L.2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kimmich, C.; Janetschek, H.; Meyer-Ohlendorf, L.; et&#160;al. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=o2ejrQc5qhkC&pg=PA4\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Methods for Stakeholder Analysis<\/i><\/a>. Europaeischer Hochschulverlag GmbH &amp; Co KG. pp.&#160;3\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783867417808<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Methods+for+Stakeholder+Analysis&amp;rft.pages=3-4&amp;rft.pub=Europaeischer+Hochschulverlag+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9783867417808&amp;rft.au=Kimmich%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Janetschek%2C+H.&amp;rft.au=Meyer-Ohlendorf%2C+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do2ejrQc5qhkC%26pg%3DPA4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DwyerManage13-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DwyerManage13_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDwyer,_J.Hopwood,_N.2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dwyer, J.; Hopwood, N. (2013). <i>Management Strategies and Skills<\/i>. McGraw-Hill Education Australia. p.&#160;360. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781743764930<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Management+Strategies+and+Skills&amp;rft.pages=360&amp;rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education+Australia&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781743764930&amp;rft.au=Dwyer%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Hopwood%2C+N.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw\u2010api\u2010int.codfw.main\u2010678bb5dc89\u20106f4x8\nCached time: 20231231232403\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.320 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.461 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1223\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 46227\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1186\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 63269\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.211\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6887653\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 418.184 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>33.87% 141.625 10 Template:Cite_book\n16.88% 70.571 1 Template:Industrial_ecology\n16.29% 68.127 1 Template:Navbox\n16.11% 67.386 5 Template:Cite_journal\n13.11% 54.820 1 Template:Short_description\n 7.71% 32.250 1 Template:Citation_needed\n 7.06% 29.540 2 Template:Pagetype\n 6.44% 26.933 1 Template:Fix\n 4.45% 18.612 2 Template:Category_handler\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:5838705-0!canonical and timestamp 20231231232403 and revision id 1192895788. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_analysis\" data-key=\"e5774cb09de8217ab125b8d7d33a563c\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110151518\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.172 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.383 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 57255\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 358.349 1 wikipedia:Stakeholder_analysis\n100.00% 358.349 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10668-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110151518 and revision id 49520. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_images":[],"738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_timestamp":1704907022,"e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_type":"article","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_title":"Risk assessment","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_plaintext":"\n\nRisk assessmentFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_assessment?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 July 2018, at 20:01.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,967 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Risk_assessment rootpage-Risk_assessment skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Risk assessment<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_assessment?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_assessment\" data-key=\"011cb1c8b0a87fcbb22deb8c265f5410\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171702\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.096 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.167 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 97\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 162.954 1 wikipedia:Risk_assessment\n100.00% 162.954 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10692-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171702 and revision id 33598. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_images":[],"e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_timestamp":1704907022,"b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_type":"article","b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_title":"Request for information","b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Request_for_information","b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_plaintext":"\n\nRequest for informationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Request_for_information?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Request_for_information\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Request_for_information<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 19:42.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,880 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Request_for_information rootpage-Request_for_information skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Request for information<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Request_for_information?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Request_for_information\" data-key=\"e191a69034879f88050b634190e90421\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171702\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.104 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.181 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 105\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 176.064 1 wikipedia:Request_for_information\n100.00% 176.064 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3323-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171702 and revision id 49502. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Request_for_information\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Request_for_information<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_images":[],"b19b81bb3a45e15359e41459243529fc_timestamp":1704907022,"f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_type":"article","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_title":"Functional requirement","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_plaintext":"\n\nFunctional requirementFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_requirement?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement<\/a>\nCategory: Software developmentHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 14:39.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,399 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Functional_requirement rootpage-Functional_requirement skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Functional requirement<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_requirement?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_requirement\" data-key=\"66d49483462c9dfe32ee1b73fbba0287\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171701\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.096 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.166 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 104\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 158.445 1 wikipedia:Functional_requirement\n100.00% 158.445 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10645-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171701 and revision id 49424. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_images":[],"f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_timestamp":1704907021,"a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_type":"article","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_title":"Change control","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_plaintext":"\n\nChange controlFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_control?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 May 2018, at 22:38.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,325 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Change_control rootpage-Change_control skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Change control<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_control?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_control\" data-key=\"56848b5f8f3bc6fb3e51835923253a8d\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171701\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.094 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.163 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 96\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 158.514 1 wikipedia:Change_control\n100.00% 158.514 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10595-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171701 and revision id 33269. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_images":[],"a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_timestamp":1704907021,"26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_type":"article","26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_title":"Concurrent user","26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concurrent_user","26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_plaintext":"\n\nConcurrent userFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchA user accessing a system or resource at the same time as another\nIn computer science, the number of concurrent users (sometimes abbreviated CCU) for a resource in a location, with the location being a computing network or a single computer, refers to the total number of people simultaneously accessing or using the resource. The resource can, for example, be a computer program, a file, or the computer as a whole.[1]\nKeeping track of concurrent users is important in several cases. First, some operating system models such as time-sharing operating systems allow several users to access a resource on the computer at the same time. As system performance may degrade due to the complexity of processing multiple jobs from multiple users at the same time, the capacity of such a system may be measured in terms of maximum concurrent users.[2][3]\nSecond, commercial software vendors often license a software product by means of a concurrent users restriction. This allows a fixed number of users access to the product at a given time and contrasts with an unlimited user license. For example: Company X buys software and pays for 20 concurrent users. However, there are 100 logins created at implementation. Only 20 of those 100 can be in the system at the same time,[1][4] this is known as floating licensing.\nConcurrent user licensing allows firms to purchase computer systems and software at a lower cost because the maximum number of concurrent users expected to use the system or software at any given time (those users all logged in together) is only a portion of the total system users employed at a company. The concurrent licenses are global and shared by anyone who needs to use the system. This contrasts with \"named-seats\" licensing, in which one license must be purchased for each and every individual user, whether they are using the system or not.[5][6]\nIf a company employs 400 system users in which 275 work during the day and 125 work at night, then they can opt to purchase only 275 concurrent user licenses since there will never be more than 275 users on the system during a normal work day. The night workers share 125 of the day users' licenses to use the system. For named-seat licenses, this same company would have to purchase 400 individual licenses, one for each user, and licenses would not be globally shared. The available options for licensing are entirely at the discretion of the vendor selling the product.\n\nSee also \nFloating licensing\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b Hohmann, L. (2003). Beyond Software Architecture: Creating and Sustaining Winning Solutions. Addison-Wesley Professional. pp.&#160;76\u20138. ISBN&#160;9780132465946. \n\n^ Sharma, D.P. (2008). Foundation of Operating Systems. Excel Books. pp.&#160;10\u201311. ISBN&#160;9788174466266. \n\n^ Chauhan, S.; Saxena, A.; Gupta, K. (2006). Fundamentals of Computer. Firewall Media. p.&#160;84. ISBN&#160;9788170088547. \n\n^ Pallatto, J. (12 October 2005). \"Study Shows Enterprises Favor Concurrent-User Software Licenses\". eWeek. QuinStreet, Inc. Retrieved 2 March 2019 . \n\n^ Practising Law Institute (2006). Understanding the Intellectual Property License. Practising Law Institute. pp.&#160;140\u201342. \n\n^ Sommer, T. (May 2013). \"Top 200 SAM Terms \u2013 A Glossary Of Software Asset Management Terms\". OMTCO. Archived from the original on 10 August 2013. Retrieved 2 March 2019 . \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concurrent_user\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concurrent_user<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 2 March 2019, at 19:58.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,918 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Concurrent_user rootpage-Concurrent_user skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Concurrent user<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">A user accessing a system or resource at the same time as another<\/div>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a>, the number of <b>concurrent users<\/b> (sometimes abbreviated CCU) for a resource in a location, with the location being a computing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">network<\/a> or a single computer, refers to the total number of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Person\" title=\"Person\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"652ffde0ab6d0518ec56f8743fd7e34b\">people<\/a> simultaneously accessing or using the resource. The resource can, for example, be a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_program\" title=\"Computer program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50546cf7bdd4e8811acbcc3ce79a1f3e\">computer program<\/a>, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_file\" title=\"Computer file\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99bce4432f1e311013bdcb5d3fb6c834\">file<\/a>, or the computer as a whole.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HohmannBeyond03_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HohmannBeyond03-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Keeping track of concurrent users is important in several cases. First, some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating system<\/a> models such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time-sharing\" title=\"Time-sharing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c349efeba5d54f278b65dad7799d469\">time-sharing<\/a> operating systems allow several users to access a resource on the computer at the same time. As system performance may degrade due to the complexity of processing multiple jobs from multiple users at the same time, the capacity of such a system may be measured in terms of maximum concurrent users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SharmaFoundation09_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SharmaFoundation09-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChauhanFunda06_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChauhanFunda06-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Second, commercial software vendors often <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_licensing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software licensing\" data-key=\"2f1c89158295ccc12ae51f6f573f8e1a\">license a software product<\/a> by means of a concurrent users restriction. This allows a fixed number of users access to the product at a given time and contrasts with an unlimited user license. For example: Company X buys software and pays for 20 concurrent users. However, there are 100 logins created at implementation. Only 20 of those 100 can be in the system at the same time,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HohmannBeyond03_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HohmannBeyond03-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PallattoStudy05_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PallattoStudy05-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> this is known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Floating_licensing\" title=\"Floating licensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4cab27fc163e2d439a0b7e4f61e5c78\">floating licensing<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Concurrent user licensing allows firms to purchase computer systems and software at a lower cost because the maximum number of concurrent users expected to use the system or software at any given time (those users all logged in together) is only a portion of the total system users employed at a company. The concurrent licenses are global and shared by anyone who needs to use the system. This contrasts with \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Per-seat_license\" title=\"Per-seat license\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5cb09969ff062be9b45f2a82002ffe72\">named-seats<\/a>\" licensing, in which one license must be purchased for each and every individual user, whether they are using the system or not.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PLIUnderstand06_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PLIUnderstand06-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SommerSAM13_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SommerSAM13-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>If a company employs 400 system users in which 275 work during the day and 125 work at night, then they can opt to purchase only 275 concurrent user licenses since there will never be more than 275 users on the system during a normal work day. The night workers share 125 of the day users' licenses to use the system. For named-seat licenses, this same company would have to purchase 400 individual licenses, one for each user, and licenses would not be globally shared. The available options for licensing are entirely at the discretion of the vendor selling the product.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Floating_licensing\" title=\"Floating licensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4cab27fc163e2d439a0b7e4f61e5c78\">Floating licensing<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HohmannBeyond03-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-HohmannBeyond03_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HohmannBeyond03_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHohmann,_L.2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hohmann, L. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=0slJ8zynjCEC&pg=PA76\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Beyond Software Architecture: Creating and Sustaining Winning Solutions<\/i><\/a>. Addison-Wesley Professional. pp.&#160;76\u20138. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780132465946<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Beyond+Software+Architecture%3A+Creating+and+Sustaining+Winning+Solutions&amp;rft.pages=76-8&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley+Professional&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=9780132465946&amp;rft.au=Hohmann%2C+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0slJ8zynjCEC%26pg%3DPA76&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcurrent+user\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SharmaFoundation09-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SharmaFoundation09_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSharma,_D.P.2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Sharma, D.P. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AjWh-o7eICMC&pg=PA10\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Foundation of Operating Systems<\/i><\/a>. Excel Books. pp.&#160;10\u201311. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9788174466266<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Foundation+of+Operating+Systems&amp;rft.pages=10-11&amp;rft.pub=Excel+Books&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=9788174466266&amp;rft.au=Sharma%2C+D.P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAjWh-o7eICMC%26pg%3DPA10&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcurrent+user\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChauhanFunda06-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChauhanFunda06_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChauhan,_S.Saxena,_A.Gupta,_K.2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Chauhan, S.; Saxena, A.; Gupta, K. (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NN6Hx8s3NjwC&pg=PA84\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Fundamentals of Computer<\/i><\/a>. Firewall Media. p.&#160;84. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9788170088547<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Computer&amp;rft.pages=84&amp;rft.pub=Firewall+Media&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9788170088547&amp;rft.au=Chauhan%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Saxena%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Gupta%2C+K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNN6Hx8s3NjwC%26pg%3DPA84&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcurrent+user\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PallattoStudy05-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PallattoStudy05_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPallatto,_J.2005\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Pallatto, J. (12 October 2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.eweek.com\/it-management\/study-shows-enterprises-favor-concurrent-user-software-licenses\" target=\"_blank\">\"Study Shows Enterprises Favor Concurrent-User Software Licenses\"<\/a>. <i>eWeek<\/i>. QuinStreet, Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 March<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=eWeek&amp;rft.atitle=Study+Shows+Enterprises+Favor+Concurrent-User+Software+Licenses&amp;rft.date=2005-10-12&amp;rft.au=Pallatto%2C+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eweek.com%2Fit-management%2Fstudy-shows-enterprises-favor-concurrent-user-software-licenses&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcurrent+user\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PLIUnderstand06-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PLIUnderstand06_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPractising_Law_Institute2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Practising Law Institute (2006). <i>Understanding the Intellectual Property License<\/i>. Practising Law Institute. pp.&#160;140\u201342.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+the+Intellectual+Property+License&amp;rft.pages=140-42&amp;rft.pub=Practising+Law+Institute&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.au=Practising+Law+Institute&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcurrent+user\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SommerSAM13-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SommerSAM13_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSommer,_T.2013\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Sommer, T. (May 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130810111112\/http:\/\/omtco.eu\/references\/sam\/top-200-sam-terms-a-glossary-of-software-asset-management-terms\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Top 200 SAM Terms \u2013 A Glossary Of Software Asset Management Terms\"<\/a>. OMTCO. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/omtco.eu\/references\/sam\/top-200-sam-terms-a-glossary-of-software-asset-management-terms\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 10 August 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 March<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Top+200+SAM+Terms+%E2%80%93+A+Glossary+Of+Software+Asset+Management+Terms&amp;rft.pub=OMTCO&amp;rft.date=2013-05&amp;rft.au=Sommer%2C+T.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fomtco.eu%2Freferences%2Fsam%2Ftop-200-sam-terms-a-glossary-of-software-asset-management-terms%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcurrent+user\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1377\nCached time: 20231224134751\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1]\nCPU time usage: 0.210 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.261 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 456\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 11067\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 736\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 8\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 18228\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.123\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4628285\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 245.816 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>64.86% 159.429 1 Template:Reflist\n45.79% 112.549 4 Template:Cite_book\n32.23% 79.220 1 Template:Short_description\n16.85% 41.429 2 Template:Pagetype\n 8.89% 21.842 3 Template:Main_other\n 7.73% 18.993 1 Template:SDcat\n 5.78% 14.212 2 Template:Cite_web\n 1.36% 3.331 1 Template:Short_description\/lowercasecheck\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:581885-0!canonical and timestamp 20231224134751 and revision id 1191596442. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concurrent_user\" data-key=\"bfc01cc13d24eb8ce16bd3465fb9aa4f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110085245\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.135 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.265 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 15403\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 253.954 1 wikipedia:Concurrent_user\n100.00% 253.954 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:2898-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110085245 and revision id 35077. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concurrent_user\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concurrent_user<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_images":[],"26c56aeef3d905eca98d27d7e230cb72_timestamp":1704907021,"cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_type":"article","cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_title":"Business intelligence","cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Business_intelligence","cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_plaintext":"\n\nBusiness intelligenceFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchStrategies for analysis and use of data\n\nBusiness intelligence comprises the strategies and technologies used by enterprises for the data analysis and management of business information.[1] Common functions of business intelligence technologies include reporting, online analytical processing, analytics, dashboard development, data mining, process mining, complex event processing, business performance management, benchmarking, text mining, predictive analytics, and prescriptive analytics. \nBI tools can handle large amounts of structured and sometimes unstructured data to help identify, develop, and otherwise create new strategic business opportunities. They aim to allow for the easy interpretation of these big data. Identifying new opportunities and implementing an effective strategy based on insights can provide businesses with a competitive market advantage and long-term stability, and help them take strategic decisions.[2]\nBusiness intelligence can be used by enterprises to support a wide range of business decisions ranging from operational to strategic. Basic operating decisions include product positioning or pricing. Strategic business decisions involve priorities, goals, and directions at the broadest level. In all cases, BI is most effective when it combines data derived from the market in which a company operates (external data) with data from company sources internal to the business such as financial and operations data (internal data). When combined, external and internal data can provide a complete picture which, in effect, creates an \"intelligence\" that cannot be derived from any singular set of data.[3]\nAmong myriad uses, business intelligence tools empower organizations to gain insight into new markets, to assess demand and suitability of products and services for different market segments, and to gauge the impact of marketing efforts.[4]\nBI applications use data gathered from a data warehouse (DW) or from a data mart, and the concepts of BI and DW combine as \"BI\/DW\"[5]\nor as \"BIDW\". A data warehouse contains a copy of analytical data that facilitates decision support.\n\n\n\n\nHistory \nThe earliest known use of the term business intelligence is in Richard Millar Devens' Cyclop\u00e6dia of Commercial and Business Anecdotes (1865). Devens used the term to describe how the banker Sir Henry Furnese gained profit by receiving and acting upon information about his environment, prior to his competitors:\n\nThroughout Holland, Flanders, France, and Germany, he maintained a complete and perfect train of business intelligence. The news of the many battles fought was thus received first by him, and the fall of Namur added to his profits, owing to his early receipt of the news.\u2014\u200aDevens, p.&#160;210\nThe ability to collect and react accordingly based on the information retrieved, Devens says, is central to business intelligence.[6]\nWhen Hans Peter Luhn, a researcher at IBM, used the term business intelligence in an article published in 1958, he employed the Webster's Dictionary definition of intelligence: \"the ability to apprehend the interrelationships of presented facts in such a way as to guide action towards a desired goal.\"[7] \nIn 1989, Howard Dresner (later a Gartner analyst) proposed business intelligence as an umbrella term to describe \"concepts and methods to improve business decision making by using fact-based support systems.\"[8] It was not until the late 1990s that this usage was widespread.[9]\n\nDefinition \nAccording to Solomon Negash and Paul Gray, business intelligence (BI) can be defined as systems that combine:\n\nData gathering\nData storage\nKnowledge management\nwith analysis to evaluate complex corporate and competitive information for presentation to planners and decision makers, with the objective of improving the timeliness and the quality of the input to the decision process.\"[10]\nAccording to Forrester Research, business intelligence is \"a set of methodologies, processes, architectures, and technologies that transform raw data into meaningful and useful information used to enable more effective strategic, tactical, and operational insights and decision-making.\"[11] Under this definition, business intelligence encompasses information management (data integration, data quality, data warehousing, master-data management, text- and content-analytics, et al.). Therefore, Forrester refers to data preparation and data usage as two separate but closely linked segments of the business-intelligence architectural stack.\nSome elements of business intelligence are:[citation needed ]\n\nMultidimensional aggregation and allocation\nDenormalization, tagging, and standardization\nRealtime reporting with analytical alert\nA method of interfacing with unstructured data sources\nGroup consolidation, budgeting, and rolling forecasts\nStatistical inference and probabilistic simulation\nKey performance indicators optimization\nVersion control and process management\nOpen item management\nForrester distinguishes this from the business-intelligence market, which is \"just the top layers of the BI architectural stack, such as reporting, analytics, and dashboards.\"[12]\n\nCompared with competitive intelligence \nThough the term business intelligence is sometimes a synonym for competitive intelligence (because they both support decision making), BI uses technologies, processes, and applications to analyze mostly internal, structured data and business processes while competitive intelligence gathers, analyzes, and disseminates information with a topical focus on company competitors. If understood broadly, competitive intelligence can be considered as a subset of business intelligence.[13]\n\nCompared with business analytics \nBusiness intelligence and business analytics are sometimes used interchangeably, but there are alternate definitions.[14] Thomas Davenport, professor of information technology and management at Babson College argues that business intelligence should be divided into querying, reporting, Online analytical processing (OLAP), an \"alerts\" tool, and business analytics. In this definition, business analytics is the subset of BI focusing on statistics, prediction, and optimization, rather than the reporting functionality.[15]\n\nUnstructured data \nBusiness operations can generate a very large amount of data in the form of e-mails, memos, notes from call-centers, news, user groups, chats, reports, web-pages, presentations, image-files, video-files, and marketing material. According to Merrill Lynch, more than 85% of all business information exists in these forms; a company might only use such a document a single time.[16] Because of the way it is produced and stored, this information is either unstructured or semi-structured.\nThe management of semi-structured data is an unsolved problem in the information technology industry.[17] According to projections from Gartner (2003), white-collar workers spend 30\u201340% of their time searching, finding, and assessing unstructured data. BI uses both structured and unstructured data. The former is easy to search, and the latter contains a large quantity of the information needed for analysis and decision-making.[17][18] Because of the difficulty of properly searching, finding, and assessing unstructured or semi-structured data, organizations may not draw upon these vast reservoirs of information, which could influence a particular decision, task, or project. This can ultimately lead to poorly informed decision-making.[16]\nTherefore, when designing a business intelligence\/DW-solution, the specific problems associated with semi-structured and unstructured data must be accommodated for as well as those for the structured data.\n\nLimitations of semi-structured and unstructured data \n This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: It's dubious that searchability and semantic analysis are still limitations at the current stage of NLP and AI development. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2023 ) \nThere are several challenges to developing BI with semi-structured data. According to Inmon &amp; Nesavich,[19] some of those are:\n\nPhysically accessing unstructured textual data&#160;\u2013 unstructured data is stored in a huge variety of formats.\nTerminology&#160;\u2013 Among researchers and analysts, there is a need to develop standardized terminology.\nVolume of data&#160;\u2013 As stated earlier, up to 85% of all data exists as semi-structured data. Couple that with the need for word-to-word and semantic analysis.\nSearchability of unstructured textual data&#160;\u2013 A simple search on some data, e.g. apple, results in links where there is a reference to that precise search term. (Inmon &amp; Nesavich, 2008)[19] gives an example: \"a search is made on the term felony. In a simple search, the term felony is used, and everywhere there is a reference to felony, a hit to an unstructured document is made. But a simple search is crude. It does not find references to crime, arson, murder, embezzlement, vehicular homicide, and such, even though these crimes are types of felonies\".\nMetadata \nTo solve problems with searchability and assessment of data, it is necessary to know something about the content. This can be done by adding context through the use of metadata.[16][needs&#160;independent&#160;confirmation ] Many systems already capture some metadata (e.g. filename, author, size, etc.), but more useful would be metadata about the actual content&#160;\u2013 e.g. summaries, topics, people, or companies mentioned. Two technologies designed for generating metadata about content are automatic categorization and information extraction.\n\nApplications \nBusiness intelligence can be applied to the following business purposes:\n\nPerformance metrics and benchmarking inform business leaders of progress towards business goals.[20] (Business process management).[citation needed ]\nAnalytics quantify processes for a business to arrive at optimal decisions, and to perform business knowledge discovery. Analytics may variously involve data mining, process mining, statistical analysis, predictive analytics, predictive modeling, business process modeling, data lineage, complex event processing, and prescriptive analytics. For example within banking industry, academic research has explored potential for BI based analytics in credit evaluation, customer churn management for managerial adoption[21]\nReporting, dashboards and data visualization,[20] executive information system, and\/or OLAP\nBI can facilitate collaboration both inside and outside the business by enabling data sharing and electronic data interchange[20]\nKnowledge management is concerned with the creation, distribution, use, and management of business intelligence, and of business knowledge in general.[20] Knowledge management leads to learning management and regulatory compliance.[citation needed ]\nRoles \nSome common technical roles for business intelligence developers are:[22]\n\nBusiness analyst\nData analyst\nData engineer\nData scientist\nDatabase administrator\nRisk \nIn a 2013 report, Gartner categorized business intelligence vendors as either an independent \"pure-play\" vendor or a consolidated \"mega-vendor\".[23][non-primary source needed ] In 2019, the BI market was shaken within Europe for the new legislation of GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) which puts the responsibility of data collection and storage onto the data user with strict laws in place to make sure the data is compliant. Growth within Europe has steadily increased since May 2019 when GDPR was brought. The legislation refocused companies to look at their own data from a compliance perspective but also revealed future opportunities using personalization and external BI providers to increase market share.[24][permanent dead link ] \n\nSee also \n\nAnalytic applications\nArtificial intelligence marketing\nBusiness activity monitoring\nBusiness Intelligence 2.0\nBusiness Intelligence Competency Center\nBusiness intelligence software\nBusiness process discovery\nBusiness process management\nCustomer dynamics\nDecision engineering\nEmbedded analytics\nEnterprise planning systems\nIntegrated business planning\nManagement information system\nMobile business intelligence\nOperational intelligence\nProcess mining\nReal-time business intelligence\nSales intelligence\nTest and learn\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ Dedi\u0107 N. &amp; Stanier noC. (2016). \"Measuring the Success of Changes to Existing Business Intelligence Solutions to Improve Business Intelligence Reporting\" (PDF) . Measuring the Success of Changes to Existing Business Intelligence Solutions to Improve Business Intelligence Reporting. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing. Vol.&#160;268. Springer International Publishing. pp.&#160;225\u2013236. doi:10.1007\/978-3-319-49944-4_17. ISBN&#160;978-3-319-49943-7. S2CID&#160;30910248. \n\n^ (Rud, Olivia (2009). Business Intelligence Success Factors: Tools for Aligning Your Business in the Global Economy. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley &amp; Sons. ISBN&#160;978-0-470-39240-9. ) \n\n^ Coker, Frank (2014). Pulse: Understanding the Vital Signs of Your Business. Ambient Light Publishing. pp.&#160;41\u201342. ISBN&#160;978-0-9893086-0-1. \n\n^ \nChugh, R. &amp; Grandhi, S. (2013,). \"Why Business Intelligence? Significance of Business Intelligence tools and integrating BI governance with corporate governance\". International Journal of E-Entrepreneurship and Innovation', vol. 4, no.2, pp. 1\u201314. \n\n^ \nGolden, Bernard (2013). Amazon Web Services For Dummies. For dummies. John Wiley &amp; Sons. p.&#160;234. ISBN&#160;9781118652268. Retrieved 6 July 2014 . [...] traditional business intelligence or data warehousing tools (the terms are used so interchangeably that they're often referred to as BI\/DW) are extremely expensive [...] \n\n^ Miller Devens, Richard (1865). Cyclopaedia of Commercial and Business Anecdotes; Comprising Interesting Reminiscences and Facts, Remarkable Traits and Humors of Merchants, Traders, Bankers Etc. in All Ages and Countries. D. Appleton and company. p.&#160;210. Retrieved 15 February 2014 . business intelligence. \n\n^ \nLuhn, H. P. (1958). \"A Business Intelligence System\" (PDF) . IBM Journal of Research and Development. 2 (4): 314\u2013319. doi:10.1147\/rd.24.0314. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2008. \n\n^ D. J. Power (10 March 2007). \"A Brief History of Decision Support Systems, version 4.0\". DSSResources.COM. Retrieved 10 July 2008 . \n\n^ Power, D. J. \"A Brief History of Decision Support Systems\". Retrieved 1 November 2010 . \n\n^ Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (21 November 2008). Topic Overview: Business Intelligence. doi:10.1007\/978-3-540-48716-6. ISBN&#160;978-3-540-48715-9. \n\n^ Evelson, Boris (21 November 2008). \"Topic Overview: Business Intelligence\". \n\n^ Evelson, Boris (29 April 2010). \"Want to know what Forrester's lead data analysts are thinking about BI and the data domain?\". Archived from the original on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2010 . \n\n^ Kobielus, James (30 April 2010). \"What's Not BI? Oh, Don't Get Me Started... Oops Too Late... Here Goes...\" Archived from the original on 7 May 2010. Retrieved 4 November 2010 . \"Business\" intelligence is a non-domain-specific catchall for all the types of analytic data that can be delivered to users in reports, dashboards, and the like. When you specify the subject domain for this intelligence, then you can refer to \"competitive intelligence\", \"market intelligence\", \"social intelligence\", \"financial intelligence\", \"HR intelligence\", \"supply chain intelligence\", and the like. \n\n^ \"Business Analytics vs Business Intelligence?\". timoelliott.com. 9 March 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2014 . \n\n^ Henschen, Doug (4 January 2010). \"Analytics at Work: Q&amp;A with Tom Davenport\" (Interview). Archived from the original on 3 April 2012. Retrieved 26 September 2011 . \n\n^ a b c Rao, R. (2003). \"From unstructured data to actionable intelligence\" (PDF) . IT Professional. 5 (6): 29\u201335. doi:10.1109\/MITP.2003.1254966. \n\n^ a b Blumberg, R. &amp; S. Atre (2003). \"The Problem with Unstructured Data\" (PDF) . DM Review: 42\u201346. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2011. \n\n^ Negash, S (2004). \"Business Intelligence\". Communications of the Association for Information Systems. 13: 177\u2013195. doi:10.17705\/1CAIS.01315 . \n\n^ a b Inmon, B. &amp; A. Nesavich, \"Unstructured Textual Data in the Organization\" from \"Managing Unstructured data in the organization\", Prentice Hall 2008, pp. 1\u201313 \n\n^ a b c d Feldman, D.; Himmelstein, J. (2013). Developing Business Intelligence Apps for SharePoint. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;140\u20131. ISBN&#160;9781449324681. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Moro, S\u00e9rgio; Cortez, Paulo; Rita, Paulo (February 2015). \"Business intelligence in banking: A literature analysis from 2002 to 2013 using text mining and latent Dirichlet allocation\". Expert Systems with Applications. 42 (3): 1314\u20131324. doi:10.1016\/j.eswa.2014.09.024. hdl:10071\/8522 . S2CID&#160;15595226. \n\n^ Roles in data - Learn | Microsoft Docs \n\n^ Andrew Brust (14 February 2013). \"Gartner releases 2013 BI Magic Quadrant\". ZDNet. Retrieved 21 August 2013 . \n\n^ SaaS BI growth will soar in 2010 | Cloud Computing. InfoWorld (1 February 2010). Retrieved 17 January 2012. \n\n\nBibliography \nRalph Kimball et al. \"The Data warehouse Lifecycle Toolkit\" (2nd ed.) Wiley ISBN&#160;0-470-47957-4\nPeter Rausch, Alaa Sheta, Aladdin Ayesh&#160;: Business Intelligence and Performance Management: Theory, Systems, and Industrial Applications, Springer Verlag U.K., 2013, ISBN&#160;978-1-4471-4865-4.\nMunoz, J.M. (2017). Global Business Intelligence. Routledge&#160;: UK. ISBN&#160;978-1-1382-03686\nChaudhuri, Surajit; Dayal, Umeshwar; Narasayya, Vivek (August 2011). \"An Overview of Business Intelligence Technology\". Communications of the ACM. 54 (8): 88\u201398. doi:10.1145\/1978542.1978562. \nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Business intelligence .\n\nvteData warehousesCreating a data warehouseConcepts\nDatabase\nDimension\nDimensional modeling\nFact\nOLAP\nStar schema\nSnowflake schema\nReverse star schema\nAggregate\nSingle version of the truth\nVariants\nColumn-oriented DBMS\nData hub\nData mesh\nEnsemble modeling patterns\nAnchor modeling\nData vault modeling\nFocal point modeling\nHOLAP\nMOLAP\nROLAP\nOperational data store\nElements\nData dictionary\/Metadata\nData mart\nSixth normal form\nSurrogate key\nFact\nFact table\nEarly-arriving fact\nMeasure\nDimension\nDimension table\nDegenerate\nSlowly changing\nFilling\nExtract, transform, load (ETL)\nExtract, load, transform (ELT)\nExtract\nTransform\nLoad\nUsing a data warehouseConcepts\nBusiness intelligence\nDashboard\nData mining\nDecision support system (DSS)\nOLAP cube\nData warehouse 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role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Business intelligence<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Strategies for analysis and use of data<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p><p><b>Business intelligence<\/b> comprises the strategies and technologies used by enterprises for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe81497dd8621498e1de0a68d203fd37\">data analysis<\/a> and management of business <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Common functions of business intelligence technologies include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_reporting\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Financial reporting\" data-key=\"e294f2d57006afb8be8569dec99e2322\">reporting<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online_analytical_processing\" title=\"Online analytical processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b00f448abfb4948e1eae84c222e6f3b5\">online analytical processing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">analytics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dashboard_(business)\" title=\"Dashboard (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efeb942e7967dcf7a9477c6ed1062d94\">dashboard<\/a> development, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_mining\" title=\"Process mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d79e4c479ad793a0fed95c8594b6324\">process mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Complex_event_processing\" title=\"Complex event processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"096fc7cb579e5c5a61b4e154f6d601c6\">complex event processing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_performance_management\" title=\"Business performance management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd7d24521aa51615f27653d8e6d6162e\">business performance management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benchmarking\" title=\"Benchmarking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d327f3b302c8266cc52fa904e34fbd3\">benchmarking<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text_mining\" title=\"Text mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"399bb009dd237bfe29b2ab9413a97271\">text mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_Analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Predictive Analysis\" data-key=\"24d0913882e239947bcd04deeba26144\">predictive analytics<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prescriptive_analytics\" title=\"Prescriptive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"763411f4e713183f8ff5cfce937d1b09\">prescriptive analytics<\/a>. \n<\/p><p>BI tools can handle large amounts of structured and sometimes unstructured data to help identify, develop, and otherwise create new strategic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_opportunities\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business opportunities\" data-key=\"bea909cb372c24d4fa9430a360439d62\">business opportunities<\/a>. They aim to allow for the easy interpretation of these <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">big data<\/a>. Identifying new opportunities and implementing an effective strategy based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insight\" title=\"Insight\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"371fd01630dd88e54cf8d866e5061b6a\">insights<\/a> can provide <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business\" title=\"Business\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff1d01a96ae3a445e4fff761412471b\">businesses<\/a> with a competitive market advantage and long-term stability, and help them take strategic decisions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Business intelligence can be used by enterprises to support a wide range of business decisions ranging from operational to strategic. Basic operating decisions include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_positioning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Product positioning\" data-key=\"d0aa17590859c315a334df5b9a61e1a5\">product positioning<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pricing\" title=\"Pricing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f9772fa0af8925d1385bda5c0c84f5a\">pricing<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_strategy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business strategy\" data-key=\"00f326653ec9eea722639c219c2d4a8b\">Strategic business<\/a> decisions involve priorities, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Goal\" title=\"Goal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cade209af13a65801550217c0067da2f\">goals<\/a>, and directions at the broadest level. In all cases, BI is most effective when it combines data derived from the market in which a company operates (external data) with data from company sources internal to the business such as financial and operations data (internal data). When combined, external and internal data can provide a complete picture which, in effect, creates an \"intelligence\" that cannot be derived from any singular set of data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Among myriad uses, business intelligence tools empower organizations to gain insight into new markets, to assess demand and suitability of products and services for different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Market_segmentation\" title=\"Market segmentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be990667842ec74387ea8fcc98108743\">market segments<\/a>, and to gauge the impact of marketing efforts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>BI applications use data gathered from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">data warehouse<\/a> (DW) or from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mart\" title=\"Data mart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e44fab70f384c8b8ec7e9184af0c01a1\">data mart<\/a>, and the concepts of BI and DW combine as \"BI\/DW\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>or as \"BIDW\". A data warehouse contains a copy of analytical data that facilitates <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_support\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision support\" data-key=\"694ae8d04da17541a55c35877f5fd69c\">decision support<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The earliest known use of the term <i>business intelligence<\/i> is in Richard Millar Devens' <i>Cyclop\u00e6dia of Commercial and Business Anecdotes<\/i> (1865). Devens used the term to describe how the banker <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sir_Henry_Furnese,_1st_Baronet\" title=\"Sir Henry Furnese, 1st Baronet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbabb215cf8343770f5d23e66c5fb901\">Sir Henry Furnese<\/a> gained profit by receiving and acting upon information about his environment, prior to his competitors:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>Throughout Holland, Flanders, France, and Germany, he maintained a complete and perfect train of business intelligence. The news of the many battles fought was thus received first by him, and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siege_of_Namur_(1695)\" title=\"Siege of Namur (1695)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1959037c896e60482c38b17c8669b495\">fall of Namur<\/a> added to his profits, owing to his early receipt of the news.<\/p><div class=\"templatequotecite\">\u2014\u200a<cite>Devens, p.&#160;210<\/cite><\/div><\/blockquote>\n<p>The ability to collect and react accordingly based on the information retrieved, Devens says, is central to business intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Miller_Devens_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Miller_Devens-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>When <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Peter_Luhn\" title=\"Hans Peter Luhn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13b5012ec8ce086134319492ab72b5c5\">Hans Peter Luhn<\/a>, a researcher at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a>, used the term <i>business intelligence<\/i> in an article published in 1958, he employed the <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Webster%27s_Dictionary\" title=\"Webster's Dictionary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ea1346c9258fae8ee292781ee8f5618\">Webster's Dictionary<\/a><\/i> definition of intelligence: \"the ability to apprehend the interrelationships of presented facts in such a way as to guide action towards a desired goal.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>In 1989, Howard Dresner (later a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gartner\" title=\"Gartner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f7668963d7e19c93d13754e7e1b8a52\">Gartner<\/a> analyst) proposed <i>business intelligence<\/i> as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Umbrella_term\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Umbrella term\" data-key=\"3006b0749c672b5c19088f3cbf9b8c24\">umbrella term<\/a> to describe \"concepts and methods to improve business decision making by using fact-based support systems.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-power_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-power-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> It was not until the late 1990s that this usage was widespread.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Definition\">Definition<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>According to Solomon Negash and Paul Gray, business intelligence (BI) can be defined as systems that combine:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_collection\" title=\"Data collection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c480fa3155cedfb5132e5258cdc0aa80\">Data gathering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_storage\" title=\"Data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"853b49fb9cf81b311211758816b6c99d\">Data storage<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>with analysis to evaluate complex corporate and competitive information for presentation to planners and decision makers, with the objective of improving the timeliness and the quality of the input to the decision process.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forrester_Research\" title=\"Forrester Research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8157b65f1a139b7c858cb546c588ef45\">Forrester Research<\/a>, business intelligence is \"a set of methodologies, processes, architectures, and technologies that transform raw data into meaningful and useful information used to enable more effective strategic, tactical, and operational insights and decision-making.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Under this definition, business intelligence encompasses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_management\" title=\"Information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eb7b16b6cf9e903b35914f058a684c1\">information management<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">data integration<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8771428f8ff5b31246abf8b197186672\">data quality<\/a>, data warehousing, master-data management, text- and content-analytics, et al.). Therefore, Forrester refers to <i>data preparation<\/i> and <i>data usage<\/i> as two separate but closely linked segments of the business-intelligence architectural stack.\n<\/p><p>Some elements of business intelligence are:<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Multidimensional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aggregate_(data_warehouse)\" title=\"Aggregate (data warehouse)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94f49fe882d8fc03ff6544e894891ba2\">aggregation<\/a> and allocation<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denormalization\" title=\"Denormalization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"729614a765dd22f64aa547b03cc430e2\">Denormalization<\/a>, tagging, and standardization<\/li>\n<li>Realtime reporting with analytical alert<\/li>\n<li>A method of interfacing with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unstructured_data\" title=\"Unstructured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2cf4a063df1dfbf948f0824b167984c\">unstructured data<\/a> sources<\/li>\n<li>Group consolidation, budgeting, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rolling_forecast\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Rolling forecast\" data-key=\"95b5b0f48c001caf9c3e645a1a153d94\">rolling forecasts<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_inference\" title=\"Statistical inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"531cc2121dc07b12e1541c66cca17129\">Statistical inference<\/a> and probabilistic simulation<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_performance_indicator\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Key performance indicator\" data-key=\"0323fbb04e5067eb701468735626f723\">Key performance indicators<\/a> optimization<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Version_control\" title=\"Version control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e89feabadbf7abca76d5b5d945a458\">Version control<\/a> and process management<\/li>\n<li>Open item management<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Forrester distinguishes this from the <i>business-intelligence market<\/i>, which is \"just the top layers of the BI architectural stack, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_reporting\" title=\"Data reporting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5fe485ef0e846bfdb5536c95940c3c6d\">reporting<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">analytics<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dashboards_(management_information_systems)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dashboards (management information systems)\" data-key=\"78753250e5df4fec1ba60c794bb0075c\">dashboards<\/a>.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Compared_with_competitive_intelligence\">Compared with competitive intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Though the term business intelligence is sometimes a synonym for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competitive_intelligence\" title=\"Competitive intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd07fcbfff536086a937b143a8201b63\">competitive intelligence<\/a> (because they both support <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision making\" data-key=\"f7ca18573163d657813ebb8dfb5bff55\">decision making<\/a>), BI uses technologies, processes, and applications to analyze mostly internal, structured data and business processes while competitive intelligence gathers, analyzes, and disseminates information with a topical focus on company competitors. If understood broadly, competitive intelligence can be considered as a subset of business intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Compared_with_business_analytics\">Compared with business analytics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Business intelligence and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_analytics\" title=\"Business analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3cbca9e82643b08a950869d4c295b83\">business analytics<\/a> are sometimes used interchangeably, but there are alternate definitions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thomas_H._Davenport\" title=\"Thomas H. Davenport\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dfb6bfe96fc39cd9e77bc48680f03b2\">Thomas Davenport<\/a>, professor of information technology and management at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Babson_College\" title=\"Babson College\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98e06503c15f5a136b6667dc9b113c4f\">Babson College<\/a> argues that business intelligence should be divided into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">querying<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_reporting\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Financial reporting\" data-key=\"e294f2d57006afb8be8569dec99e2322\">reporting<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online_analytical_processing\" title=\"Online analytical processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b00f448abfb4948e1eae84c222e6f3b5\">Online analytical processing<\/a> (OLAP), an \"alerts\" tool, and business analytics. In this definition, business analytics is the subset of BI focusing on statistics, prediction, and optimization, rather than the reporting functionality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Unstructured_data\">Unstructured data<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Business operations can generate a very large amount of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> in the form of e-mails, memos, notes from call-centers, news, user groups, chats, reports, web-pages, presentations, image-files, video-files, and marketing material. According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Merrill_Lynch\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Merrill Lynch\" data-key=\"6b9e01b70c99eda64f79848a2c4670bf\">Merrill Lynch<\/a>, more than 85% of all business information exists in these forms; a company might only use such a document a single time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-rao_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-rao-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Because of the way it is produced and stored, this information is either <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unstructured_data\" title=\"Unstructured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2cf4a063df1dfbf948f0824b167984c\">unstructured<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semi-structured_data\" title=\"Semi-structured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c46fb42c07af2ca627bdb26158034d5\">semi-structured<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The management of semi-structured data is an unsolved problem in the information technology industry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-blumberg_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-blumberg-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> According to projections from Gartner (2003), white-collar workers spend 30\u201340% of their time searching, finding, and assessing unstructured data. BI uses both structured and unstructured data. The former is easy to search, and the latter contains a large quantity of the information needed for analysis and decision-making.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-blumberg_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-blumberg-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-negash_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-negash-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> Because of the difficulty of properly searching, finding, and assessing unstructured or semi-structured data, organizations may not draw upon these vast reservoirs of information, which could influence a particular decision, task, or project. This can ultimately lead to poorly informed decision-making.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-rao_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-rao-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Therefore, when designing a business intelligence\/DW-solution, the specific problems associated with semi-structured and unstructured data must be accommodated for as well as those for the structured data.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Limitations_of_semi-structured_and_unstructured_data\">Limitations of semi-structured and unstructured data<\/span><\/h3>\n\n<p>There are several challenges to developing BI with semi-structured data. According to Inmon &amp; Nesavich,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-inmon_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-inmon-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> some of those are:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Physically accessing unstructured textual data&#160;\u2013 unstructured data is stored in a huge variety of formats.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Terminology\" title=\"Terminology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19cecf4f0cfdd74bb1468cd640c76963\">Terminology<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Among researchers and analysts, there is a need to develop standardized terminology.<\/li>\n<li>Volume of data&#160;\u2013 As stated earlier, up to 85% of all data exists as semi-structured data. Couple that with the need for word-to-word and semantic analysis.<\/li>\n<li>Searchability of unstructured textual data&#160;\u2013 A simple search on some data, e.g. apple, results in links where there is a reference to that precise search term. (Inmon &amp; Nesavich, 2008)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-inmon_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-inmon-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> gives an example: \"a search is made on the term felony. In a simple search, the term felony is used, and everywhere there is a reference to felony, a hit to an unstructured document is made. But a simple search is crude. It does not find references to crime, arson, murder, embezzlement, vehicular homicide, and such, even though these crimes are types of felonies\".<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Metadata\">Metadata<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>To solve problems with searchability and assessment of data, it is necessary to know something about the content. This can be done by adding context through the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">metadata<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-rao_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-rao-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Sources_that_are_usually_not_reliable\" title=\"Wikipedia:Verifiability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1b12b1885ed41e9c270049a4c802b98\"><span title=\"The article is written by a founder of a company that made automatic categorization software. Not sufficient to establish that using automatically generated metadata is a mainstream approach of applying BI to unstructured data. (December 2023)\">needs&#160;independent&#160;confirmation<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Many systems already capture some metadata (e.g. filename, author, size, etc.), but more useful would be metadata about the actual content&#160;\u2013 e.g. summaries, topics, people, or companies mentioned. Two technologies designed for generating metadata about content are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multiclass_classification\" title=\"Multiclass classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8ded027023182f6f6d2ff21c0b85757\">automatic categorization<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_extraction\" title=\"Information extraction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d8bd74625d817b2052a2a36d5529463\">information extraction<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Business intelligence can be applied to the following business purposes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Performance_metrics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Performance metrics\" data-key=\"7f2e023783fc6f7fae9e9e507205e4ab\">Performance metrics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benchmarking\" title=\"Benchmarking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d327f3b302c8266cc52fa904e34fbd3\">benchmarking<\/a> inform business leaders of progress towards business goals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FeldmanDeveloping13-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">Business process management<\/a>).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">Analytics<\/a> quantify processes for a business to arrive at optimal decisions, and to perform business knowledge discovery. Analytics may variously involve <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_mining\" title=\"Process mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d79e4c479ad793a0fed95c8594b6324\">process mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Statistical analysis\" data-key=\"aa326396a3ec131f22db89698617d998\">statistical analysis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_analytics\" title=\"Predictive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34f7137f13e40b2fa7b28c33330ba3ab\">predictive analytics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_modeling\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Predictive modeling\" data-key=\"7b5a8612567538244b872ef348528e1b\">predictive modeling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_modeling\" title=\"Business process modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9715c2f913e0cf460e06594cdf1926de\">business process modeling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_lineage\" title=\"Data lineage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ef39b5373e3072b9ad8dd7dc83ca6b1\">data lineage<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Complex_event_processing\" title=\"Complex event processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"096fc7cb579e5c5a61b4e154f6d601c6\">complex event processing<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prescriptive_analytics\" title=\"Prescriptive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"763411f4e713183f8ff5cfce937d1b09\">prescriptive analytics<\/a>. For example within banking industry, academic research has explored potential for BI based analytics in credit evaluation, customer churn management for managerial adoption<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reporting\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Reporting\" data-key=\"fb673d3cef467aa2f23c8564cabb0c95\">Reporting<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dashboard_(business)\" title=\"Dashboard (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efeb942e7967dcf7a9477c6ed1062d94\">dashboards<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_visualization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data visualization\" data-key=\"e5477909db13f678e8054bd9dae16a17\">data visualization<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FeldmanDeveloping13-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Executive_information_system\" title=\"Executive information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7cf335403e62190ebdbce0b471087d13\">executive information system<\/a>, and\/or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OLAP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OLAP\" data-key=\"7ef77274d45ffa04bfe244fad9fac81d\">OLAP<\/a><\/li>\n<li>BI can facilitate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collaboration\" title=\"Collaboration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2a65b2b5b813ba8318884dbfffdb09a\">collaboration<\/a> both inside and outside the business by enabling <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_sharing\" title=\"Data sharing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9135f52ddf866316b15abc79a83047f1\">data sharing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_data_interchange\" title=\"Electronic data interchange\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08606d658cb8079277aacc5938326c04\">electronic data interchange<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FeldmanDeveloping13-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a> is concerned with the creation, distribution, use, and management of business intelligence, and of business knowledge in general.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FeldmanDeveloping13-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> Knowledge management leads to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Learning management\" data-key=\"a65fb90655f39d6592e7b85f0d5a6436\">learning management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"Regulatory compliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ca6bf47b29b4fa458d97db174b6cb0f\">regulatory compliance<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Roles\">Roles<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some common technical roles for business intelligence developers are:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_analyst\" title=\"Business analyst\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f630dd4b0f073dc7bbea379c9933c185\">Business analyst<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_analyst\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data analyst\" data-key=\"f45bec39889890549ae7d8ee4d623c00\">Data analyst<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_engineer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data engineer\" data-key=\"4c5aaade9d6340e1cf6ba10860f7b07b\">Data engineer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_scientist\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data scientist\" data-key=\"51527748641af2417bce7561c0f9cef0\">Data scientist<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_administrator\" title=\"Database administrator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8e2b2bd10401dfbb829692fdc8df46a\">Database administrator<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Risk\">Risk<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In a 2013 report, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gartner\" title=\"Gartner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f7668963d7e19c93d13754e7e1b8a52\">Gartner<\/a> categorized business intelligence vendors as either an independent \"pure-play\" vendor or a consolidated \"mega-vendor\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:No original research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b48133d40e8c3c9e91ad6c8ac7e63d3\"><span title=\"Secondary source supporting importance of the categorization needed (December 2023)\">non-primary source needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> In 2019, the BI market was shaken within Europe for the new legislation of GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) which puts the responsibility of data collection and storage onto the data user with strict laws in place to make sure the data is compliant. Growth within Europe has steadily increased since May 2019 when GDPR was brought. The legislation refocused companies to look at their own data from a compliance perspective but also revealed future opportunities using personalization and external BI providers to increase market share.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" title=\"Wikipedia:Link rot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\"&#160;Dead link tagged December 2023\">permanent dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 20em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytic_applications\" title=\"Analytic applications\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"642fcffedf878ebcac005ca9ced277e8\">Analytic applications<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_marketing\" title=\"Artificial intelligence marketing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7e8d15bddb61cf287a1794cee66196bc\">Artificial intelligence marketing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_activity_monitoring\" title=\"Business activity monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9389d85c833621df19e1a6f00cbdf740\">Business activity monitoring<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_Intelligence_2.0\" title=\"Business Intelligence 2.0\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f9ae4dd4692d1c5fc179da68c2cbe92\">Business Intelligence 2.0<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_Intelligence_Competency_Center\" title=\"Business Intelligence Competency Center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"836aecf240df84c2b6e34e62f7185603\">Business Intelligence Competency Center<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence_software\" title=\"Business intelligence software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8438769893c31986418c4042b6372f8e\">Business intelligence software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_discovery\" title=\"Business process discovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"06c71400f7320c0ef6ed62fa17b09ca1\">Business process discovery<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">Business process management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_dynamics\" title=\"Customer dynamics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"252a86e69633fbcddb960eea7a161ec5\">Customer dynamics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_engineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision engineering\" data-key=\"3c83a78bbac9cfe7ed76976fe07eb84a\">Decision engineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embedded_analytics\" title=\"Embedded analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bd3c8993703c446da8da3b52e6f89a0\">Embedded analytics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_planning_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Enterprise planning systems\" data-key=\"1ec62fd77f69c442f6adb7b0fa087e08\">Enterprise planning systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integrated_business_planning\" title=\"Integrated business planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d8a292d87ebd37a475ed0e781336a12\">Integrated business planning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Management_information_system\" title=\"Management information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a92a2c5b402f28a32fedefc28131a3c\">Management information system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_business_intelligence\" title=\"Mobile business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"946835dddb2054c05ff13c1a94db7cff\">Mobile business intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_intelligence\" title=\"Operational intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ac0bb695bc2ac1fcea26ed5de2702ef\">Operational intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_mining\" title=\"Process mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d79e4c479ad793a0fed95c8594b6324\">Process mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Real-time_business_intelligence\" title=\"Real-time business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95316461e584d8b677c6eee88710b73a\">Real-time business intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sales_intelligence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sales intelligence\" data-key=\"b404b4f58bb20b347211d150aa0a96ff\">Sales intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test_and_learn\" title=\"Test and learn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09a1f3e928a663ac3b1a638922025523\">Test and learn<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDedi\u0107_N._&amp;_Stanier_noC.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dedi\u0107 N. &amp; Stanier noC. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hal.inria.fr\/hal-01630541\/file\/432749_1_En_17_Chapter.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Measuring the Success of Changes to Existing Business Intelligence Solutions to Improve Business Intelligence Reporting\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eprints.staffs.ac.uk\/3547\/1\/Measuring%20JMA_Submitted.docx\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Measuring the Success of Changes to Existing Business Intelligence Solutions to Improve Business Intelligence Reporting. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing<\/i><\/a>. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing. Vol.&#160;268. Springer International Publishing. pp.&#160;225\u2013236. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-319-49944-4_17\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-319-49944-4_17<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-319-49943-7<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:30910248\" target=\"_blank\">30910248<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Measuring+the+Success+of+Changes+to+Existing+Business+Intelligence+Solutions+to+Improve+Business+Intelligence+Reporting&amp;rft.btitle=Measuring+the+Success+of+Changes+to+Existing+Business+Intelligence+Solutions+to+Improve+Business+Intelligence+Reporting.+Lecture+Notes+in+Business+Information+Processing&amp;rft.series=Lecture+Notes+in+Business+Information+Processing&amp;rft.pages=225-236&amp;rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30910248%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-49944-4_17&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-319-49943-7&amp;rft.au=Dedi%C4%87+N.+%26+Stanier+noC.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.inria.fr%2Fhal-01630541%2Ffile%2F432749_1_En_17_Chapter.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span style=\"position:relative; top: -2px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paywall\" title=\"closed access publication \u2013 behind paywall\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8d57fdef6ff47e6ad6f709656587346\"><img alt=\"Closed access icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0e\/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg\/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"9\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">(<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRud2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Rud, Olivia (2009). <i>Business Intelligence Success Factors: Tools for Aligning Your Business in the Global Economy<\/i>. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley &amp; Sons. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-470-39240-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Business+Intelligence+Success+Factors%3A+Tools+for+Aligning+Your+Business+in+the+Global+Economy&amp;rft.place=Hoboken%2C+N.J.&amp;rft.pub=Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-470-39240-9&amp;rft.aulast=Rud&amp;rft.aufirst=Olivia&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCoker2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Coker, Frank (2014). <i>Pulse: Understanding the Vital Signs of Your Business<\/i>. Ambient Light Publishing. pp.&#160;41\u201342. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-9893086-0-1<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Pulse%3A+Understanding+the+Vital+Signs+of+Your+Business&amp;rft.pages=41-42&amp;rft.pub=Ambient+Light+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-9893086-0-1&amp;rft.aulast=Coker&amp;rft.aufirst=Frank&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nChugh, R. &amp; Grandhi, S. (2013,). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/273861123_Why_Business_Intelligence_Significance_of_Business_Intelligence_Tools_and_Integrating_BI_Governance_with_Corporate_Governance\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why Business Intelligence? Significance of Business Intelligence tools and integrating BI governance with corporate governance\". <i>International Journal of E-Entrepreneurship and Innovation', vol. 4, no.2, pp. 1\u201314.<\/i><\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGolden2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Golden, Bernard (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=xSVwAAAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Amazon Web Services For Dummies<\/i><\/a>. For dummies. John Wiley &amp; Sons. p.&#160;234. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781118652268<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2014<\/span>. <q>[...] traditional business intelligence or data warehousing tools (the terms are used so interchangeably that they're often referred to as BI\/DW) are extremely expensive [...]<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Amazon+Web+Services+For+Dummies&amp;rft.series=For+dummies&amp;rft.pages=234&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781118652268&amp;rft.aulast=Golden&amp;rft.aufirst=Bernard&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxSVwAAAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Miller_Devens-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Miller_Devens_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMiller_Devens1865\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Miller Devens, Richard (1865). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/cyclopaediacomm00devegoog\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Cyclopaedia of Commercial and Business Anecdotes; Comprising Interesting Reminiscences and Facts, Remarkable Traits and Humors of Merchants, Traders, Bankers Etc. in All Ages and Countries<\/i><\/a>. D. Appleton and company. p.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/cyclopaediacomm00devegoog\/page\/n262\" target=\"_blank\">210<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 February<\/span> 2014<\/span>. <q>business intelligence.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Cyclopaedia+of+Commercial+and+Business+Anecdotes%3B+Comprising+Interesting+Reminiscences+and+Facts%2C+Remarkable+Traits+and+Humors+of+Merchants%2C+Traders%2C+Bankers+Etc.+in+All+Ages+and+Countries&amp;rft.pages=210&amp;rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+company&amp;rft.date=1865&amp;rft.aulast=Miller+Devens&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcyclopaediacomm00devegoog&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLuhn,_H._P.1958\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Peter_Luhn\" title=\"Hans Peter Luhn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13b5012ec8ce086134319492ab72b5c5\">Luhn, H. P.<\/a> (1958). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080913121526\/http:\/\/www.research.ibm.com\/journal\/rd\/024\/ibmrd0204H.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Business Intelligence System\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IBM Journal of Research and Development<\/i>. <b>2<\/b> (4): 314\u2013319. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1147%2Frd.24.0314\" target=\"_blank\">10.1147\/rd.24.0314<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.research.ibm.com\/journal\/rd\/024\/ibmrd0204H.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 13 September 2008.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IBM+Journal+of+Research+and+Development&amp;rft.atitle=A+Business+Intelligence+System&amp;rft.volume=2&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=314-319&amp;rft.date=1958&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1147%2Frd.24.0314&amp;rft.au=Luhn%2C+H.+P.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.research.ibm.com%2Fjournal%2Frd%2F024%2Fibmrd0204H.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-power-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-power_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFD._J._Power2007\" class=\"citation web cs1\">D. J. Power (10 March 2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dssresources.com\/history\/dsshistory.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Brief History of Decision Support Systems, version 4.0\"<\/a>. DSSResources.COM<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Decision+Support+Systems%2C+version+4.0&amp;rft.pub=DSSResources.COM&amp;rft.date=2007-03-10&amp;rft.au=D.+J.+Power&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdssresources.com%2Fhistory%2Fdsshistory.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPower\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Power, D. J. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dssresources.com\/history\/dsshistory.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Brief History of Decision Support Systems\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 November<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Decision+Support+Systems&amp;rft.aulast=Power&amp;rft.aufirst=D.+J.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdssresources.com%2Fhistory%2Fdsshistory.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSpringer-Verlag_Berlin_Heidelberg2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (21 November 2008). <i>Topic Overview: Business Intelligence<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-540-48716-6\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-540-48716-6<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-540-48715-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Topic+Overview%3A+Business+Intelligence&amp;rft.date=2008-11-21&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-540-48716-6&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-540-48715-9&amp;rft.aulast=Springer-Verlag+Berlin+Heidelberg&amp;rft.aufirst=Springer-Verlag+Berlin+Heidelberg&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEvelson2008\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Evelson, Boris (21 November 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forrester.com\/report\/Topic+Overview+Business+Intelligence\/-\/E-RES39218\" target=\"_blank\">\"Topic Overview: Business Intelligence\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Topic+Overview%3A+Business+Intelligence&amp;rft.date=2008-11-21&amp;rft.aulast=Evelson&amp;rft.aufirst=Boris&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forrester.com%2Freport%2FTopic%2BOverview%2BBusiness%2BIntelligence%2F-%2FE-RES39218&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEvelson2010\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Evelson, Boris (29 April 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160806102752\/http:\/\/blogs.forrester.com\/boris_evelson\/10-04-29-want_know_what_forresters_lead_data_analysts_are_thinking_about_bi_and_data_domain\" target=\"_blank\">\"Want to know what Forrester's lead data analysts are thinking about BI and the data domain?\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blogs.forrester.com\/boris_evelson\/10-04-29-want_know_what_forresters_lead_data_analysts_are_thinking_about_bi_and_data_domain\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 6 August 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Want+to+know+what+Forrester%27s+lead+data+analysts+are+thinking+about+BI+and+the+data+domain%3F&amp;rft.date=2010-04-29&amp;rft.aulast=Evelson&amp;rft.aufirst=Boris&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.forrester.com%2Fboris_evelson%2F10-04-29-want_know_what_forresters_lead_data_analysts_are_thinking_about_bi_and_data_domain&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKobielus2010\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Kobielus, James (30 April 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100507103207\/http:\/\/blogs.forrester.com\/james_kobielus\/10-04-30-what%E2%80%99s_not_bi_oh_don%E2%80%99t_get_me_startedoops_too_latehere_goes\" target=\"_blank\">\"What's Not BI? Oh, Don't Get Me Started... Oops Too Late... Here Goes...\"<\/a> Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blogs.forrester.com\/james_kobielus\/10-04-30-what%E2%80%99s_not_bi_oh_don%E2%80%99t_get_me_startedoops_too_latehere_goes\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 7 May 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2010<\/span>. <q><span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"Business\" intelligence is a non-domain-specific catchall for all the types of analytic data that can be delivered to users in reports, dashboards, and the like. When you specify the subject domain for this intelligence, then you can refer to \"competitive intelligence\", \"market intelligence\", \"social intelligence\", \"financial intelligence\", \"HR intelligence\", \"supply chain intelligence\", and the like.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=What%27s+Not+BI%3F+Oh%2C+Don%27t+Get+Me+Started...+Oops+Too+Late...+Here+Goes...&amp;rft.date=2010-04-30&amp;rft.aulast=Kobielus&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.forrester.com%2Fjames_kobielus%2F10-04-30-what%25E2%2580%2599s_not_bi_oh_don%25E2%2580%2599t_get_me_startedoops_too_latehere_goes&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/timoelliott.com\/blog\/2011\/03\/business-analytics-vs-business-intelligence.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Business Analytics vs Business Intelligence?\"<\/a>. timoelliott.com. 9 March 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 June<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Business+Analytics+vs+Business+Intelligence%3F&amp;rft.pub=timoelliott.com&amp;rft.date=2011-03-09&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftimoelliott.com%2Fblog%2F2011%2F03%2Fbusiness-analytics-vs-business-intelligence.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHenschen2010\" class=\"citation interview cs1\">Henschen, Doug (4 January 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120403080949\/http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/news\/software\/bi\/222200096\" target=\"_blank\">\"Analytics at Work: Q&amp;A with Tom Davenport\"<\/a> (Interview). Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/news\/software\/bi\/222200096\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 3 April 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 September<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Analytics+at+Work%3A+Q%26A+with+Tom+Davenport&amp;rft.date=2010-01-04&amp;rft.aulast=Henschen&amp;rft.aufirst=Doug&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2Fnews%2Fsoftware%2Fbi%2F222200096&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-rao-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-rao_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-rao_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-rao_16-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRao2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rao, R. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ramanarao.com\/papers\/rao-itpro-2003-11.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"From unstructured data to actionable intelligence\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IT Professional<\/i>. <b>5<\/b> (6): 29\u201335. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FMITP.2003.1254966\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/MITP.2003.1254966<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IT+Professional&amp;rft.atitle=From+unstructured+data+to+actionable+intelligence&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=29-35&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMITP.2003.1254966&amp;rft.aulast=Rao&amp;rft.aufirst=R.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ramanarao.com%2Fpapers%2Frao-itpro-2003-11.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-blumberg-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-blumberg_17-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-blumberg_17-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBlumberg,_R.S._Atre2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Blumberg, R. &amp; S. Atre (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110125033210\/http:\/\/soquelgroup.com\/Articles\/dmreview_0203_problem.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Problem with Unstructured Data\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>DM Review<\/i>: 42\u201346. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/soquelgroup.com\/Articles\/dmreview_0203_problem.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 25 January 2011.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=DM+Review&amp;rft.atitle=The+Problem+with+Unstructured+Data&amp;rft.pages=42-46&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.au=Blumberg%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=S.+Atre&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsoquelgroup.com%2FArticles%2Fdmreview_0203_problem.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-negash-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-negash_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNegash,_S2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Negash, S (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17705%2F1CAIS.01315\" target=\"_blank\">\"Business Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Communications of the Association for Information Systems<\/i>. <b>13<\/b>: 177\u2013195. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17705%2F1CAIS.01315\" target=\"_blank\">10.17705\/1CAIS.01315<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+Association+for+Information+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Business+Intelligence&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.pages=177-195&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17705%2F1CAIS.01315&amp;rft.au=Negash%2C+S&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.17705%252F1CAIS.01315&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-inmon-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-inmon_19-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-inmon_19-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Inmon, B. &amp; A. Nesavich, \"Unstructured Textual Data in the Organization\" from \"Managing Unstructured data in the organization\", Prentice Hall 2008, pp. 1\u201313<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FeldmanDeveloping13-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_20-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFeldman,_D.Himmelstein,_J.2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Feldman, D.; Himmelstein, J. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=xDXfeopC-kMC&pg=PA140\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Developing Business Intelligence Apps for SharePoint<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;140\u20131. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781449324681<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Developing+Business+Intelligence+Apps+for+SharePoint&amp;rft.pages=140-1&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781449324681&amp;rft.au=Feldman%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Himmelstein%2C+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxDXfeopC-kMC%26pg%3DPA140&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMoroCortezRita2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Moro, S\u00e9rgio; Cortez, Paulo; Rita, Paulo (February 2015). \"Business intelligence in banking: A literature analysis from 2002 to 2013 using text mining and latent Dirichlet allocation\". <i>Expert Systems with Applications<\/i>. <b>42<\/b> (3): 1314\u20131324. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2014.09.024\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.eswa.2014.09.024<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/10071%2F8522\" target=\"_blank\">10071\/8522<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:15595226\" target=\"_blank\">15595226<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Expert+Systems+with+Applications&amp;rft.atitle=Business+intelligence+in+banking%3A+A+literature+analysis+from+2002+to+2013+using+text+mining+and+latent+Dirichlet+allocation&amp;rft.volume=42&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=1314-1324&amp;rft.date=2015-02&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10071%2F8522&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15595226%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2014.09.024&amp;rft.aulast=Moro&amp;rft.aufirst=S%C3%A9rgio&amp;rft.au=Cortez%2C+Paulo&amp;rft.au=Rita%2C+Paulo&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/docs.microsoft.com\/en-us\/learn\/modules\/data-analytics-microsoft\/3-roles\" target=\"_blank\">Roles in data - Learn | Microsoft Docs<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAndrew_Brust2013\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Andrew Brust (14 February 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/gartner-releases-2013-bi-magic-quadrant-7000011264\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gartner releases 2013 BI Magic Quadrant\"<\/a>. <i>ZDNet<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 August<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=ZDNet&amp;rft.atitle=Gartner+releases+2013+BI+Magic+Quadrant&amp;rft.date=2013-02-14&amp;rft.au=Andrew+Brust&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdnet.com%2Fgartner-releases-2013-bi-magic-quadrant-7000011264%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/infoworld.com\/d\/cloud-computing\/saas-bi-growth-will-soar-in-2010-511\" target=\"_blank\">SaaS BI growth will soar in 2010 | Cloud Computing<\/a>. InfoWorld (1 February 2010). Retrieved 17 January 2012.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bibliography\">Bibliography<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Ralph Kimball <i>et al.<\/i> \"The Data warehouse Lifecycle Toolkit\" (2nd ed.) Wiley <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-470-47957-4<\/li>\n<li>Peter Rausch, Alaa Sheta, Aladdin Ayesh&#160;: <i>Business Intelligence and Performance Management: Theory, Systems, and Industrial Applications<\/i>, Springer Verlag U.K., 2013, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-4471-4865-4.<\/li>\n<li>Munoz, J.M. (2017). Global Business Intelligence. Routledge&#160;: UK. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-1382-03686<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChaudhuriDayalNarasayya2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Chaudhuri, Surajit; Dayal, Umeshwar; Narasayya, Vivek (August 2011). \"An Overview of Business Intelligence Technology\". <i>Communications of the ACM<\/i>. <b>54<\/b> (8): 88\u201398. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F1978542.1978562\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/1978542.1978562<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&amp;rft.atitle=An+Overview+of+Business+Intelligence+Technology&amp;rft.volume=54&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=88-98&amp;rft.date=2011-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1978542.1978562&amp;rft.aulast=Chaudhuri&amp;rft.aufirst=Surajit&amp;rft.au=Dayal%2C+Umeshwar&amp;rft.au=Narasayya%2C+Vivek&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1422\nCached time: 20240110035540\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.486 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.635 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3704\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 102694\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 7574\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 15\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 8\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 87325\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.297\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 7777673\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 564.472 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>30.73% 173.487 1 Template:Reflist\n15.53% 87.640 1 Template:Data_warehouse\n15.12% 85.375 7 Template:Cite_book\n14.87% 83.960 1 Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups\n 9.87% 55.730 6 Template:Fix\n 9.10% 51.385 1 Template:Short_description\n 7.71% 43.522 1 Template:Commons_category\n 7.62% 43.013 16 Template:Main_other\n 7.19% 40.588 1 Template:Sister_project\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:168387-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110035540 and revision id 1193747259. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110120533\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.180 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.416 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 90788\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 369.214 1 wikipedia:Business_intelligence\n100.00% 369.214 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10561-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110120532 and revision id 33194. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Business_intelligence\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Business_intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_images":[],"cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_timestamp":1704907020,"b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_type":"article","b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_title":"Acceptance testing","b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Acceptance_testing","b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_plaintext":"\n\nAcceptance testingFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchTest to determine if the requirements of a specification or contract are met\n\n\nAcceptance testing of an aircraft catapult\nSix of the primary mirrors of the James Webb Space Telescope being prepared for acceptance testing\n\nIn engineering and its various subdisciplines, acceptance testing is a test conducted to determine if the requirements of a specification or contract are met. It may involve chemical tests, physical tests, or performance tests.[1]\nIn systems engineering, it may involve black-box testing performed on a system (for example: a piece of software, lots of manufactured mechanical parts, or batches of chemical products) prior to its delivery.[2]\n\nIn software testing, the ISTQB defines acceptance testing as: Formal testing with respect to user needs, requirements, and business processes conducted to determine whether a system satisfies the acceptance criteria[3] and to enable the user, customers or other authorized entity to determine whether to accept the system.\u2014\u200aStandard Glossary of Terms used in Software Testing[4]:\u200a2\u200a Some forms of acceptance testing are, user acceptance testing (UAT), end-user testing, operational acceptance testing (OAT), acceptance test-driven development (ATDD) and field (acceptance) testing. Acceptance criteria are the criteria that a system or component must satisfy in order to be accepted by a user, customer, or other authorized entity.[5]\n\nOverview \nTesting is a set of activities conducted to facilitate discovery and\/or evaluation of properties of one or more items under test.[6] Each individual test, known as a test case, exercises a set of predefined test activities, developed to drive the execution of the test item to meet test objectives; including correct implementation, error identification, quality verification and other valued detail.[6] The test environment is usually designed to be identical, or as close as possible, to the anticipated production environment. It includes all facilities, hardware, software, firmware, procedures and\/or documentation intended for or used to perform the testing of software.[6]\nUAT and OAT test cases are ideally derived in collaboration with business customers, business analysts, testers, and developers. It is essential that these tests include both business logic tests as well as operational environment conditions. The business customers (product owners) are the primary stakeholders of these tests. As the test conditions successfully achieve their acceptance criteria, the stakeholders are reassured the development is progressing in the right direction.[7]\n\nUser acceptance test (UAT) criteria (in agile software development) are usually created by business customers and expressed in a business domain language. These are high-level tests to verify the completeness of a user story or stories 'played' during any sprint\/iteration.\nOperational acceptance test (OAT) criteria (regardless if using agile, iterative or sequential development) are defined in terms of functional and non-functional requirements; covering key quality attributes of functional stability, portability and reliability.\nProcess \nThe acceptance test suite may need to be performed multiple times, as all of the test cases may not be executed within a single test iteration.[8]\nThe acceptance test suite is run using predefined acceptance test procedures to direct the testers which data to use, the step-by-step processes to follow and the expected result following execution. The actual results are retained for comparison with the expected results.[8] If the actual results match the expected results for each test case, the test case is said to pass. If the quantity of non-passing test cases does not breach the project's predetermined threshold, the test suite is said to pass. If it does, the system may either be rejected or accepted on conditions previously agreed between the sponsor and the manufacturer.\nThe anticipated result of a successful test execution:\n\ntest cases are executed, using predetermined data\nactual results are recorded\nactual and expected results are compared, and\ntest results are determined.\nThe objective is to provide confidence that the developed product meets both the functional and non-functional requirements. The purpose of conducting acceptance testing is that once completed, and provided the acceptance criteria are met, it is expected the sponsors will sign-off on the product development\/enhancement as satisfying the defined requirements (previously agreed between business and product provider\/developer).\n\nUser acceptance testing \nUser acceptance testing (UAT) consists of a process of verifying that a solution works for the user.[9] It is not system testing (ensuring software does not crash and meets documented requirements) but rather ensures that the solution will work for the user (i.e. tests that the user accepts the solution); software vendors often refer to this as \"Beta testing\".\nThis testing should be undertaken by the intended end user, or a subject-matter expert (SME), preferably the owner or client of the solution under test, and provide a summary of the findings for confirmation to proceed after trial or review. In software development, UAT as one of the final stages of a project often occurs before a client or customer accepts the new system. Users of the system perform tests in line with what would occur in real-life scenarios.[10]\nIt is important that the materials given to the tester be similar to the materials that the end user will have. Testers should be given real-life scenarios such as the three most common or difficult tasks that the users they represent will undertake.[11]\nThe UAT acts as a final verification of the required business functionality and proper functioning of the system, emulating real-world conditions on behalf of the paying client or a specific large customer. If the software works as required and without issues during normal use, one can reasonably extrapolate the same level of stability in production.[12]\nUser tests, usually performed by clients or by end-users, do not normally focus on identifying simple cosmetic problems such as spelling errors, nor on showstopper defects, such as software crashes; testers and developers identify and fix these issues during earlier unit testing, integration testing, and system testing phases.\nUAT should be executed against test scenarios.[13][14] Test scenarios usually differ from System or Functional test cases in that they represent a \"player\" or \"user\" journey. The broad nature of the test scenario ensures that the focus is on the journey and not on technical or system-specific details, staying away from \"click-by-click\" test steps to allow for a variance in users' behaviour. Test scenarios can be broken down into logical \"days\", which are usually where the actor (player\/customer\/operator) or system (backoffice, front end) changes.[15]\nIn industry, a common UAT is a factory acceptance test (FAT). This test takes place before installation of the equipment. Most of the time testers not only check that the equipment meets the specification, but also that it is fully functional. A FAT usually includes a check of completeness, a verification against contractual requirements, a proof of functionality (either by simulation or a conventional function test) and a final inspection.[16]\nThe results of these tests give clients confidence in how the system will perform in production. There may also be legal or contractual requirements for acceptance of the system.\n\n\nOperational acceptance testing \nMain article: Operational acceptance testing\nOperational acceptance testing (OAT) is used to conduct operational readiness (pre-release) of a product, service or system as part of a quality management system. OAT is a common type of non-functional software testing, used mainly in software development and software maintenance projects. This type of testing focuses on the operational readiness of the system to be supported, and\/or to become part of the production environment.[17]\n\nAcceptance testing in extreme programming \nMain article: Extreme programming\nAcceptance testing is a term used in agile software development methodologies, particularly extreme programming, referring to the functional testing of a user story by the software development team during the implementation phase.[18]\nThe customer specifies scenarios to test when a user story has been correctly implemented. A story can have one or many acceptance tests, whatever it takes to ensure the functionality works. Acceptance tests are black-box system tests. Each acceptance test represents some expected result from the system. Customers are responsible for verifying the correctness of the acceptance tests and reviewing test scores to decide which failed tests are of highest priority. Acceptance tests are also used as regression tests prior to a production release. A user story is not considered complete until it has passed its acceptance tests. This means that new acceptance tests must be created for each iteration or the development team will report zero progress.[19]\n\n This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008 ) \nTypes of acceptance testing \n This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2015 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nTypical types of acceptance testing include the following\n\nUser acceptance testing\n\nThis may include factory acceptance testing (FAT), i.e. the testing done by a vendor before the product or system is moved to its destination site, after which site acceptance testing (SAT) may be performed by the users at the site.[20]\nOperational acceptance testing\nAlso known as operational readiness testing, this refers to the checking done to a system to ensure that processes and procedures are in place to allow the system to be used and maintained. This may include checks done to back-up facilities, procedures for disaster recovery, training for end users, maintenance procedures, and security procedures.[21]\nContract and regulation acceptance testing\nIn contract acceptance testing, a system is tested against acceptance criteria as documented in a contract, before the system is accepted. In regulation acceptance testing, a system is tested to ensure it meets governmental, legal and safety standards.[22]\nFactory acceptance testing\nAcceptance testing conducted at the site at which the product is developed and performed by employees of the supplier organization, to determine whether a component or system satisfies the requirements, normally including hardware as well as software.[23]\nAlpha and beta testing\nAlpha testing takes place at developers' sites, and involves testing of the operational system by internal staff, before it is released to external customers. Beta testing takes place at customers' sites, and involves testing by a group of customers who use the system at their own locations and provide feedback, before the system is released to other customers. The latter is often called \"field testing\".[24]\nAcceptance criteria \nAccording to the Project Management Institute, acceptance criteria is a \"set of conditions that is required to be met before deliverables are accepted.\"[25]\nRequirements found in acceptance criteria for a given component of the system are usually very detailed.[26]\n\nList of acceptance-testing frameworks \nConcordion, Specification by example (SbE) framework\nConcordion.NET, acceptance testing in .NET\nCucumber, a behavior-driven development (BDD) acceptance test framework\nCapybara, Acceptance test framework for Ruby web applications\nBehat, BDD acceptance framework for PHP\nLettuce, BDD acceptance framework for Python\nCypress\nFabasoft app.test for automated acceptance tests\nFramework for Integrated Test (Fit)\nFitNesse, a fork of Fit\nGauge (software), Test Automation Framework from Thoughtworks\niMacros\nItsNat Java Ajax web framework with built-in, server based, functional web testing capabilities.\nMaveryx Test Automation Framework for functional testing, regression testing, GUI testing, data-driven and codeless testing of Desktop and Web applications.\nMocha, a popular web acceptance test framework based on Javascript and Node.js\nPlaywright (software)\nRanorex\nRobot Framework\nSelenium\nSpecification by example (Specs2)\nWatir\nSee also \nAcceptance sampling\nConference room pilot\nDevelopment stage\nDynamic testing\nEngineering validation test\nGrey box testing\nTest-driven development\nWhite box testing\nFunctional testing (manufacturing)\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"BPTS - Is Business process testing the best name \/ description\". SFIA. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ Black, Rex (August 2009). Managing the Testing Process: Practical Tools and Techniques for Managing Hardware and Software Testing . Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN&#160;978-0-470-40415-7. \n\n^ \"acceptance criteria\". Innolution, LLC. June 10, 2019. \n\n^ \"Standard Glossary of Terms used in Software Testing, Version 3.2: All Terms\" (PDF) . ISTQB. Retrieved November 23, 2020 . \n\n^ ISO\/IEC\/IEEE International Standard - Systems and software engineering. ISO\/IEC\/IEEE. 2010. pp.&#160;vol., no., pp.1\u2013418. \n\n^ a b c ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-1:2013 Software and Systems Engineering - Software Testing - Part 1: Concepts and Definitions. ISO. 2013. Retrieved October 14, 2014 . \n\n^ ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-4:2013 Software and Systems Engineering - Software Testing - Part 4: Test Techniques. ISO. 2013. Retrieved October 14, 2014 . \n\n^ a b ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-2:2013 Software and Systems Engineering - Software Testing - Part 2: Test Processes. ISO. 2013. Retrieved May 21, 2014 . \n\n^ Cimperman, Rob (2006). UAT Defined: A Guide to Practical User Acceptance Testing. Pearson Education. pp.&#160;Chapter 2. ISBN&#160;9780132702621. \n\n^ Goethem, Brian; van Hambling, Pauline (2013). User acceptance testing&#160;: a step-by-step guide. BCS Learning &amp; Development Limited. ISBN&#160;9781780171678. \n\n^ \"2.6: Systems Testing\". Engineering LibreTexts. August 2, 2021. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ Pusuluri, Nageshwar Rao (2006). Software Testing Concepts And Tools. Dreamtech Press. p.&#160;62. ISBN&#160;9788177227123. \n\n^ \"Get Reliable Usability and Avoid Risk with These Testing Scenarios\". Panaya. April 25, 2022. Retrieved May 11, 2022 . \n\n^ Elazar, Eyal (April 23, 2018). \"What is User Acceptance Testing (UAT) - The Full Process Explained\". Panaya. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ \"Table 1: The specifications of the ODE and RB models can be broken down into elements, the number of which can be compared\". doi:10.7717\/peerj.14516\/table-1 . {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) \n\n^ \"Factory Acceptance Test (FAT)\". Tuv.com. Archived from the original on February 4, 2013. Retrieved September 18, 2012 . \n\n^ Vijay (February 2, 2018). \"What is Acceptance Testing (A Complete Guide)\". Software Testing Help. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ \"Introduction to Acceptance\/Customer Tests as Requirements Artifacts\". agilemodeling.com. Agile Modeling. Retrieved December 9, 2013 . \n\n^ Wells, Don. \"Acceptance Tests\". Extremeprogramming.org. Retrieved September 20, 2011 . \n\n^ Prasad, Durga (March 29, 2012). \"The Difference Between a FAT and a SAT\". Kneat.com. Archived from the original on June 16, 2017. Retrieved July 27, 2016 . \n\n^ Turner, Paul (October 5, 2020). \"Operational Readiness\". Commissioning and Startup. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ Brosnan, Adeline (January 12, 2021). \"Acceptance Testing in Information Technology Contracts | LegalVision\". LegalVision. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ \"ISTQB Standard glossary of terms used in Software Testing\". Archived from the original on November 5, 2018. Retrieved March 15, 2019 . \n\n^ Hamilton, Thomas (April 3, 2020). \"Alpha Testing Vs Beta Testing \u2013 Difference Between Them\". www.guru99.com. Retrieved February 18, 2023 . \n\n^ Project Management Institute 2021, \u00a7Glossary Section 3. Definitions. \n\n^ Project Management Institute 2021, \u00a72.6.2.1 Requirements. \n\n\nFurther reading \nHambling, Brian; van Goethem, Pauline (2013). User Acceptance Testing: A Step by Step Guide. Swindon: BCS Learning and Development Ltd. ISBN&#160;978-1-78017-167-8. \nProject Management Institute (2021). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide). Project Management Institute (7th&#160;ed.). Newtown Square, PA. ISBN&#160;978-1-62825-664-2. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_book\" title=\"Template:Cite book\">cite book<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) \nExternal links \nAcceptance Test Engineering Guide Archived December 23, 2017, at the Wayback Machine by Microsoft patterns &amp; practices\n\"Using Customer Tests to Drive Development\" from Methods &amp; Tools\nvteSoftware testingThe \"box\" approach\nBlack-box testing\nAll-pairs testing\nExploratory testing\nFuzz testing\nModel-based testing\nScenario testing\nGrey-box testing\nWhite-box testing\nAPI testing\nMutation testing\nStatic testing\nTesting levels\nAcceptance testing\nIntegration testing\nSystem testing\nUnit testing\nTesting types, techniques,\r\nand tactics\nA\/B testing\nBenchmark\nCompatibility testing\nConcolic testing\nConcurrent testing\nConformance testing\nContinuous testing\nDestructive testing\nDevelopment testing\nDifferential testing\nDynamic program analysis\nInstallation testing\nNegative testing\nRandom testing\nRegression testing\nSecurity testing\nSmoke testing (software)\nSoftware performance testing\nStress testing\nSymbolic execution\nTest automation\nUsability testing\nSee also\nGraphical user interface testing\nManual testing\nOrthogonal array testing\nPair testing\nSoak testing\nSoftware reliability testing\nStress testing\nWeb testing\n\nAuthority control databases: National \nFrance \nBnF data \nIsrael \nUnited States \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Acceptance_testing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Acceptance_testing<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 17 September 2022, at 20:27.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,063 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Acceptance_testing rootpage-Acceptance_testing skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Acceptance testing<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Test to determine if the requirements of a specification or contract are met<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:US_Navy_090407-N-4669J-042_Sailors_assigned_to_the_air_department_of_the_aircraft_carrier_USS_George_H.W._Bush_(CVN_77)_test_the_ship%27s_catapult_systems_during_acceptance_trials.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef8d73d55d60b603c54fd190917f4554\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7d\/US_Navy_090407-N-4669J-042_Sailors_assigned_to_the_air_department_of_the_aircraft_carrier_USS_George_H.W._Bush_%28CVN_77%29_test_the_ship%27s_catapult_systems_during_acceptance_trials.jpg\/220px-thumbnail.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"146\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Acceptance testing of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aircraft_catapult\" title=\"Aircraft catapult\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3cb141cb74a3a05d1760dfaed77515dc\">aircraft catapult<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:James_Webb_Primary_Mirror.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"335391e03cc3bd82754efa2a97c40ee6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/10\/James_Webb_Primary_Mirror.jpg\/220px-James_Webb_Primary_Mirror.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"146\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Six of the primary mirrors of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James_Webb_Space_Telescope\" title=\"James Webb Space Telescope\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b951841083941d5ef9b871106ce10868\">James Webb Space Telescope<\/a> being prepared for acceptance testing<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineering\" title=\"Engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f6f08235e1dd8528fc259dfcf543c3f\">engineering<\/a> and its various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fields_of_engineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fields of engineering\" data-key=\"2451b0bf65d9894e27c725aa4fc820a2\">subdisciplines<\/a>, <b>acceptance testing<\/b> is a test conducted to determine if the requirements of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Specification\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Specification\" data-key=\"c0cdbd3e17e9aebd4c500dbb668c90e7\">specification<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contract\" title=\"Contract\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"643e0e1b184a88ea39aada3b3044cfb7\">contract<\/a> are met. It may involve <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemical_test\" title=\"Chemical test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8374dc5026dd39948bb363f97523efff\">chemical tests<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_test\" title=\"Physical test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f4c70c6c34c79db99ad6960bc805ac0f\">physical tests<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Performance_test_(assessment)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Performance test (assessment)\" data-key=\"7c069afa315009dde994368ced3bc17c\">performance tests<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_engineering\" title=\"Systems engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"885b515a488c426b86f7a85a9f80cb67\">systems engineering<\/a>, it may involve <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black-box_testing\" title=\"Black-box testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdf147e38381ccbe9b93d84a39e7fa54\">black-box testing<\/a> performed on a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System\" title=\"System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca080f9487afe3b315fe16a2d522534\">system<\/a> (for example: a piece of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_system\" title=\"Software system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5da1a00677203bd9b989943f4ffd22b\">software<\/a>, lots of manufactured mechanical parts, or batches of chemical products) prior to its delivery.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>\nIn <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing\" title=\"Software testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f063d549d38c63342218d62a80c724\">software testing<\/a>, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Software_Testing_Qualifications_Board\" title=\"International Software Testing Qualifications Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1b44c48e05ede289905d6ef9b0d828f\">ISTQB<\/a> defines <i>acceptance testing<\/i> as: <\/p><blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>Formal testing with respect to user needs, requirements, and business processes conducted to determine whether a system satisfies the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acceptance_criteria\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Acceptance criteria\" data-key=\"b3c32267ccec3036082d7a43a6e288b2\">acceptance criteria<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> and to enable the user, customers or other authorized entity to determine whether to accept the system.<\/p><div class=\"templatequotecite\">\u2014\u200a<cite>Standard Glossary of Terms used in Software Testing<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 2\">:\u200a2\u200a<\/span><\/sup><\/cite><\/div><\/blockquote><p> Some forms of acceptance testing are, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_acceptance_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"User acceptance testing\" data-key=\"f1dfea5f339a4a5c7da0af9166f22b47\">user acceptance testing<\/a> (UAT), end-user testing, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_acceptance_testing\" title=\"Operational acceptance testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bba4c27871fadf16d5db0e39877437e\">operational acceptance testing<\/a> (OAT), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acceptance_test-driven_development\" title=\"Acceptance test-driven development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a3ed8f2b46d2ad466240cbe24e3e953\">acceptance test-driven development<\/a> (ATDD) and field (acceptance) testing. Acceptance criteria are the criteria that a system or component must satisfy in order to be accepted by a user, customer, or other authorized entity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overview\">Overview<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Testing is a set of activities conducted to facilitate discovery and\/or evaluation of properties of one or more items under test.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_1_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Each individual test, known as a test case, exercises a set of predefined test activities, developed to drive the execution of the test item to meet test objectives; including correct implementation, error identification, quality verification and other valued detail.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_1_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> The test <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deployment_environment\" title=\"Deployment environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ad0cc488f3bb2307de1ff975baf80f9\">environment<\/a> is usually designed to be identical, or as close as possible, to the anticipated production environment. It includes all facilities, hardware, software, firmware, procedures and\/or documentation intended for or used to perform the testing of software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_1_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>UAT and OAT test cases are ideally derived in collaboration with business customers, business analysts, testers, and developers. It is essential that these tests include both business logic tests as well as operational environment conditions. The business customers (product owners) are the primary <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_stakeholder\" title=\"Project stakeholder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f020ef5f57bcf75aae14e3df0beec1a\">stakeholders<\/a> of these tests. As the test conditions successfully achieve their acceptance criteria, the stakeholders are reassured the development is progressing in the right direction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_4_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_4-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>User acceptance test (UAT) criteria (in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agile_software_development\" title=\"Agile software development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afb817ba63b0b8da391f83df1b40c5cd\">agile software development<\/a>) are usually created by business customers and expressed in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Domain_specific_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Domain specific language\" data-key=\"0c66242a5f5ea0913e6a94ea29265961\">business domain language<\/a>. These are high-level tests to verify the completeness of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_story\" title=\"User story\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4844a398030133ebc478fa016c0d76d8\">user story<\/a> or stories 'played' during any sprint\/iteration.<\/li>\n<li>Operational acceptance test (OAT) criteria (regardless if using agile, iterative or sequential development) are defined in terms of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_requirement\" title=\"Functional requirement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66d49483462c9dfe32ee1b73fbba0287\">functional<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-functional_requirement\" title=\"Non-functional requirement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d85090ac46aeab566fa418f6f275b36e\">non-functional requirements<\/a>; covering key quality attributes of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing\" title=\"Software testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f063d549d38c63342218d62a80c724\">functional stability<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portability_testing\" title=\"Portability testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95e572e1fbe88ac53e47fa67ae2adb79\">portability<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reliability_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Reliability theory\" data-key=\"54fb19c9d8290eba000e1ba18052fbea\">reliability<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Process\">Process<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The acceptance test suite may need to be performed multiple times, as all of the test cases may not be executed within a single test iteration.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_2_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_2-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The acceptance test suite is run using predefined acceptance test procedures to direct the testers which data to use, the step-by-step processes to follow and the expected result following execution. The actual results are retained for comparison with the expected results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_2_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_2-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> If the actual results match the expected results for each test case, the test case is said to pass. If the quantity of non-passing test cases does not breach the project's predetermined threshold, the test suite is said to pass. If it does, the system may either be rejected or accepted on conditions previously agreed between the sponsor and the manufacturer.\n<\/p><p>The anticipated result of a successful test execution:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>test cases are executed, using predetermined data<\/li>\n<li>actual results are recorded<\/li>\n<li>actual and expected results are compared, and<\/li>\n<li>test results are determined.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The objective is to provide confidence that the developed product meets both the functional and non-functional requirements. The purpose of conducting acceptance testing is that once completed, and provided the acceptance criteria are met, it is expected the sponsors will sign-off on the product development\/enhancement as satisfying the defined requirements (previously agreed between business and product provider\/developer).\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"User_acceptance_testing\">User acceptance testing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>User acceptance testing (UAT) consists of a process of verifying that a solution works for the user.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> It is not <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_testing\" title=\"System testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"779eb70baf35bbdec954caf8fc209b76\">system testing<\/a> (ensuring software does not crash and meets documented requirements) but rather ensures that the solution will work for the user (i.e. tests that the user accepts the solution); software vendors often refer to this as \"Beta testing\".\n<\/p><p>This testing should be undertaken by the intended <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/End_user\" title=\"End user\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32b92ad43512dfac27f60b77fc7d1a85\">end user<\/a>, or a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subject-matter_expert\" title=\"Subject-matter expert\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b020a306f7def2c4e22ce3436ce4ab0a\">subject-matter expert<\/a> (SME), preferably the owner or client of the solution under test, and provide a summary of the findings for confirmation to proceed after trial or review. In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_development_process\" title=\"Software development process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b625ec27484d01f1edaa461ce66ec0a\">software development<\/a>, UAT as one of the final stages of a project often occurs before a client or customer accepts the new system. Users of the system perform tests in line with what would occur in real-life scenarios.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>It is important that the materials given to the tester be similar to the materials that the end user will have. Testers should be given real-life scenarios such as the three most common or difficult tasks that the users they represent will undertake.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The UAT acts as a final verification of the required business functionality and proper functioning of the system, emulating real-world conditions on behalf of the paying client or a specific large customer. If the software works as required and without issues during normal use, one can reasonably extrapolate the same level of stability in production.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>User tests, usually performed by clients or by end-users, do not normally focus on identifying simple cosmetic problems such as spelling errors, nor on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_bug\" title=\"Software bug\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00049a1c4790d11263f4838c2bbca3a0\">showstopper<\/a> defects, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crash_(computing)\" title=\"Crash (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4b64fa9a74c76c69173d73e9d6b6c0c\">software crashes<\/a>; testers and developers identify and fix these issues during earlier <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unit_testing\" title=\"Unit testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccd96295ece3bd8cce89bb756eedce3f\">unit testing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integration_testing\" title=\"Integration testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fad9ca4fe33fe8ee6d541f0b4b070b38\">integration testing<\/a>, and system testing phases.\n<\/p><p>UAT should be executed against test scenarios.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Test scenarios usually differ from System or Functional test cases in that they represent a \"player\" or \"user\" journey. The broad nature of the test scenario ensures that the focus is on the journey and not on technical or system-specific details, staying away from \"click-by-click\" test steps to allow for a variance in users' behaviour. Test scenarios can be broken down into logical \"days\", which are usually where the actor (player\/customer\/operator) or system (backoffice, front end) changes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In industry, a common UAT is a factory acceptance test (FAT). This test takes place before installation of the equipment. Most of the time testers not only check that the equipment meets the specification, but also that it is fully functional. A FAT usually includes a check of completeness, a verification against contractual requirements, a proof of functionality (either by simulation or a conventional function test) and a final inspection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The results of these tests give clients confidence in how the system will perform in production. There may also be legal or contractual requirements for acceptance of the system.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Operational_acceptance_testing\">Operational acceptance testing<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_acceptance_testing\" title=\"Operational acceptance testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bba4c27871fadf16d5db0e39877437e\">Operational acceptance testing<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_acceptance_testing\" title=\"Operational acceptance testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bba4c27871fadf16d5db0e39877437e\">Operational acceptance testing<\/a> (OAT) is used to conduct operational readiness (pre-release) of a product, service or system as part of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_management_system\" title=\"Quality management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d64fd726a87573213d8dce6e9f2fe22f\">quality management system<\/a>. OAT is a common type of non-functional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing\" title=\"Software testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f063d549d38c63342218d62a80c724\">software testing<\/a>, used mainly in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_development\" title=\"Software development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c33e9312f9d9e685db6b02808e7cb58\">software development<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_maintenance\" title=\"Software maintenance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8211caab69059eb6d3deb30cdd8be3c9\">software maintenance<\/a> projects. This type of testing focuses on the operational readiness of the system to be supported, and\/or to become part of the production environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Acceptance_testing_in_extreme_programming\">Acceptance testing in extreme programming<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extreme_programming\" title=\"Extreme programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76957492e64467025cc1867689408a4a\">Extreme programming<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Acceptance testing is a term used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agile_software_development\" title=\"Agile software development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afb817ba63b0b8da391f83df1b40c5cd\">agile software development<\/a> methodologies, particularly <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extreme_programming\" title=\"Extreme programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76957492e64467025cc1867689408a4a\">extreme programming<\/a>, referring to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_testing\" title=\"Functional testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc7fa01c5bf62f7c96a83b775da586bd\">functional testing<\/a> of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_story\" title=\"User story\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4844a398030133ebc478fa016c0d76d8\">user story<\/a> by the software development team during the implementation phase.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The customer specifies scenarios to test when a user story has been correctly implemented. A story can have one or many acceptance tests, whatever it takes to ensure the functionality works. Acceptance tests are black-box system tests. Each acceptance test represents some expected result from the system. Customers are responsible for verifying the correctness of the acceptance tests and reviewing test scores to decide which failed tests are of highest priority. Acceptance tests are also used as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_testing\" title=\"Regression testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd5595feea9b213fc3d856c6298ab9d2\">regression tests<\/a> prior to a production release. A user story is not considered complete until it has passed its acceptance tests. This means that new acceptance tests must be created for each iteration or the development team will report zero progress.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_acceptance_testing\">Types of acceptance testing<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485\" \/>\n<p>Typical types of acceptance testing include the following\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Verification_and_validation#Activities\" title=\"Verification and validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8dce5ae19b9a917969e22d9f68dd5431\">User acceptance testing<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd><\/dd>\n<dd>This may include factory acceptance testing (FAT), i.e. the testing done by a vendor before the product or system is moved to its destination site, after which site acceptance testing (SAT) may be performed by the users at the site.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_acceptance_testing\" title=\"Operational acceptance testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bba4c27871fadf16d5db0e39877437e\">Operational acceptance testing<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd>Also known as operational readiness testing, this refers to the checking done to a system to ensure that processes and procedures are in place to allow the system to be used and maintained. This may include checks done to back-up facilities, procedures for disaster recovery, training for end users, maintenance procedures, and security procedures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>Contract and regulation acceptance testing<\/dt>\n<dd>In contract acceptance testing, a system is tested against acceptance criteria as documented in a contract, before the system is accepted. In regulation acceptance testing, a system is tested to ensure it meets governmental, legal and safety standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Factory acceptance testing<\/dt>\n<dd>Acceptance testing conducted at the site at which the product is developed and performed by employees of the supplier organization, to determine whether a component or system satisfies the requirements, normally including hardware as well as software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Alpha and beta testing<\/dt>\n<dd>Alpha testing takes place at developers' sites, and involves testing of the operational system by internal staff, before it is released to external customers. Beta testing takes place at customers' sites, and involves testing by a group of customers who use the system at their own locations and provide feedback, before the system is released to other customers. The latter is often called \"field testing\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Acceptance_criteria\">Acceptance criteria<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>According to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_Management_Institute\" title=\"Project Management Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc9a5e1151dc1d7c098ebfd6a3ba9fc9\">Project Management Institute<\/a>, <b>acceptance criteria<\/b> is a \"set of conditions that is required to be met before deliverables are accepted.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a7Glossary_Section_3._Definitions_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a7Glossary_Section_3._Definitions-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\nRequirements found in acceptance criteria for a given component of the system are usually very detailed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a72.6.2.1_Requirements_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a72.6.2.1_Requirements-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"List_of_acceptance-testing_frameworks\">List of acceptance-testing frameworks<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concordion\" title=\"Concordion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1fcf1acfad715c455e611a133700b1e9\">Concordion<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Specification_by_example\" title=\"Specification by example\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0bd944c9486bb11c7d8e298e57ef4a\">Specification by example<\/a> (SbE) framework\n<ul><li>Concordion.NET, acceptance testing in .NET<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cucumber_(software)\" title=\"Cucumber (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5cbb20cf23969eda0344037d083dbcfc\">Cucumber<\/a>, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behavior-driven_development\" title=\"Behavior-driven development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43fb65ff8c6690c15e75623da7f2648c\">behavior-driven development<\/a> (BDD) acceptance test framework\n<ul><li>Capybara, Acceptance test framework for Ruby web applications<\/li>\n<li>Behat, BDD acceptance framework for PHP<\/li>\n<li>Lettuce, BDD acceptance framework for Python<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cypress_(software)\" title=\"Cypress (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5029f11a6fe44c764881736b9f162aff\">Cypress<\/a><\/li>\n<li> for automated acceptance tests<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Framework_for_Integrated_Test\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Framework for Integrated Test\" data-key=\"ea0c881f9ad378c11327cba3392bd0df\">Framework for Integrated Test<\/a> (Fit)\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FitNesse\" title=\"FitNesse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef8fbc781a69e1df368b02988145e9c9\">FitNesse<\/a>, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fork_(software_development)\" title=\"Fork (software development)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4513df80ee2020ee37a1b4b6a1244e81\">fork<\/a> of Fit<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gauge_(software)\" title=\"Gauge (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dcc4dbc8c5c4c8d7e7f79eef7ee94edf\">Gauge (software)<\/a>, Test Automation Framework from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thoughtworks\" title=\"Thoughtworks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ab2c7c271872e8d2f636b67b3345068\">Thoughtworks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IMacros\" title=\"IMacros\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f41f56866ae9913d18489f69fab2aff4\">iMacros<\/a><\/li>\n<li>ItsNat Java Ajax web framework with built-in, server based, functional web testing capabilities.<\/li>\n<li> Test Automation Framework for functional testing, regression testing, GUI testing, data-driven and codeless testing of Desktop and Web applications.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mocha_(JavaScript_framework)\" title=\"Mocha (JavaScript framework)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"262dde01d622c1ca8597d443c4c7a1ba\">Mocha<\/a>, a popular web acceptance test framework based on Javascript and Node.js<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Playwright_(software)\" title=\"Playwright (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4569c547bf7e5407736474a868491ba2\">Playwright (software)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ranorex\" title=\"Ranorex\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a521c26ff40bd92787b015a6616c91\">Ranorex<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robot_Framework\" title=\"Robot Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88c3d706d92266c6c9db62486a9a0610\">Robot Framework<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Selenium_(software)\" title=\"Selenium (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7ded3f5f3a6c77a1c442fa875ce1e11\">Selenium<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Specification_by_example\" title=\"Specification by example\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0bd944c9486bb11c7d8e298e57ef4a\">Specification by example<\/a> (Specs2)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Watir\" title=\"Watir\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb09a57464e8a4d3d32615005ffb7efe\">Watir<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acceptance_sampling\" title=\"Acceptance sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a89dc8197913a60d6f817efa411f8bfd\">Acceptance sampling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conference_room_pilot\" title=\"Conference room pilot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86602542e8c9227e5596d6b989423e9b\">Conference room pilot<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Development_stage\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Development stage\" data-key=\"879d5c847e693c558a2274da120d8b38\">Development stage<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_testing\" title=\"Dynamic testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4298ec6fb1019c7015dd85a2086debb4\">Dynamic testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineering_validation_test\" title=\"Engineering validation test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5205327dc7aa69ec740ae1599cc6b4c8\">Engineering validation test<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grey_box_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Grey box testing\" data-key=\"c8b42efc7b3cf228ddbae06c0c0416cc\">Grey box testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test-driven_development\" title=\"Test-driven development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"331f08e54da6c8ed5db765ffd90ded12\">Test-driven development<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/White_box_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"White box testing\" data-key=\"a0e663e657474c9e97b574b9703260bd\">White box testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_testing_(manufacturing)\" title=\"Functional testing (manufacturing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d20f4f77cb7f64ffc0630c67b2f3a2b6\">Functional testing (manufacturing)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 18,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=SFIA&amp;rft.atitle=BPTS+-+Is+Business+process+testing+the+best+name+%2F+description.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsfia-online.org%2Fen%2Fsfia-8%2Fchange-requests%2Fbpts-is-business-process-testing-the-best-name-description&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBlack2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Black, Rex (August 2009). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/managingtestingp00rexb\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Managing the Testing Process: Practical Tools and Techniques for Managing Hardware and Software Testing<\/i><\/a><\/span>. 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June 10, 2019.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=acceptance+criteria&amp;rft.pub=Innolution%2C+LLC&amp;rft.date=2019-06-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finnolution.com%2Fresources%2Fglossary%2Facceptance-criteria&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/glossary.istqb.org\" target=\"_blank\">\"Standard Glossary of Terms used in Software Testing, Version 3.2: All Terms\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Software_Testing_Qualifications_Board\" title=\"International Software Testing Qualifications Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1b44c48e05ede289905d6ef9b0d828f\">ISTQB<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">November 23,<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Standard+Glossary+of+Terms+used+in+Software+Testing%2C+Version+3.2%3A+All+Terms&amp;rft.pub=ISTQB&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglossary.istqb.org&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><i>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE International Standard - Systems and software engineering<\/i>. ISO\/IEC\/IEEE. 2010. pp.&#160;vol., no., pp.1\u2013418.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE+International+Standard+-+Systems+and+software+engineering&amp;rft.pages=vol.%2C+no.%2C+pp.1-418&amp;rft.pub=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_1-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_1_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_1_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_1_6-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/store\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=45142\" target=\"_blank\"><i>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-1:2013 Software and Systems Engineering - Software Testing - Part 1: Concepts and Definitions<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">ISO<\/a>. 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">October 14,<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE+29119-1%3A2013+Software+and+Systems+Engineering+-+Software+Testing+-+Part+1%3A+Concepts+and+Definitions&amp;rft.pub=ISO&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fhome%2Fstore%2Fcatalogue_tc%2Fcatalogue_detail.htm%3Fcsnumber%3D45142&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO_29119_Part_4-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO_29119_Part_4_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/store\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=60245\" target=\"_blank\"><i>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-4:2013 Software and Systems Engineering - Software Testing - Part 4: Test Techniques<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">ISO<\/a>. 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">May 21,<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE+29119-2%3A2013+Software+and+Systems+Engineering+-+Software+Testing+-+Part+2%3A+Test+Processes&amp;rft.pub=ISO&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fhome%2Fstore%2Fcatalogue_tc%2Fcatalogue_detail.htm%3Fcsnumber%3D45142&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCimperman2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Cimperman, Rob (2006). <i>UAT Defined: A Guide to Practical User Acceptance Testing<\/i>. Pearson Education. pp.&#160;Chapter 2. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780132702621<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=UAT+Defined%3A+A+Guide+to+Practical+User+Acceptance+Testing&amp;rft.pages=Chapter+2&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Education&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9780132702621&amp;rft.aulast=Cimperman&amp;rft.aufirst=Rob&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoethemvan_Hambling2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Goethem, Brian; van Hambling, Pauline (2013). <i>User acceptance testing&#160;: a step-by-step guide<\/i>. BCS Learning &amp; Development Limited. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781780171678<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=User+acceptance+testing+%3A+a+step-by-step+guide&amp;rft.pub=BCS+Learning+%26+Development+Limited&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781780171678&amp;rft.aulast=Goethem&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian&amp;rft.au=van+Hambling%2C+Pauline&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/eng.libretexts.org\/Courses\/Prince_Georges_Community_College\/INT_2840%3A_Systems_Analysis_and_Project_Management\/02%3A_Information_Systems_Development_And_RFP\/2.06%3A_Systems_Testing\" target=\"_blank\">\"2.6: Systems Testing\"<\/a>. <i>Engineering LibreTexts<\/i>. August 2, 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 18,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Engineering+LibreTexts&amp;rft.atitle=2.6%3A+Systems+Testing&amp;rft.date=2021-08-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feng.libretexts.org%2FCourses%2FPrince_Georges_Community_College%2FINT_2840%253A_Systems_Analysis_and_Project_Management%2F02%253A_Information_Systems_Development_And_RFP%2F2.06%253A_Systems_Testing&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPusuluri2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Pusuluri, Nageshwar Rao (2006). <i>Software Testing Concepts And Tools<\/i>. Dreamtech Press. p.&#160;62. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9788177227123<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Software+Testing+Concepts+And+Tools&amp;rft.pages=62&amp;rft.pub=Dreamtech+Press&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9788177227123&amp;rft.aulast=Pusuluri&amp;rft.aufirst=Nageshwar+Rao&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.panaya.com\/blog\/testing\/testing-scenarios\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Get Reliable Usability and Avoid Risk with These Testing Scenarios\"<\/a>. <i>Panaya<\/i>. April 25, 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">May 11,<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Panaya&amp;rft.atitle=Get+Reliable+Usability+and+Avoid+Risk+with+These+Testing+Scenarios&amp;rft.date=2022-04-25&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.panaya.com%2Fblog%2Ftesting%2Ftesting-scenarios%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFElazar2018\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Elazar, Eyal (April 23, 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.panaya.com\/blog\/testing\/what-is-uat-testing\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is User Acceptance Testing (UAT) - The Full Process Explained\"<\/a>. <i>Panaya<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 18,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Panaya&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+User+Acceptance+Testing+%28UAT%29+-+The+Full+Process+Explained&amp;rft.date=2018-04-23&amp;rft.aulast=Elazar&amp;rft.aufirst=Eyal&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.panaya.com%2Fblog%2Ftesting%2Fwhat-is-uat-testing%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.14516%2Ftable-1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Table 1: The specifications of the ODE and RB models can be broken down into elements, the number of which can be compared\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.14516%2Ftable-1\" target=\"_blank\">10.7717\/peerj.14516\/table-1<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Table+1%3A+The+specifications+of+the+ODE+and+RB+models+can+be+broken+down+into+elements%2C+the+number+of+which+can+be+compared.&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7717%2Fpeerj.14516%2Ftable-1&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7717%252Fpeerj.14516%252Ftable-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.today\/20130204215825\/http:\/\/www.tuv.com\/en\/corporate\/business_customers\/materials_testing_and_inspection\/supply_chain_services\/factory_acceptance_test\/factory_acceptance_test.jsp\" target=\"_blank\">\"Factory Acceptance Test (FAT)\"<\/a>. Tuv.com. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tuv.com\/en\/corporate\/business_customers\/materials_testing_and_inspection\/supply_chain_services\/factory_acceptance_test\/factory_acceptance_test.jsp\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on February 4, 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">September 18,<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Factory+Acceptance+Test+%28FAT%29&amp;rft.pub=Tuv.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tuv.com%2Fen%2Fcorporate%2Fbusiness_customers%2Fmaterials_testing_and_inspection%2Fsupply_chain_services%2Ffactory_acceptance_test%2Ffactory_acceptance_test.jsp&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVijay2018\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Vijay (February 2, 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.softwaretestinghelp.com\/what-is-acceptance-testing\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is Acceptance Testing (A Complete Guide)\"<\/a>. <i>Software Testing Help<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">September 20,<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Acceptance+Tests&amp;rft.pub=Extremeprogramming.org&amp;rft.aulast=Wells&amp;rft.aufirst=Don&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.extremeprogramming.org%2Frules%2Ffunctionaltests.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPrasad2012\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Prasad, Durga (March 29, 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170616183242\/http:\/\/www.kneat.com\/2012\/03\/29\/the-difference-between-a-fat-and-a-sat\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Difference Between a FAT and a SAT\"<\/a>. <i>Kneat.com<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kneat.com\/2012\/03\/29\/the-difference-between-a-fat-and-a-sat\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on June 16, 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">July 27,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Kneat.com&amp;rft.atitle=The+Difference+Between+a+FAT+and+a+SAT&amp;rft.date=2012-03-29&amp;rft.aulast=Prasad&amp;rft.aufirst=Durga&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kneat.com%2F2012%2F03%2F29%2Fthe-difference-between-a-fat-and-a-sat%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTurner2020\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Turner, Paul (October 5, 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/commissioningandstartup.com\/operational-readiness\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Operational Readiness\"<\/a>. <i>Commissioning and Startup<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 18,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Commissioning+and+Startup&amp;rft.atitle=Operational+Readiness&amp;rft.date=2020-10-05&amp;rft.aulast=Turner&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommissioningandstartup.com%2Foperational-readiness%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrosnan2021\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Brosnan, Adeline (January 12, 2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/legalvision.com.au\/acceptance-testing-information-technology-contracts\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Acceptance Testing in Information Technology Contracts | LegalVision\"<\/a>. <i>LegalVision<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 18,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=LegalVision&amp;rft.atitle=Acceptance+Testing+in+Information+Technology+Contracts+%7C+LegalVision&amp;rft.date=2021-01-12&amp;rft.aulast=Brosnan&amp;rft.aufirst=Adeline&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flegalvision.com.au%2Facceptance-testing-information-technology-contracts%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181105182224\/http:\/\/glossar.german-testing-board.info\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISTQB Standard glossary of terms used in Software Testing\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/glossar.german-testing-board.info\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on November 5, 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">March 15,<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=ISTQB+Standard+glossary+of+terms+used+in+Software+Testing&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglossar.german-testing-board.info%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHamilton2020\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Hamilton, Thomas (April 3, 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.guru99.com\/alpha-beta-testing-demystified.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Alpha Testing Vs Beta Testing \u2013 Difference Between Them\"<\/a>. <i>www.guru99.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 18,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.guru99.com&amp;rft.atitle=Alpha+Testing+Vs+Beta+Testing+%E2%80%93+Difference+Between+Them&amp;rft.date=2020-04-03&amp;rft.aulast=Hamilton&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.guru99.com%2Falpha-beta-testing-demystified.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a7Glossary_Section_3._Definitions-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a7Glossary_Section_3._Definitions_25-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFProject_Management_Institute2021\">Project Management Institute 2021<\/a>, \u00a7Glossary Section 3. Definitions.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a72.6.2.1_Requirements-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProject_Management_Institute2021\u00a72.6.2.1_Requirements_26-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFProject_Management_Institute2021\">Project Management Institute 2021<\/a>, \u00a72.6.2.1 Requirements.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHamblingvan_Goethem2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hambling, Brian; van Goethem, Pauline (2013). <i>User Acceptance Testing: A Step by Step Guide<\/i>. Swindon: BCS Learning and Development Ltd. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-78017-167-8<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=User+Acceptance+Testing%3A+A+Step+by+Step+Guide&amp;rft.place=Swindon&amp;rft.pub=BCS+Learning+and+Development+Ltd&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-78017-167-8&amp;rft.aulast=Hambling&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian&amp;rft.au=van+Goethem%2C+Pauline&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFProject_Management_Institute2021\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Project Management Institute (2021). <i>A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide)<\/i>. Project Management Institute (7th&#160;ed.). Newtown Square, PA. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-62825-664-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+guide+to+the+project+management+body+of+knowledge+%28PMBOK+guide%29&amp;rft.place=Newtown+Square%2C+PA&amp;rft.edition=7th&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-62825-664-2&amp;rft.au=Project+Management+Institute&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcceptance+testing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_book\" title=\"Template:Cite book\">cite book<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bfc82be2a8039a5c9ddc70b6cb10bda\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/testingguidance.codeplex.com\" target=\"_blank\">Acceptance Test Engineering Guide<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171223193709\/http:\/\/testingguidance.codeplex.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> December 23, 2017, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i> by <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/msdn.com\/practices\" target=\"_blank\">Microsoft patterns &amp; practices<\/a><\/li>\n<li>\"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.methodsandtools.com\/archive\/archive.php?id=23\" target=\"_blank\">Using Customer Tests to Drive Development<\/a>\" from <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.methodsandtools.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Methods &amp; Tools<\/a><\/i><\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1400\nCached time: 20240107204707\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.474 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.652 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 2588\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 72175\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 2688\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 19\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 9\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 88830\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.309\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 10156791\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 574.641 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>31.54% 181.250 1 Template:Reflist\n18.55% 106.571 12 Template:Cite_web\n14.00% 80.440 1 Template:Short_description\n12.30% 70.670 1 Template:Software_testing\n11.71% 67.295 1 Template:Navbox\n 8.74% 50.236 2 Template:Pagetype\n 7.89% 45.366 1 Template:Authority_control\n 7.68% 44.104 1 Template:Expand_section\n 7.65% 43.987 2 Template:Ambox\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:3233-0!canonical and timestamp 20240107204707 and revision id 1194211720. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acceptance_testing\" data-key=\"fa8053416210852e9c9ee8f2e21b6b00\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110071345\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.143 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.486 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 81810\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 450.030 1 wikipedia:Acceptance_testing\n100.00% 450.030 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:105-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110071345 and revision id 49272. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Acceptance_testing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Acceptance_testing<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_images":[],"b7aeb98e179fa486c9d90dba98d5f450_timestamp":1704907020,"85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_type":"article","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_title":"Laboratory Informatics Software Acquisition and Implementation Considerations","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_plaintext":"\n\nLII:Laboratory Informatics Software Acquisition and Implementation ConsiderationsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchContents \n\n1 Starting out \n\n1.1 Features and benefits \n1.2 Budgeting \n1.3 Demonstration and requirements \n\n\n2 Implementation \n\n2.1 Implementation details \n\n\n3 Services \n\n3.1 Hosting \n\n\n4 Maintenance, support, and warranty \n5 Putting it all together \n6 References \n\n\n\nStarting out \nThe two main questions you will need to answer at the outset are:\n\n1. What do I want the laboratory informatics solution to do for me?\n2. What kind of budget do I have?\nAdditionally\u2014and secondarily\u2014you'll want to be sure you can participate in one or more vendor demonstrations and, afterwards, build a requirements list.\n\nFeatures and benefits \nThe answer to the first question is largely the same as most other kinds of labs. The benefits of laboratory informatics software include:\n\nincreased accuracy, with a minimization or elimination of transcription and other errors;\nstreamlined processes, where each step in a protocol or method is completed in the proper order, with all requirements met, updating statuses automatically;\nautomation of integrated instruments, allowing for automatic uploading of samples\/specimens and processing of results;\nregulatory and standards compliance for your procedures helps keep you doing the right things the right ways, while tracking history so you can provide documentation when you need to;\ndata security via configurable role-based secure access to data, processes, reporting, etc.;\ncustom reporting tools, which allow you to design and generate reports to your own specifications, incorporating exactly the information you want;\ninstant data retrieval, allowing you to search and call up any information instantly according to any criteria (date range, test, product type, etc.), particularly useful during audits; and\ncost-effectiveness through improved efficiency and accuracy, which means less waste of time, and if a user-configurable system (as opposed to hard-coded, requiring development for any modifications), its return on investment {ROI) increases over time, due to built-in adaptability and thus longevity.\nBudgeting \nThe second question of budget is more difficult to answer by the fact that laboratory informatics software comes in all kinds of price ranges, from over $1 million all the way down to free. How are you supposed to honestly judge where the appropriate system price for your lab lies?\nThere are some basic realities that can help in figuring an appropriate budget, however.\n\n1. A rough sense of price can generally be based on how much ownership you want in the software itself and how many will be using the laboratory informatics solution.\nOwnership: Buying versus renting: There are two primary ways to price laboratory informatics software: a one-time license fee or a subscription (cloud-hosted software as a service or SaaS ). If you have your own dedicated IT department and staff, you may prefer the former. Otherwise, a SaaS-based subscription may well be the better and more cost-effective way to go (no IT costs at all other than internet access). This item will be part of your up-front cost and, in the case of a subscription, it will also figure in your first year and ongoing costs. A vendor may have a subscription fee of say $500, with the initial month due at signing. However, more often the vendor may require three months or even the first year up front, so be prepared to factor that into up-front costs. However, it still is almost always less expensive at the outset (and over time, if you factor in IT and service costs) than paying for a license fee.\nUser numbers: Named versus concurrent: In addition to the two types of software pricing above, there are pricing sub-types. Generally these are based on the number of users (or, in some cases, \"nodes,\" which are simply any entities that access the software, including other systems, instruments, etc.). How these are counted can vary. They may be counted as \"named\" users, which bases pricing on the actual individual users of the system, even if they may only log in once in awhile. Users typically may not use each other's logins (this is prohibited regardless of pricing structure, for GxP and other standard- and regulatory-based reasons). They may also be counted as \"concurrent\" users, which bases pricing on the maximum number of users who will be logged in at any given time. You can define an unlimited number of named users in the system, each with their own login credentials. However, only the number of (concurrent) users specified in the license\/subscription may be logged in at any one time. For example, you may have 10 staff, but due to work processes, shifts, etc., only up to six might ever be logged in simultaneously. Whereas this would require a named user license for 10, it would only require a concurrent user license for six. Finally, you may have the option for \"unlimited\" users. This may be useful for huge labs (typically 30 to 50 and up), where the license or subscription may simply be a flat fee that allows any number of users.\n2. Most costs are related to work. Try to choose a solution that has what you need out of the box, as much as possible. The more customized or unique options you ask for, the more it costs, because extra items are a function of the time it takes developers to add them.\n3. User-configurable solutions beat vendor-configurable solutions on cost-effectiveness. Many software vendors offer a free or low-cost option, but don't be fooled. They are in business to make money, and they are counting on the fact that you'll need to pay them to make things work, add necessary functionality, support, training, etc. If you can find one who offers a genuinely user-configurable solution, and whose manuals and other support materials are clearly helpful and available so you can adjust things the way you want, when you want, then that will go a long way toward budget efficiency and longevity.\n4. Interfaces cost money. If necessary, consider whether it's feasibly or not to phase in those instrument and other interfaces over time, as revenue eases cash flow. You may be able to go live with your laboratory informatics solution more quickly, entering results manually until you can afford to interface your instruments one-by-one. This goes for reports too. A standard report will do. You can make fancy ones later.\nPricing will vary depending on what kind of solution you need. For example, you'll probably want to budget a minimum of around $40,000 to $80,000 plus or minus, minimum, (including setup, training, interfaces, etc.) for a decent, bang-for-your-buck laboratory information management system (LIMS) with maybe an interface or two, plus an additional $300 to $900 per month (depending on number of users) for ongoing subscriptions. At around five concurrent (logged in at the same time) users, the economics start to favor purchasing perpetual licenses rather than paying subscription. Purchased licenses will also entail ongoing annual or monthly costs as well (maintenance, support, warranty for updates etc.), but somewhere around that number of users it may tend to be cheaper than a subscription option. Subscriptions (if available) are generally aimed at smaller labs. If you will be growing and scaling up, it may be a great way to get started, but ensure you have the option to switch to perpetual licenses later.\n\nDemonstration and requirements \nYou no doubt are quite familiar with all of your lab's or potential lab's processes, but that doesn't mean you necessarily have even an inkling about how exactly a laboratory informatics solution fits into your workflow. That's pretty common, and it's fine. That's what software companies should be able to show you. A good developer already generally understands your kind of lab but will ask you a lot of questions about exactly how you do things. It's the exceptions that need catering to. Doing a live demo (online is actually even better than in-person; it can be recorded so you can review and share it as much as you want) is a great context for exploring how a candidate software solution performs the functions your lab needs. It is interactive and live, so there can be no tricks\u2014you see just how it performs in real time, and you can throw as many intricate scenarios at the developer as you like. The demo experience can go a long way towards giving you a real feel for the software's suitability. Additionally, you can both (laboratory and vendor) gain a budgetary idea of cost based on what you do, what you want the software to do, what it can do, as well as the product and services pricing itself.\nOne note: too often labs think the first thing they must do is create a requirements list, then sit back and let the software vendors tell them how they meet those requirements. As mentioned earlier, even though laboratory personnel understand their lab and its processes, most don't have much of a clue about laboratory informatics and workflow integration. Participating in a a demo before creating the requirements list is a great way to plug in the features you have seen demonstrated to your lab's to your own processes and needs. After all, how can you effectively require specific functions if you don't fully know what a given laboratory informatics tool is capable of? After the demo, you are much more equipped to create a requirements list that becomes the contractual product set and statement\/scope of work (SOW) that represents your laboratory informatics solution.\n\nImplementation \nFeatures, budget, and requirements aside, you'll also want to consider what implementation details will affect your overall bottom line. There are two main keys to successful implementation: having an accurate SOW and high team availability.\n\n1. Accurate SOW: A statement of work or SOW describes the work that will be done by the vendor, including milestones, deliverables, and any other end products and services. It should be absolutely clear in both your and the vendor's minds exactly what the delivered, operational laboratory informatics solution should look like. If possible, ask for a validation script that addresses each function and process. Read through it and make sure you agree with each test, that it is an effective measure of the software function it purports to validate. If not, work with the vendor to modify it to your satisfaction. Remember, vendors are required to meet exactly what the contracted requirements are, no more or no less. The SOW should avoid ambiguity in all cases. If they are worded poorly, the delivered item may not match what you envisioned. This is also where the demo\u2014mentioned previously\u2014comes in handy. If it is documented (e.g., recorded), you can always use language like \"per demo\" or \"as demonstrated in demo\" so there is no question how a feature is supposed to work for you.\n2. High team availability: Make your team available. Far too many laboratory informatics solution implementations drag on way past what is needed simply because the lab doesn't keep up with the process. While regular daily operations consume a lot of time, and it can be very difficult to allocate extra time for bringing on the new software, it's best to just make the time. The initial energy and impetus of the implementation project\u2014which can take as few as a couple of weeks\u2014disappear surprisingly quickly once delays set in. Interest wanders and a once-great initiative becomes a nagging burden. The single greatest thing you can do to avoid this is allocate the right person(s) to focus on successfully getting the system in place on time and on (or under) budget. That means plenty of communication with the vendor's project manager, executing the training and any configuration tasks your lab is responsible for, and signing off when tasks are complete. You may be surprised how often unsuccessful implementations are actually the fault of the customer.\nImplementation details \nThe implementation itself can be quite simple for a pretty standard system. The minimum scenario would be one to five users, no customization, no configurations beyond standard setup (name the lab's location and any departments, add users, lab logo, address, etc. to report, enter contacts), no interfaces and around two hours of training (online, recorded for reference). And if the solution is cloud-hosted, there is no time (i.e., money) wasted in buying and\/or setting up servers, firewalls, etc., so the solution itself can optimistically be in place and running in a day. The rest is up to you; figure something like one to three weeks to go live (a little more if your schedule is tight).\nA larger and\/or more comprehensive implementation can include several components and be rolled out in phases over one to three months or so. In fact, you can be operational manually for as long as you need to be, bringing instrument interfaces in over time as your budget permits, which allows you to begin using the solution earlier. \nAll of the phases and their deliverables have price tags associated with them. Your total cost is a function of the license fee or subscription plus the work the vendor performs. The work they do (and the work you do) is what constitutes the implementation and its phases. They can include (in order):\n\nProject management: The vendor will provide a project manager to coordinate with you and make sure all deliverables are implemented on time and according to the contract. The cost of this is a function of their hours, which begin at the initial meeting (kickoff) and end once your system goes live and all deliverables have been met.\nKickoff meeting: This is the initial get-together between your project manager and theirs. Review the SOW and the plan to implement it, and clarify resource and time commitments and responsibilities, making sure the schedule works for everybody.\nSystem installation: If it's to be an onsite installation (discussed later), then your system administrator and the vendor's technical representatives will need to work closely to make sure this is done properly. If the vendor is hosting it for you, the system should be spun up and available for you to log in to within a day or so.\nGap analysis: This is the identification or verification of the gap between the system as installed and the system as fully functional according to the contract. There should not be any surprises here. If there are (and not good ones), the vendor should rectify them speedily and at no extra charge.\nWork plan (system acceptance test plan): This is the deliverable that spells out essentially what was discussed in the kickoff, with the gap analysis factored in. It's what will be worked towards in order to get to a fully functional, contractually complete system. It should include all tasks, including your verification and sign-off of each deliverable.\nAdministrator training: Whether a small and simple setup or something more complex, this is important and integral. Get it online and record it if you can. That way you can refer to it as often as you need to, and also use it to train new administrators.\nConfiguration and customization: This is really the bulk portion of implementation. It includes the standard configuration of the solution, plus any extras: instrument interfaces, system\/software\/agency interfaces, additional custom reports, screen modifications, new fields, etc. (beyond standard setup), adding tests, custom notifications\/alerts, web portal configuration, additional training, etc.\nSystem validation and acceptance: This should be going on throughout the implementation as you sign off on each completed task. Then the final acceptance of the complete system is simply a matter of final overall review and sign-off. A more comprehensive validation involves test scripts for each function, and you will need to go through each, noting pass\/fail and any comments. If more work is needed to bring things up to full acceptance level, the vendor (or you, if it was your responsibility) should apply whatever resources necessary to swiftly bring the items to acceptance level.\nUser training: Like admin training, user training is essential for a professional, dedicated laboratory informatics system. And in the same ways, online training by job function is the most effective method, enabling recorded sessions to be referred back to by the trainees and used for repeat and additional staff training.\nGo-live support: As with any new informatics system, it is a great contributor to a successful launch if the vendor's support staff are readily available during the initial \"go-live\" period. This may be a few days, a week or two, or a month, depending on complexity, number of users\/samples, etc.\nOne year (times X) maintenance and support: This recurring item can be included with your monthly or annual subscription if your solution is a cloud-hosted SaaS one. Otherwise, if you purchase licenses (the vendor may still offer cloud-hosting if you want), then this is a separate annual fee. It's usually wise to include this, at least for the first few years so that updates and upgrades are included, and support hours help your users as they become more comfortable and proficient. Cost usually is around 15-20% of original license fee annually, or bundled into a subscription automatically.\nServices \nWhen calculating the overall costs associated with implementing your laboratory informatics solution, don't forget to include calculations of services. No matter how pre-configured the solution may be, any professional laboratory informatics solution will require some amount of standard setup to reflect your particular lab, e.g., lab name and contact details for reports\/COA, entering users and their roles\/access permissions, adding and\/or modifying tests and processes\/workflows, renaming some fields, adding\/hiding fields, setting up a web portal, interfaces, etc. As mentioned previously, equally indispensable is proper training for both administrators and users. And you may find at any time that you would like additional features or functions. The services here are listed in hourly units. (Again, be very careful if any items that are services-based are listed as fixed-price items.)\nServices can include:\n\nKickoff meeting: initial planning, identify delta, set schedule, etc.\nProject management\nSetup\nTraining (user and admin)\nAdditional configurations and\/or customization\nInterfaces\nCustom screens\nCustom reports and labels\nAdditional triggers, alerts, etc.\nAdditional or custom functionality\nValidation\/Acceptance testing: either to a third-party standard (certification) or to manufacturer claims\/specs\/contract\nHosting\nHosting \nFrom the previous list of services, most items have been talked about in some regard, but the hosting of your software deserves a few additional comments. There is strong \"service\" component that comes with whoever is responsible for hosting your laboratory informatics solution, whether that's you (self-hosted) or some other provider (cloud-hosted). \nIf you choose to self-host the software, you will have most likely decided to buy the software license rather than rent the solution via a subscription. This is typically the domain of larger businesses that have their own IT department with the knowledge and budget to tackle most of the implementation and much of the maintenance. Even then, there may be times where outside IT help and\/or support is required from a consultant or the original software vendor, and this must be calculated into any potential future costs.\nIf you choose to cloud-host the software, you're either hosting the software on your company's cloud (if they are large enough to have such resources in the first place) or, more likely, you're choosing another company to host the software for you. Regardless of whether its you or another company, several questions emerge about the cloud facilities:\n\nDoes the cloud hosting provider provide purpose-built, reliable and secure cloud hosting infrastructure housed in a state-of-the-art data center that is SSAE 16 SOC 2 certified?\nAre industry standard hardware, software, and configuration practices employed, ensuring first-class performance, security and reliability, with a full 100% uptime guarantee?\nAre global cloud networks employed to provide a seamless global cloud hosting service?\nCan facility meet the special requirements for HIPAA, CLIA, 21 CFR Part 11, or other regulatory compliance data? For example, does it have comprehensive redundancy, failover, data backup and protection (database backups and system-wide backups in secondary location for redundancy), and SSL security and encryption?\nOf course, the software can not only be hosted in the cloud but also be served up as a service, typically arranged through the vendor. This SaaS-based approach has its own advantages, as previously discussed.\n\n Maintenance, support, and warranty \nThe maintenance, support and warranty (MSW) offered by the vendor you choose is almost as important as the laboratory informatics solution itself. The solution is likely to become mission-critical, so having a reliable and responsive team and resources available 24\/7 is hugely important in retaining operational and competitive status. Downtime can negatively affect not only immediate customer satisfaction but also your reputation. And professional reputations take a long time and hard work to build, though they can be destroyed swiftly and easily.\nAs such, when budgeting for a solution, be sure to ask about the company's MSW coverage. Determine what it includes exactly, what it doesn't, and the cost. For example, a purchased LIMS will usually include an MSW as a percentage of the license fee, typically 15-20% annually. It should include some support hours (check how many) so your users can contact the company and get help when they encounter problems, as they are still learning the details and becoming comfortable with the system (that's called support). It should include updates and upgrades (maintenance), and unlimited free fixes of any bugs (warranty).\nIf the solution is a cloud-hosted, SaaS system, then these are typically rolled in with the annual or monthly subscription (and are typically less costly anyway, since it's easier for the vendor to access and work with the system). Even a purchased, perpetual licensed solution may be available as a cloud-hosted option, and it may be at a lower rate than if you host it yourself (for the same reason). And you have the added bonus of not needing your own servers and IT personnel.\nFinally, any provider should warranty (stand behind) all of their work for as long as you are our customer. Any customization work, setup, or configurations they do should also be guaranteed; if they don't work, they should be corrected to perform the way they're supposed to at no additional charge.\n\nPutting it all together \nAfter considering all the above, it's time to put it all together. The importance of an accurate statement of work, as reflected in the sales agreement, can't be understated. Each line item should clearly show exactly what is expected, being as specific as possible, since this will be the entire contractual obligation for both parties. Obviously, the line items may differ from system to system somewhat, according to what features and functions are included by default with the laboratory informatics solution and which, if any, are additional. While the contract SOW is always ultimately an estimate, if careful attention was paid to the above, then it should be quite accurate, and in fact the final cost may even be below the quoted cost if you prioritize your own obligations so that the vendor's hours are used sparingly and efficiently.\nThe costs can be a mixture of subscriptions (annual and\/or monthly), fixed one-time costs (unit of \"Each\") and\/or hourly services. However, the reality is that they really are either license\/subscription or services. Any fixed costs for other items are really for services, and represent one of two possible scenarios:\n\nFinal fixed cost: In this case, the cost has been figured by the vendor so as to cover their worst-case hourly labor total. If the item (typically interfaces) is not \"worst case,\" then you are overpaying.\n\"Expandable\" fixed cost: This is as bad as final fixed cost, and maybe even worse because it's almost a case of \"bait-and-switch,\" popping up as a surprise. The initial \"fixed cost\" number is low, and additional hourly services are needed to actually deliver the item. This will have been provided for somewhere in the small print. The bottom line is that everything in the solution is really either licensing or hourly services. Just be careful if they are portrayed as anything else.\nIt is important to be clear which category each line item falls under when figuring costs, which can be divided into 1. up-front (due upon signing), 2. annual, and 3. ongoing (e.g., SaaS subscription). It is useful to clearly lay out each and compute initial costs, as well as first year and subsequent years' costings. \nAs an example, imagine you're considering a cloud-based SaaS LIMS:\n\n1. Initial: Your initial layout may be as little as your first month's subscription plus the first 40 hours of services, say $500 + $6600 = $7,100. Different vendors have different policies, however, and you may be required to pay for your first full year's subscription and no services, or some other combination. Normally, though, any instrument interface or other services charges aren't due until they are implemented, which may be a few weeks or even a month or so down the road, depending on your budget, complexity of the SOW, and urgency.\n2. First year: Your first year's expenses will include everything, including initial license fees, all setup and training, any interfaces and additional configurations or customization, and first annual maintenance, service, and warranty (MSW). (If this isn't included in the SaaS subscription, then it usually commences on full system delivery).\n3. Ongoing: Your subscription and MSW will be the only ongoing expenses (included as one in this example), unless you choose to have additional interfaces or other services performed at any time.\nYour total laboratory informatics software costs are tallied according to the licenses or subscriptions and hourly services, plus any additional MSW. Two ways to help maximize affordability and success are 1. as stated before, make sure you plan as thoroughly as possible and set aside sufficient funding for the lab operation you envision, and 2. plan out your implementation, perhaps staggering some of the major non-central items to be phased in over time in favor of getting operational with your solution as early as possible.\n\nReferences \nAbdula, M.; Averdunk, I.; Barcia, R. et al.&#32;(2018).&#32;The Cloud Adoption Playbook: Proven Strategies for Transforming Your Organization with the Cloud.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;272.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781119491859. &#160; \nASTM Subcommittee E13.15 on Analytical Data&#32;(2018).&#32;\"ASTM E1578-18, Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm . &#160; \nCSols, Inc.&#32;(24 January 2019).&#32;\"How Much Does a LIMS Cost?\".&#32;Technology Networks.&#32;Technology Networks, Ltd.&#32;https:\/\/www.technologynetworks.com\/tn\/videos\/how-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433 . &#160; \nGordon-Byrne, G.&#32;(2014).&#32;Buying, Supporting, Maintaining Software and Equipment.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;359.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781482232790. &#160; \nHice, R.C.&#32;(2016).&#32;\"Considerations in Purchasing a LIMS\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Abbott Informatics Corporation.&#32;https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/whitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf . &#160; \nKaldrack, I.; Leeker, M.&#32;(2015).&#32;There Is No Software, There Are Just Services.&#32;Meson Press.&#32;pp.&#160;114.&#32;ISBN&#160;9783957960566. &#160; \nLabVantage Solutions&#32;(28 October 2017).&#32;\"The True Cost of LIMS\".&#32;LabVantage Blog.&#32;LabVantage Solutions, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/the-true-cost-of-lims\/ . &#160; \nOrchard Software&#32;(7 November 2018).&#32;\"Considering a New Laboratory Information System Investment? Read Orchard Software's White Paper Overview of the Total Cost of Ownership for an LIS\".&#32;Orchard Software Corporation.&#32;https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/blog\/considering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis . &#160; \nRoe, R.&#32;(2017).&#32;\"The Future of Laboratory Informatics\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Laboratory Informatics Guide 2018.&#32;Europa Science Ltd.&#32;pp. 12\u201316.&#32;https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/sites\/default\/files\/content\/LIG2018%20web.pdf . &#160; \n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 9 February 2022, at 20:06.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 1,800 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations rootpage-LII_Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:Laboratory Informatics Software Acquisition and Implementation Considerations<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\">\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Starting_out\">Starting out<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The two main questions you will need to answer at the outset are:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>1. What do I want the laboratory informatics solution to do for me?<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>2. What kind of budget do I have?<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>Additionally\u2014and secondarily\u2014you'll want to be sure you can participate in one or more vendor demonstrations and, afterwards, build a requirements list.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Features_and_benefits\">Features and benefits<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The answer to the first question is largely the same as most other kinds of labs. The benefits of laboratory informatics software include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>increased accuracy, with a minimization or elimination of transcription and other errors;<\/li>\n<li>streamlined processes, where each step in a protocol or method is completed in the proper order, with all requirements met, updating statuses automatically;<\/li>\n<li>automation of integrated instruments, allowing for automatic uploading of samples\/specimens and processing of results;<\/li>\n<li>regulatory and standards compliance for your procedures helps keep you doing the right things the right ways, while tracking history so you can provide documentation when you need to;<\/li>\n<li>data security via configurable role-based secure access to data, processes, reporting, etc.;<\/li>\n<li>custom reporting tools, which allow you to design and generate reports to your own specifications, incorporating exactly the information you want;<\/li>\n<li>instant data retrieval, allowing you to search and call up any information instantly according to any criteria (date range, test, product type, etc.), particularly useful during audits; and<\/li>\n<li>cost-effectiveness through improved efficiency and accuracy, which means less waste of time, and if a user-configurable system (as opposed to hard-coded, requiring development for any modifications), its return on investment {ROI) increases over time, due to built-in adaptability and thus longevity.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Budgeting\">Budgeting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The second question of budget is more difficult to answer by the fact that laboratory informatics software comes in all kinds of price ranges, from over $1 million all the way down to free. How are you supposed to honestly judge where the appropriate system price for your lab lies?\n<\/p><p>There are some basic realities that can help in figuring an appropriate budget, however.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>1. A rough sense of price can generally be based on how much ownership you want in the software itself and how many will be using the laboratory informatics solution.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><i>Ownership: Buying versus renting<\/i>: There are two primary ways to price laboratory informatics software: a one-time license fee or a subscription (cloud-hosted <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> or SaaS ). If you have your own dedicated IT department and staff, you may prefer the former. Otherwise, a SaaS-based subscription may well be the better and more cost-effective way to go (no IT costs at all other than internet access). This item will be part of your up-front cost and, in the case of a subscription, it will also figure in your first year and ongoing costs. A vendor may have a subscription fee of say $500, with the initial month due at signing. However, more often the vendor may require three months or even the first year up front, so be prepared to factor that into up-front costs. However, it still is almost always less expensive at the outset (and over time, if you factor in IT and service costs) than paying for a license fee.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><i>User numbers: Named versus concurrent<\/i>: In addition to the two types of software pricing above, there are pricing sub-types. Generally these are based on the number of users (or, in some cases, \"nodes,\" which are simply any entities that access the software, including other systems, instruments, etc.). How these are counted can vary. They may be counted as \"named\" users, which bases pricing on the actual individual users of the system, even if they may only log in once in awhile. Users typically may not use each other's logins (this is prohibited regardless of pricing structure, for GxP and other standard- and regulatory-based reasons). They may also be counted as \"concurrent\" users, which bases pricing on the maximum number of users who will be logged in at any given time. You can define an unlimited number of named users in the system, each with their own login credentials. However, only the number of (concurrent) users specified in the license\/subscription may be logged in at any one time. For example, you may have 10 staff, but due to work processes, shifts, etc., only up to six might ever be logged in simultaneously. Whereas this would require a named user license for 10, it would only require a concurrent user license for six. Finally, you may have the option for \"unlimited\" users. This may be useful for huge labs (typically 30 to 50 and up), where the license or subscription may simply be a flat fee that allows any number of users.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>2. Most costs are related to work. Try to choose a solution that has what you need out of the box, as much as possible. The more customized or unique options you ask for, the more it costs, because extra items are a function of the time it takes developers to add them.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>3. User-configurable solutions beat vendor-configurable solutions on cost-effectiveness. Many software vendors offer a free or low-cost option, but don't be fooled. They are in business to make money, and they are counting on the fact that you'll need to pay them to make things work, add necessary functionality, support, training, etc. If you can find one who offers a genuinely user-configurable solution, and whose manuals and other support materials are clearly helpful and available so you can adjust things the way you want, when you want, then that will go a long way toward budget efficiency and longevity.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>4. Interfaces cost money. If necessary, consider whether it's feasibly or not to phase in those instrument and other interfaces over time, as revenue eases cash flow. You may be able to go live with your laboratory informatics solution more quickly, entering results manually until you can afford to interface your instruments one-by-one. This goes for reports too. A standard report will do. You can make fancy ones later.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>Pricing will vary depending on what kind of solution you need. For example, you'll probably want to budget a minimum of around $40,000 to $80,000 plus or minus, minimum, (including setup, training, interfaces, etc.) for a decent, bang-for-your-buck <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) with maybe an interface or two, plus an additional $300 to $900 per month (depending on number of users) for ongoing subscriptions. At around five concurrent (logged in at the same time) users, the economics start to favor purchasing perpetual licenses rather than paying subscription. Purchased licenses will also entail ongoing annual or monthly costs as well (maintenance, support, warranty for updates etc.), but somewhere around that number of users it may tend to be cheaper than a subscription option. Subscriptions (if available) are generally aimed at smaller labs. If you will be growing and scaling up, it may be a great way to get started, but ensure you have the option to switch to perpetual licenses later.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Demonstration_and_requirements\">Demonstration and requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>You no doubt are quite familiar with all of your lab's or potential lab's processes, but that doesn't mean you necessarily have even an inkling about how exactly a laboratory informatics solution fits into your workflow. That's pretty common, and it's fine. That's what software companies should be able to show you. A good developer already generally understands your kind of lab but will ask you a lot of questions about exactly how you do things. It's the exceptions that need catering to. Doing a live demo (online is actually even better than in-person; it can be recorded so you can review and share it as much as you want) is a great context for exploring how a candidate software solution performs the functions your lab needs. It is interactive and live, so there can be no tricks\u2014you see just how it performs in real time, and you can throw as many intricate scenarios at the developer as you like. The demo experience can go a long way towards giving you a real feel for the software's suitability. Additionally, you can both (laboratory and vendor) gain a budgetary idea of cost based on what you do, what you want the software to do, what it can do, as well as the product and services pricing itself.\n<\/p><p>One note: too often labs think the first thing they must do is create a requirements list, then sit back and let the software vendors tell them how they meet those requirements. As mentioned earlier, even though laboratory personnel understand their lab and its processes, most don't have much of a clue about laboratory informatics and workflow integration. Participating in a a demo before creating the requirements list is a great way to plug in the features you have seen demonstrated to your lab's to your own processes and needs. After all, how can you effectively require specific functions if you don't fully know what a given laboratory informatics tool is capable of? After the demo, you are much more equipped to create a requirements list that becomes the contractual product set and statement\/scope of work (SOW) that represents your laboratory informatics solution.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Implementation\">Implementation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Features, budget, and requirements aside, you'll also want to consider what implementation details will affect your overall bottom line. There are two main keys to successful implementation: having an accurate SOW and high team availability.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>1. <i>Accurate SOW<\/i>: A statement of work or SOW describes the work that will be done by the vendor, including milestones, deliverables, and any other end products and services. It should be absolutely clear in both your and the vendor's minds exactly what the delivered, operational laboratory informatics solution should look like. If possible, ask for a validation script that addresses each function and process. Read through it and make sure you agree with each test, that it is an effective measure of the software function it purports to validate. If not, work with the vendor to modify it to your satisfaction. Remember, vendors are required to meet exactly what the contracted requirements are, no more or no less. The SOW should avoid ambiguity in all cases. If they are worded poorly, the delivered item may not match what you envisioned. This is also where the demo\u2014mentioned previously\u2014comes in handy. If it is documented (e.g., recorded), you can always use language like \"per demo\" or \"as demonstrated in demo\" so there is no question how a feature is supposed to work for you.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>2. <i>High team availability<\/i>: Make your team available. Far too many laboratory informatics solution implementations drag on way past what is needed simply because the lab doesn't keep up with the process. While regular daily operations consume a lot of time, and it can be very difficult to allocate extra time for bringing on the new software, it's best to just make the time. The initial energy and impetus of the implementation project\u2014which can take as few as a couple of weeks\u2014disappear surprisingly quickly once delays set in. Interest wanders and a once-great initiative becomes a nagging burden. The single greatest thing you can do to avoid this is allocate the right person(s) to focus on successfully getting the system in place on time and on (or under) budget. That means plenty of communication with the vendor's project manager, executing the training and any configuration tasks your lab is responsible for, and signing off when tasks are complete. You may be surprised how often unsuccessful implementations are actually the fault of the customer.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Implementation_details\">Implementation details<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The implementation itself can be quite simple for a pretty standard system. The minimum scenario would be one to five users, no customization, no configurations beyond standard setup (name the lab's location and any departments, add users, lab logo, address, etc. to report, enter contacts), no interfaces and around two hours of training (online, recorded for reference). And if the solution is cloud-hosted, there is no time (i.e., money) wasted in buying and\/or setting up servers, firewalls, etc., so the solution itself can optimistically be in place and running in a day. The rest is up to you; figure something like one to three weeks to go live (a little more if your schedule is tight).\n<\/p><p>A larger and\/or more comprehensive implementation can include several components and be rolled out in phases over one to three months or so. In fact, you can be operational manually for as long as you need to be, bringing instrument interfaces in over time as your budget permits, which allows you to begin using the solution earlier. \n<\/p><p>All of the phases and their deliverables have price tags associated with them. Your total cost is a function of the license fee or subscription plus the work the vendor performs. The work they do (and the work you do) is what constitutes the implementation and its phases. They can include (in order):\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Project management: The vendor will provide a project manager to coordinate with you and make sure all deliverables are implemented on time and according to the contract. The cost of this is a function of their hours, which begin at the initial meeting (kickoff) and end once your system goes live and all deliverables have been met.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Kickoff meeting: This is the initial get-together between your project manager and theirs. Review the SOW and the plan to implement it, and clarify resource and time commitments and responsibilities, making sure the schedule works for everybody.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>System installation: If it's to be an onsite installation (discussed later), then your system administrator and the vendor's technical representatives will need to work closely to make sure this is done properly. If the vendor is hosting it for you, the system should be spun up and available for you to log in to within a day or so.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Gap analysis: This is the identification or verification of the gap between the system as installed and the system as fully functional according to the contract. There should not be any surprises here. If there are (and not good ones), the vendor should rectify them speedily and at no extra charge.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Work plan (system acceptance test plan): This is the deliverable that spells out essentially what was discussed in the kickoff, with the gap analysis factored in. It's what will be worked towards in order to get to a fully functional, contractually complete system. It should include all tasks, including your verification and sign-off of each deliverable.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Administrator training: Whether a small and simple setup or something more complex, this is important and integral. Get it online and record it if you can. That way you can refer to it as often as you need to, and also use it to train new administrators.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Configuration and customization: This is really the bulk portion of implementation. It includes the standard configuration of the solution, plus any extras: instrument interfaces, system\/software\/agency interfaces, additional custom reports, screen modifications, new fields, etc. (beyond standard setup), adding tests, custom notifications\/alerts, web portal configuration, additional training, etc.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>System validation and acceptance: This should be going on throughout the implementation as you sign off on each completed task. Then the final acceptance of the complete system is simply a matter of final overall review and sign-off. A more comprehensive validation involves test scripts for each function, and you will need to go through each, noting pass\/fail and any comments. If more work is needed to bring things up to full acceptance level, the vendor (or you, if it was your responsibility) should apply whatever resources necessary to swiftly bring the items to acceptance level.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>User training: Like admin training, user training is essential for a professional, dedicated laboratory informatics system. And in the same ways, online training by job function is the most effective method, enabling recorded sessions to be referred back to by the trainees and used for repeat and additional staff training.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Go-live support: As with any new informatics system, it is a great contributor to a successful launch if the vendor's support staff are readily available during the initial \"go-live\" period. This may be a few days, a week or two, or a month, depending on complexity, number of users\/samples, etc.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>One year (times X) maintenance and support: This recurring item can be included with your monthly or annual subscription if your solution is a cloud-hosted SaaS one. Otherwise, if you purchase licenses (the vendor may still offer cloud-hosting if you want), then this is a separate annual fee. It's usually wise to include this, at least for the first few years so that updates and upgrades are included, and support hours help your users as they become more comfortable and proficient. Cost usually is around 15-20% of original license fee annually, or bundled into a subscription automatically.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Services\">Services<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>When calculating the overall costs associated with implementing your laboratory informatics solution, don't forget to include calculations of services. No matter how pre-configured the solution may be, any professional laboratory informatics solution will require some amount of standard setup to reflect your particular lab, e.g., lab name and contact details for reports\/COA, entering users and their roles\/access permissions, adding and\/or modifying tests and processes\/workflows, renaming some fields, adding\/hiding fields, setting up a web portal, interfaces, etc. As mentioned previously, equally indispensable is proper training for both administrators and users. And you may find at any time that you would like additional features or functions. The services here are listed in hourly units. (Again, be very careful if any items that are services-based are listed as fixed-price items.)\n<\/p><p>Services can include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Kickoff meeting: initial planning, identify delta, set schedule, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Project management<\/li>\n<li>Setup<\/li>\n<li>Training (user and admin)<\/li>\n<li>Additional configurations and\/or customization\n<ul><li>Interfaces<\/li>\n<li>Custom screens<\/li>\n<li>Custom reports and labels<\/li>\n<li>Additional triggers, alerts, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Additional or custom functionality<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Validation\/Acceptance testing: either to a third-party standard (certification) or to manufacturer claims\/specs\/contract<\/li>\n<li>Hosting<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hosting\">Hosting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>From the previous list of services, most items have been talked about in some regard, but the hosting of your software deserves a few additional comments. There is strong \"service\" component that comes with whoever is responsible for hosting your laboratory informatics solution, whether that's you (self-hosted) or some other provider (cloud-hosted). \n<\/p><p>If you choose to self-host the software, you will have most likely decided to buy the software license rather than rent the solution via a subscription. This is typically the domain of larger businesses that have their own IT department with the knowledge and budget to tackle most of the implementation and much of the maintenance. Even then, there may be times where outside IT help and\/or support is required from a consultant or the original software vendor, and this must be calculated into any potential future costs.\n<\/p><p>If you choose to cloud-host the software, you're either hosting the software on your company's cloud (if they are large enough to have such resources in the first place) or, more likely, you're choosing another company to host the software for you. Regardless of whether its you or another company, several questions emerge about the cloud facilities:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Does the cloud hosting provider provide purpose-built, reliable and secure cloud hosting infrastructure housed in a state-of-the-art data center that is SSAE 16 SOC 2 certified?<\/li>\n<li>Are industry standard hardware, software, and configuration practices employed, ensuring first-class performance, security and reliability, with a full 100% uptime guarantee?<\/li>\n<li>Are global cloud networks employed to provide a seamless global cloud hosting service?<\/li>\n<li>Can facility meet the special requirements for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HIPAA\" data-key=\"70050974d1eda9ff8cf9ecf7e4fcd015\">HIPAA<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/CLIA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CLIA\" data-key=\"9c0b9bbf5c8d2310833a79d137ac621e\">CLIA<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a>, or other regulatory compliance data? For example, does it have comprehensive redundancy, failover, data backup and protection (database backups and system-wide backups in secondary location for redundancy), and SSL security and encryption?<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Of course, the software can not only be hosted in the cloud but also be served up as a service, typically arranged through the vendor. This SaaS-based approach has its own advantages, as previously discussed.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Maintenance,_support,_and_warranty\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Maintenance.2C_support.2C_and_warranty\">Maintenance, support, and warranty<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The maintenance, support and warranty (MSW) offered by the vendor you choose is almost as important as the laboratory informatics solution itself. The solution is likely to become mission-critical, so having a reliable and responsive team and resources available 24\/7 is hugely important in retaining operational and competitive status. Downtime can negatively affect not only immediate customer satisfaction but also your reputation. And professional reputations take a long time and hard work to build, though they can be destroyed swiftly and easily.\n<\/p><p>As such, when budgeting for a solution, be sure to ask about the company's MSW coverage. Determine what it includes exactly, what it doesn't, and the cost. For example, a purchased LIMS will usually include an MSW as a percentage of the license fee, typically 15-20% annually. It should include some support hours (check how many) so your users can contact the company and get help when they encounter problems, as they are still learning the details and becoming comfortable with the system (that's called support). It should include updates and upgrades (maintenance), and unlimited free fixes of any bugs (warranty).\n<\/p><p>If the solution is a cloud-hosted, SaaS system, then these are typically rolled in with the annual or monthly subscription (and are typically less costly anyway, since it's easier for the vendor to access and work with the system). Even a purchased, perpetual licensed solution may be available as a cloud-hosted option, and it may be at a lower rate than if you host it yourself (for the same reason). And you have the added bonus of not needing your own servers and IT personnel.\n<\/p><p>Finally, any provider should warranty (stand behind) all of their work for as long as you are our customer. Any customization work, setup, or configurations they do should also be guaranteed; if they don't work, they should be corrected to perform the way they're supposed to at no additional charge.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Putting_it_all_together\">Putting it all together<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>After considering all the above, it's time to put it all together. The importance of an accurate statement of work, as reflected in the sales agreement, can't be understated. Each line item should clearly show exactly what is expected, being as specific as possible, since this will be the entire contractual obligation for both parties. Obviously, the line items may differ from system to system somewhat, according to what features and functions are included by default with the laboratory informatics solution and which, if any, are additional. While the contract SOW is always ultimately an estimate, if careful attention was paid to the above, then it should be quite accurate, and in fact the final cost may even be below the quoted cost if you prioritize your own obligations so that the vendor's hours are used sparingly and efficiently.\n<\/p><p>The costs can be a mixture of subscriptions (annual and\/or monthly), fixed one-time costs (unit of \"Each\") and\/or hourly services. However, the reality is that they really are either license\/subscription or services. Any fixed costs for other items are really for services, and represent one of two possible scenarios:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Final fixed cost: In this case, the cost has been figured by the vendor so as to cover their worst-case hourly labor total. If the item (typically interfaces) is not \"worst case,\" then you are overpaying.<\/li>\n<li>\"Expandable\" fixed cost: This is as bad as final fixed cost, and maybe even worse because it's almost a case of \"bait-and-switch,\" popping up as a surprise. The initial \"fixed cost\" number is low, and additional hourly services are needed to actually deliver the item. This will have been provided for somewhere in the small print. The bottom line is that everything in the solution is really either licensing or hourly services. Just be careful if they are portrayed as anything else.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>It is important to be clear which category each line item falls under when figuring costs, which can be divided into 1. up-front (due upon signing), 2. annual, and 3. ongoing (e.g., SaaS subscription). It is useful to clearly lay out each and compute initial costs, as well as first year and subsequent years' costings. \n<\/p><p>As an example, imagine you're considering a cloud-based SaaS LIMS:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>1. Initial: Your initial layout may be as little as your first month's subscription plus the first 40 hours of services, say $500 + $6600 = $7,100. Different vendors have different policies, however, and you may be required to pay for your first full year's subscription and no services, or some other combination. Normally, though, any instrument interface or other services charges aren't due until they are implemented, which may be a few weeks or even a month or so down the road, depending on your budget, complexity of the SOW, and urgency.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>2. First year: Your first year's expenses will include everything, including initial license fees, all setup and training, any interfaces and additional configurations or customization, and first annual maintenance, service, and warranty (MSW). (If this isn't included in the SaaS subscription, then it usually commences on full system delivery).<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>3. Ongoing: Your subscription and MSW will be the only ongoing expenses (included as one in this example), unless you choose to have additional interfaces or other services performed at any time.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>Your total laboratory informatics software costs are tallied according to the licenses or subscriptions and hourly services, plus any additional MSW. Two ways to help maximize affordability and success are 1. as stated before, make sure you plan as thoroughly as possible and set aside sufficient funding for the lab operation you envision, and 2. plan out your implementation, perhaps staggering some of the major non-central items to be phased in over time in favor of getting operational with your solution as early as possible.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Abdula, M.; Averdunk, I.; Barcia, R. et al.&#32;(2018).&#32;<i>The Cloud Adoption Playbook: Proven Strategies for Transforming Your Organization with the Cloud<\/i>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;272.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781119491859.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Cloud+Adoption+Playbook%3A+Proven+Strategies+for+Transforming+Your+Organization+with+the+Cloud&amp;rft.aulast=Abdula%2C+M.%3B+Averdunk%2C+I.%3B+Barcia%2C+R.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Abdula%2C+M.%3B+Averdunk%2C+I.%3B+Barcia%2C+R.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B272&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9781119491859&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">ASTM Subcommittee E13.15 on Analytical Data&#32;(2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1578-18, Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578-18%2C+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=ASTM+Subcommittee+E13.15+on+Analytical+Data&amp;rft.au=ASTM+Subcommittee+E13.15+on+Analytical+Data&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FE1578.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">CSols, Inc.&#32;(24 January 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologynetworks.com\/tn\/videos\/how-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Much Does a LIMS Cost?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Technology Networks<\/i>.&#32;Technology Networks, Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologynetworks.com\/tn\/videos\/how-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.technologynetworks.com\/tn\/videos\/how-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+Much+Does+a+LIMS+Cost%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Technology+Networks&amp;rft.aulast=CSols%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.au=CSols%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.date=24+January+2019&amp;rft.pub=Technology+Networks%2C+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologynetworks.com%2Ftn%2Fvideos%2Fhow-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Gordon-Byrne, G.&#32;(2014).&#32;<i>Buying, Supporting, Maintaining Software and Equipment<\/i>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;359.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781482232790.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Buying%2C+Supporting%2C+Maintaining+Software+and+Equipment&amp;rft.aulast=Gordon-Byrne%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Gordon-Byrne%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B359&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781482232790&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">Hice, R.C.&#32;(2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/whitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Considerations in Purchasing a LIMS\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Abbott Informatics Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/whitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/whitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Considerations+in+Purchasing+a+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Hice%2C+R.C.&amp;rft.au=Hice%2C+R.C.&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.pub=Abbott+Informatics+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.abbott%2Fshared%2Fwhitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Kaldrack, I.; Leeker, M.&#32;(2015).&#32;<i>There Is No Software, There Are Just Services<\/i>.&#32;Meson Press.&#32;pp.&#160;114.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9783957960566.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=There+Is+No+Software%2C+There+Are+Just+Services&amp;rft.aulast=Kaldrack%2C+I.%3B+Leeker%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Kaldrack%2C+I.%3B+Leeker%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B114&amp;rft.pub=Meson+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9783957960566&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">LabVantage Solutions&#32;(28 October 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/the-true-cost-of-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The True Cost of LIMS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>LabVantage Blog<\/i>.&#32;LabVantage Solutions, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/the-true-cost-of-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/the-true-cost-of-lims\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+True+Cost+of+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=LabVantage+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=LabVantage+Solutions&amp;rft.au=LabVantage+Solutions&amp;rft.date=28+October+2017&amp;rft.pub=LabVantage+Solutions%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labvantage.com%2Fthe-true-cost-of-lims%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">Orchard Software&#32;(7 November 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/blog\/considering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis\" target=\"_blank\">\"Considering a New Laboratory Information System Investment? Read Orchard Software's White Paper Overview of the Total Cost of Ownership for an LIS\"<\/a>.&#32;Orchard Software Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/blog\/considering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/blog\/considering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Considering+a+New+Laboratory+Information+System+Investment%3F+Read+Orchard+Software%27s+White+Paper+Overview+of+the+Total+Cost+of+Ownership+for+an+LIS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Orchard+Software&amp;rft.au=Orchard+Software&amp;rft.date=7+November+2018&amp;rft.pub=Orchard+Software+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.orchardsoft.com%2Fblog%2Fconsidering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">Roe, R.&#32;(2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/sites\/default\/files\/content\/LIG2018%20web.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Future of Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Laboratory Informatics Guide 2018<\/i>.&#32;Europa Science Ltd.&#32;pp. 12\u201316<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/sites\/default\/files\/content\/LIG2018%20web.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/sites\/default\/files\/content\/LIG2018%20web.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+Informatics+Guide+2018&amp;rft.aulast=Roe%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Roe%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.pages=pp.+12%E2%80%9316&amp;rft.pub=Europa+Science+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fcontent%2FLIG2018%2520web.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110164156\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.176 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.201 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6129\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 38337\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 14343\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 16\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 0\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 161.045 1 -total\n 84.54% 136.150 9 Template:Citation\/core\n 51.39% 82.755 3 Template:Cite_book\n 47.64% 76.729 6 Template:Cite_web\n 12.95% 20.855 6 Template:Date\n 11.39% 18.348 3 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 6.43% 10.362 12 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 3.25% 5.237 6 Template:Hide_in_print\n 3.22% 5.180 3 Template:Only_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10944-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110164156 and revision id 46272. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_images":[],"85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_timestamp":1704907020,"65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_type":"article","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_title":"System integration","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_plaintext":"\n\nSystem integrationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_integration?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 May 2018, at 17:59.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,031 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-System_integration rootpage-System_integration skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">System integration<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_integration?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_integration\" data-key=\"f6418d682ca1c64236b013d57e27099f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171659\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.079 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.157 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 100\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 152.834 1 wikipedia:System_integration\n100.00% 152.834 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10593-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171659 and revision id 33267. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_images":[],"65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_timestamp":1704907019,"2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_type":"article","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_title":"SCADA","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_plaintext":"\n\nSCADAFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchControl system architecture for supervision of machines and processes\n This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (January 2024 ) \nPart of a series of articles onMachine industry \nManufacturing methods\nBatch production\nJob production\nFlow production\nLean manufacturing\nAgile manufacturing\n\nIndustrial technologies\nPLM\nRCM\nTPM\nVDM\nQRM\nTOC\nSix Sigma\nTQM\nZD\n\nInformation and communication\nISA-88\nISA-95\nERP\nIEC 62264\nB2MML\n\nProcess control\nPLC\nDCS\nSCADA\nvte\nSCADA (Supervisory control and data acquisition) is a control system architecture comprising computers, networked data communications and graphical user interfaces for high-level supervision of machines and processes. It also covers sensors and other devices, such as programmable logic controllers, which interface with process plant or machinery.\nThe operator interfaces which enable monitoring and the issuing of process commands, like controller set point changes, are handled through the SCADA computer system. The subordinated operations, e.g. the real-time control logic or controller calculations, are performed by networked modules connected to the field sensors and actuators.\nThe SCADA concept was developed to be a universal means of remote-access to a variety of local control modules, which could be from different manufacturers and allowing access through standard automation protocols. In practice, large SCADA systems have grown to become very similar to distributed control systems in function, while using multiple means of interfacing with the plant. They can control large-scale processes that can include multiple sites, and work over large distances as well as small distance. It is one of the most commonly-used types of industrial control systems, in spite of concerns about SCADA systems being vulnerable to cyberwarfare\/cyberterrorism attacks.[citation needed ]\n\n\n\nControl operations \nFunctional levels of a manufacturing control operation\n\nThe key attribute of a SCADA system is its ability to perform a supervisory operation over a variety of other proprietary devices.\n\nLevel 0 contains the field devices such as flow and temperature sensors, and final control elements, such as control valves.\nLevel 1 contains the industrialised input\/output (I\/O) modules, and their associated distributed electronic processors.\nLevel 2 contains the supervisory computers, which collate information from processor nodes on the system, and provide the operator control screens.\nLevel 3 is the production control level, which does not directly control the process, but is concerned with monitoring production and targets.\nLevel 4 is the production scheduling level.\nLevel 1 contains the programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or remote terminal units (RTUs).\nLevel 2 contains the SCADA to readings and equipment status reports that are communicated to level 2 SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI (Human Machine Interface) can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a historian, often built on a commodity database management system, to allow trending and other analytical auditing.\nSCADA systems typically use a tag database, which contains data elements called tags or points, which relate to specific instrumentation or actuators within the process system. Data is accumulated against these unique process control equipment tag references.\n\nComponents \nTypical SCADA mimic shown as an animation. For process plants, these are based upon the piping and instrumentation diagram.\n More complex SCADA animation showing control of four batch cookers\n\nA SCADA system usually consists of the following main elements:\n\nSupervisory computers\nThis is the core of the SCADA system, gathering data on the process and sending control commands to the field connected devices. It refers to the computer and software responsible for communicating with the field connection controllers, which are RTUs and PLCs, and includes the HMI software running on operator workstations. In smaller SCADA systems, the supervisory computer may be composed of a single PC, in which case the HMI is a part of this computer. In larger SCADA systems, the master station may include several HMIs hosted on client computers, multiple servers for data acquisition, distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a dual-redundant or hot-standby formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a server malfunction or breakdown.\nRemote terminal units\nRTUs[1] connect to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory computer system. RTUs have embedded control capabilities and often conform to the IEC 61131-3 standard for programming and support automation via ladder logic, a function block diagram or a variety of other languages. Remote locations often have little or no local infrastructure so it is not uncommon to find RTUs running off a small solar power system, using radio, GSM or satellite for communications, and being ruggedised to survive from -20C to +70C or even -40C to +85C without external heating or cooling equipment.\nProgrammable logic controllers\nPLCs are connected to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory system. In factory automation, PLCs typically have a high speed connection to the SCADA system. In remote applications, such as a large water treatment plant, PLCs may connect directly to SCADA over a wireless link, or more commonly, utilise an RTU for the communications management. PLCs are specifically designed for control and were the founding platform for the IEC 61131-3 programming languages. For economical reasons, PLCs are often used for remote sites where there is a large I\/O count, rather than utilising an RTU alone.\nCommunication infrastructure\nThis connects the supervisory computer system to the RTUs and PLCs, and may use industry standard or manufacturer proprietary protocols. Both RTUs and PLCs operate autonomously on the near-real time control of the process, using the last command given from the supervisory system. Failure of the communications network does not necessarily stop the plant process controls, and on resumption of communications, the operator can continue with monitoring and control. Some critical systems will have dual redundant data highways, often cabled via diverse routes.\nHuman-machine interface\nThe HMI is the operator window of the supervisory system. It presents plant information to the operating personnel graphically in the form of mimic diagrams, which are a schematic representation of the plant being controlled, and alarm and event logging pages. The HMI is linked to the SCADA supervisory computer to provide live data to drive the mimic diagrams, alarm displays and trending graphs. In many installations the HMI is the graphical user interface for the operator, collects all data from external devices, creates reports, performs alarming, sends notifications, etc. Mimic diagrams consist of line graphics and schematic symbols to represent process elements, or may consist of digital photographs of the process equipment overlain with animated symbols. Supervisory operation of the plant is by means of the HMI, with operators issuing commands using mouse pointers, keyboards and touch screens. For example, a symbol of a pump can show the operator that the pump is running, and a flow meter symbol can show how much fluid it is pumping through the pipe. The operator can switch the pump off from the mimic by a mouse click or screen touch. The HMI will show the flow rate of the fluid in the pipe decrease in real time. The HMI package for a SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are represented in the interface. These representations can be as simple as an on-screen traffic light, which represents the state of an actual traffic light in the field, or as complex as a multi-projector display representing the position of all of the elevators in a skyscraper or all of the trains on a railway. A historian is a software service within the HMI which accumulates time-stamped data, events, and alarms in a database which can be queried or used to populate graphic trends in the HMI. The historian is a client that requests data from a data acquisition server.[2]\nAlarm handling \nFurther information: Alarm management\nAn important part of most SCADA implementations is alarm handling. The system monitors whether certain alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an alarm event has occurred. Once an alarm event has been detected, one or more actions are taken (such as the activation of one or more alarm indicators, and perhaps the generation of email or text messages so that management or remote SCADA operators are informed). In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared.\nAlarm conditions can be explicit\u2014for example, an alarm point is a digital status point that has either the value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula based on the values in other analogue and digital points\u2014or implicit: the SCADA system might automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies outside high and low- limit values associated with that point.\nExamples of alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar way to the \"fuel tank empty\" light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the operator's attention to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action can be taken.\n\n PLC\/RTU programming \n\"Smart\" RTUs, or standard PLCs, are capable of autonomously executing simple logic processes without involving the supervisory computer. They employ standardized control programming languages such as under, IEC 61131-3 (a suite of five programming languages including function block, ladder, structured text, sequence function charts and instruction list), is frequently used to create programs which run on these RTUs and PLCs. Unlike a procedural language like C or FORTRAN, IEC 61131-3 has minimal training requirements by virtue of resembling historic physical control arrays. This allows SCADA system engineers to perform both the design and implementation of a program to be executed on an RTU or PLC.\nA programmable automation controller (PAC) is a compact controller that combines the features and capabilities of a PC-based control system with that of a typical PLC. PACs are deployed in SCADA systems to provide RTU and PLC functions. In many electrical substation SCADA applications, \"distributed RTUs\" use information processors or station computers to communicate with digital protective relays, PACs, and other devices for I\/O, and communicate with the SCADA master in lieu of a traditional RTU.\n\nPLC commercial integration \nSince about 1998, virtually all major PLC manufacturers have offered integrated HMI\/SCADA systems, many of them using open and non-proprietary communications protocols. Numerous specialized third-party HMI\/SCADA packages, offering built-in compatibility with most major PLCs, have also entered the market, allowing mechanical engineers, electrical engineers and technicians to configure HMIs themselves, without the need for a custom-made program written by a software programmer. The Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from the equipment to digital values. By converting and sending these electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control equipment.\n\nCommunication infrastructure and methods \nSCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct wired connections, although SONET\/SDH is also frequently used for large systems such as railways and power stations. The remote management or monitoring function of a SCADA system is often referred to as telemetry. Some users want SCADA data to travel over their pre-established corporate networks or to share the network with other applications. The legacy of the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though.\nSCADA protocols are designed to be very compact. Many are designed to send information only when the master station polls the RTU. Typical legacy SCADA protocols include Modbus RTU, RP-570, Profibus and Conitel. These communication protocols, with the exception of Modbus (Modbus has been made open by Schneider Electric), are all SCADA-vendor specific but are widely adopted and used. Standard protocols are IEC 60870-5-101 or 104, IEC 61850 and DNP3. These communication protocols are standardized and recognized by all major SCADA vendors. Many of these protocols now contain extensions to operate over TCP\/IP. Although the use of conventional networking specifications, such as TCP\/IP, blurs the line between traditional and industrial networking, they each fulfill fundamentally differing requirements.[3] Network simulation can be used in conjunction with SCADA simulators to perform various 'what-if' analyses.\nWith increasing security demands (such as North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) and critical infrastructure protection (CIP) in the US), there is increasing use of satellite-based communication. This has the key advantages that the infrastructure can be self-contained (not using circuits from the public telephone system), can have built-in encryption, and can be engineered to the availability and reliability required by the SCADA system operator. Earlier experiences using consumer-grade VSAT were poor. Modern carrier-class systems provide the quality of service required for SCADA.[4]\nRTUs and other automatic controller devices were developed before the advent of industry wide standards for interoperability. The result is that developers and their management created a multitude of control protocols. Among the larger vendors, there was also the incentive to create their own protocol to \"lock in\" their customer base. A list of automation protocols is compiled here.\nAn example of efforts by vendor groups to standardize automation protocols is the OPC-UA (formerly \"OLE for process control\" now Open Platform Communications Unified Architecture).\n\nArchitecture development \nThe United States Army's Training Manual 5-601 covers \"SCADA Systems for C4ISR Facilities\"\n\nSCADA systems have evolved through four generations as follows:[5][6][7][8]\nEarly SCADA system computing was done by large minicomputers. Common network services did not exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with no connectivity to other systems. The communication protocols used were strictly proprietary at that time. The first-generation SCADA system redundancy was achieved using a back-up mainframe system connected to all the Remote Terminal Unit sites and was used in the event of failure of the primary mainframe system.[9] Some first generation SCADA systems were developed as \"turn key\" operations that ran on minicomputers such as the PDP-11 series.[10]\nSCADA information and command processing were distributed across multiple stations which were connected through a LAN. Information was shared in near real time. Each station was responsible for a particular task, which reduced the cost as compared to First Generation SCADA. The network protocols used were still not standardized. Since these protocols were proprietary, very few people beyond the developers knew enough to determine how secure a SCADA installation was. Security of the SCADA installation was usually overlooked.\nSimilar to a distributed architecture, any complex SCADA can be reduced to the simplest components and connected through communication protocols. In the case of a networked design, the system may be spread across more than one LAN network called a process control network (PCN) and separated geographically. Several distributed architecture SCADAs running in parallel, with a single supervisor and historian, could be considered a network architecture. This allows for a more cost-effective solution in very large scale systems.\nThe growth of the internet has led SCADA systems to implement web technologies allowing users to view data, exchange information and control processes from anywhere in the world through web SOCKET connection.[11][12] The early 2000s saw the proliferation of Web SCADA systems.[13][14][15] Web SCADA systems use internet browsers such as Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox as the graphical user interface (GUI) for the operators HMI.[16][13] This simplifies the client side installation and enables users to access the system from various platforms with web browsers such as servers, personal computers, laptops, tablets and mobile phones.[13][17]\n\nSecurity \nSCADA systems that tie together decentralized facilities such as power, oil, gas pipelines, water distribution and wastewater collection systems were designed to be open, robust, and easily operated and repaired, but not necessarily secure.[18][19] The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions together with the increased number of connections between SCADA systems, office networks and the Internet has made them more vulnerable to types of network attacks that are relatively common in computer security. For example, United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) released a vulnerability advisory[20] warning that unauthenticated users could download sensitive configuration information including password hashes from an Inductive Automation Ignition system utilizing a standard attack type leveraging access to the Tomcat Embedded Web server. Security researcher Jerry Brown submitted a similar advisory regarding a buffer overflow vulnerability[21] in a Wonderware InBatchClient ActiveX control. Both vendors made updates available prior to public vulnerability release. Mitigation recommendations were standard patching practices and requiring VPN access for secure connectivity. Consequently, the security of some SCADA-based systems has come into question as they are seen as potentially vulnerable to cyber attacks.[22][23][24]\nIn particular, security researchers are concerned about:\n\nThe lack of concern about security and authentication in the design, deployment and operation of some existing SCADA networks\nThe belief that SCADA systems have the benefit of security through obscurity through the use of specialized protocols and proprietary interfaces\nThe belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are physically secured\nThe belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are disconnected from the Internet\nSCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples of which are transmission of electricity, transportation of gas and oil in pipelines, water distribution, traffic lights, and other systems used as the basis of modern society. The security of these SCADA systems is important because compromise or destruction of these systems would impact multiple areas of society far removed from the original compromise. For example, a blackout caused by a compromised electrical SCADA system would cause financial losses to all the customers that received electricity from that source. How security will affect legacy SCADA and new deployments remains to be seen.\nThere are many threat vectors to a modern SCADA system. One is the threat of unauthorized access to the control software, whether it is human access or changes induced intentionally or accidentally by virus infections and other software threats residing on the control host machine. Another is the threat of packet access to the network segments hosting SCADA devices. In many cases, the control protocol lacks any form of cryptographic security, allowing an attacker to control a SCADA device by sending commands over a network. In many cases SCADA users have assumed that having a VPN offered sufficient protection, unaware that security can be trivially bypassed with physical access to SCADA-related network jacks and switches. Industrial control vendors suggest approaching SCADA security like Information Security with a defense in depth strategy that leverages common IT practices.[25] Apart from that, research has shown that the architecture of SCADA systems has several other vulnerabilities, including direct tampering with RTUs, communication links from RTUs to the control center, and IT software and databases in the control center.[26] The RTUs could, for instance, be targets of deception attacks injecting false data [27] or denial-of-service attacks. \nThe reliable function of SCADA systems in our modern infrastructure may be crucial to public health and safety. As such, attacks on these systems may directly or indirectly threaten public health and safety. Such an attack has already occurred, carried out on Maroochy Shire Council's sewage control system in Queensland, Australia.[28] Shortly after a contractor installed a SCADA system in January 2000, system components began to function erratically. Pumps did not run when needed and alarms were not reported. More critically, sewage flooded a nearby park and contaminated an open surface-water drainage ditch and flowed 500 meters to a tidal canal. The SCADA system was directing sewage valves to open when the design protocol should have kept them closed. Initially this was believed to be a system bug. Monitoring of the system logs revealed the malfunctions were the result of cyber attacks. Investigators reported 46 separate instances of malicious outside interference before the culprit was identified. The attacks were made by a disgruntled ex-employee of the company that had installed the SCADA system. The ex-employee was hoping to be hired by the utility full-time to maintain the system.\nIn April 2008, the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Attack issued a Critical Infrastructures Report which discussed the extreme vulnerability of SCADA systems to an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) event. After testing and analysis, the Commission concluded: \"SCADA systems are vulnerable to an EMP event. The large numbers and widespread reliance on such systems by all of the Nation\u2019s critical infrastructures represent a systemic threat to their continued operation following an EMP event. Additionally, the necessity to reboot, repair, or replace large numbers of geographically widely dispersed systems will considerably impede the Nation\u2019s recovery from such an assault.\"[29]\nMany vendors of SCADA and control products have begun to address the risks posed by unauthorized access by developing lines of specialized industrial firewall and VPN solutions for TCP\/IP-based SCADA networks as well as external SCADA monitoring and recording equipment.\nThe International Society of Automation (ISA) started formalizing SCADA security requirements in 2007 with a working group, WG4. WG4 \"deals specifically with unique technical requirements, measurements, and other features required to evaluate and assure security resilience and performance of industrial automation and control systems devices\".[30]\n\nThe increased interest in SCADA vulnerabilities has resulted in vulnerability researchers discovering vulnerabilities in commercial SCADA software and more general offensive SCADA techniques presented to the general security community.[31] In electric and gas utility SCADA systems, the vulnerability of the large installed base of wired and wireless serial communications links is addressed in some cases by applying bump-in-the-wire devices that employ authentication and Advanced Encryption Standard encryption rather than replacing all existing nodes.[32]\nIn June 2010, anti-virus security company VirusBlokAda reported the first detection of malware that attacks SCADA systems (Siemens' WinCC\/PCS 7 systems) running on Windows operating systems. The malware is called Stuxnet and uses four zero-day attacks to install a rootkit which in turn logs into the SCADA's database and steals design and control files.[33][34] The malware is also capable of changing the control system and hiding those changes. The malware was found on 14 systems, the majority of which were located in Iran.[35]\nIn October 2013 National Geographic released a docudrama titled American Blackout which dealt with an imagined large-scale cyber attack on SCADA and the United States' electrical grid.[36]\n\nUses \nExample of SCADA used in office environment to remotely monitor a process\n\nBoth large and small systems can be built using the SCADA concept. These systems can range from just tens to thousands of control loops, depending on the application. Example processes include industrial, infrastructure, and facility-based processes, as described below:\n\nIndustrial processes include manufacturing, process control, power generation, fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.\nInfrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electric power transmission and distribution, and wind farms.\nFacility processes, including buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and control heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems (HVAC), access, and energy consumption.\nHowever, SCADA systems may have security vulnerabilities, so the systems should be evaluated to identify risks and solutions implemented to mitigate those risks.[37]\n\nSee also \nDNP3&#160;\u2013 Computer network protocol\nIEC 60870\nEPICS&#160;\u2013 Software infrastructure for building distributed control systems\nReferences \n\n\n^ Jeff Hieb (2008). Security Hardened Remote Terminal Units for SCADA Networks. University of Louisville. \n\n^ Aquino-Santos, Raul (30 November 2010). Emerging Technologies in Wireless Ad-hoc Networks: Applications and Future Development: Applications and Future Development. IGI Global. pp.&#160;43\u2013. ISBN&#160;978-1-60960-029-7. \n\n^ \"Introduction to Industrial Control Networks\" (PDF) . IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials. 2012. \n\n^ Bergan, Christian (August 2011). \"Demystifying Satellite for the Smart Grid: Four Common Misconceptions\". Electric Light &amp; Power. Utility Automation &amp; Engineering T&amp;D. Tulsa, OK: PennWell. 16 (8). Four. Archived from the original on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 2 May 2012 . satellite is a cost-effective and secure solution that can provide backup communications and easily support core smart grid applications like SCADA, telemetry, AMI backhaul and distribution automation \n\n^ OFFICE OF THE MANAGER NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMctober 2004. \"Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems\" (PDF) . NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2015 . {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) \n\n^ \"SCADA Systems april 2014\". \n\n^ J. Russel. \"A Brief History of SCADA\/EMS (2015)\". Archived from the original on 11 August 2015. \n\n^ Abbas, H.A. (2014). Future SCADA challenges and the promising solution: the agent-based SCADA. IJCIS, 10, 307-333. \n\n^ Security Hardened Remote Terminal Units for SCADA Networks. 2008. pp.&#160;12\u2013. ISBN&#160;978-0-549-54831-7. \n\n^ UJVAROSI1, Alexandru (2 November 2016). \"EVOLUTION OF SCADA SYSTEMS\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 October 2021. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) \n\n^ R. Fan, L. Cheded and O. Toker, \"Internet-based SCADA: a new approach using Java and XML,\" in Computing &amp; Control Engineering Journal, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 22-26, Oct.-Nov. 2005. \n\n^ R. J. Robles and T. H. Kim, \u201cArchitecture for SCADA with Mobile Remote Components\u201d, Proceedings of the 12th WSEAS International Conference on Automatic Control, Modelling &amp; Simulation. \n\n^ a b c Abbas, H.A. and Mohamed, A.M. (2011) \u2018Review in the design of web based SCADA systems based on OPC DA protocol\u2019, International Journal of Computer Networks, February, Vol. 2, No. 6, pp.266\u2013277, Malaysia. \n\n^ Qiu B, Gooi HB. Web-based scada display systems (wsds) for access via internet. Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on 2000;15(2):681\u2013686. \n\n^ Li D, Serizawa Y, Kiuchi M. Concept design for a web-based supervisory control and data-acquisition (scada) system. In: Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exhibition 2002: Asia Pacific. IEEE\/PES; Vol. 1; p. 32\u201336. \n\n^ Kovaliuk, D. O., Huza, K. M., &amp; Kovaliuk, O. O. (2018). Development of SCADA System based on Web Technologies. International Journal of Information Engineering and Electronic Business (IJIEEB), 10(2), 25-32. \n\n^ J. M. Lynch, \u201cAn Internet Based SCADA System\u201d, BSc Project Report, University of Southern Queensland, Queensland, Oct. 2005 \n\n^ Boyes, Walt (2011). Instrumentation Reference Book, 4th Edition. USA: Butterworth-Heinemann. p.&#160;27. ISBN&#160;978-0-7506-8308-1. \n\n^ Siggins, Morgana. \"14 Major SCADA Attacks and What You Can Learn From Them\". DPS Telecom. Retrieved 26 April 2021 . \n\n^ \"ICSA-11-231-01\u2014INDUCTIVE AUTOMATION IGNITION INFORMATION DISCLOSURE VULNERABILITY\" (PDF) . 19 August 2011. Retrieved 21 January 2013 . \n\n^ \"ICSA-11-094-01\u2014WONDERWARE INBATCH CLIENT ACTIVEX BUFFER OVERFLOW\" (PDF) . 13 April 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2013 . \n\n^ \"Cyberthreats, Vulnerabilities and Attacks on SCADA Networks\" (PDF) . Rosa Tang, berkeley.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 1 August 2012 . \n\n^ D. Maynor and R. Graham (2006). \"SCADA Security and Terrorism: We're Not Crying Wolf\" (PDF) . \n\n^ Robert Lemos (26 July 2006). \"SCADA system makers pushed toward security\". SecurityFocus. Retrieved 9 May 2007 . \n\n^ \"Industrial Security Best Practices\" (PDF) . Rockwell Automation. Retrieved 26 March 2013 . \n\n^ Giani, A.; Sastry, S.; Johansson, H.; Sandberg, H. (2009). \"The VIKING project: An initiative on resilient control of power networks\". 2009 2nd International Symposium on Resilient Control Systems. IEEE. pp.&#160;31\u201335. doi:10.1109\/ISRCS.2009.5251361. ISBN&#160;978-1-4244-4853-1. S2CID&#160;14917254. \n\n^ Liu, Y.; Ning, P.; Reiter, MK. (May 2011). \"False Data Injection Attacks against State Estimation in Electric Power Grids\". ACM Transactions on Information and System Security. Vol.&#160;14. Association for Computing Machinery. pp.&#160;1\u201333. doi:10.1145\/1952982.1952995. S2CID&#160;2305736. \n\n^ Slay, J.; Miller, M. (November 2007). \"Chpt 6: Lessons Learned from the Maroochy Water Breach\". Critical infrastructure protection (Online-Ausg.&#160;ed.). Springer Boston. pp.&#160;73\u201382. doi:10.1007\/978-0-387-75462-8_6. ISBN&#160;978-0-387-75461-1. \n\n^ http:\/\/www.empcommission.org\/docs\/A2473-EMP_Commission-7MB.pdf[bare URL PDF ] \n\n^ \"Security for all\". InTech. June 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2012 . \n\n^ \"SCADA Security \u2013 Generic Electric Grid Malware Design\". Archived from the original on 7 January 2009. \n\n^ KEMA, Inc (November 2006). \"Substation Communications: Enabler of Automation\". Utilities Telecom Council. pp.&#160;3\u201321. Archived from the original on 3 November 2007. Retrieved 19 January 2022 . \n\n^ Mills, Elinor (21 July 2010). \"Details of the first-ever control system malware (FAQ)\". CNET. Retrieved 21 July 2010 . \n\n^ \"SIMATIC WinCC \/ SIMATIC PCS 7: Information concerning Malware \/ Virus \/ Trojan\". Siemens. 21 July 2010. Retrieved 22 July 2010 . malware (trojan) which affects the visualization system WinCC SCADA. \n\n^ \"Siemens: Stuxnet worm hit industrial systems\". Archived from the original on 25 May 2012. Retrieved 16 September 2010 . \n\n^ \"American Blackout\". National Geographic Channel. Archived from the original on 13 March 2015. Retrieved 14 October 2016 . \n\n^ Boyer, Stuart A. (2010). SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. USA: ISA - International Society of Automation. p.&#160;179. ISBN&#160;978-1-936007-09-7. \n\n\nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to SCADA .\n\nUK SCADA security guidelines\nBBC NEWS | Technology | Spies 'infiltrate US power grid'\nAuthority control databases: National \nGermany \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA<\/a>\nCategories: Automation and artificial intelligenceSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 12 June 2022, at 14:35.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 8,303 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-SCADA rootpage-SCADA skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">SCADA<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Control system architecture for supervision of machines and processes<\/div>\n\n<table class=\"sidebar nomobile nowraplinks\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Secondary_sector_of_the_economy\" title=\"Category:Secondary sector of the economy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8738f5908a3d26c370b92dae6a7fd74e\">a series<\/a> of articles on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_industry\" title=\"Machine industry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"87b43a64fdde8fb9931765745f0f4b30\">Machine industry<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Factory.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"Mill\" data-key=\"d351a635bebbc6ee8dd434d1fff2b504\"><img alt=\"Mill\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a2\/Factory.svg\/100px-Factory.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"100\" height=\"87\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\">\nManufacturing methods<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Batch_production\" title=\"Batch production\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b2a7d36847ccfae344ebe6c2f63991d\">Batch production<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Job_production\" title=\"Job production\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2028953f5b5c6b0a521c118d0cd714c\">Job production<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_production\" title=\"Mass production\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0942146b8f1674b633f30d7b5194e86c\">Flow production<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lean_manufacturing\" title=\"Lean manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b188b1c560ee0ed6744b64fbdcfd8a8\">Lean manufacturing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agile_manufacturing\" title=\"Agile manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59c533647305e8767f2867b7a2776c53\">Agile manufacturing<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\">\nIndustrial technologies<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_lifecycle\" title=\"Product lifecycle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa4f586aeb46599f41d6c16fd937e59f\">PLM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reliability-centered_maintenance\" title=\"Reliability-centered maintenance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f9bdc28d169c4fc55d738e1912b43a07\">RCM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_productive_maintenance\" title=\"Total productive maintenance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97d8e2af12f3270c150b261e5740732b\">TPM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Value-driven_maintenance\" title=\"Value-driven maintenance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03343f05a686b7469d2132a830229cb3\">VDM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quick_response_manufacturing\" title=\"Quick response manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d5f32c06a600564186ad90b1dac933b\">QRM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_constraints\" title=\"Theory of constraints\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cec1750193750c7522c6c87cd1760d4c\">TOC<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Six_Sigma\" title=\"Six Sigma\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0be577435c2e3aecd2fbb7a226eb9558\">Six Sigma<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_quality_management\" title=\"Total quality management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7ff8974e0ed3e523301170d7548c0c5\">TQM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zero_Defects\" title=\"Zero Defects\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"029d294bd8ef6e319db7e29423c0c272\">ZD<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\">\nInformation and communication<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISA-88\" title=\"ISA-88\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55e12cf2a731e0e7b2ac05571a4eecf2\">ISA-88<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ANSI\/ISA-95\" title=\"ANSI\/ISA-95\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea52a70bb98c751624c2fe83fe4fe637\">ISA-95<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_resource_planning\" title=\"Enterprise resource planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"850b202e706427b4bdd62fd8c05e7c80\">ERP<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_62264\" title=\"IEC 62264\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e8af4df7e24d159947ef68c6cde919b\">IEC 62264<\/a><\/li>\n<li>B2MML<\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\">\nProcess control<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programmable_logic_controller\" title=\"Programmable logic controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fdc9aaee22e550e6104618c6d3a34bf\">PLC<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_control_system\" title=\"Distributed control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77be10c62739469e9e86f0aefca144a9\">DCS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">SCADA<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><b>SCADA<\/b> (<b>Supervisory control and data acquisition<\/b>) is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_system\" title=\"Control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1de85e21d2395f64ea337c4e8194d71\">control system<\/a> architecture comprising <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer\" title=\"Computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90ce149db23a6fc17d1d225fac611846\">computers<\/a>, networked data communications and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphical_user_interface\" title=\"Graphical user interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d175c82419cd6c13f710e9a4be77e8c\">graphical user interfaces<\/a> for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High-level\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"High-level\" data-key=\"5530ec5d57cf8ae63e60239b3809481e\">high-level<\/a> supervision of machines and processes. It also covers sensors and other devices, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programmable_logic_controller\" title=\"Programmable logic controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fdc9aaee22e550e6104618c6d3a34bf\">programmable logic controllers<\/a>, which interface with process plant or machinery.\n<\/p><p>The operator interfaces which enable monitoring and the issuing of process commands, like controller set point changes, are handled through the SCADA computer system. The subordinated operations, e.g. the real-time control logic or controller calculations, are performed by networked modules connected to the field <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sensor\" title=\"Sensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f309353c1f8a54286958707160bba6d\">sensors<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Actuators\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Actuators\" data-key=\"ac0ed144c0f5272f9883d48d3e134560\">actuators<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The SCADA concept was developed to be a universal means of remote-access to a variety of local control modules, which could be from different manufacturers and allowing access through standard automation <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_automation_protocols\" title=\"List of automation protocols\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60f488306d138b9861061723cc450457\">protocols<\/a>. In practice, large SCADA systems have grown to become very similar to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_control_system\" title=\"Distributed control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77be10c62739469e9e86f0aefca144a9\">distributed control systems<\/a> in function, while using multiple means of interfacing with the plant. They can control large-scale processes that can include multiple sites, and work over large distances as well as small distance. It is one of the most commonly-used types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_control_system\" title=\"Industrial control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7097366ddc1f8c002dc0cf5e764769df\">industrial control systems<\/a>, in spite of concerns about SCADA systems being vulnerable to cyberwarfare\/cyberterrorism attacks.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Control_operations\">Control operations<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Functional_levels_of_a_Distributed_Control_System.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"468654e5bb47b08aaa43f5a85599d5c7\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/10\/Functional_levels_of_a_Distributed_Control_System.svg\/500px-Functional_levels_of_a_Distributed_Control_System.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"mw-file-element\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Functional levels of a manufacturing control operation<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The key attribute of a SCADA system is its ability to perform a supervisory operation over a variety of other proprietary devices.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Level 0 contains the field devices such as flow and temperature sensors, and final control elements, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_valve\" title=\"Control valve\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c76c0213cf3ad86e102e79d75132ca9\">control valves<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Level 1 contains the industrialised input\/output (I\/O) modules, and their associated distributed electronic processors.<\/li>\n<li>Level 2 contains the supervisory computers, which collate information from processor nodes on the system, and provide the operator control screens.<\/li>\n<li>Level 3 is the production control level, which does not directly control the process, but is concerned with monitoring production and targets.<\/li>\n<li>Level 4 is the production scheduling level.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Level 1 contains the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programmable_logic_controller\" title=\"Programmable logic controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fdc9aaee22e550e6104618c6d3a34bf\">programmable logic controllers<\/a> (PLCs) or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_terminal_unit\" title=\"Remote terminal unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"882bfdd118491b79f02a4532b92383a6\">remote terminal units<\/a> (RTUs).\n<\/p><p>Level 2 contains the SCADA to readings and equipment status reports that are communicated to level 2 SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_Machine_Interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human Machine Interface\" data-key=\"1521262d0526ed3aa3ba74728dff4a8e\">Human Machine Interface<\/a>) can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_historian\" title=\"Operational historian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"39ba116c50252703fc2cce894a97975f\">historian<\/a>, often built on a commodity <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Database management system\" data-key=\"824748614afaae7c7e98b483b4aee777\">database management system<\/a>, to allow trending and other analytical auditing.\n<\/p><p>SCADA systems typically use a <i>tag database<\/i>, which contains data elements called <i>tags<\/i> or <i>points<\/i>, which relate to specific instrumentation or actuators within the process system. Data is accumulated against these unique process control equipment tag references.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Components\">Components<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Scada_std_anim_no_lang.gif\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d98c0dff772fac7bcad7ff7acfe666b8\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/88\/Scada_std_anim_no_lang.gif\/220px-Scada_std_anim_no_lang.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"157\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Typical SCADA mimic shown as an animation. For process plants, these are based upon the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Piping_and_instrumentation_diagram\" title=\"Piping and instrumentation diagram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01f7fe804abadbb882e52dbd16026b49\">piping and instrumentation diagram<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><span><video id=\"rdp-ebb-mwe_player_0\" poster=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/220px--Scada_Animation.ogv.jpg\" controls=\"\" preload=\"none\" class=\"mw-file-element\" width=\"220\" height=\"126\" data-durationhint=\"64\" data-mwtitle=\"Scada_Animation.ogv\" data-mwprovider=\"wikimediacommons\" resource=\"\/wiki\/File:Scada_Animation.ogv\"><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.480p.vp9.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"480p.vp9.webm\" data-width=\"838\" data-height=\"480\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\" type=\"video\/ogg; codecs=&quot;theora&quot;\" data-width=\"960\" data-height=\"550\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.240p.vp9.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"240p.vp9.webm\" data-width=\"418\" data-height=\"240\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.m3u8\" type=\"application\/vnd.apple.mpegurl\" data-transcodekey=\"m3u8\" data-width=\"418\" data-height=\"240\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.360p.vp9.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"360p.vp9.webm\" data-width=\"628\" data-height=\"360\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.360p.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"360p.webm\" data-width=\"628\" data-height=\"360\" \/><\/video><\/span><figcaption>More complex SCADA animation showing control of four batch cookers<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>A SCADA system usually consists of the following main elements:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Supervisory computers<\/dt>\n<dd>This is the core of the SCADA system, gathering data on the process and sending control commands to the field connected devices. It refers to the computer and software responsible for communicating with the field connection controllers, which are RTUs and PLCs, and includes the HMI software running on operator workstations. In smaller SCADA systems, the supervisory computer may be composed of a single PC, in which case the HMI is a part of this computer. In larger SCADA systems, the master station may include several HMIs hosted on client computers, multiple servers for data acquisition, distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dual_modular_redundancy\" title=\"Dual modular redundancy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c4092737f9e2c96a615aa5e5421a31a\">dual-redundant<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hot_spare\" title=\"Hot spare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cff8ae8c52b2cc2a87ac89f2a23ed5c4\">hot-standby<\/a> formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a server malfunction or breakdown.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_terminal_unit\" title=\"Remote terminal unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"882bfdd118491b79f02a4532b92383a6\">Remote terminal units<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd>RTUs<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hieb2008_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hieb2008-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> connect to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory computer system. RTUs have embedded control capabilities and often conform to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_61131-3\" title=\"IEC 61131-3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d89c32d05b417e5ae2fee75a6f8b51e\">IEC 61131-3<\/a> standard for programming and support automation via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ladder_logic\" title=\"Ladder logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1232cf9dbdaf33ef0f07680000d09691\">ladder logic<\/a>, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Function_block_diagram\" title=\"Function block diagram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ea6600caf3c9543a9b143590ffac91e\">function block diagram<\/a> or a variety of other languages. Remote locations often have little or no local infrastructure so it is not uncommon to find RTUs running off a small <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Solar_power\" title=\"Solar power\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43c50e554521e0a9f9c0f1c631605ae8\">solar power<\/a> system, using radio, GSM or satellite for communications, and being ruggedised to survive from -20C to +70C or even -40C to +85C without external heating or cooling equipment.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programmable_logic_controller\" title=\"Programmable logic controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fdc9aaee22e550e6104618c6d3a34bf\">Programmable logic controllers<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd>PLCs are connected to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory system. In factory automation, PLCs typically have a high speed connection to the SCADA system. In remote applications, such as a large water treatment plant, PLCs may connect directly to SCADA over a wireless link, or more commonly, utilise an RTU for the communications management. PLCs are specifically designed for control and were the founding platform for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_61131-3\" title=\"IEC 61131-3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d89c32d05b417e5ae2fee75a6f8b51e\">IEC 61131-3<\/a> programming languages. For economical reasons, PLCs are often used for remote sites where there is a large I\/O count, rather than utilising an RTU alone.<\/dd>\n<dt>Communication infrastructure<\/dt>\n<dd>This connects the supervisory computer system to the RTUs and PLCs, and may use industry standard or manufacturer proprietary protocols. Both RTUs and PLCs operate autonomously on the near-real time control of the process, using the last command given from the supervisory system. Failure of the communications network does not necessarily stop the plant process controls, and on resumption of communications, the operator can continue with monitoring and control. Some critical systems will have dual redundant data highways, often cabled via diverse routes.<\/dd>\n<dt>Human-machine interface<\/dt>\n<dd>The HMI is the operator window of the supervisory system. It presents plant information to the operating personnel graphically in the form of mimic diagrams, which are a schematic representation of the plant being controlled, and alarm and event logging pages. The HMI is linked to the SCADA supervisory computer to provide live data to drive the mimic diagrams, alarm displays and trending graphs. In many installations the HMI is the graphical user interface for the operator, collects all data from external devices, creates reports, performs alarming, sends notifications, etc. Mimic diagrams consist of line graphics and schematic symbols to represent process elements, or may consist of digital photographs of the process equipment overlain with animated symbols. Supervisory operation of the plant is by means of the HMI, with operators issuing commands using mouse pointers, keyboards and touch screens. For example, a symbol of a pump can show the operator that the pump is running, and a flow meter symbol can show how much fluid it is pumping through the pipe. The operator can switch the pump off from the mimic by a mouse click or screen touch. The HMI will show the flow rate of the fluid in the pipe decrease in real time. The HMI package for a SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are represented in the interface. These representations can be as simple as an on-screen traffic light, which represents the state of an actual traffic light in the field, or as complex as a multi-projector display representing the position of all of the elevators in a skyscraper or all of the trains on a railway. A <i>historian<\/i> is a software service within the HMI which accumulates time-stamped data, events, and alarms in a database which can be queried or used to populate graphic trends in the HMI. The historian is a client that requests data from a data acquisition server.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Raul2010_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Raul2010-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Alarm_handling\">Alarm handling<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alarm_management\" title=\"Alarm management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c13ec479d0cec16e299d0a71dc7d98d5\">Alarm management<\/a><\/div>\n<p>An important part of most SCADA implementations is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alarm_management\" title=\"Alarm management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c13ec479d0cec16e299d0a71dc7d98d5\">alarm handling<\/a>. The system monitors whether certain alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an alarm event has occurred. Once an alarm event has been detected, one or more actions are taken (such as the activation of one or more alarm indicators, and perhaps the generation of email or text messages so that management or remote SCADA operators are informed). In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared.\n<\/p><p>Alarm conditions can be explicit\u2014for example, an alarm point is a digital status point that has either the value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula based on the values in other analogue and digital points\u2014or implicit: the SCADA system might automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies outside high and low- limit values associated with that point.\n<\/p><p>Examples of alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar way to the \"fuel tank empty\" light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the operator's attention to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action can be taken.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-PLC.2FRTU_programming\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"PLC\/RTU_programming\">PLC\/RTU programming<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>\"Smart\" RTUs, or standard PLCs, are capable of autonomously executing simple logic processes without involving the supervisory computer. They employ standardized control programming languages such as under, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_61131-3\" title=\"IEC 61131-3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d89c32d05b417e5ae2fee75a6f8b51e\">IEC 61131-3<\/a> (a suite of five programming languages including function block, ladder, structured text, sequence function charts and instruction list), is frequently used to create programs which run on these RTUs and PLCs. Unlike a procedural language like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/C_(programming_language)\" title=\"C (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bcae5a7bc976642e1a629835ef2d576\">C<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FORTRAN\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"FORTRAN\" data-key=\"79813ce51e7eccde64a30a7e90acf3c1\">FORTRAN<\/a>, IEC 61131-3 has minimal training requirements by virtue of resembling historic physical control arrays. This allows SCADA system engineers to perform both the design and implementation of a program to be executed on an RTU or PLC.\n<\/p><p>A (PAC) is a compact controller that combines the features and capabilities of a PC-based control system with that of a typical PLC. PACs are deployed in SCADA systems to provide RTU and PLC functions. In many electrical substation SCADA applications, \"distributed RTUs\" use information processors or station computers to communicate with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_protective_relay\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital protective relay\" data-key=\"5d14c5a13d41d3b780d17e7ee0ffb227\">digital protective relays<\/a>, PACs, and other devices for I\/O, and communicate with the SCADA master in lieu of a traditional RTU.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"PLC_commercial_integration\">PLC commercial integration<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Since about 1998, virtually all major PLC manufacturers have offered integrated HMI\/SCADA systems, many of them using open and non-proprietary communications protocols. Numerous specialized third-party HMI\/SCADA packages, offering built-in compatibility with most major PLCs, have also entered the market, allowing mechanical engineers, electrical engineers and technicians to configure HMIs themselves, without the need for a custom-made program written by a software programmer. The Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from the equipment to digital values. By converting and sending these electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control equipment.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Communication_infrastructure_and_methods\">Communication infrastructure and methods<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>SCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct wired connections, although <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synchronous_optical_networking\" title=\"Synchronous optical networking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"977937a300fd1c61ae940129c72c5c86\">SONET\/SDH<\/a> is also frequently used for large systems such as railways and power stations. The remote management or monitoring function of a SCADA system is often referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telemetry\" title=\"Telemetry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c545b141a6ba0ffe8a862c83b5264e29\">telemetry<\/a>. Some users want SCADA data to travel over their pre-established corporate networks or to share the network with other applications. The legacy of the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though.\n<\/p><p>SCADA protocols are designed to be very compact. Many are designed to send information only when the master station polls the RTU. Typical legacy SCADA protocols include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modbus\" title=\"Modbus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08a97b574bdc2660de15a9f4ad46712f\">Modbus<\/a> RTU, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RP-570\" title=\"RP-570\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"965549dc43783510194f0a94dfac47ed\">RP-570<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Profibus\" title=\"Profibus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d166d7664ea6cb0b593963fc9c72026d\">Profibus<\/a> and Conitel. These communication protocols, with the exception of Modbus (Modbus has been made open by Schneider Electric), are all SCADA-vendor specific but are widely adopted and used. Standard protocols are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_60870-5\" title=\"IEC 60870-5\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f1204de617ada7950f626eda8ad019b\">IEC 60870-5-101 or 104<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_61850\" title=\"IEC 61850\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fedb4e9db17d9997b0fedd63167a893a\">IEC 61850<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNP3\" title=\"DNP3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10675409723204c80ee1bf2dcff659bc\">DNP3<\/a>. These communication protocols are standardized and recognized by all major SCADA vendors. Many of these protocols now contain extensions to operate over <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TCP\/IP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"TCP\/IP\" data-key=\"84b18b48751f58d72e97090dd52bdf15\">TCP\/IP<\/a>. Although the use of conventional networking specifications, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TCP\/IP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"TCP\/IP\" data-key=\"84b18b48751f58d72e97090dd52bdf15\">TCP\/IP<\/a>, blurs the line between traditional and industrial networking, they each fulfill fundamentally differing requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GallowayIntro_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GallowayIntro-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_simulation\" title=\"Network simulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"893b65707a026a3baf68c9eea352f2ac\">Network simulation<\/a> can be used in conjunction with SCADA simulators to perform various 'what-if' analyses.\n<\/p><p>With increasing security demands (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/North_American_Electric_Reliability_Corporation\" title=\"North American Electric Reliability Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da052fa8735d2287a614a023d243371b\">North American Electric Reliability Corporation<\/a> (NERC) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Critical_infrastructure_protection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Critical infrastructure protection\" data-key=\"a6b3ba829d3402be1f3cf04c4af22ffd\">critical infrastructure protection<\/a> (CIP) in the US), there is increasing use of satellite-based communication. This has the key advantages that the infrastructure can be self-contained (not using circuits from the public telephone system), can have built-in encryption, and can be engineered to the availability and reliability required by the SCADA system operator. Earlier experiences using consumer-grade <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Very-small-aperture_terminal\" title=\"Very-small-aperture terminal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d54206de9b90854e5642c23c1dab6de3\">VSAT<\/a> were poor. Modern carrier-class systems provide the quality of service required for SCADA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-berganELP_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-berganELP-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>RTUs and other automatic controller devices were developed before the advent of industry wide standards for interoperability. The result is that developers and their management created a multitude of control protocols. Among the larger vendors, there was also the incentive to create their own protocol to \"lock in\" their customer base. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_automation_protocols\" title=\"List of automation protocols\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60f488306d138b9861061723cc450457\">list of automation protocols<\/a> is compiled here.\n<\/p><p>An example of efforts by vendor groups to standardize automation protocols is the OPC-UA (formerly \"OLE for process control\" now <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OPC_Unified_Architecture\" title=\"OPC Unified Architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc8b7d4d184c186dd32e73415cb9975\">Open Platform Communications Unified Architecture<\/a>).\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Architecture_development\">Architecture development<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SCADA_C4ISR_Facilities.pdf\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e19474ef2e29b387f387b2db4e3fa26\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/de\/SCADA_C4ISR_Facilities.pdf\/page1-220px-SCADA_C4ISR_Facilities.pdf.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"285\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Army\" title=\"United States Army\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4953a7376db554b7dca4567931273f6b\">United States Army<\/a>'s Training Manual 5-601 covers \"SCADA Systems for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/C4ISTAR\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"C4ISTAR\" data-key=\"19355e088b0f8961384bab9e3abbc2c3\">C4ISR<\/a> Facilities\"<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>SCADA systems have evolved through four generations as follows:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Early SCADA system computing was done by large <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Minicomputers\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Minicomputers\" data-key=\"cf25015b95746267574051d3bec5e722\">minicomputers<\/a>. Common network services did not exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with no connectivity to other systems. The communication protocols used were strictly proprietary at that time. The first-generation SCADA system redundancy was achieved using a back-up mainframe system connected to all the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_Terminal_Unit\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Remote Terminal Unit\" data-key=\"e44d4a867bdfd25535353fea456bcd07\">Remote Terminal Unit<\/a> sites and was used in the event of failure of the primary mainframe system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Proquest-text_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Proquest-text-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Some first generation SCADA systems were developed as \"turn key\" operations that ran on minicomputers such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PDP-11\" title=\"PDP-11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f35b800e752418a9aa72ddfdd7d3d9d\">PDP-11<\/a> series.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>SCADA information and command processing were distributed across multiple stations which were connected through a LAN. Information was shared in near real time. Each station was responsible for a particular task, which reduced the cost as compared to First Generation SCADA. The network protocols used were still not standardized. Since these protocols were proprietary, very few people beyond the developers knew enough to determine how secure a SCADA installation was. Security of the SCADA installation was usually overlooked.\n<\/p><p>Similar to a distributed architecture, any complex SCADA can be reduced to the simplest components and connected through communication protocols. In the case of a networked design, the system may be spread across more than one LAN network called a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_control_network\" title=\"Process control network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b829bfaa002f65e7524cce14a8a85d5\">process control network (PCN)<\/a> and separated geographically. Several distributed architecture SCADAs running in parallel, with a single supervisor and historian, could be considered a network architecture. This allows for a more cost-effective solution in very large scale systems.\n<\/p><p>The growth of the internet has led SCADA systems to implement web technologies allowing users to view data, exchange information and control processes from anywhere in the world through web SOCKET connection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> The early 2000s saw the proliferation of Web SCADA systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-web_SCADA_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-web_SCADA-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> Web SCADA systems use internet browsers such as Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox as the graphical user interface (GUI) for the operators HMI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-web_SCADA_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-web_SCADA-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> This simplifies the client side installation and enables users to access the system from various platforms with web browsers such as servers, personal computers, laptops, tablets and mobile phones.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-web_SCADA_13-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-web_SCADA-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security\">Security<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>SCADA systems that tie together decentralized facilities such as power, oil, gas pipelines, water distribution and wastewater collection systems were designed to be open, robust, and easily operated and repaired, but not necessarily secure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions together with the increased number of connections between SCADA systems, office networks and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a> has made them more vulnerable to types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attack_(computing)#Types_of_attacks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Attack (computing)\" data-key=\"6964a3614cad6662efd5d883e5e7941b\">network attacks<\/a> that are relatively common in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security\" title=\"Computer security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c2aa75aadd7f77c4f5ad26205c4c77b\">computer security<\/a>. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ICS-CERT\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ICS-CERT\" data-key=\"ce1609ce86367899ef66cee3704d0a51\">United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT)<\/a> released a vulnerability advisory<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> warning that unauthenticated users could download sensitive configuration information including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptographic_hash_function#File_or_data_identifier\" title=\"Cryptographic hash function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5c25925a33237b6c45563894e641285\">password hashes<\/a> from an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_Automation\" title=\"Inductive Automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23ee915cbddf0bfc7476dca42b0a38ff\">Inductive Automation<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ignition_SCADA\" title=\"Ignition SCADA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce69a68e3015c106e4fca4e831ea5da1\">Ignition<\/a> system utilizing a standard <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_URL_attack\" title=\"Semantic URL attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b7544f795f8586bb109031931834a99\">attack type<\/a> leveraging access to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Tomcat\" title=\"Apache Tomcat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41ea5a3dd693b864ae027cd3a522c68e\">Tomcat<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embedded_Web_server\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Embedded Web server\" data-key=\"0b5a71aafba0a8f345ca08daa2a72e6a\">Embedded Web server<\/a>. Security researcher Jerry Brown submitted a similar advisory regarding a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Buffer_overflow\" title=\"Buffer overflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf438fc270f1a494ade76df74757bc25\">buffer overflow<\/a> vulnerability<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wonderware\" title=\"Wonderware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19933cbb00a67868ad127e4d23a40c6d\">Wonderware<\/a> InBatchClient <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ActiveX_control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ActiveX control\" data-key=\"6307d39d351807bc755b9f5b5d341c59\">ActiveX control<\/a>. Both vendors made updates available prior to public vulnerability release. Mitigation recommendations were standard <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_patching\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software patching\" data-key=\"48308dee8493b5a6786740a94d4981f3\">patching<\/a> practices and requiring <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/VPN\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"VPN\" data-key=\"2fedc043829d288ebbac275ab418a4e9\">VPN<\/a> access for secure connectivity. Consequently, the security of some SCADA-based systems has come into question as they are seen as potentially vulnerable to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber_attack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cyber attack\" data-key=\"eb26486672f040020bd5dde1e7407979\">cyber attacks<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NGF-CA-GT-01_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NGF-CA-GT-01-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In particular, security researchers are concerned about:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The lack of concern about security and authentication in the design, deployment and operation of some existing SCADA networks<\/li>\n<li>The belief that SCADA systems have the benefit of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_through_obscurity\" title=\"Security through obscurity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115ebd38ed59692a7d35d9af2553c78\">security through obscurity<\/a> through the use of specialized protocols and proprietary interfaces<\/li>\n<li>The belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are physically secured<\/li>\n<li>The belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are disconnected from the Internet<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>SCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples of which are transmission of electricity, transportation of gas and oil in pipelines, water distribution, traffic lights, and other systems used as the basis of modern society. The security of these SCADA systems is important because compromise or destruction of these systems would impact multiple areas of society far removed from the original compromise. For example, a blackout caused by a compromised electrical SCADA system would cause financial losses to all the customers that received electricity from that source. How security will affect legacy SCADA and new deployments remains to be seen.\n<\/p><p>There are many threat vectors to a modern SCADA system. One is the threat of unauthorized access to the control software, whether it is human access or changes induced intentionally or accidentally by virus infections and other software threats residing on the control host machine. Another is the threat of packet access to the network segments hosting SCADA devices. In many cases, the control protocol lacks any form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptographic security<\/a>, allowing an attacker to control a SCADA device by sending commands over a network. In many cases SCADA users have assumed that having a VPN offered sufficient protection, unaware that security can be trivially bypassed with physical access to SCADA-related network jacks and switches. Industrial control vendors suggest approaching SCADA security like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" title=\"Information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">Information Security<\/a> with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defense_in_depth#Information_security\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Defense in depth\" data-key=\"d0219bad546db334e635385cdd7faf97\">defense in depth<\/a> strategy that leverages common IT practices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> Apart from that, research has shown that the architecture of SCADA systems has several other vulnerabilities, including direct tampering with RTUs, communication links from RTUs to the control center, and IT software and databases in the control center.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GianiSastry_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GianiSastry-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> The RTUs could, for instance, be targets of deception attacks injecting false data <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LiuNing_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LiuNing-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denial-of-service_attack\" title=\"Denial-of-service attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60592f037a0652dd16c640127be8ca89\">denial-of-service attacks<\/a>. \n<\/p><p>The reliable function of SCADA systems in our modern infrastructure may be crucial to public health and safety. As such, attacks on these systems may directly or indirectly threaten public health and safety. Such an attack has already occurred, carried out on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shire_of_Maroochy\" title=\"Shire of Maroochy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6d5da163fa061033b89257efa22ddd6\">Maroochy Shire<\/a> Council's sewage control system in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Queensland\" title=\"Queensland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32fa9c15393acb2030b965b638664978\">Queensland<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australia\" title=\"Australia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c2db49e6ded3da2c9ba98e453f9ea81\">Australia<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SlayMiller_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SlayMiller-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> Shortly after a contractor installed a SCADA system in January 2000, system components began to function erratically. Pumps did not run when needed and alarms were not reported. More critically, sewage flooded a nearby park and contaminated an open surface-water drainage ditch and flowed 500 meters to a tidal canal. The SCADA system was directing sewage valves to open when the design protocol should have kept them closed. Initially this was believed to be a system bug. Monitoring of the system logs revealed the malfunctions were the result of cyber attacks. Investigators reported 46 separate instances of malicious outside interference before the culprit was identified. The attacks were made by a disgruntled ex-employee of the company that had installed the SCADA system. The ex-employee was hoping to be hired by the utility full-time to maintain the system.\n<\/p><p>In April 2008, the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetic_pulse\" title=\"Electromagnetic pulse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e8597cc3231bb63bb78ec3a6a808cde\">Electromagnetic Pulse<\/a> (EMP) Attack issued a Critical Infrastructures Report which discussed the extreme vulnerability of SCADA systems to an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) event. After testing and analysis, the Commission concluded: \"SCADA systems are vulnerable to an EMP event. The large numbers and widespread reliance on such systems by all of the Nation\u2019s critical infrastructures represent a systemic threat to their continued operation following an EMP event. Additionally, the necessity to reboot, repair, or replace large numbers of geographically widely dispersed systems will considerably impede the Nation\u2019s recovery from such an assault.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Critical_Infrastructures_Report,_Congressional_EMP_Commission,_2008_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Critical_Infrastructures_Report,_Congressional_EMP_Commission,_2008-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many vendors of SCADA and control products have begun to address the risks posed by unauthorized access by developing lines of specialized industrial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(computing)\" title=\"Firewall (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"853725a035c106719dbf2660d8eca0b8\">firewall<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/VPN\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"VPN\" data-key=\"2fedc043829d288ebbac275ab418a4e9\">VPN<\/a> solutions for TCP\/IP-based SCADA networks as well as external SCADA monitoring and recording equipment.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Society_of_Automation\" title=\"International Society of Automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ff182414f4f7f4646636260fd3ac3d6\">International Society of Automation<\/a> (ISA) started formalizing SCADA security requirements in 2007 with a working group, WG4. WG4 \"deals specifically with unique technical requirements, measurements, and other features required to evaluate and assure security resilience and performance of industrial automation and control systems devices\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-InTechViaISA_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-InTechViaISA-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>The increased interest in SCADA vulnerabilities has resulted in vulnerability researchers discovering vulnerabilities in commercial SCADA software and more general offensive SCADA techniques presented to the general security community.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> In electric and gas utility SCADA systems, the vulnerability of the large installed base of wired and wireless serial communications links is addressed in some cases by applying <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bump-in-the-wire\" title=\"Bump-in-the-wire\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c97060ef216749fc43e46a332f6acb75\">bump-in-the-wire<\/a> devices that employ authentication and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_Encryption_Standard\" title=\"Advanced Encryption Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0411feeb59e8eb26837d638e589e3fb6\">Advanced Encryption Standard<\/a> encryption rather than replacing all existing nodes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In June 2010, anti-virus security company <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vba32_AntiVirus\" title=\"Vba32 AntiVirus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"393ad14c8be8811d23678c9a26043577\">VirusBlokAda<\/a> reported the first detection of malware that attacks SCADA systems (Siemens' <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WinCC\" title=\"WinCC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03dcbe2993d0fdee8db7c92aa108fbd3\">WinCC<\/a>\/PCS 7 systems) running on Windows operating systems. The malware is called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuxnet\" title=\"Stuxnet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fe09aa4c27ed6a49567adfe2e873a0d\">Stuxnet<\/a> and uses four <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zero-day_attack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Zero-day attack\" data-key=\"0860a4fc3172685747936484b5e1e132\">zero-day attacks<\/a> to install a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rootkit\" title=\"Rootkit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7793d0bd5b59ddf8ae3408cb4ba7e1b\">rootkit<\/a> which in turn logs into the SCADA's database and steals design and control files.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup> The malware is also capable of changing the control system and hiding those changes. The malware was found on 14 systems, the majority of which were located in Iran.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In October 2013 <i>National Geographic<\/i> released a docudrama titled <i>American Blackout<\/i> which dealt with an imagined large-scale cyber attack on SCADA and the United States' electrical grid.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Uses\">Uses<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Freer_Water_Control_and_Improvement_District_-_Diana_Adame.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"202d9c1da4a758086d87f55a99569dcd\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fb\/Freer_Water_Control_and_Improvement_District_-_Diana_Adame.jpg\/220px-Freer_Water_Control_and_Improvement_District_-_Diana_Adame.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"146\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Example of SCADA used in office environment to remotely monitor a process<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Both large and small systems can be built using the SCADA concept. These systems can range from just tens to thousands of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_loop\" title=\"Control loop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8418ef4a8e592bc5027f4a562871f2d\">control loops<\/a>, depending on the application. Example processes include industrial, infrastructure, and facility-based processes, as described below:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_process\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Industrial process\" data-key=\"d9cdfe84733dd18d56b41060aa6b1d21\">Industrial processes<\/a> include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manufacturing\" title=\"Manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6006bee4beb95438f126e392ca7941c7\">manufacturing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Process control\" data-key=\"d54acfdf96b6148908918addebc4599d\">process control<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Power_generation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Power generation\" data-key=\"9b75c2cb2c0471ab660f002cf2602ce0\">power generation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fabrication_(metal)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fabrication (metal)\" data-key=\"6a3ba705deb22a29b797a5ec1075318d\">fabrication<\/a>, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrastructure\" title=\"Infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb70668db4564897263976d0920fec5\">Infrastructure<\/a> processes may be public or private, and include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_treatment\" title=\"Water treatment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01c5bdee79105707e542fc537884b7c7\">water treatment<\/a> and distribution, wastewater collection and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waste_water_treatment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Waste water treatment\" data-key=\"2669bfd7bb8ab9f1710fe0ff232ee43c\">treatment<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fossil_gas_pipeline\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fossil gas pipeline\" data-key=\"6d442d53c068b8ac7660617fe76cfacd\">oil and gas pipelines<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_power_transmission\" title=\"Electric power transmission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fbf6feb5061cc7364cc11b7b3d8cab1\">electric power transmission<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_power_distribution\" title=\"Electric power distribution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96df69cefaf15aed56a711b0b0429d4b\">distribution<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wind_farm\" title=\"Wind farm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3890e79c5be3cee5d22b1eba5331aeba\">wind farms<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Facility processes, including buildings, airports, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ship#Today\" title=\"Ship\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b29dd8a33ba41c1b6927563c3690a3d\">ships<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Space_station\" title=\"Space station\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d59a845d2ea7886f07e3ee2903e3aef\">space stations<\/a>. They monitor and control <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heating,_ventilation,_and_air_conditioning\" title=\"Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3668cf02b534a55f05c569594b227668\">heating, ventilation, and air conditioning<\/a> systems (HVAC), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control\" title=\"Access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f978f594d7eee9299dbb3da18ee80a8c\">access<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Efficient_energy_use\" title=\"Efficient energy use\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23990d9aad3c8edc9cd59c0d0acd3f66\">energy consumption<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>However, SCADA systems may have security vulnerabilities, so the systems should be evaluated to identify risks and solutions implemented to mitigate those risks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNP3\" title=\"DNP3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10675409723204c80ee1bf2dcff659bc\">DNP3<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Computer network protocol<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_60870\" title=\"IEC 60870\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e294716992812261427aaa80b1871ec\">IEC 60870<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EPICS\" title=\"EPICS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a20e5ff31a56dfc872161b9afeea6b18\">EPICS<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Software infrastructure for building distributed control systems<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Hieb2008-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hieb2008_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJeff_Hieb2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Jeff Hieb (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=A-_PPgAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Security Hardened Remote Terminal Units for SCADA Networks<\/i><\/a>. University of Louisville.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Security+Hardened+Remote+Terminal+Units+for+SCADA+Networks&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Louisville&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.au=Jeff+Hieb&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA-_PPgAACAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Raul2010-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Raul2010_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAquino-Santos,_Raul2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Aquino-Santos, Raul (30 November 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=UN2eBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA43\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Emerging Technologies in Wireless Ad-hoc Networks: Applications and Future Development: Applications and Future Development<\/i><\/a>. IGI Global. pp.&#160;43\u2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-60960-029-7<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Emerging+Technologies+in+Wireless+Ad-hoc+Networks%3A+Applications+and+Future+Development%3A+Applications+and+Future+Development&amp;rft.pages=43-&amp;rft.pub=IGI+Global&amp;rft.date=2010-11-30&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-60960-029-7&amp;rft.au=Aquino-Santos%2C+Raul&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUN2eBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA43&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GallowayIntro-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GallowayIntro_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rfidblog.org.uk\/Preprint-GallowayHancke-IndustrialControlSurvey.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introduction to Industrial Control Networks\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials<\/i>. 2012.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Communications+Surveys+and+Tutorials&amp;rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Industrial+Control+Networks&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfidblog.org.uk%2FPreprint-GallowayHancke-IndustrialControlSurvey.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-berganELP-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-berganELP_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBergan2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bergan, Christian (August 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120331210553\/http:\/\/www.elp.com\/index\/display\/article-display\/5666163079\/articles\/utility-automation-engineering-td\/volume-16\/issue-8\/features\/demystifying-satellite-for-the-smart-grid-four-common-misconceptions.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Demystifying Satellite for the Smart Grid: Four Common Misconceptions\"<\/a>. <i>Electric Light &amp; Power<\/i>. Utility Automation &amp; Engineering T&amp;D. Tulsa, OK: PennWell. <b>16<\/b> (8). Four. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.elp.com\/index\/display\/article-display\/5666163079\/articles\/utility-automation-engineering-td\/volume-16\/issue-8\/features\/demystifying-satellite-for-the-smart-grid-four-common-misconceptions.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 31 March 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 May<\/span> 2012<\/span>. <q>satellite is a cost-effective and secure solution that can provide backup communications and easily support core smart grid applications like SCADA, telemetry, AMI backhaul and distribution automation<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Electric+Light+%26+Power&amp;rft.atitle=Demystifying+Satellite+for+the+Smart+Grid%3A+Four+Common+Misconceptions&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=Four&amp;rft.date=2011-08&amp;rft.aulast=Bergan&amp;rft.aufirst=Christian&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.elp.com%2Findex%2Fdisplay%2Farticle-display%2F5666163079%2Farticles%2Futility-automation-engineering-td%2Fvolume-16%2Fissue-8%2Ffeatures%2Fdemystifying-satellite-for-the-smart-grid-four-common-misconceptions.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOFFICE_OF_THE_MANAGER_NATIONAL_COMMUNICATIONS_SYSTEMctober_2004\" class=\"citation web cs1\">OFFICE OF THE MANAGER NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMctober 2004. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150714225002\/https:\/\/scadahacker.com\/library\/Documents\/ICS_Basics\/SCADA%20Basics%20-%20NCS%20TIB%2004-1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/scadahacker.com\/library\/Documents\/ICS_Basics\/SCADA%20Basics%20-%20NCS%20TIB%2004-1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 14 July 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 July<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Supervisory+Control+and+Data+Acquisition+%28SCADA%29+Systems&amp;rft.pub=NATIONAL+COMMUNICATIONS+SYSTEM&amp;rft.au=OFFICE+OF+THE+MANAGER+NATIONAL+COMMUNICATIONS+SYSTEMctober+2004&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscadahacker.com%2Flibrary%2FDocuments%2FICS_Basics%2FSCADA%2520Basics%2520-%2520NCS%2520TIB%252004-1.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c038bc1c366392c430552d4d7ede182e\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/articles\/scada-systems\" target=\"_blank\">\"SCADA Systems april 2014\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=SCADA+Systems+april+2014&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.engineersgarage.com%2Farticles%2Fscada-systems&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJ._Russel\" class=\"citation web cs1\">J. Russel. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150811051350\/http:\/\/scadahistory.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Brief History of SCADA\/EMS (2015)\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/scadahistory.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 11 August 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+SCADA%2FEMS+%282015%29&amp;rft.au=J.+Russel&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscadahistory.com%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Abbas, H.A. (2014). Future SCADA challenges and the promising solution: the agent-based SCADA. IJCIS, 10, 307-333.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Proquest-text-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Proquest-text_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=d5O5N1vjbQgC&pg=PA12\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Security Hardened Remote Terminal Units for SCADA Networks<\/i><\/a>. 2008. pp.&#160;12\u2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-549-54831-7<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Security+Hardened+Remote+Terminal+Units+for+SCADA+Networks&amp;rft.pages=12-&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-549-54831-7&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd5O5N1vjbQgC%26pg%3DPA12&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFUJVAROSI12016\" class=\"citation web cs1\">UJVAROSI1, Alexandru (2 November 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211028142517\/https:\/\/webbut.unitbv.ro\/BU2015\/Series%20I\/2016\/BULETIN%20I%20PDF\/Ujvarosi_Al.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"EVOLUTION OF SCADA SYSTEMS\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/webbut.unitbv.ro\/BU2015\/Series%20I\/2016\/BULETIN%20I%20PDF\/Ujvarosi_Al.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 28 October 2021.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=EVOLUTION+OF+SCADA+SYSTEMS&amp;rft.date=2016-11-02&amp;rft.aulast=UJVAROSI1&amp;rft.aufirst=Alexandru&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebbut.unitbv.ro%2FBU2015%2FSeries%2520I%2F2016%2FBULETIN%2520I%2520PDF%2FUjvarosi_Al.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c038bc1c366392c430552d4d7ede182e\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">R. Fan, L. Cheded and O. Toker, \"Internet-based SCADA: a new approach using Java and XML,\" in Computing &amp; Control Engineering Journal, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 22-26, Oct.-Nov. 2005.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">R. J. Robles and T. H. Kim, \u201cArchitecture for SCADA with Mobile Remote Components\u201d, Proceedings of the 12th WSEAS International Conference on Automatic Control, Modelling &amp; Simulation.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-web_SCADA-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-web_SCADA_13-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-web_SCADA_13-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-web_SCADA_13-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Abbas, H.A. and Mohamed, A.M. (2011) \u2018Review in the design of web based SCADA systems based on OPC DA protocol\u2019, International Journal of Computer Networks, February, Vol. 2, No. 6, pp.266\u2013277, Malaysia.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Qiu B, Gooi HB. Web-based scada display systems (wsds) for access via internet. Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on 2000;15(2):681\u2013686.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Li D, Serizawa Y, Kiuchi M. Concept design for a web-based supervisory control and data-acquisition (scada) system. In: Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exhibition 2002: Asia Pacific. IEEE\/PES; Vol. 1; p. 32\u201336.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Kovaliuk, D. O., Huza, K. M., &amp; Kovaliuk, O. O. (2018). Development of SCADA System based on Web Technologies. International Journal of Information Engineering and Electronic Business (IJIEEB), 10(2), 25-32.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">J. M. Lynch, \u201cAn Internet Based SCADA System\u201d, BSc Project Report, University of Southern Queensland, Queensland, Oct. 2005<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBoyes2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Boyes, Walt (2011). <i>Instrumentation Reference Book, 4th Edition<\/i>. 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Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.c4-security.com\/SCADA%20Security%20-%20Generic%20Electric%20Grid%20Malware%20Design%20-%20SyScan08.pps\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 7 January 2009.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=SCADA+Security+%E2%80%93+Generic+Electric+Grid+Malware+Design&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.c4-security.com%2FSCADA%2520Security%2520-%2520Generic%2520Electric%2520Grid%2520Malware%2520Design%2520-%2520SyScan08.pps&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKEMA,_Inc2006\" class=\"citation web cs1\">KEMA, Inc (November 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20071103173939\/http:\/\/www.utc.org\/?p=33398\" target=\"_blank\">\"Substation Communications: Enabler of Automation\"<\/a>. Utilities Telecom Council. pp.&#160;3\u201321. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.utc.org\/?p=33398\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 3 November 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 January<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Substation+Communications%3A+Enabler+of+Automation&amp;rft.pages=3-21&amp;rft.pub=Utilities+Telecom+Council&amp;rft.date=2006-11&amp;rft.au=KEMA%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.utc.org%2F%3Fp%3D33398&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMills2010\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Mills, Elinor (21 July 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.cnet.com\/8301-27080_3-20011159-245.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Details of the first-ever control system malware (FAQ)\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CNET\" title=\"CNET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d7fa1f62b9f9bf1be2936ffd96f9142\">CNET<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 July<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=CNET&amp;rft.atitle=Details+of+the+first-ever+control+system+malware+%28FAQ%29&amp;rft.date=2010-07-21&amp;rft.aulast=Mills&amp;rft.aufirst=Elinor&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.cnet.com%2F8301-27080_3-20011159-245.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/support.automation.siemens.com\/WW\/llisapi.dll?func=cslib.csinfo&lang=en&objid=43876783&caller=view\" target=\"_blank\">\"SIMATIC WinCC \/ SIMATIC PCS 7: Information concerning Malware \/ Virus \/ Trojan\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siemens\" title=\"Siemens\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c6a901b7c31bfd5653cdfb35be89a4c5\">Siemens<\/a>. 21 July 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 July<\/span> 2010<\/span>. <q>malware (trojan) which affects the visualization system WinCC SCADA.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=SIMATIC+WinCC+%2F+SIMATIC+PCS+7%3A+Information+concerning+Malware+%2F+Virus+%2F+Trojan&amp;rft.pub=Siemens&amp;rft.date=2010-07-21&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsupport.automation.siemens.com%2FWW%2Fllisapi.dll%3Ffunc%3Dcslib.csinfo%26lang%3Den%26objid%3D43876783%26caller%3Dview&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.today\/20120525053210\/http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/s\/article\/print\/9185419\/Siemens_Stuxnet_worm_hit_industrial_systems?taxonomyName=Network+Security&taxonomyId=142\" target=\"_blank\">\"Siemens: Stuxnet worm hit industrial systems\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/s\/article\/print\/9185419\/Siemens_Stuxnet_worm_hit_industrial_systems?taxonomyName=Network+Security&taxonomyId=142\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 May 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 September<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Siemens%3A+Stuxnet+worm+hit+industrial+systems&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Fs%2Farticle%2Fprint%2F9185419%2FSiemens_Stuxnet_worm_hit_industrial_systems%3FtaxonomyName%3DNetwork%2BSecurity%26taxonomyId%3D142&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150313204218\/http:\/\/channel.nationalgeographic.com\/american-blackout\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"American Blackout\"<\/a>. National Geographic Channel. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/channel.nationalgeographic.com\/american-blackout\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 13 March 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 October<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=American+Blackout&amp;rft.pub=National+Geographic+Channel&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchannel.nationalgeographic.com%2Famerican-blackout%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBoyer2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Boyer, Stuart A. (2010). <i>SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition<\/i>. USA: ISA - International Society of Automation. p.&#160;179. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-936007-09-7<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=SCADA+Supervisory+Control+and+Data+Acquisition&amp;rft.place=USA&amp;rft.pages=179&amp;rft.pub=ISA+-+International+Society+of+Automation&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-936007-09-7&amp;rft.aulast=Boyer&amp;rft.aufirst=Stuart+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130620125607\/http:\/\/www.cpni.gov.uk\/advice\/cyber\/scada\/\" target=\"_blank\">UK SCADA security guidelines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.bbc.co.uk\/1\/hi\/technology\/7990997.stm\" target=\"_blank\">BBC NEWS | Technology | Spies 'infiltrate US power grid'<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1408\nCached time: 20240106225429\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.578 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.753 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 2665\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 69742\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 2496\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 7\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 100448\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.409\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 20001358\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 674.463 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>33.94% 228.900 1 Template:Refs\n16.64% 112.212 3 Template:Annotated_link\n15.91% 107.326 8 Template:Cite_book\n10.79% 72.755 1 Template:Manufacturing\n 9.77% 65.890 1 Template:Sidebar\n 9.42% 63.505 16 Template:Cite_web\n 8.88% 59.899 1 Template:Short_description\n 7.21% 48.640 1 Template:Lead_too_short\n 6.96% 46.974 1 Template:Commonscat\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:62437-0!canonical and timestamp 20240106225428 and revision id 1194043705. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SCADA\" data-key=\"bcdd4e4161b269208db7fefa5e48e170\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110045226\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.113 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.327 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 105788\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 300.138 1 wikipedia:SCADA\n100.00% 300.138 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10541-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110045226 and revision id 48273. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_images":[],"2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_timestamp":1704907019,"01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_type":"article","01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_title":"Remote data capture","01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Remote_data_capture","01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_plaintext":"\n\nRemote data captureFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_data_capture?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Remote_data_capture\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Remote_data_capture<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 April 2020, at 23:06.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 1,285 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Remote_data_capture rootpage-Remote_data_capture skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Remote data capture<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_data_capture?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_data_capture\" data-key=\"3367c2de338bc8d5f4d229c2e3672e3a\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171659\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.084 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.153 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 101\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 148.972 1 wikipedia:Remote_data_capture\n100.00% 148.972 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:11888-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171659 and revision id 39068. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Remote_data_capture\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Remote_data_capture<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_images":[],"01c62ea09e654406931e8a39ce135a3d_timestamp":1704907019,"fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_type":"article","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_title":"Predictive maintenance","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_plaintext":"\n\nPredictive maintenanceFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_maintenance?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance<\/a>\nCategory: Automation and artificial intelligenceHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 12 June 2022, at 14:35.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,783 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Predictive_maintenance rootpage-Predictive_maintenance skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Predictive maintenance<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_maintenance?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_maintenance\" data-key=\"3f463ab7bb793745fc5ea96e1976e12a\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171658\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.085 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.156 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 104\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 151.524 1 wikipedia:Predictive_maintenance\n100.00% 151.524 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10590-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171658 and revision id 48272. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_images":[],"fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_timestamp":1704907018,"79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_type":"article","79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_title":"Machine learning","79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Machine_learning","79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_plaintext":"\n\nMachine learningFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchStudy of algorithms that improve automatically through experience\nFor the journal, see Machine Learning (journal).\n\"Statistical learning\" redirects here. For statistical learning in linguistics, see statistical learning in language acquisition.\nPart of a series onMachine learning\r\nand data mining\nParadigms\nSupervised learning\nUnsupervised learning\nOnline learning\nBatch learning\nMeta-learning\nSemi-supervised learning\nSelf-supervised learning\nReinforcement learning\nRule-based learning\nQuantum machine learning\n\nProblems\nClassification\nGenerative model\nRegression\nClustering\ndimension reduction\ndensity estimation\nAnomaly detection\nData Cleaning\nAutoML\nAssociation rules\nSemantic analysis\nStructured prediction\nFeature engineering\nFeature learning\nLearning to rank\nGrammar induction\nOntology learning\nMultimodal learning\n\nSupervised learning\r\n(classification&#160;\u2022 regression) \nApprenticeship learning\nDecision trees\nEnsembles\nBagging\nBoosting\nRandom forest\nk-NN\nLinear regression\nNaive Bayes\nArtificial neural networks\nLogistic regression\nPerceptron\nRelevance vector machine (RVM)\nSupport vector machine (SVM)\n\nClustering\nBIRCH\nCURE\nHierarchical\nk-means\nFuzzy\nExpectation\u2013maximization (EM)\n\r\nDBSCAN\nOPTICS\nMean shift\n\nDimensionality reduction\nFactor analysis\nCCA\nICA\nLDA\nNMF\nPCA\nPGD\nt-SNE\nSDL\n\nStructured prediction\nGraphical models\nBayes net\nConditional random field\nHidden Markov\n\nAnomaly detection\nRANSAC\nk-NN\nLocal outlier factor\nIsolation forest\n\nArtificial neural network\nAutoencoder\nCognitive computing\nDeep learning\nDeepDream\nFeedforward neural network\nRecurrent neural network\nLSTM\nGRU\nESN\nreservoir computing\nRestricted Boltzmann machine\nGAN\nDiffusion model\nSOM\nConvolutional neural network\nU-Net\nTransformer\nVision\nSpiking neural network\nMemtransistor\nElectrochemical RAM (ECRAM)\n\nReinforcement learning\nQ-learning\nSARSA\nTemporal difference (TD)\nMulti-agent\nSelf-play\n\nLearning with humans\nActive learning\nCrowdsourcing\nHuman-in-the-loop\n\nModel diagnostics\nLearning curve\n\nMathematical foundations\nKernel machines\nBias\u2013variance tradeoff\nComputational learning theory\nEmpirical risk minimization\nOccam learning\nPAC learning\nStatistical learning\nVC theory\n\nMachine-learning venues\nECML PKDD\nNeurIPS\nICML\nICLR\nIJCAI\nML\nJMLR\n\nRelated articles\nGlossary of artificial intelligence\nList of datasets for machine-learning research\nList of datasets in computer vision and image processing\nOutline of machine learning\nvte\nPart of a series onArtificial intelligence\nMajor goals\nArtificial general intelligence\nPlanning\nComputer vision\nGeneral game playing\nKnowledge reasoning\nMachine learning\nNatural language processing\nRobotics\nAI safety\n\nApproaches\nSymbolic\nDeep learning\nBayesian networks\nEvolutionary algorithms\nSituated approach\nHybrid intelligent systems\nSystems integration\n\nApplications\nProjects\nDeepfake\nMachine translation\nArt\nHealthcare\nMental health\nGovernment\nMusic\nIndustry\nEarth sciences\nBioinformatics\nPhysics\n\nPhilosophy\nChinese room\nFriendly AI\nControl problem\/Takeover\nEthics\nExistential risk\nTuring test\nRegulation\n\nHistory\nTimeline\nProgress\nAI winter\nAI boom\n\nTechnology\nProgramming languages\n\nGlossary\nGlossary\nvte\nMachine learning (ML) is a field of study in artificial intelligence concerned with the development and study of statistical algorithms that can learn from data and generalize to unseen data, and thus perform tasks without explicit instructions.[1] Recently, generative artificial neural networks have been able to surpass many previous approaches in performance.[2][3]\nMachine learning approaches have been applied to large language models, computer vision, speech recognition, email filtering, agriculture, and medicine, where it is too costly to develop algorithms to perform the needed tasks.[4][5] ML is known in its application across business problems under the name predictive analytics. Although not all machine learning is statistically based, computational statistics is an important source of the field's methods.\nThe mathematical foundations of ML are provided by mathematical optimization (mathematical programming) methods. Data mining is a related (parallel) field of study, focusing on exploratory data analysis through unsupervised learning.[7][8] From a theoretical point of view Probably approximately correct learning provides a framework for describing machine learning.\n\n\nHistory and relationships to other fields \nSee also: Timeline of machine learning\nThe term machine learning was coined in 1959 by Arthur Samuel, an IBM employee and pioneer in the field of computer gaming and artificial intelligence.[9][10] The synonym self-teaching computers was also used in this time period.[11][12]\nAlthough the earliest machine learning model was introduced in the 1950s when Arthur Samuel invented a program that calculated the winning chance in checkers for each side, the history of machine learning roots back to decades of human desire and effort to study human cognitive processes.[13] In 1949, Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb published the book The Organization of Behavior, in which he introduced a theoretical neural structure formed by certain interactions among nerve cells.[14] Hebb's model of neurons interacting with one another set a groundwork for how AIs and machine learning algorithms work under nodes, or artificial neurons used by computers to communicate data.[13] Other researchers who have studied human cognitive systems contributed to the modern machine learning technologies as well, including logician Walter Pitts and Warren McCulloch, who proposed the early mathematical models of neural networks to come up with algorithms that mirror human thought processes.[13]\nBy the early 1960s an experimental \"learning machine\" with punched tape memory, called Cybertron, had been developed by Raytheon Company to analyze sonar signals, electrocardiograms, and speech patterns using rudimentary reinforcement learning. It was repetitively \"trained\" by a human operator\/teacher to recognize patterns and equipped with a \"goof\" button to cause it to re-evaluate incorrect decisions.[15] A representative book on research into machine learning during the 1960s was Nilsson's book on Learning Machines, dealing mostly with machine learning for pattern classification.[16] Interest related to pattern recognition continued into the 1970s, as described by Duda and Hart in 1973.[17] In 1981 a report was given on using teaching strategies so that a neural network learns to recognize 40 characters (26 letters, 10 digits, and 4 special symbols) from a computer terminal.[18]\nTom M. Mitchell provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms studied in the machine learning field: \"A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some class of tasks T and performance measure P if its performance at tasks in T, as measured by P, improves with experience E.\"[19] This definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned offers a fundamentally operational definition rather than defining the field in cognitive terms. This follows Alan Turing's proposal in his paper \"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\", in which the question \"Can machines think?\" is replaced with the question \"Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?\".[20]\nModern-day machine learning has two objectives, one is to classify data based on models which have been developed, the other purpose is to make predictions for future outcomes based on these models. A hypothetical algorithm specific to classifying data may use computer vision of moles coupled with supervised learning in order to train it to classify the cancerous moles. A machine learning algorithm for stock trading may inform the trader of future potential predictions.[21]\n\nArtificial intelligence \nMachine learning as subfield of AI[22]\n\nAs a scientific endeavor, machine learning grew out of the quest for artificial intelligence (AI). In the early days of AI as an academic discipline, some researchers were interested in having machines learn from data. They attempted to approach the problem with various symbolic methods, as well as what were then termed \"neural networks\"; these were mostly perceptrons and other models that were later found to be reinventions of the generalized linear models of statistics.[23] Probabilistic reasoning was also employed, especially in automated medical diagnosis.[24]:\u200a488\u200a \nHowever, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-based approach caused a rift between AI and machine learning. Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical and practical problems of data acquisition and representation.[24]:\u200a488\u200a By 1980, expert systems had come to dominate AI, and statistics was out of favor.[25] Work on symbolic\/knowledge-based learning did continue within AI, leading to inductive logic programming, but the more statistical line of research was now outside the field of AI proper, in pattern recognition and information retrieval.[24]:\u200a708\u2013710,\u200a755\u200a Neural networks research had been abandoned by AI and computer science around the same time. This line, too, was continued outside the AI\/CS field, as \"connectionism\", by researchers from other disciplines including Hopfield, Rumelhart, and Hinton. Their main success came in the mid-1980s with the reinvention of backpropagation.[24]:\u200a25\u200a \nMachine learning (ML), reorganized and recognized as its own field, started to flourish in the 1990s. The field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a practical nature. It shifted focus away from the symbolic approaches it had inherited from AI, and toward methods and models borrowed from statistics, fuzzy logic, and probability theory.[25]\n\nData mining \nMachine learning and data mining often employ the same methods and overlap significantly, but while machine learning focuses on prediction, based on known properties learned from the training data, data mining focuses on the discovery of (previously) unknown properties in the data (this is the analysis step of knowledge discovery in databases). Data mining uses many machine learning methods, but with different goals; on the other hand, machine learning also employs data mining methods as \"unsupervised learning\" or as a preprocessing step to improve learner accuracy. Much of the confusion between these two research communities (which do often have separate conferences and separate journals, ECML PKDD being a major exception) comes from the basic assumptions they work with: in machine learning, performance is usually evaluated with respect to the ability to reproduce known knowledge, while in knowledge discovery and data mining (KDD) the key task is the discovery of previously unknown knowledge. Evaluated with respect to known knowledge, an uninformed (unsupervised) method will easily be outperformed by other supervised methods, while in a typical KDD task, supervised methods cannot be used due to the unavailability of training data.\nMachine learning also has intimate ties to optimization: many learning problems are formulated as minimization of some loss function on a training set of examples. Loss functions express the discrepancy between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances (for example, in classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly predict the pre-assigned labels of a set of examples).[26]\n\nGeneralization \nThe difference between optimization and machine learning arises from the goal of generalization: while optimization algorithms can minimize the loss on a training set, machine learning is concerned with minimizing the loss on unseen samples. Characterizing the generalization of various learning algorithms is an active topic of current research, especially for deep learning algorithms.\n\nStatistics \nMachine learning and statistics are closely related fields in terms of methods, but distinct in their principal goal: statistics draws population inferences from a sample, while machine learning finds generalizable predictive patterns.[27] According to Michael I. Jordan, the ideas of machine learning, from methodological principles to theoretical tools, have had a long pre-history in statistics.[28] He also suggested the term data science as a placeholder to call the overall field.[28]\nConventional statistical analyses require the a priori selection of a model most suitable for the study data set. In addition, only significant or theoretically relevant variables based on previous experience are included for analysis. In contrast, machine learning is not built on a pre-structured model; rather, the data shape the model by detecting underlying patterns. The more variables (input) used to train the model, the more accurate the ultimate model will be.[29]\nLeo Breiman distinguished two statistical modeling paradigms: data model and algorithmic model,[30] wherein \"algorithmic model\" means more or less the machine learning algorithms like Random Forest.\nSome statisticians have adopted methods from machine learning, leading to a combined field that they call statistical learning.[31]\n\nStatistical Physics \nAnalytical and computational techniques derived from deep-rooted physics of disordered systems can be extended to large-scale problems, including machine learning, e.g., to analyze the weight space of deep neural networks.[32] Statistical physics is thus finding applications in the area of medical diagnostics.[33]\n\n Theory \nMain articles: Computational learning theory and Statistical learning theory\nA core objective of a learner is to generalize from its experience.[6][34] Generalization in this context is the ability of a learning machine to perform accurately on new, unseen examples\/tasks after having experienced a learning data set. The training examples come from some generally unknown probability distribution (considered representative of the space of occurrences) and the learner has to build a general model about this space that enables it to produce sufficiently accurate predictions in new cases.\nThe computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of theoretical computer science known as computational learning theory via the Probably Approximately Correct Learning (PAC) model. Because training sets are finite and the future is uncertain, learning theory usually does not yield guarantees of the performance of algorithms. Instead, probabilistic bounds on the performance are quite common. The bias\u2013variance decomposition is one way to quantify generalization error.\nFor the best performance in the context of generalization, the complexity of the hypothesis should match the complexity of the function underlying the data. If the hypothesis is less complex than the function, then the model has under fitted the data. If the complexity of the model is increased in response, then the training error decreases. But if the hypothesis is too complex, then the model is subject to overfitting and generalization will be poorer.[35]\nIn addition to performance bounds, learning theorists study the time complexity and feasibility of learning. In computational learning theory, a computation is considered feasible if it can be done in polynomial time. There are two kinds of time complexity results: Positive results show that a certain class of functions can be learned in polynomial time. Negative results show that certain classes cannot be learned in polynomial time.\n\nApproaches \n \nMachine learning approaches are traditionally divided into three broad categories, which correspond to learning paradigms, depending on the nature of the \"signal\" or \"feedback\" available to the learning system:\n\nSupervised learning: The computer is presented with example inputs and their desired outputs, given by a \"teacher\", and the goal is to learn a general rule that maps inputs to outputs.\nUnsupervised learning: No labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on its own to find structure in its input. Unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself (discovering hidden patterns in data) or a means towards an end (feature learning).\nReinforcement learning: A computer program interacts with a dynamic environment in which it must perform a certain goal (such as driving a vehicle or playing a game against an opponent). As it navigates its problem space, the program is provided feedback that's analogous to rewards, which it tries to maximize.[6]\nAlthough each algorithm has advantages and limitations, no single algorithm works for all problems.[36][37][38]\n\nSupervised learning \nMain article: Supervised learning\nA support-vector machine is a supervised learning model that divides the data into regions separated by a linear boundary. Here, the linear boundary divides the black circles from the white.\n\nSupervised learning algorithms build a mathematical model of a set of data that contains both the inputs and the desired outputs.[39] The data is known as training data, and consists of a set of training examples. Each training example has one or more inputs and the desired output, also known as a supervisory signal. In the mathematical model, each training example is represented by an array or vector, sometimes called a feature vector, and the training data is represented by a matrix. Through iterative optimization of an objective function, supervised learning algorithms learn a function that can be used to predict the output associated with new inputs.[40] An optimal function allows the algorithm to correctly determine the output for inputs that were not a part of the training data. An algorithm that improves the accuracy of its outputs or predictions over time is said to have learned to perform that task.[19]\nTypes of supervised-learning algorithms include active learning, classification and regression.[41] Classification algorithms are used when the outputs are restricted to a limited set of values, and regression algorithms are used when the outputs may have any numerical value within a range. As an example, for a classification algorithm that filters emails, the input would be an incoming email, and the output would be the name of the folder in which to file the email.\nSimilarity learning is an area of supervised machine learning closely related to regression and classification, but the goal is to learn from examples using a similarity function that measures how similar or related two objects are. It has applications in ranking, recommendation systems, visual identity tracking, face verification, and speaker verification.\n\nUnsupervised learning \nMain article: Unsupervised learningSee also: Cluster analysis\nUnsupervised learning algorithms find structures in data that has not been labeled, classified or categorized. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algorithms identify commonalities in the data and react based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in each new piece of data. Central applications of unsupervised machine learning include clustering, dimensionality reduction,[8] and density estimation.[42] Unsupervised learning algorithms also streamlined the process of identifying large indel based haplotypes of a gene of interest from pan-genome.[43] \n\nClustering via Large Indel Permuted Slopes, CLIPS, turns the alignment image into a learning regression problem. The varied slope (b) estimates between each pair of DNA segments enables to identify segments sharing the same set of indels.\n\nCluster analysis is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called clusters) so that observations within the same cluster are similar according to one or more predesignated criteria, while observations drawn from different clusters are dissimilar. Different clustering techniques make different assumptions on the structure of the data, often defined by some similarity metric and evaluated, for example, by internal compactness, or the similarity between members of the same cluster, and separation, the difference between clusters. Other methods are based on estimated density and graph connectivity.\n\nSemi-supervised learning \nMain article: Semi-supervised learning\nSemi-supervised learning falls between unsupervised learning (without any labeled training data) and supervised learning (with completely labeled training data). Some of the training examples are missing training labels, yet many machine-learning researchers have found that unlabeled data, when used in conjunction with a small amount of labeled data, can produce a considerable improvement in learning accuracy.\nIn weakly supervised learning, the training labels are noisy, limited, or imprecise; however, these labels are often cheaper to obtain, resulting in larger effective training sets.[44]\n\nReinforcement learning \nMain article: Reinforcement learning\nReinforcement learning is an area of machine learning concerned with how software agents ought to take actions in an environment so as to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. Due to its generality, the field is studied in many other disciplines, such as game theory, control theory, operations research, information theory, simulation-based optimization, multi-agent systems, swarm intelligence, statistics and genetic algorithms. In reinforcement learning, the environment is typically represented as a Markov decision process (MDP). Many reinforcements learning algorithms use dynamic programming techniques.[45] Reinforcement learning algorithms do not assume knowledge of an exact mathematical model of the MDP and are used when exact models are infeasible. Reinforcement learning algorithms are used in autonomous vehicles or in learning to play a game against a human opponent.\n\nDimensionality reduction \nDimensionality reduction is a process of reducing the number of random variables under consideration by obtaining a set of principal variables.[46] In other words, it is a process of reducing the dimension of the feature set, also called the \"number of features\". Most of the dimensionality reduction techniques can be considered as either feature elimination or extraction. One of the popular methods of dimensionality reduction is principal component analysis (PCA). PCA involves changing higher-dimensional data (e.g., 3D) to a smaller space (e.g., 2D). This results in a smaller dimension of data (2D instead of 3D), while keeping all original variables in the model without changing the data.[47]\nThe manifold hypothesis proposes that high-dimensional data sets lie along low-dimensional manifolds, and many dimensionality reduction techniques make this assumption, leading to the area of manifold learning and manifold regularization.\n\nOther types \nOther approaches have been developed which do not fit neatly into this three-fold categorization, and sometimes more than one is used by the same machine learning system. For example, topic modeling, meta-learning.[48]\n\nSelf-learning \nSelf-learning, as a machine learning paradigm was introduced in 1982 along with a neural network capable of self-learning, named crossbar adaptive array (CAA).[49] It is learning with no external rewards and no external teacher advice. The CAA self-learning algorithm computes, in a crossbar fashion, both decisions about actions and emotions (feelings) about consequence situations. The system is driven by the interaction between cognition and emotion.[50]\nThe self-learning algorithm updates a memory matrix W =||w(a,s)|| such that in each iteration executes the following machine learning routine: \n\nin situation s perform action a\nreceive consequence situation s\ncompute emotion of being in consequence situation v(s')\nupdate crossbar memory w'(a,s) = w(a,s) + v(s')\nIt is a system with only one input, situation, and only one output, action (or behavior) a. There is neither a separate reinforcement input nor an advice input from the environment. The backpropagated value (secondary reinforcement) is the emotion toward the consequence situation. The CAA exists in two environments, one is the behavioral environment where it behaves, and the other is the genetic environment, wherefrom it initially and only once receives initial emotions about situations to be encountered in the behavioral environment. After receiving the genome (species) vector from the genetic environment, the CAA learns a goal-seeking behavior, in an environment that contains both desirable and undesirable situations.[51]\n\nFeature learning \nMain article: Feature learning\nSeveral learning algorithms aim at discovering better representations of the inputs provided during training.[52] Classic examples include principal component analysis and cluster analysis. Feature learning algorithms, also called representation learning algorithms, often attempt to preserve the information in their input but also transform it in a way that makes it useful, often as a pre-processing step before performing classification or predictions. This technique allows reconstruction of the inputs coming from the unknown data-generating distribution, while not being necessarily faithful to configurations that are implausible under that distribution. This replaces manual feature engineering, and allows a machine to both learn the features and use them to perform a specific task.\nFeature learning can be either supervised or unsupervised. In supervised feature learning, features are learned using labeled input data. Examples include artificial neural networks, multilayer perceptrons, and supervised dictionary learning. In unsupervised feature learning, features are learned with unlabeled input data. Examples include dictionary learning, independent component analysis, autoencoders, matrix factorization[53] and various forms of clustering.[54][55][56]\nManifold learning algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is low-dimensional. Sparse coding algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is sparse, meaning that the mathematical model has many zeros. Multilinear subspace learning algorithms aim to learn low-dimensional representations directly from tensor representations for multidimensional data, without reshaping them into higher-dimensional vectors.[57] Deep learning algorithms discover multiple levels of representation, or a hierarchy of features, with higher-level, more abstract features defined in terms of (or generating) lower-level features. It has been argued that an intelligent machine is one that learns a representation that disentangles the underlying factors of variation that explain the observed data.[58]\nFeature learning is motivated by the fact that machine learning tasks such as classification often require input that is mathematically and computationally convenient to process. However, real-world data such as images, video, and sensory data has not yielded attempts to algorithmically define specific features. An alternative is to discover such features or representations through examination, without relying on explicit algorithms.\n\nSparse dictionary learning \nMain article: Sparse dictionary learning\nSparse dictionary learning is a feature learning method where a training example is represented as a linear combination of basis functions, and is assumed to be a sparse matrix. The method is strongly NP-hard and difficult to solve approximately.[59] A popular heuristic method for sparse dictionary learning is the K-SVD algorithm. Sparse dictionary learning has been applied in several contexts. In classification, the problem is to determine the class to which a previously unseen training example belongs. For a dictionary where each class has already been built, a new training example is associated with the class that is best sparsely represented by the corresponding dictionary. Sparse dictionary learning has also been applied in image de-noising. The key idea is that a clean image patch can be sparsely represented by an image dictionary, but the noise cannot.[60]\n\nAnomaly detection \nMain article: Anomaly detection\nIn data mining, anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is the identification of rare items, events or observations which raise suspicions by differing significantly from the majority of the data.[61] Typically, the anomalous items represent an issue such as bank fraud, a structural defect, medical problems or errors in a text. Anomalies are referred to as outliers, novelties, noise, deviations and exceptions.[62]\nIn particular, in the context of abuse and network intrusion detection, the interesting objects are often not rare objects, but unexpected bursts of inactivity. This pattern does not adhere to the common statistical definition of an outlier as a rare object. Many outlier detection methods (in particular, unsupervised algorithms) will fail on such data unless aggregated appropriately. Instead, a cluster analysis algorithm may be able to detect the micro-clusters formed by these patterns.[63]\nThree broad categories of anomaly detection techniques exist.[64] Unsupervised anomaly detection techniques detect anomalies in an unlabeled test data set under the assumption that the majority of the instances in the data set are normal, by looking for instances that seem to fit the least to the remainder of the data set. Supervised anomaly detection techniques require a data set that has been labeled as \"normal\" and \"abnormal\" and involves training a classifier (the key difference to many other statistical classification problems is the inherently unbalanced nature of outlier detection). Semi-supervised anomaly detection techniques construct a model representing normal behavior from a given normal training data set and then test the likelihood of a test instance to be generated by the model.\n\nRobot learning \nRobot learning is inspired by a multitude of machine learning methods, starting from supervised learning, reinforcement learning,[65][66] and finally meta-learning (e.g. MAML).\n\nAssociation rules \nMain article: Association rule learningSee also: Inductive logic programming\nAssociation rule learning is a rule-based machine learning method for discovering relationships between variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong rules discovered in databases using some measure of \"interestingness\".[67]\nRule-based machine learning is a general term for any machine learning method that identifies, learns, or evolves \"rules\" to store, manipulate or apply knowledge. The defining characteristic of a rule-based machine learning algorithm is the identification and utilization of a set of relational rules that collectively represent the knowledge captured by the system. This is in contrast to other machine learning algorithms that commonly identify a singular model that can be universally applied to any instance in order to make a prediction.[68] Rule-based machine learning approaches include learning classifier systems, association rule learning, and artificial immune systems.\nBased on the concept of strong rules, Rakesh Agrawal, Tomasz Imieli\u0144ski and Arun Swami introduced association rules for discovering regularities between products in large-scale transaction data recorded by point-of-sale (POS) systems in supermarkets.[69] For example, the rule \n \n \n \n {\n \n o\n n\n i\n o\n n\n s\n ,\n p\n o\n t\n a\n t\n o\n e\n s\n \n }\n \u21d2\n {\n \n b\n u\n r\n g\n e\n r\n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\mathrm {onions,potatoes} \\}\\Rightarrow \\{\\mathrm {burger} \\}}\n \n\n found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if a customer buys onions and potatoes together, they are likely to also buy hamburger meat. Such information can be used as the basis for decisions about marketing activities such as promotional pricing or product placements. In addition to market basket analysis, association rules are employed today in application areas including Web usage mining, intrusion detection, continuous production, and bioinformatics. In contrast with sequence mining, association rule learning typically does not consider the order of items either within a transaction or across transactions.\n\nLearning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning algorithms that combine a discovery component, typically a genetic algorithm, with a learning component, performing either supervised learning, reinforcement learning, or unsupervised learning. They seek to identify a set of context-dependent rules that collectively store and apply knowledge in a piecewise manner in order to make predictions.[70]\nInductive logic programming (ILP) is an approach to rule learning using logic programming as a uniform representation for input examples, background knowledge, and hypotheses. Given an encoding of the known background knowledge and a set of examples represented as a logical database of facts, an ILP system will derive a hypothesized logic program that entails all positive and no negative examples. Inductive programming is a related field that considers any kind of programming language for representing hypotheses (and not only logic programming), such as functional programs.\nInductive logic programming is particularly useful in bioinformatics and natural language processing. Gordon Plotkin and Ehud Shapiro laid the initial theoretical foundation for inductive machine learning in a logical setting.[71][72][73] Shapiro built their first implementation (Model Inference System) in 1981: a Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples.[74] The term inductive here refers to philosophical induction, suggesting a theory to explain observed facts, rather than mathematical induction, proving a property for all members of a well-ordered set.\n\nModels \nPerforming machine learning can involve creating a model, which is trained on some training data and then can process additional data to make predictions. Various types of models have been used and researched for machine learning systems.\n\nArtificial neural networks \nMain article: Artificial neural networkSee also: Deep learning\nAn artificial neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in a brain. Here, each circular node represents an artificial neuron and an arrow represents a connection from the output of one artificial neuron to the input of another.\n\nArtificial neural networks (ANNs), or connectionist systems, are computing systems vaguely inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. Such systems \"learn\" to perform tasks by considering examples, generally without being programmed with any task-specific rules.\nAn ANN is a model based on a collection of connected units or nodes called \"artificial neurons\", which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each connection, like the synapses in a biological brain, can transmit information, a \"signal\", from one artificial neuron to another. An artificial neuron that receives a signal can process it and then signal additional artificial neurons connected to it. In common ANN implementations, the signal at a connection between artificial neurons is a real number, and the output of each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections between artificial neurons are called \"edges\". Artificial neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Artificial neurons may have a threshold such that the signal is only sent if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically, artificial neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different kinds of transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer) to the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times.\nThe original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a human brain would. However, over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, leading to deviations from biology. Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety of tasks, including computer vision, speech recognition, machine translation, social network filtering, playing board and video games and medical diagnosis.\nDeep learning consists of multiple hidden layers in an artificial neural network. This approach tries to model the way the human brain processes light and sound into vision and hearing. Some successful applications of deep learning are computer vision and speech recognition.[75]\n\nDecision trees \nMain article: Decision tree learning\nA decision tree showing survival probability of passengers on the Titanic\n\nDecision tree learning uses a decision tree as a predictive model to go from observations about an item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value (represented in the leaves). It is one of the predictive modeling approaches used in statistics, data mining, and machine learning. Tree models where the target variable can take a discrete set of values are called classification trees; in these tree structures, leaves represent class labels, and branches represent conjunctions of features that lead to those class labels. Decision trees where the target variable can take continuous values (typically real numbers) are called regression trees. In decision analysis, a decision tree can be used to visually and explicitly represent decisions and decision making. In data mining, a decision tree describes data, but the resulting classification tree can be an input for decision-making.\n\nSupport-vector machines \nMain article: Support-vector machine\nSupport-vector machines (SVMs), also known as support-vector networks, are a set of related supervised learning methods used for classification and regression. Given a set of training examples, each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that predicts whether a new example falls into one category.[76] An SVM training algorithm is a non-probabilistic, binary, linear classifier, although methods such as Platt scaling exist to use SVM in a probabilistic classification setting. In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can efficiently perform a non-linear classification using what is called the kernel trick, implicitly mapping their inputs into high-dimensional feature spaces.\n\nRegression analysis \nMain article: Regression analysis\nIllustration of linear regression on a data set\n\nRegression analysis encompasses a large variety of statistical methods to estimate the relationship between input variables and their associated features. Its most common form is linear regression, where a single line is drawn to best fit the given data according to a mathematical criterion such as ordinary least squares. The latter is often extended by regularization methods to mitigate overfitting and bias, as in ridge regression. When dealing with non-linear problems, go-to models include polynomial regression (for example, used for trendline fitting in Microsoft Excel[77]), logistic regression (often used in statistical classification) or even kernel regression, which introduces non-linearity by taking advantage of the kernel trick to implicitly map input variables to higher-dimensional space.\n\nBayesian networks \nMain article: Bayesian network\nA simple Bayesian network. Rain influences whether the sprinkler is activated, and both rain and the sprinkler influence whether the grass is wet.\n\nA Bayesian network, belief network, or directed acyclic graphical model is a probabilistic graphical model that represents a set of random variables and their conditional independence with a directed acyclic graph (DAG). For example, a Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic relationships between diseases and symptoms. Given symptoms, the network can be used to compute the probabilities of the presence of various diseases. Efficient algorithms exist that perform inference and learning. Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables, like speech signals or protein sequences, are called dynamic Bayesian networks. Generalizations of Bayesian networks that can represent and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called influence diagrams.\n\nGaussian processes \nMain article: Gaussian processes\nAn example of Gaussian Process Regression (prediction) compared with other regression models[78]\n\nA Gaussian process is a stochastic process in which every finite collection of the random variables in the process has a multivariate normal distribution, and it relies on a pre-defined covariance function, or kernel, that models how pairs of points relate to each other depending on their locations.\nGiven a set of observed points, or input\u2013output examples, the distribution of the (unobserved) output of a new point as function of its input data can be directly computed by looking like the observed points and the covariances between those points and the new, unobserved point.\nGaussian processes are popular surrogate models in Bayesian optimization used to do hyperparameter optimization.\n\nGenetic algorithms \nMain article: Genetic algorithm\nA genetic algorithm (GA) is a search algorithm and heuristic technique that mimics the process of natural selection, using methods such as mutation and crossover to generate new genotypes in the hope of finding good solutions to a given problem. In machine learning, genetic algorithms were used in the 1980s and 1990s.[79][80] Conversely, machine learning techniques have been used to improve the performance of genetic and evolutionary algorithms.[81]\n\nBelief functions \nMain article: Dempster\u2013Shafer theory\nThe theory of belief functions, also referred to as evidence theory or Dempster\u2013Shafer theory, is a general framework for reasoning with uncertainty, with understood connections to other frameworks such as probability, possibility and imprecise probability theories. These theoretical frameworks can be thought of as a kind of learner and have some analogous properties of how evidence is combined (e.g., Dempster's rule of combination), just like how in a pmf-based Bayesian approach would combine probabilities. However, there are many caveats to these beliefs functions when compared to Bayesian approaches in order to incorporate ignorance and Uncertainty quantification. These belief function approaches that are implemented within the machine learning domain typically leverage a fusion approach of various ensemble methods to better handle the learner's decision boundary, low samples, and ambiguous class issues that standard machine learning approach tend to have difficulty resolving.[3][5][10] However, the computational complexity of these algorithms are dependent on the number of propositions (classes), and can lead a much higher computation time when compared to other machine learning approaches.\n\nTraining models \nTypically, machine learning models require a high quantity of reliable data in order for the models to perform accurate predictions. When training a machine learning model, machine learning engineers need to target and collect a large and representative sample of data. Data from the training set can be as varied as a corpus of text, a collection of images, sensor data, and data collected from individual users of a service. Overfitting is something to watch out for when training a machine learning model. Trained models derived from biased or non-evaluated data can result in skewed or undesired predictions. Bias models may result in detrimental outcomes thereby furthering the negative impacts on society or objectives. Algorithmic bias is a potential result of data not being fully prepared for training. Machine learning ethics is becoming a field of study and notably be integrated within machine learning engineering teams.\n\nFederated learning \nMain article: Federated learning\nFederated learning is an adapted form of distributed artificial intelligence to training machine learning models that decentralizes the training process, allowing for users' privacy to be maintained by not needing to send their data to a centralized server. This also increases efficiency by decentralizing the training process to many devices. For example, Gboard uses federated machine learning to train search query prediction models on users' mobile phones without having to send individual searches back to Google.[82]\n\nApplications \nThere are many applications for machine learning, including:\n\n\nAgriculture\nAnatomy\nAdaptive website\nAffective computing\nAstronomy\nAutomated decision-making\nBanking\nBehaviorism\nBioinformatics\nBrain\u2013machine interfaces\nCheminformatics\nCitizen Science\nClimate Science\nComputer networks\nComputer vision\nCredit-card fraud detection\nData quality\nDNA sequence classification\nEconomics\nFinancial market analysis[83]\nGeneral game playing\nHandwriting recognition\nHealthcare\nInformation retrieval\nInsurance\nInternet fraud detection\nKnowledge graph embedding\nLinguistics\nMachine learning control\nMachine perception\nMachine translation\nMarketing\nMedical diagnosis\nNatural language processing\nNatural language understanding\nOnline advertising\nOptimization\nRecommender systems\nRobot locomotion\nSearch engines\nSentiment analysis\nSequence mining\nSoftware engineering\nSpeech recognition\nStructural health monitoring\nSyntactic pattern recognition\nTelecommunication\nTheorem proving\nTime-series forecasting\nTomographic reconstruction[84]\nUser behavior analytics\n\nIn 2006, the media-services provider Netflix held the first \"Netflix Prize\" competition to find a program to better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy of its existing Cinematch movie recommendation algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team made up of researchers from AT&amp;T Labs-Research in collaboration with the teams Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an ensemble model to win the Grand Prize in 2009 for $1 million.[85] Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realized that viewers' ratings were not the best indicators of their viewing patterns (\"everything is a recommendation\") and they changed their recommendation engine accordingly.[86] In 2010 The Wall Street Journal wrote about the firm Rebellion Research and their use of machine learning to predict the financial crisis.[87] In 2012, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, Vinod Khosla, predicted that 80% of medical doctors jobs would be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning medical diagnostic software.[88] In 2014, it was reported that a machine learning algorithm had been applied in the field of art history to study fine art paintings and that it may have revealed previously unrecognized influences among artists.[89] In 2019 Springer Nature published the first research book created using machine learning.[90] In 2020, machine learning technology was used to help make diagnoses and aid researchers in developing a cure for COVID-19.[91] Machine learning was recently applied to predict the pro-environmental behavior of travelers.[92] Recently, machine learning technology was also applied to optimize smartphone's performance and thermal behavior based on the user's interaction with the phone.[93][94][95] When applied correctly, machine learning algorithms (MLAs) can utilize a wide range of company characteristics to predict stock returns without overfitting. By employing effective feature engineering and combining forecasts, MLAs can generate results that far surpass those obtained from basic linear techniques like OLS.[96]\n\nLimitations \nAlthough machine learning has been transformative in some fields, machine-learning programs often fail to deliver expected results.[97][98][99] Reasons for this are numerous: lack of (suitable) data, lack of access to the data, data bias, privacy problems, badly chosen tasks and algorithms, wrong tools and people, lack of resources, and evaluation problems.[100]\nThe \"black box theory\" poses another yet significant challenge. Black box refers to a situation where the algorithm or the process of producing an output is entirely opaque, meaning that even the coders of the algorithm cannot audit the pattern that the machine extracted out of the data.[101] The House of Lords Select Committee, which claimed that such an \u201cintelligence system\u201d that could have a \u201csubstantial impact on an individual\u2019s life\u201d would not be considered acceptable unless it provided \u201ca full and satisfactory explanation for the decisions\u201d it makes.[101]\nIn 2018, a self-driving car from Uber failed to detect a pedestrian, who was killed after a collision.[102] Attempts to use machine learning in healthcare with the IBM Watson system failed to deliver even after years of time and billions of dollars invested.[103][104] Microsoft's chatbot has been reported to produce hostile and offensive response against its users.[105]\nMachine learning has been used as a strategy to update the evidence related to a systematic review and increased reviewer burden related to the growth of biomedical literature. While it has improved with training sets, it has not yet developed sufficiently to reduce the workload burden without limiting the necessary sensitivity for the findings research themselves.[106]\n\nBias \nMain article: Algorithmic biasMachine learning approaches in particular can suffer from different data biases. A machine learning system trained specifically on current customers may not be able to predict the needs of new customer groups that are not represented in the training data. When trained on human-made data, machine learning is likely to pick up the constitutional and unconscious biases already present in society.[107]\nLanguage models learned from data have been shown to contain human-like biases.[108][109] An experiment carried out by ProPublica, a predictive policing company, regarding machine learning algorithm\u2019s insight towards the recidivism rates among prisoners falsely flagged \u201cblack defendants high risk twice as often as white defendants.\u201d[110] In 2015, Google photos would often tag black people as gorillas,[110] and in 2018 this still was not well resolved, but Google reportedly was still using the workaround to remove all gorillas from the training data, and thus was not able to recognize real gorillas at all.[111] Similar issues with recognizing non-white people have been found in many other systems.[112] In 2016, Microsoft tested a chatbot that learned from Twitter, and it quickly picked up racist and sexist language.[113]\nBecause of such challenges, the effective use of machine learning may take longer to be adopted in other domains.[114] Concern for fairness in machine learning, that is, reducing bias in machine learning and propelling its use for human good is increasingly expressed by artificial intelligence scientists, including Fei-Fei Li, who reminds engineers that \"There's nothing artificial about AI...It's inspired by people, it's created by people, and\u2014most importantly\u2014it impacts people. It is a powerful tool we are only just beginning to understand, and that is a profound responsibility.\"[115]\n\nExplainability \nMain article: Explainable artificial intelligence\nExplainable AI (XAI), or Interpretable AI, or Explainable Machine Learning (XML), is artificial intelligence (AI) in which humans can understand the decisions or predictions made by the AI.[116] It contrasts with the \"black box\" concept in machine learning where even its designers cannot explain why an AI arrived at a specific decision.[117] By refining the mental models of users of AI-powered systems and dismantling their misconceptions, XAI promises to help users perform more effectively. XAI may be an implementation of the social right to explanation.\n\nOverfitting \nMain article: Overfitting\nThe blue line could be an example of overfitting a linear function due to random noise.\n\nSettling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all the past training data is known as overfitting. Many systems attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in accordance with how well it fits the data but penalizing the theory in accordance with how complex the theory is.[118]\n\nOther limitations and vulnerabilities \nLearners can also disappoint by \"learning the wrong lesson\". A toy example is that an image classifier trained only on pictures of brown horses and black cats might conclude that all brown patches are likely to be horses.[119] A real-world example is that, unlike humans, current image classifiers often do not primarily make judgments from the spatial relationship between components of the picture, and they learn relationships between pixels that humans are oblivious to, but that still correlate with images of certain types of real objects. Modifying these patterns on a legitimate image can result in \"adversarial\" images that the system misclassifies.[120][121]\nAdversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or from non-pattern perturbations. For some systems, it is possible to change the output by only changing a single adversarially chosen pixel.[122] Machine learning models are often vulnerable to manipulation and\/or evasion via adversarial machine learning.[123]\nResearchers have demonstrated how backdoors can be placed undetectably into classifying (e.g., for categories \"spam\" and well-visible \"not spam\" of posts) machine learning models which are often developed and\/or trained by third parties. Parties can change the classification of any input, including in cases for which a type of data\/software transparency is provided, possibly including white-box access.[124][125][126]\n\nModel assessments \nClassification of machine learning models can be validated by accuracy estimation techniques like the holdout method, which splits the data in a training and test set (conventionally 2\/3 training set and 1\/3 test set designation) and evaluates the performance of the training model on the test set. In comparison, the K-fold-cross-validation method randomly partitions the data into K subsets and then K experiments are performed each respectively considering 1 subset for evaluation and the remaining K-1 subsets for training the model. In addition to the holdout and cross-validation methods, bootstrap, which samples n instances with replacement from the dataset, can be used to assess model accuracy.[127]\nIn addition to overall accuracy, investigators frequently report sensitivity and specificity meaning True Positive Rate (TPR) and True Negative Rate (TNR) respectively. Similarly, investigators sometimes report the false positive rate (FPR) as well as the false negative rate (FNR). However, these rates are ratios that fail to reveal their numerators and denominators. The total operating characteristic (TOC) is an effective method to express a model's diagnostic ability. TOC shows the numerators and denominators of the previously mentioned rates, thus TOC provides more information than the commonly used receiver operating characteristic (ROC) and ROC's associated area under the curve (AUC).[128]\n\nEthics \nSee also: AI control problem, Toronto Declaration, and Ethics of artificial intelligence\nMachine learning poses a host of ethical questions. Systems that are trained on datasets collected with biases may exhibit these biases upon use (algorithmic bias), thus digitizing cultural prejudices.[129] For example, in 1988, the UK's Commission for Racial Equality found that St. George's Medical School had been using a computer program trained from data of previous admissions staff and this program had denied nearly 60 candidates who were found to be either women or had non-European sounding names.[130] Using job hiring data from a firm with racist hiring policies may lead to a machine learning system duplicating the bias by scoring job applicants by similarity to previous successful applicants.[131][132] Another example includes predictive policing company Geolitica's predictive algorithm that resulted in \u201cdisproportionately high levels of over-policing in low-income and minority communities\u201d after being trained with historical crime data.[133]\nWhile responsible collection of data and documentation of algorithmic rules used by a system is considered a critical part of machine learning, some researchers blame lack of participation and representation of minority population in the field of AI for machine learning's vulnerability to biases.[134] In fact, according to research carried out by the Computing Research Association (CRA) in 2021, \u201cfemale faculty merely make up 16.1%\u201d of all faculty members who focus on AI among several universities around the world.[135] Furthermore, among the group of \u201cnew U.S. resident AI PhD graduates,\u201d 45% identified as white, 22.4% as Asian, 3.2% as Hispanic, and 2.4% as African American, which further demonstrates a lack of diversity in the field of AI.[135]\nAI can be well-equipped to make decisions in technical fields, which rely heavily on data and historical information. These decisions rely on objectivity and logical reasoning.[136] Because human languages contain biases, machines trained on language corpora will necessarily also learn these biases.[137][138]\nOther forms of ethical challenges, not related to personal biases, are seen in health care. There are concerns among health care professionals that these systems might not be designed in the public's interest but as income-generating machines.[139] This is especially true in the United States where there is a long-standing ethical dilemma of improving health care, but also increasing profits. For example, the algorithms could be designed to provide patients with unnecessary tests or medication in which the algorithm's proprietary owners hold stakes. There is potential for machine learning in health care to provide professionals an additional tool to diagnose, medicate, and plan recovery paths for patients, but this requires these biases to be mitigated.[140]\n\nHardware \nSince the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to more efficient methods for training deep neural networks (a particular narrow subdomain of machine learning) that contain many layers of non-linear hidden units.[141] By 2019, graphic processing units (GPUs), often with AI-specific enhancements, had displaced CPUs as the dominant method of training large-scale commercial cloud AI.[142] OpenAI estimated the hardware computing used in the largest deep learning projects from AlexNet (2012) to AlphaZero (2017), and found a 300,000-fold increase in the amount of compute required, with a doubling-time trendline of 3.4 months.[143][144]\n\n Neuromorphic\/Physical Neural Networks \nA physical neural network or Neuromorphic computer is a type of artificial neural network in which an electrically adjustable material is used to emulate the function of a neural synapse. \"Physical\" neural network is used to emphasize the reliance on physical hardware used to emulate neurons as opposed to software-based approaches. More generally the term is applicable to other artificial neural networks in which a memristor or other electrically adjustable resistance material is used to emulate a neural synapse.[145][146]\n\nEmbedded Machine Learning \nEmbedded Machine Learning is a sub-field of machine learning, where the machine learning model is run on embedded systems with limited computing resources such as wearable computers, edge devices and microcontrollers.[147][148][149] Running machine learning model in embedded devices removes the need for transferring and storing data on cloud servers for further processing, henceforth, reducing data breaches and privacy leaks happening because of transferring data, and also minimizes theft of intellectual properties, personal data and business secrets. Embedded Machine Learning could be applied through several techniques including hardware acceleration,[150][151] using approximate computing,[152] optimization of machine learning models and many more.[153][154]\n\nSoftware \nSoftware suites containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the following:\n\nFree and open-source software \n\nCaffe\nDeeplearning4j\nDeepSpeed\nELKI\nGoogle JAX\nInfer.NET\nKeras\nKubeflow\nLightGBM\nMahout\nMallet\nMicrosoft Cognitive Toolkit\nML.NET\nmlpack\nMXNet\nOpenNN\nOrange\npandas (software)\nROOT (TMVA with ROOT)\nscikit-learn\nShogun\nSpark MLlib\nSystemML\nTensorFlow\nTorch \/ PyTorch\nWeka \/ MOA\nXGBoost\nYooreeka\n\nProprietary software with free and open-source editions \nKNIME\nRapidMiner\nProprietary software \n\nAmazon Machine Learning\nAngoss KnowledgeSTUDIO\nAzure Machine Learning\nIBM Watson Studio\nGoogle Cloud Vertex AI\nGoogle Prediction API\nIBM SPSS Modeler\nKXEN Modeler\nLIONsolver\nMathematica\nMATLAB\nNeural Designer\nNeuroSolutions\nOracle Data Mining\nOracle AI Platform Cloud Service\nPolyAnalyst\nRCASE\nSAS Enterprise Miner\nSequenceL\nSplunk\nSTATISTICA Data Miner\n\nJournals \nJournal of Machine Learning Research\nMachine Learning\nNature Machine Intelligence\nNeural Computation\nIEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence\nConferences \nAAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence\nAssociation for Computational Linguistics (ACL)\nEuropean Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases (ECML PKDD)\nInternational Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics (CIBB)\nInternational Conference on Machine Learning (ICML)\nInternational Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR)\nInternational Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)\nConference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD)\nConference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS)\nSee also \nAutomated machine learning&#160;\u2013 Process of automating the application of machine learning\nBig data&#160;\u2013 Extremely large or complex datasets\nDifferentiable programming&#160;\u2013 Programming paradigm\nForce control\nList of important publications in machine learning\nList of datasets for machine-learning research\nReferences \n\n\n^ The definition \"without being explicitly programmed\" is often attributed to Arthur Samuel, who coined the term \"machine learning\" in 1959, but the phrase is not found verbatim in this publication, and may be a paraphrase that appeared later. 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Retrieved 2022-01-17 . \n\n^ Branco, S\u00e9rgio; Ferreira, Andr\u00e9 G.; Cabral, Jorge (2019-11-05). \"Machine Learning in Resource-Scarce Embedded Systems, FPGAs, and End-Devices: A Survey\". Electronics. 8 (11): 1289. doi:10.3390\/electronics8111289 . hdl:1822\/62521 . ISSN&#160;2079-9292. \n\n\nSources \nDomingos, Pedro (September 22, 2015). The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World. Basic Books. ISBN&#160;978-0465065707. \nNilsson, Nils (1998). Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis . Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN&#160;978-1-55860-467-4. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019 . \nRussell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd&#160;ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-790395-2 .\nPoole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998). Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN&#160;978-0-19-510270-3. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020 . \nFurther reading \n\nNils J. Nilsson, Introduction to Machine Learning Archived 2019-08-16 at the Wayback Machine.\nTrevor Hastie, Robert Tibshirani and Jerome H. Friedman (2001). The Elements of Statistical Learning Archived 2013-10-27 at the Wayback Machine, Springer. ISBN&#160;0-387-95284-5.\nPedro Domingos (September 2015), The Master Algorithm, Basic Books, ISBN&#160;978-0-465-06570-7\nIan H. Witten and Eibe Frank (2011). Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques Morgan Kaufmann, 664pp., ISBN&#160;978-0-12-374856-0.\nEthem Alpaydin (2004). Introduction to Machine Learning, MIT Press, ISBN&#160;978-0-262-01243-0.\nDavid J. C. MacKay. Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms Archived 2016-02-17 at the Wayback Machine Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN&#160;0-521-64298-1\nRichard O. Duda, Peter E. Hart, David G. Stork (2001) Pattern classification (2nd edition), Wiley, New York, ISBN&#160;0-471-05669-3.\nChristopher Bishop (1995). Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford University Press. ISBN&#160;0-19-853864-2.\nStuart Russell &amp; Peter Norvig, (2009). Artificial Intelligence \u2013 A Modern Approach Archived 2011-02-28 at the Wayback Machine. Pearson, ISBN&#160;9789332543515.\nRay Solomonoff, An Inductive Inference Machine, IRE Convention Record, Section on Information Theory, Part 2, pp., 56\u201362, 1957.\nRay Solomonoff, An Inductive Inference Machine Archived 2011-04-26 at the Wayback Machine A privately circulated report from the 1956 Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on AI.\nKevin P. Murphy (2021). Probabilistic Machine Learning: An Introduction Archived 2021-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, MIT Press.\n\nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Machine learning .\n\n Quotations related to Machine learning at Wikiquote\nInternational Machine Learning Society\nmloss is an academic database of open-source machine learning software.\nvteDifferentiable computingGeneral\nDifferentiable programming\nInformation geometry\nStatistical manifold\nAutomatic differentiation\nNeuromorphic engineering\nPattern recognition\nTensor calculus\nComputational learning theory\nInductive bias\nConcepts\nGradient descent\nSGD\nClustering\nRegression\nOverfitting\nHallucination\nAdversary\nAttention\nConvolution\nLoss functions\nBackpropagation\nBatchnorm\nActivation\nSoftmax\nSigmoid\nRectifier\nRegularization\nDatasets\nAugmentation\nDiffusion\nAutoregression\nApplications\nMachine learning\nIn-context learning\nArtificial neural network\nDeep learning\nScientific 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edited on 12 June 2022, at 14:34.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,817 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Machine_learning rootpage-Machine_learning skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Machine learning<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Study of algorithms that improve automatically through experience<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For the journal, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\"><i>Machine Learning<\/i> (journal)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"Statistical learning\" redirects here. For statistical learning in linguistics, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_learning_in_language_acquisition\" title=\"Statistical learning in language acquisition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ea9b0b913603f86e2794e7eeece0303\">statistical learning in language acquisition<\/a>.<\/div>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488\" \/><table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a series on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\"><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Machine learning<\/a><br \/>and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Paradigms<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">Supervised learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">Unsupervised learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online_machine_learning\" title=\"Online machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf4f63de02016e9d7b34c2eaac028a75\">Online learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Batch_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Batch learning\" data-key=\"f5998dd4249a95bc5eacc1d7e8554eb5\">Batch learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meta-learning_(computer_science)\" title=\"Meta-learning (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a3a01546e52c1eb5a0b8fc418ef3abc\">Meta-learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semi-supervised_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Semi-supervised learning\" data-key=\"6504615e972451663dc33142bb427ca9\">Semi-supervised learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-supervised_learning\" title=\"Self-supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"367335bb2f2c8c4776bf3cf382517eef\">Self-supervised learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">Reinforcement learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rule-based_machine_learning\" title=\"Rule-based machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca715d4e9f51e83cd221693385d0913d\">Rule-based learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_machine_learning\" title=\"Quantum machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb97bba2e382b0972008affd6b53e47f\">Quantum machine learning<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Problems<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">Classification<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_model\" title=\"Generative model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fddcfbbd35440d0c463f3998acec0b91\">Generative model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">Regression<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">Clustering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dimensionality_reduction\" title=\"Dimensionality reduction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556ade3b4a0a6a8d8704fce11a66d19\">dimension reduction<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Density_estimation\" title=\"Density estimation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e154818923edfb8396c2ef66f332a17a\">density estimation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anomaly_detection\" title=\"Anomaly detection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bba5c970d8f41b6bd4492e1d32f9118\">Anomaly detection<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Cleaning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data Cleaning\" data-key=\"72579c48322e60bc8c218cf1db1a32b7\">Data Cleaning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_machine_learning\" title=\"Automated machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf546d54bcba69734c4ae557eb27bc71\">AutoML<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_rule_learning\" title=\"Association rule learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69b9d54917f42d0ac09a6ce55397d096\">Association rules<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_analysis_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Semantic analysis (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07d2d9e35cf8b36c4a66f76296ffaadf\">Semantic analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structured_prediction\" title=\"Structured prediction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96fa6b1ab19d2f507953872390773638\">Structured prediction<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_engineering\" title=\"Feature engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b35c2f718d44cad181d706f87c70fb2c\">Feature engineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_learning\" title=\"Feature learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25c4bbbe4c545e982310e26d720cd6dc\">Feature learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_to_rank\" title=\"Learning to rank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"433a9e4bbcc41dd2548e7f4f5ea60644\">Learning to rank<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grammar_induction\" title=\"Grammar induction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fb5e80e6a303475bd2e0128a7e2a1e2\">Grammar induction<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_learning\" title=\"Ontology learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad2ac8e01fccc11c9fa8c734f5af2603\">Ontology learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multimodal_learning\" title=\"Multimodal learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1549eb9b9fceb1a0d6f149d0b5eb465\">Multimodal learning<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><div style=\"display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">Supervised learning<\/a><br \/><span class=\"nobold\"><span style=\"font-size:85%;\">(<b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">classification<\/a><\/b>&#160;\u2022 <b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">regression<\/a><\/b>)<\/span><\/span> <\/div><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apprenticeship_learning\" title=\"Apprenticeship learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5381080b16a98cb6b5c3d406b975e3a\">Apprenticeship learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_tree_learning\" title=\"Decision tree learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4164d60d7492f2ce658e44b26d1d2702\">Decision trees<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ensemble_learning\" title=\"Ensemble learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"524404854c31f52f1cd58cbcef1d138c\">Ensembles<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bootstrap_aggregating\" title=\"Bootstrap aggregating\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5261681908097de9a4e8b8bf9ad126b5\">Bagging<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boosting_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Boosting (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"909f334776c56e47fb1256cee49fba01\">Boosting<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_forest\" title=\"Random forest\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7498be71bed6e2fdcf84fe40492498aa\">Random forest<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K-nearest_neighbors_algorithm\" title=\"K-nearest neighbors algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"882596b8e90875ed88eb496081b75859\"><i>k<\/i>-NN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_regression\" title=\"Linear regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85453f53b8a2cdb252a2e05dbd419405\">Linear regression<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Naive_Bayes_classifier\" title=\"Naive Bayes classifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18dd737ec81f328d3d6681e1620445c7\">Naive Bayes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">Artificial neural networks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logistic_regression\" title=\"Logistic regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02aceaf0d8cb200b9c48cd2f097bb1dc\">Logistic regression<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perceptron\" title=\"Perceptron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04a4d1565003f718e5659ee6ae90061f\">Perceptron<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relevance_vector_machine\" title=\"Relevance vector machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c91a60503fccf10e5f8423171d913ac\">Relevance vector machine (RVM)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support_vector_machine\" title=\"Support vector machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01aa5bcb5f310503db0370be4d7dde0c\">Support vector machine (SVM)<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">Clustering<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BIRCH\" title=\"BIRCH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7689e68d7dffd37f2821e529c3e030e6\">BIRCH<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CURE_algorithm\" title=\"CURE algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"835654863f259e6de722c7ccf1b776d2\">CURE<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchical_clustering\" title=\"Hierarchical clustering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"547a17412316cf0e1ea04bb672ff86ac\">Hierarchical<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K-means_clustering\" title=\"K-means clustering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44e3a95f949e983a6e176a24f136ad45\"><i>k<\/i>-means<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_clustering\" title=\"Fuzzy clustering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fecca6ad7507d198f5f8019f3460eb3\">Fuzzy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expectation%E2%80%93maximization_algorithm\" title=\"Expectation\u2013maximization algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"689bbd078640f916981d7d2600b07b2e\">Expectation\u2013maximization (EM)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><br \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DBSCAN\" title=\"DBSCAN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2760bf753e3db58dbe2fed6a3a87a802\">DBSCAN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OPTICS_algorithm\" title=\"OPTICS algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33fc50aae72f90574c4ccaedd09e0820\">OPTICS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mean_shift\" title=\"Mean shift\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b87236483b7834a4e1e3b5b9f76117b\">Mean shift<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dimensionality_reduction\" title=\"Dimensionality reduction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556ade3b4a0a6a8d8704fce11a66d19\">Dimensionality reduction<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Factor_analysis\" title=\"Factor analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d66e2d82807d9f3a5a7996838965383\">Factor analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canonical_correlation\" title=\"Canonical correlation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fcaabc2af766d16dace5a3a4a88fd61\">CCA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Independent_component_analysis\" title=\"Independent component analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b5b1c2fc57ef5fc1ebbf3c72febc842\">ICA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_discriminant_analysis\" title=\"Linear discriminant analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96ca1fa19f6aba55688fa0ce041ddf64\">LDA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-negative_matrix_factorization\" title=\"Non-negative matrix factorization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f58be386e2f54ba09fa7366bc0336f9\">NMF<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Principal_component_analysis\" title=\"Principal component analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acf4c2c0901a58dc84cd686341a415e4\">PCA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proper_generalized_decomposition\" title=\"Proper generalized decomposition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4298167950075c81c7bd092cb9201c99\">PGD<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/T-distributed_stochastic_neighbor_embedding\" title=\"T-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb196d4435ec52cb0f1751379ab1323c\">t-SNE<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sparse_dictionary_learning\" title=\"Sparse dictionary learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee0aeb97faa0419cad2da2097b9cf25\">SDL<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structured_prediction\" title=\"Structured prediction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96fa6b1ab19d2f507953872390773638\">Structured prediction<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphical_model\" title=\"Graphical model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96879083bb03e34a53730fbb180daea8\">Graphical models<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayes net<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conditional_random_field\" title=\"Conditional random field\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fd5c822b366a6c9733e51e5ba452609\">Conditional random field<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hidden_Markov_model\" title=\"Hidden Markov model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2584878cd5e770c2f74616bed61710\">Hidden Markov<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anomaly_detection\" title=\"Anomaly detection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bba5c970d8f41b6bd4492e1d32f9118\">Anomaly detection<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_sample_consensus\" title=\"Random sample consensus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c5288d2ffe4bb55cd9b7e5d90dbf2e5\">RANSAC<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K-nearest_neighbors_algorithm\" title=\"K-nearest neighbors algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"882596b8e90875ed88eb496081b75859\"><i>k<\/i>-NN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_outlier_factor\" title=\"Local outlier factor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b0820a37b7c49d65d997290eb75cb0a\">Local outlier factor<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Isolation_forest\" title=\"Isolation forest\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"539f37ab0abdff9793a5ef8335926de0\">Isolation forest<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">Artificial neural network<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autoencoder\" title=\"Autoencoder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0b18c427d5281fd5736ceb757f8273d\">Autoencoder<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_computing\" title=\"Cognitive computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ff813a13893f8b76e01a9b1eaf8d0ae\">Cognitive computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DeepDream\" title=\"DeepDream\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bc4e7813e83bab30b5c645d37ca6e78\">DeepDream<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feedforward_neural_network\" title=\"Feedforward neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcbc04f3ee4edcf5215ba9705be493de\">Feedforward neural network<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recurrent_neural_network\" title=\"Recurrent neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9947826e865b6f1481a9350c2d215826\">Recurrent neural network<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Long_short-term_memory\" title=\"Long short-term memory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fde1fe57c2336160b7bba531bdd8675a\">LSTM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gated_recurrent_unit\" title=\"Gated recurrent unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32947a42ca8c8f3dc46cf5736d819dc3\">GRU<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Echo_state_network\" title=\"Echo state network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8f36c7417c4829fbb5707556f5ed518\">ESN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reservoir_computing\" title=\"Reservoir computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0cfb4bb0f64d99b1058cbbed8f3f9c49\">reservoir computing<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restricted_Boltzmann_machine\" title=\"Restricted Boltzmann machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c06f419839303ec3e77dce9051551aef\">Restricted Boltzmann machine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_adversarial_network\" title=\"Generative adversarial network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c0f3cd22442f9a398cea8f3d55d3885\">GAN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diffusion_model\" title=\"Diffusion model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc1f2d504739b3b8082af1648a14645c\">Diffusion model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-organizing_map\" title=\"Self-organizing map\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2af2c804752c8f0a556b1d30744f0cf4\">SOM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Convolutional_neural_network\" title=\"Convolutional neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d66c11cdf5b17fc49358ff9fb8e68dc\">Convolutional neural network<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/U-Net\" title=\"U-Net\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2841fc8c63969d37d0cc46526a67cdc5\">U-Net<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transformer_(machine_learning_model)\" title=\"Transformer (machine learning model)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b03043859b7f60436170330be1fdecf1\">Transformer<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vision_transformer\" title=\"Vision transformer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69cd636bcc4128596a40db47319bd7ce\">Vision<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spiking_neural_network\" title=\"Spiking neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f0537f150cbd3c57123eb2c13c34c32\">Spiking neural network<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memtransistor\" title=\"Memtransistor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21dca5ca767ca6afa2ba44a901c2d7a8\">Memtransistor<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrochemical_RAM\" title=\"Electrochemical RAM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c54ad92b0e3296595c372184e6f840ee\">Electrochemical RAM<\/a> (ECRAM)<\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">Reinforcement learning<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Q-learning\" title=\"Q-learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d47074efd2198e8c36e7cad0b9353c2a\">Q-learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/State%E2%80%93action%E2%80%93reward%E2%80%93state%E2%80%93action\" title=\"State\u2013action\u2013reward\u2013state\u2013action\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ca41ef508d02dc06cb7dac22bf5cdb3\">SARSA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Temporal_difference_learning\" title=\"Temporal difference learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"249d80fd8f185ca3c02bc9d6a2b80d08\">Temporal difference (TD)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multi-agent_reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Multi-agent reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"39f2562fbfa1cec9ee38322abaf4af97\">Multi-agent<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-play_(reinforcement_learning_technique)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Self-play (reinforcement learning technique)\" data-key=\"33cd0570ef317f0daa9c9942a4667f82\">Self-play<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Learning with humans<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_learning_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Active learning (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bab4ca0aa13e7521045ce95189f09d5f\">Active learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crowdsourcing\" title=\"Crowdsourcing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48733729f7e2ec744b3fa4dd8a984584\">Crowdsourcing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human-in-the-loop\" title=\"Human-in-the-loop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff97bd48fe1c02b12d660b1c91c9396a\">Human-in-the-loop<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Model diagnostics<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_curve_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Learning curve (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c0823d88fb6574839db7652281497ca\">Learning curve<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Mathematical foundations<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel_machines\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Kernel machines\" data-key=\"0ec1e14339ab950e16d1bc01d7d0eec2\">Kernel machines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bias%E2%80%93variance_tradeoff\" title=\"Bias\u2013variance tradeoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2eb21152461822865df7c634f4bed332\">Bias\u2013variance tradeoff<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_learning_theory\" title=\"Computational learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cc562e86774b252f65ad147577243ae\">Computational learning theory<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Empirical_risk_minimization\" title=\"Empirical risk minimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1693fe72fb56ba1fca2e2c52c90242b3\">Empirical risk minimization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Occam_learning\" title=\"Occam learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c67d954fef550d8477af6ccaa0a4b823\">Occam learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probably_approximately_correct_learning\" title=\"Probably approximately correct learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bb4dec6a8fd2c280be4b68d192ee83c\">PAC learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_learning_theory\" title=\"Statistical learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"118d062c73567ce7bbdf1b29548bbd5b\">Statistical learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vapnik%E2%80%93Chervonenkis_theory\" title=\"Vapnik\u2013Chervonenkis theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d8188098de6988ed2b53aeb703aa27c\">VC theory<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Machine-learning venues<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ECML_PKDD\" title=\"ECML PKDD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89ee6a633668dcf9c5fac64e80f276ac\">ECML PKDD<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conference_on_Neural_Information_Processing_Systems\" title=\"Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0730e0e4164eeb30eb2d903a1979b3ec\">NeurIPS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Machine_Learning\" title=\"International Conference on Machine Learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afdcffd4f79def1da21bef6ece0e65ec\">ICML<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Learning_Representations\" title=\"International Conference on Learning Representations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0a25d10322360cd22711cb94bd7a2f7\">ICLR<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Joint_Conference_on_Artificial_Intelligence\" title=\"International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c03cbeeaef0a1f69a328f9fa1ecc6bb\">IJCAI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\">ML<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Machine_Learning_Research\" title=\"Journal of Machine Learning Research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0986ff6f540bccf40ef2dfe3f7e45775\">JMLR<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center; background:#ddd;\">Related articles<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Glossary of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"441c02aab14ebdf235a3e39d66538693\">Glossary of artificial intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_datasets_for_machine-learning_research\" title=\"List of datasets for machine-learning research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9429ca0cecce3817e6ad4b4da64a0438\">List of datasets for machine-learning research<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_datasets_in_computer_vision_and_image_processing\" title=\"List of datasets in computer vision and image processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"388a91e5034df7e62442c10bce02151f\">List of datasets in computer vision and image processing<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outline_of_machine_learning\" title=\"Outline of machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd36faa631da3638db3c4324329ee17b\">Outline of machine learning<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1045330069\" \/><table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a series on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Outline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c37a26aa0fabe57fce6dc9d3efc57f0\">Artificial intelligence<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><figure class=\"mw-halign-center\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3af2ed3786d80b830eea607a8344e75\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7a\/Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\/100px-Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"100\" height=\"85\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence#Goals\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb9c1836d3769054e30ba50b411472bf\">Major goals<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">Artificial general intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">Planning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_game_playing\" title=\"General game playing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b659f2ed91c7a28bca494393765fd1\">General game playing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning\" title=\"Knowledge representation and reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f39a572a7265863b802980dc3015f78\">Knowledge reasoning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Machine learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">Robotics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_safety\" title=\"AI safety\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb7e6c3b6e6290bdd2aab3d5c2210b1c\">AI safety<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Approaches<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolic_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Symbolic artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90f04195cac03010b9702e7b8db7ad93\">Symbolic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian networks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_algorithm\" title=\"Evolutionary algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2be5565f46780928629b4705cf141f08\">Evolutionary algorithms<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Situated_approach_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Situated approach (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d371530e69c0c92a2f6c8ddfec6102dc\">Situated approach<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hybrid_intelligent_system\" title=\"Hybrid intelligent system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"134de857fb48c47e99864f5b0a8a0887\">Hybrid intelligent systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_systems_integration\" title=\"Artificial intelligence systems integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03e8fe4cbdde2b0dfe6d6cf013a21d2c\">Systems integration<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applications_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Applications of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d70560409a044fef08a6f24b39d11d72\">Applications<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_artificial_intelligence_projects\" title=\"List of artificial intelligence projects\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b22c368db35a66355e3bbe9abefb0276\">Projects<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deepfake\" title=\"Deepfake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7165f1f34948befd7dc51d4f1941b98f\">Deepfake<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">Machine translation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_art\" title=\"Artificial intelligence art\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7a322db732edd374428a32ee9b588e4\">Art<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in healthcare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a83c45f6d758fe57b1fe4cb086a660dd\">Healthcare<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_mental_health\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in mental health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de7daf7fdd8ae3f7b3c22b6c78b505aa\">Mental health<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_government\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in government\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9448e3d83145520174134747105bd90e\">Government<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Music_and_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Music and artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"716b81931e24b5bb1fe02b1e4e6942ea\">Music<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_industry\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in industry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36d21770ca3861059b0f98b63319134e\">Industry<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_earth_sciences\" title=\"Machine learning in earth sciences\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c36894eb9ff1755893995191a5ab3b70\">Earth sciences<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_bioinformatics\" title=\"Machine learning in bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5ec4af63e9b8dc58cfeea658e348087\">Bioinformatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_physics\" title=\"Machine learning in physics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb87665b89561b156f33e004c9e9e3e4\">Physics<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Philosophy of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72fe09222fe7606d43e990764f3076b4\">Philosophy<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_room\" title=\"Chinese room\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40e4f68def9042fbadc20dbe8654fdca\">Chinese room<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Friendly_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Friendly artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d558aa453b40936ba47deaaf4ac9a5b\">Friendly AI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_control_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI control problem\" data-key=\"3a4b505ea3c272cedd95e33aec03d295\">Control problem<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_takeover\" title=\"AI takeover\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd96aa0bbc21e9e558b5130997c9dd87\">Takeover<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Ethics of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"608ca5c55237a263936a26d2500d09a6\">Ethics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Existential risk from artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2417fff2c86867851343cad51bd9bfb9\">Existential risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_test\" title=\"Turing test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f309ecb31df135db989e843377fb9d\">Turing test<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulation_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Regulation of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bbabae0e8e2c822aa2ced8fec6ac219\">Regulation<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"History of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb00251245fc858edc9c12e32694439\">History<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Timeline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e9d017e0ebfd460857b2be655c57964\">Timeline<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Progress_in_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Progress in artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d8510838c2ea7a333c8e1efa7a70fea\">Progress<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_winter\" title=\"AI winter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0128870650338adbb7c06bbe1dadc305\">AI winter<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_boom\" title=\"AI boom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb752fa087789f1afcf9c7b8c3e70e85\">AI boom<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Technology<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_programming_languages_for_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"List of programming languages for artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3911d7eb588c4af3da6d6e2d106be4b\">Programming languages<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Glossary<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Glossary of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"441c02aab14ebdf235a3e39d66538693\">Glossary<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><b>Machine learning<\/b> (<b>ML<\/b>) is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Field_of_study\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Field of study\" data-key=\"fd2881a45ec3a3bba2c8ca2cd6206810\">field of study<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">artificial intelligence<\/a> concerned with the development and study of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_statistics\" title=\"Computational statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb9a0ab7eb3a14aa731182dfe7fe1e47\">statistical algorithms<\/a> that can learn from data and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generalize\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Generalize\" data-key=\"468d60d46b2bee76f7d0bda1b9feae79\">generalize<\/a> to unseen data, and thus perform tasks without explicit instructions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Recently, generative <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural networks<\/a> have been able to surpass many previous approaches in performance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ibm_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ibm-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:6_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:6-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Machine learning approaches have been applied to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Large_language_model\" title=\"Large language model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bd2447b28e43c8c06b665882b498979\">large language models<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">computer vision<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Email_filtering\" title=\"Email filtering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f3dbc0e33131b8b83b0ff53e6510f2bc\">email filtering<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agriculture\" title=\"Agriculture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fef121fbc56151a550b52c14fee8000c\">agriculture<\/a>, and medicine, where it is too costly to develop algorithms to perform the needed tasks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tvt_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tvt-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:7_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:7-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> ML is known in its application across business problems under the name <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_analytics\" title=\"Predictive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34f7137f13e40b2fa7b28c33330ba3ab\">predictive analytics<\/a>. Although not all machine learning is statistically based, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_statistics\" title=\"Computational statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb9a0ab7eb3a14aa731182dfe7fe1e47\">computational statistics<\/a> is an important source of the field's methods.\n<\/p><p>The mathematical foundations of ML are provided by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">mathematical optimization<\/a> (mathematical programming) methods. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">Data mining<\/a> is a related (parallel) field of study, focusing on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploratory_data_analysis\" title=\"Exploratory data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c528c5090304a5d47c36b6c6451163\">exploratory data analysis<\/a> through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">unsupervised learning<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:9_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:9-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> From a theoretical point of view <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probably_approximately_correct_learning\" title=\"Probably approximately correct learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bb4dec6a8fd2c280be4b68d192ee83c\">Probably approximately correct learning<\/a> provides a framework for describing machine learning.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"toclimit-3\"><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_and_relationships_to_other_fields\">History and relationships to other fields<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timeline_of_machine_learning\" title=\"Timeline of machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0904586bab3a70791c2bec98552c9386\">Timeline of machine learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The term <i>machine learning<\/i> was coined in 1959 by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur_Samuel_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"Arthur Samuel (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07ca64ab9edc7c8977958d425055d049\">Arthur Samuel<\/a>, an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a> employee and pioneer in the field of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_gaming\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer gaming\" data-key=\"4abae18c75ae45e52bbd00d1d1c6c06b\">computer gaming<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">artificial intelligence<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Samuel_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Samuel-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:8_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:8-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> The synonym <i>self-teaching computers<\/i> was also used in this time period.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cyberthreat_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cyberthreat-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Although the earliest machine learning model was introduced in the 1950s when <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur_Samuel_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"Arthur Samuel (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07ca64ab9edc7c8977958d425055d049\">Arthur Samuel<\/a> invented a program that calculated the winning chance in checkers for each side, the history of machine learning roots back to decades of human desire and effort to study human cognitive processes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:02_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:02-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> In 1949, Canadian psychologist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Donald_O._Hebb\" title=\"Donald O. Hebb\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02fff59fe7ada22de80b8d291bc4abe7\">Donald Hebb<\/a> published the book <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organization_of_Behavior\" title=\"Organization of Behavior\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"566afda5acd529912c3fffbbbe821c4c\">The Organization of Behavior<\/a><\/i>, in which he introduced a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hebbian_theory\" title=\"Hebbian theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49b7525484ed35e6edb867f711f27f41\">theoretical neural structure<\/a> formed by certain interactions among <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nerve_cells\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nerve cells\" data-key=\"3c323a9be8edf6955134896efb239d95\">nerve cells<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Hebb's model of neurons interacting with one another set a groundwork for how AIs and machine learning algorithms work under nodes, or artificial neurons used by computers to communicate data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:02_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:02-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> Other researchers who have studied human cognitive systems contributed to the modern machine learning technologies as well, including logician <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Walter_Pitts\" title=\"Walter Pitts\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79ea2ec505dd09126d2b191748c40bf3\">Walter Pitts<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warren_Sturgis_McCulloch\" title=\"Warren Sturgis McCulloch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7254e55770b00f7637f8b90881809836\">Warren McCulloch<\/a>, who proposed the early mathematical models of neural networks to come up with algorithms that mirror human thought processes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:02_13-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:02-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By the early 1960s an experimental \"learning machine\" with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Punched_tape\" title=\"Punched tape\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb05634bb528e8a9222333e9239c77ef\">punched tape<\/a> memory, called Cybertron, had been developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Raytheon_Company\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Raytheon Company\" data-key=\"4e3d7c81f926604998632cc37c645082\">Raytheon Company<\/a> to analyze <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sonar\" title=\"Sonar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45abf0d0e41ce61d075643a6ca81f605\">sonar<\/a> signals, electrocardiograms, and speech patterns using rudimentary <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">reinforcement learning<\/a>. It was repetitively \"trained\" by a human operator\/teacher to recognize patterns and equipped with a \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Goof\" title=\"Goof\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4475481420fd5e274dc91c5a7483620f\">goof<\/a>\" button to cause it to re-evaluate incorrect decisions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> A representative book on research into machine learning during the 1960s was Nilsson's book on Learning Machines, dealing mostly with machine learning for pattern classification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Interest related to pattern recognition continued into the 1970s, as described by Duda and Hart in 1973.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> In 1981 a report was given on using teaching strategies so that a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_network\" title=\"Neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c67e639c390fb2296fc58f06d3f3982\">neural network<\/a> learns to recognize 40 characters (26 letters, 10 digits, and 4 special symbols) from a computer terminal.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tom_M._Mitchell\" title=\"Tom M. Mitchell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76f25a619760da0f98fb78df5993986c\">Tom M. Mitchell<\/a> provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms studied in the machine learning field: \"A computer program is said to learn from experience <i>E<\/i> with respect to some class of tasks <i>T<\/i> and performance measure <i>P<\/i> if its performance at tasks in <i>T<\/i>, as measured by <i>P<\/i>, improves with experience <i>E<\/i>.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mitchell-1997_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mitchell-1997-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> This definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned offers a fundamentally <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_definition\" title=\"Operational definition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76875458195604543b0ca5ea75ff2e23\">operational definition<\/a> rather than defining the field in cognitive terms. This follows <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Turing\" title=\"Alan Turing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48468f77ba0cf295402108f0dd72c040\">Alan Turing<\/a>'s proposal in his paper \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing_Machinery_and_Intelligence\" title=\"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22cb407e5fe68247851a69a0646c3f7e\">Computing Machinery and Intelligence<\/a>\", in which the question \"Can machines think?\" is replaced with the question \"Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Modern-day machine learning has two objectives, one is to classify data based on models which have been developed, the other purpose is to make predictions for future outcomes based on these models. A hypothetical algorithm specific to classifying data may use computer vision of moles coupled with supervised learning in order to train it to classify the cancerous moles. A machine learning algorithm for stock trading may inform the trader of future potential predictions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Artificial_intelligence\">Artificial intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:AI_hierarchy.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"09fe05ad0888c5f1016b9cb0634b3b82\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1b\/AI_hierarchy.svg\/220px-AI_hierarchy.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Machine learning as subfield of AI<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-journalimcms.org_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-journalimcms.org-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>As a scientific endeavor, machine learning grew out of the quest for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI). In the early days of AI as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discipline_(academia)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Discipline (academia)\" data-key=\"a625015086f9f01c8359f28a51400548\">academic discipline<\/a>, some researchers were interested in having machines learn from data. They attempted to approach the problem with various symbolic methods, as well as what were then termed \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_network\" title=\"Neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c67e639c390fb2296fc58f06d3f3982\">neural networks<\/a>\"; these were mostly <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perceptron\" title=\"Perceptron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04a4d1565003f718e5659ee6ae90061f\">perceptrons<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ADALINE\" title=\"ADALINE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3f396e879750a631ad9d48247291085\">other models<\/a> that were later found to be reinventions of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generalized_linear_model\" title=\"Generalized linear model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3099b72e74fddf71af4ad1bbf8eb20e\">generalized linear models<\/a> of statistics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probabilistic_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Probabilistic reasoning\" data-key=\"321ce99047d96b01179adffa7e3f651d\">Probabilistic reasoning<\/a> was also employed, especially in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_medical_diagnosis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated medical diagnosis\" data-key=\"b3ea211a3e3189cf5474fbc4abb020e4\">automated medical diagnosis<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-aima_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-aima-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 488\">:\u200a488\u200a<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, an increasing emphasis on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolic_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Symbolic AI\" data-key=\"f49579f042b3c5582c3951aac3a561ed\">logical, knowledge-based approach<\/a> caused a rift between AI and machine learning. Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical and practical problems of data acquisition and representation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-aima_24-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-aima-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 488\">:\u200a488\u200a<\/span><\/sup> By 1980, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_system\" title=\"Expert system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6a738b57cf1f26d8d60f3adb61e3384\">expert systems<\/a> had come to dominate AI, and statistics was out of favor.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-changing_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-changing-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> Work on symbolic\/knowledge-based learning did continue within AI, leading to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_logic_programming\" title=\"Inductive logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93a737196e39fde2d25f8168760d20ff\">inductive logic programming<\/a>, but the more statistical line of research was now outside the field of AI proper, in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pattern_recognition\" title=\"Pattern recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a507cb5f9432073674e1795cfa5dbd97\">pattern recognition<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">information retrieval<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-aima_24-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-aima-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 708\u2013710, 755\">:\u200a708\u2013710,\u200a755\u200a<\/span><\/sup> Neural networks research had been abandoned by AI and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a> around the same time. This line, too, was continued outside the AI\/CS field, as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Connectionism\" title=\"Connectionism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b94d106a53858fb714ed83605033a37\">connectionism<\/a>\", by researchers from other disciplines including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Hopfield\" title=\"John Hopfield\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b5a1208dbcc24d868b7d70c3a6dc6f5\">Hopfield<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Rumelhart\" title=\"David Rumelhart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bab17bb3b9eed4256e3c7c6e9dc03b6\">Rumelhart<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geoff_Hinton\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Geoff Hinton\" data-key=\"495e324b6352fad91b252568cda196ba\">Hinton<\/a>. Their main success came in the mid-1980s with the reinvention of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backpropagation\" title=\"Backpropagation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7681d69c3acc425256855e31afdd0bf4\">backpropagation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-aima_24-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-aima-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 25\">:\u200a25\u200a<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Machine learning (ML), reorganized and recognized as its own field, started to flourish in the 1990s. The field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a practical nature. It shifted focus away from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolic_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Symbolic artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90f04195cac03010b9702e7b8db7ad93\">symbolic approaches<\/a> it had inherited from AI, and toward methods and models borrowed from statistics, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\" title=\"Fuzzy logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b5089e9114f91c54ad40c5615094874\">fuzzy logic<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability_theory\" title=\"Probability theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40d8d0006465647b50b2b67ceab953aa\">probability theory<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-changing_25-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-changing-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_mining\">Data mining<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Machine learning and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a> often employ the same methods and overlap significantly, but while machine learning focuses on prediction, based on <i>known<\/i> properties learned from the training data, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a> focuses on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discovery_(observation)\" title=\"Discovery (observation)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b280343d54b6ae968e3f6515e6c24f3f\">discovery<\/a> of (previously) <i>unknown<\/i> properties in the data (this is the analysis step of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_discovery\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge discovery\" data-key=\"f2082ca1f1b7658a4524ad9dd8fddd97\">knowledge discovery<\/a> in databases). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">Data mining<\/a> uses many machine learning methods, but with different goals; on the other hand, machine learning also employs data mining methods as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">unsupervised learning<\/a>\" or as a preprocessing step to improve learner accuracy. Much of the confusion between these two research communities (which do often have separate conferences and separate journals, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ECML_PKDD\" title=\"ECML PKDD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89ee6a633668dcf9c5fac64e80f276ac\">ECML PKDD<\/a> being a major exception) comes from the basic assumptions they work with: in machine learning, performance is usually evaluated with respect to the ability to <i>reproduce known<\/i> knowledge, while in knowledge discovery and data mining (KDD) the key task is the discovery of previously <i>unknown<\/i> knowledge. Evaluated with respect to known knowledge, an uninformed (unsupervised) method will easily be outperformed by other supervised methods, while in a typical KDD task, supervised methods cannot be used due to the unavailability of training data.\n<\/p><p>Machine learning also has intimate ties to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">optimization<\/a>: many learning problems are formulated as minimization of some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loss_function\" title=\"Loss function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"125dea4dead6fff733011b9c4725ddfc\">loss function<\/a> on a training set of examples. Loss functions express the discrepancy between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances (for example, in classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly predict the pre-assigned labels of a set of examples).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Generalization\">Generalization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The difference between optimization and machine learning arises from the goal of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generalization_(learning)\" title=\"Generalization (learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"308b513c43f03abaa3838b588e13b8d7\">generalization<\/a>: while optimization algorithms can minimize the loss on a training set, machine learning is concerned with minimizing the loss on unseen samples. Characterizing the generalization of various learning algorithms is an active topic of current research, especially for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">deep learning<\/a> algorithms.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Statistics\">Statistics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Machine learning and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistics<\/a> are closely related fields in terms of methods, but distinct in their principal goal: statistics draws population <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_inference\" title=\"Statistical inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"531cc2121dc07b12e1541c66cca17129\">inferences<\/a> from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sample_(statistics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sample (statistics)\" data-key=\"5f27441544b1c58e696b79a19556d105\">sample<\/a>, while machine learning finds generalizable predictive patterns.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_I._Jordan\" title=\"Michael I. Jordan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85a970be35318eab19c293827bd3c5c9\">Michael I. Jordan<\/a>, the ideas of machine learning, from methodological principles to theoretical tools, have had a long pre-history in statistics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-mi_jordan_ama_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-mi_jordan_ama-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> He also suggested the term <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_science\" title=\"Data science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ca3033a747d64b89d986a08df1bf310\">data science<\/a> as a placeholder to call the overall field.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-mi_jordan_ama_28-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-mi_jordan_ama-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Conventional statistical analyses require the a priori selection of a model most suitable for the study data set. In addition, only significant or theoretically relevant variables based on previous experience are included for analysis. In contrast, machine learning is not built on a pre-structured model; rather, the data shape the model by detecting underlying patterns. The more variables (input) used to train the model, the more accurate the ultimate model will be.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leo_Breiman\" title=\"Leo Breiman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04ef6f1bdf2ad36c2dca21c55c31b007\">Leo Breiman<\/a> distinguished two statistical modeling paradigms: data model and algorithmic model,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> wherein \"algorithmic model\" means more or less the machine learning algorithms like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_forest\" title=\"Random forest\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7498be71bed6e2fdcf84fe40492498aa\">Random Forest<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Some statisticians have adopted methods from machine learning, leading to a combined field that they call <i>statistical learning<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-islr_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-islr-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Statistical_Physics\">Statistical Physics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Analytical and computational techniques derived from deep-rooted physics of disordered systems can be extended to large-scale problems, including machine learning, e.g., to analyze the weight space of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_neural_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Deep neural network\" data-key=\"a9ed700c42e118a181e5612b1dbfbd9a\">deep neural networks<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SP_1_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SP_1-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> Statistical physics is thus finding applications in the area of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_diagnostics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Medical diagnostics\" data-key=\"c5dd82939b5ad040f8919b02cba4592d\">medical diagnostics<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SP_2_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SP_2-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Theory\"><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-Generalization\"><\/span> Theory<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_learning_theory\" title=\"Computational learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cc562e86774b252f65ad147577243ae\">Computational learning theory<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_learning_theory\" title=\"Statistical learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"118d062c73567ce7bbdf1b29548bbd5b\">Statistical learning theory<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A core objective of a learner is to generalize from its experience.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bishop2006_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bishop2006-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:5_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:5-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup> Generalization in this context is the ability of a learning machine to perform accurately on new, unseen examples\/tasks after having experienced a learning data set. The training examples come from some generally unknown probability distribution (considered representative of the space of occurrences) and the learner has to build a general model about this space that enables it to produce sufficiently accurate predictions in new cases.\n<\/p><p>The computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theoretical_computer_science\" title=\"Theoretical computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b67bbd4f963ef9e86712a9f01271cdc\">theoretical computer science<\/a> known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_learning_theory\" title=\"Computational learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cc562e86774b252f65ad147577243ae\">computational learning theory<\/a> via the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probably_approximately_correct_learning\" title=\"Probably approximately correct learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bb4dec6a8fd2c280be4b68d192ee83c\">Probably Approximately Correct Learning<\/a> (PAC) model. Because training sets are finite and the future is uncertain, learning theory usually does not yield guarantees of the performance of algorithms. Instead, probabilistic bounds on the performance are quite common. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bias%E2%80%93variance_decomposition\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bias\u2013variance decomposition\" data-key=\"4a599a11868f2400e349734b5aa21ecd\">bias\u2013variance decomposition<\/a> is one way to quantify generalization <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Errors_and_residuals\" title=\"Errors and residuals\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ed9ddc48bfe43645fcea49dfbc2b227\">error<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>For the best performance in the context of generalization, the complexity of the hypothesis should match the complexity of the function underlying the data. If the hypothesis is less complex than the function, then the model has under fitted the data. If the complexity of the model is increased in response, then the training error decreases. But if the hypothesis is too complex, then the model is subject to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overfitting\" title=\"Overfitting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d1e3e9cfe8881363e47824ef11c4bc\">overfitting<\/a> and generalization will be poorer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-alpaydin_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-alpaydin-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In addition to performance bounds, learning theorists study the time complexity and feasibility of learning. In computational learning theory, a computation is considered feasible if it can be done in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_complexity#Polynomial_time\" title=\"Time complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e90580e8633725b11bc8e96cea668ce9\">polynomial time<\/a>. There are two kinds of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_complexity\" title=\"Time complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d6e4332aa6b8e12bf5927dd82821ba7\">time complexity<\/a> results: Positive results show that a certain class of functions can be learned in polynomial time. Negative results show that certain classes cannot be learned in polynomial time.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Approaches\">Approaches<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-Algorithm_types\"><\/span>\nMachine learning approaches are traditionally divided into three broad categories, which correspond to learning paradigms, depending on the nature of the \"signal\" or \"feedback\" available to the learning system:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">Supervised learning<\/a>: The computer is presented with example inputs and their desired outputs, given by a \"teacher\", and the goal is to learn a general rule that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Map_(mathematics)\" title=\"Map (mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4497c83a6f214b0e0f663c38bf53cf40\">maps<\/a> inputs to outputs.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">Unsupervised learning<\/a>: No labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on its own to find structure in its input. Unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself (discovering hidden patterns in data) or a means towards an end (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_learning\" title=\"Feature learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25c4bbbe4c545e982310e26d720cd6dc\">feature learning<\/a>).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">Reinforcement learning<\/a>: A computer program interacts with a dynamic environment in which it must perform a certain goal (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autonomous_car\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Autonomous car\" data-key=\"00b6c736eed7654f1b22efeb8789baa9\">driving a vehicle<\/a> or playing a game against an opponent). As it navigates its problem space, the program is provided feedback that's analogous to rewards, which it tries to maximize.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bishop2006_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bishop2006-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Although each algorithm has advantages and limitations, no single algorithm works for all problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Supervised_learning\">Supervised learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">Supervised learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Svm_max_sep_hyperplane_with_margin.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"67e9597344d97949859ececa51eab39c\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2a\/Svm_max_sep_hyperplane_with_margin.png\/220px-Svm_max_sep_hyperplane_with_margin.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"237\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support-vector_machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Support-vector machine\" data-key=\"5cff0f9816d2f29d795d51844d687b93\">support-vector machine<\/a> is a supervised learning model that divides the data into regions separated by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_classifier\" title=\"Linear classifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71c3a51e0caeeaf4e12b4ad6c9967337\">linear boundary<\/a>. Here, the linear boundary divides the black circles from the white.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Supervised learning algorithms build a mathematical model of a set of data that contains both the inputs and the desired outputs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> The data is known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Training_data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Training data\" data-key=\"0db8c5b44d4ec00e41c269cc5a0b73b8\">training data<\/a>, and consists of a set of training examples. Each training example has one or more inputs and the desired output, also known as a supervisory signal. In the mathematical model, each training example is represented by an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Array_data_structure\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Array data structure\" data-key=\"4ad2f615dad89fb376f4fb0d92a91771\">array<\/a> or vector, sometimes called a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_vector\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Feature vector\" data-key=\"dd23106c538575c2ea758751567dfb28\">feature vector<\/a>, and the training data is represented by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Matrix_(mathematics)\" title=\"Matrix (mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"239e329ec460a3750b22271a50cbf8c7\">matrix<\/a>. Through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization#Computational_optimization_techniques\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b519caa98a5b6acdc232445dfcd78048\">iterative optimization<\/a> of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loss_function\" title=\"Loss function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"125dea4dead6fff733011b9c4725ddfc\">objective function<\/a>, supervised learning algorithms learn a function that can be used to predict the output associated with new inputs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup> An optimal function allows the algorithm to correctly determine the output for inputs that were not a part of the training data. An algorithm that improves the accuracy of its outputs or predictions over time is said to have learned to perform that task.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mitchell-1997_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mitchell-1997-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Types of supervised-learning algorithms include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_learning_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Active learning (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bab4ca0aa13e7521045ce95189f09d5f\">active learning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">classification<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">regression<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> Classification algorithms are used when the outputs are restricted to a limited set of values, and regression algorithms are used when the outputs may have any numerical value within a range. As an example, for a classification algorithm that filters emails, the input would be an incoming email, and the output would be the name of the folder in which to file the email.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Similarity_learning\" title=\"Similarity learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8d1aec38d071f232eb5e89c956a873c\">Similarity learning<\/a> is an area of supervised machine learning closely related to regression and classification, but the goal is to learn from examples using a similarity function that measures how similar or related two objects are. It has applications in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ranking\" title=\"Ranking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"28eccb2b18982cbb95fc783f7f67cc83\">ranking<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recommender_system\" title=\"Recommender system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd8c39f11ec163e4c363222f532670c0\">recommendation systems<\/a>, visual identity tracking, face verification, and speaker verification.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Unsupervised_learning\">Unsupervised learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">Unsupervised learning<\/a><\/div><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">Cluster analysis<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Unsupervised learning algorithms find structures in data that has not been labeled, classified or categorized. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algorithms identify commonalities in the data and react based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in each new piece of data. Central applications of unsupervised machine learning include clustering, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dimensionality_reduction\" title=\"Dimensionality reduction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556ade3b4a0a6a8d8704fce11a66d19\">dimensionality reduction<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:9_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:9-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Density_estimation\" title=\"Density estimation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e154818923edfb8396c2ef66f332a17a\">density estimation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JordanBishop2004_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JordanBishop2004-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> Unsupervised learning algorithms also streamlined the process of identifying large <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Indel\" title=\"Indel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9aa0d3f060519306a054540516272b62\">indel<\/a> based <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haplotype\" title=\"Haplotype\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c8b58b23af25691c910233976deb555\">haplotypes<\/a> of a gene of interest from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pan-genome\" title=\"Pan-genome\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"308dc9d6b7ee4d936451681def348427\">pan-genome<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:CLIPS.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"25e7e9d0a556c3b0b47731f230e4f1d2\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/02\/CLIPS.jpg\/542px-CLIPS.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"mw-file-element\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Clustering via Large Indel Permuted Slopes, <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2023.02.11.527743\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"doi:10.1101\/2023.02.11.527743\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">CLIPS<\/a>, turns the alignment image into a learning regression problem. The varied slope (<i>b<\/i>) estimates between each pair of DNA segments enables to identify segments sharing the same set of indels.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Cluster analysis is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called <i>clusters<\/i>) so that observations within the same cluster are similar according to one or more predesignated criteria, while observations drawn from different clusters are dissimilar. Different clustering techniques make different assumptions on the structure of the data, often defined by some <i>similarity metric<\/i> and evaluated, for example, by <i>internal compactness<\/i>, or the similarity between members of the same cluster, and <i>separation<\/i>, the difference between clusters. Other methods are based on <i>estimated density<\/i> and <i>graph connectivity<\/i>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Semi-supervised_learning\">Semi-supervised learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semi-supervised_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Semi-supervised learning\" data-key=\"6504615e972451663dc33142bb427ca9\">Semi-supervised learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Semi-supervised learning falls between <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">unsupervised learning<\/a> (without any labeled training data) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">supervised learning<\/a> (with completely labeled training data). Some of the training examples are missing training labels, yet many machine-learning researchers have found that unlabeled data, when used in conjunction with a small amount of labeled data, can produce a considerable improvement in learning accuracy.\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weak_supervision\" title=\"Weak supervision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfe8d63e1ff772c98608a729f491cf98\">weakly supervised learning<\/a>, the training labels are noisy, limited, or imprecise; however, these labels are often cheaper to obtain, resulting in larger effective training sets.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reinforcement_learning\">Reinforcement learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">Reinforcement learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Reinforcement learning is an area of machine learning concerned with how <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_agent\" title=\"Software agent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785aa35fbeaa15ae7c0f6ce719ec4091\">software agents<\/a> ought to take <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Action_selection\" title=\"Action selection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13c0b375370d9e11f0eaec6090823b10\">actions<\/a> in an environment so as to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. Due to its generality, the field is studied in many other disciplines, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_theory\" title=\"Game theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5498b159fb87dc60c8ad0a722348a50a\">game theory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_theory\" title=\"Control theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca62140e6aa311d719e89134c349c4ce\">control theory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">operations research<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_theory\" title=\"Information theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37a5a861361287193f336544da55e690\">information theory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Simulation-based_optimization\" title=\"Simulation-based optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf8feff43e7e3f4bf632a73918091348\">simulation-based optimization<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multi-agent_system\" title=\"Multi-agent system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09eb2405abcfe406399c2857ad282249\">multi-agent systems<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swarm_intelligence\" title=\"Swarm intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f37742882c10162325fa45a9fbebf82e\">swarm intelligence<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_algorithm\" title=\"Genetic algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f15c0d036941031692b8f72bc60e8262\">genetic algorithms<\/a>. In reinforcement learning, the environment is typically represented as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markov_decision_process\" title=\"Markov decision process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a165b52a9ae8569c3987f865361587a4\">Markov decision process<\/a> (MDP). Many reinforcements learning algorithms use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_programming\" title=\"Dynamic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af2eaba8611f641af24c8f128aed3cd0\">dynamic programming<\/a> techniques.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> Reinforcement learning algorithms do not assume knowledge of an exact mathematical model of the MDP and are used when exact models are infeasible. Reinforcement learning algorithms are used in autonomous vehicles or in learning to play a game against a human opponent.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Dimensionality_reduction\">Dimensionality reduction<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dimensionality_reduction\" title=\"Dimensionality reduction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556ade3b4a0a6a8d8704fce11a66d19\">Dimensionality reduction<\/a> is a process of reducing the number of random variables under consideration by obtaining a set of principal variables.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> In other words, it is a process of reducing the dimension of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Feature (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5c6ed542fb04745a61515c3c6e9a103\">feature<\/a> set, also called the \"number of features\". Most of the dimensionality reduction techniques can be considered as either feature elimination or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_extraction\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Feature extraction\" data-key=\"8cf100c75a104d6927b2183187f144c3\">extraction<\/a>. One of the popular methods of dimensionality reduction is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Principal_component_analysis\" title=\"Principal component analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acf4c2c0901a58dc84cd686341a415e4\">principal component analysis<\/a> (PCA). PCA involves changing higher-dimensional data (e.g., 3D) to a smaller space (e.g., 2D). This results in a smaller dimension of data (2D instead of 3D), while keeping all original variables in the model without changing the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup>\nThe <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manifold_hypothesis\" title=\"Manifold hypothesis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faf246f484bed352065e2bb5afdffc1a\">manifold hypothesis<\/a> proposes that high-dimensional data sets lie along low-dimensional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manifold\" title=\"Manifold\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a675ffebdaca098e7cb39e20b7faba0\">manifolds<\/a>, and many dimensionality reduction techniques make this assumption, leading to the area of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manifold_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Manifold learning\" data-key=\"3fd4fd82c256ed0cea0f6e741c2eaf42\">manifold learning<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manifold_regularization\" title=\"Manifold regularization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6282de557ea7a66fb24bf81859374706\">manifold regularization<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_types\">Other types<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Other approaches have been developed which do not fit neatly into this three-fold categorization, and sometimes more than one is used by the same machine learning system. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Topic_modeling\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Topic modeling\" data-key=\"c2ee5bd544950f74084e7f499b9fd52c\">topic modeling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meta-learning_(computer_science)\" title=\"Meta-learning (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a3a01546e52c1eb5a0b8fc418ef3abc\">meta-learning<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Self-learning\">Self-learning<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Self-learning, as a machine learning paradigm was introduced in 1982 along with a neural network capable of self-learning, named <i>crossbar adaptive array<\/i> (CAA).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup> It is learning with no external rewards and no external teacher advice. The CAA self-learning algorithm computes, in a crossbar fashion, both decisions about actions and emotions (feelings) about consequence situations. The system is driven by the interaction between cognition and emotion.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\nThe self-learning algorithm updates a memory matrix W =||w(a,s)|| such that in each iteration executes the following machine learning routine: \n<\/p>\n<ol><li>in situation <i>s<\/i> perform action <i>a<\/i><\/li>\n<li>receive consequence situation <i>s<\/i><\/li>\n<li>compute emotion of being in consequence situation <i>v(s')<\/i><\/li>\n<li>update crossbar memory <i>w'(a,s) = w(a,s) + v(s')<\/i><\/li><\/ol>\n<p>It is a system with only one input, situation, and only one output, action (or behavior) a. There is neither a separate reinforcement input nor an advice input from the environment. The backpropagated value (secondary reinforcement) is the emotion toward the consequence situation. The CAA exists in two environments, one is the behavioral environment where it behaves, and the other is the genetic environment, wherefrom it initially and only once receives initial emotions about situations to be encountered in the behavioral environment. After receiving the genome (species) vector from the genetic environment, the CAA learns a goal-seeking behavior, in an environment that contains both desirable and undesirable situations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Feature_learning\">Feature learning<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_learning\" title=\"Feature learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25c4bbbe4c545e982310e26d720cd6dc\">Feature learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Several learning algorithms aim at discovering better representations of the inputs provided during training.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-pami_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pami-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup> Classic examples include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Principal_component_analysis\" title=\"Principal component analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acf4c2c0901a58dc84cd686341a415e4\">principal component analysis<\/a> and cluster analysis. Feature learning algorithms, also called representation learning algorithms, often attempt to preserve the information in their input but also transform it in a way that makes it useful, often as a pre-processing step before performing classification or predictions. This technique allows reconstruction of the inputs coming from the unknown data-generating distribution, while not being necessarily faithful to configurations that are implausible under that distribution. This replaces manual <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_engineering\" title=\"Feature engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b35c2f718d44cad181d706f87c70fb2c\">feature engineering<\/a>, and allows a machine to both learn the features and use them to perform a specific task.\n<\/p><p>Feature learning can be either supervised or unsupervised. In supervised feature learning, features are learned using labeled input data. Examples include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural networks<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multilayer_perceptron\" title=\"Multilayer perceptron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb59d89291d6d19591bbaebb959cf3b9\">multilayer perceptrons<\/a>, and supervised <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dictionary_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dictionary learning\" data-key=\"6d03ab4a7aeb34272615f6d678d0feda\">dictionary learning<\/a>. In unsupervised feature learning, features are learned with unlabeled input data. Examples include dictionary learning, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Independent_component_analysis\" title=\"Independent component analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b5b1c2fc57ef5fc1ebbf3c72febc842\">independent component analysis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autoencoder\" title=\"Autoencoder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0b18c427d5281fd5736ceb757f8273d\">autoencoders<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Matrix_decomposition\" title=\"Matrix decomposition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba3af3658e04f388e5c5ce96b30b0e71\">matrix factorization<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup> and various forms of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">clustering<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-coates2011_54-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-coates2011-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-jurafsky_56-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-jurafsky-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manifold_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Manifold learning\" data-key=\"3fd4fd82c256ed0cea0f6e741c2eaf42\">Manifold learning<\/a> algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is low-dimensional. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sparse_coding\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sparse coding\" data-key=\"f5871ed1066ff51449a7ae5181b0fa7c\">Sparse coding<\/a> algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is sparse, meaning that the mathematical model has many zeros. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multilinear_subspace_learning\" title=\"Multilinear subspace learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8f8d1fbfb2b57f6f056c13d55f2a12d\">Multilinear subspace learning<\/a> algorithms aim to learn low-dimensional representations directly from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tensor\" title=\"Tensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0732e7c5fb4650a003569c3844616621\">tensor<\/a> representations for multidimensional data, without reshaping them into higher-dimensional vectors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a> algorithms discover multiple levels of representation, or a hierarchy of features, with higher-level, more abstract features defined in terms of (or generating) lower-level features. It has been argued that an intelligent machine is one that learns a representation that disentangles the underlying factors of variation that explain the observed data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Feature learning is motivated by the fact that machine learning tasks such as classification often require input that is mathematically and computationally convenient to process. However, real-world data such as images, video, and sensory data has not yielded attempts to algorithmically define specific features. An alternative is to discover such features or representations through examination, without relying on explicit algorithms.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sparse_dictionary_learning\">Sparse dictionary learning<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sparse_dictionary_learning\" title=\"Sparse dictionary learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee0aeb97faa0419cad2da2097b9cf25\">Sparse dictionary learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Sparse dictionary learning is a feature learning method where a training example is represented as a linear combination of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basis_function\" title=\"Basis function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3e380b81bb914cd57983e3ffde70f2f\">basis functions<\/a>, and is assumed to be a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sparse_matrix\" title=\"Sparse matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e868f94bd93090305c1cec98065e8194\">sparse matrix<\/a>. The method is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strongly_NP-hard\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Strongly NP-hard\" data-key=\"34a6d509bb3299aa991cf145cd16bf47\">strongly NP-hard<\/a> and difficult to solve approximately.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup> A popular <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristic\" title=\"Heuristic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43bdbf6d64573ad3685511cbc07502fd\">heuristic<\/a> method for sparse dictionary learning is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K-SVD\" title=\"K-SVD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03b0136c9d0cf472c5230fe56e63520a\">K-SVD<\/a> algorithm. Sparse dictionary learning has been applied in several contexts. In classification, the problem is to determine the class to which a previously unseen training example belongs. For a dictionary where each class has already been built, a new training example is associated with the class that is best sparsely represented by the corresponding dictionary. Sparse dictionary learning has also been applied in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Image_de-noising\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Image de-noising\" data-key=\"b67802e11d81f968fa3bddf0050d8421\">image de-noising<\/a>. The key idea is that a clean image patch can be sparsely represented by an image dictionary, but the noise cannot.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Anomaly_detection\">Anomaly detection<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anomaly_detection\" title=\"Anomaly detection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bba5c970d8f41b6bd4492e1d32f9118\">Anomaly detection<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a>, anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is the identification of rare items, events or observations which raise suspicions by differing significantly from the majority of the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_61-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup> Typically, the anomalous items represent an issue such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bank_fraud\" title=\"Bank fraud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8722895f2c9d4554cb83ce1fdd586a4c\">bank fraud<\/a>, a structural defect, medical problems or errors in a text. Anomalies are referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outlier\" title=\"Outlier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c6e5dd183434c0110fdb6173a7ce742\">outliers<\/a>, novelties, noise, deviations and exceptions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In particular, in the context of abuse and network intrusion detection, the interesting objects are often not rare objects, but unexpected bursts of inactivity. This pattern does not adhere to the common statistical definition of an outlier as a rare object. Many outlier detection methods (in particular, unsupervised algorithms) will fail on such data unless aggregated appropriately. Instead, a cluster analysis algorithm may be able to detect the micro-clusters formed by these patterns.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Three broad categories of anomaly detection techniques exist.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChandolaSurvey_64-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChandolaSurvey-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> Unsupervised anomaly detection techniques detect anomalies in an unlabeled test data set under the assumption that the majority of the instances in the data set are normal, by looking for instances that seem to fit the least to the remainder of the data set. Supervised anomaly detection techniques require a data set that has been labeled as \"normal\" and \"abnormal\" and involves training a classifier (the key difference to many other statistical classification problems is the inherently unbalanced nature of outlier detection). Semi-supervised anomaly detection techniques construct a model representing normal behavior from a given normal training data set and then test the likelihood of a test instance to be generated by the model.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Robot_learning\">Robot learning<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robot_learning\" title=\"Robot learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af1bdabd499a5d686065e49d6ca6aeff\">Robot learning<\/a> is inspired by a multitude of machine learning methods, starting from supervised learning, reinforcement learning,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup> and finally <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meta-learning_(computer_science)\" title=\"Meta-learning (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a3a01546e52c1eb5a0b8fc418ef3abc\">meta-learning<\/a> (e.g. MAML).\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Association_rules\">Association rules<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_rule_learning\" title=\"Association rule learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69b9d54917f42d0ac09a6ce55397d096\">Association rule learning<\/a><\/div><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_logic_programming\" title=\"Inductive logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93a737196e39fde2d25f8168760d20ff\">Inductive logic programming<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Association rule learning is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rule-based_machine_learning\" title=\"Rule-based machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca715d4e9f51e83cd221693385d0913d\">rule-based machine learning<\/a> method for discovering relationships between variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong rules discovered in databases using some measure of \"interestingness\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-piatetsky_67-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-piatetsky-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Rule-based machine learning is a general term for any machine learning method that identifies, learns, or evolves \"rules\" to store, manipulate or apply knowledge. The defining characteristic of a rule-based machine learning algorithm is the identification and utilization of a set of relational rules that collectively represent the knowledge captured by the system. This is in contrast to other machine learning algorithms that commonly identify a singular model that can be universally applied to any instance in order to make a prediction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup> Rule-based machine learning approaches include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_classifier_system\" title=\"Learning classifier system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"698aaad8ca3fae74ea1c18a98e11314d\">learning classifier systems<\/a>, association rule learning, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_immune_system\" title=\"Artificial immune system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70d7126debf08ffea09fc55abac6609e\">artificial immune systems<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Based on the concept of strong rules, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rakesh_Agrawal_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"Rakesh Agrawal (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"369afaab48f12944cacd199c66c4ffc3\">Rakesh Agrawal<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tomasz_Imieli%C5%84ski\" title=\"Tomasz Imieli\u0144ski\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"602aa5b3067b75e0f49cd1438487b061\">Tomasz Imieli\u0144ski<\/a> and Arun Swami introduced association rules for discovering regularities between products in large-scale transaction data recorded by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Point-of-sale\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Point-of-sale\" data-key=\"1bb2dd931794c246629de8a4c300b3ba\">point-of-sale<\/a> (POS) systems in supermarkets.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-mining_69-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-mining-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup> For example, the rule <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/2e6daa2c8e553e87e411d6e0ec66ae596c3c9381\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:30.912ex; height:2.843ex;\" alt=\"\\{{\\mathrm {onions,potatoes}}\\}\\Rightarrow \\{{\\mathrm {burger}}\\}\" \/><\/span> found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if a customer buys onions and potatoes together, they are likely to also buy hamburger meat. Such information can be used as the basis for decisions about marketing activities such as promotional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pricing\" title=\"Pricing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f9772fa0af8925d1385bda5c0c84f5a\">pricing<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_placement\" title=\"Product placement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c6e4d8ca329c14d882dfc355694aa5d1\">product placements<\/a>. In addition to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Market_basket_analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Market basket analysis\" data-key=\"d023fbb0a5ceba6a72cbb8642fa79b01\">market basket analysis<\/a>, association rules are employed today in application areas including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_usage_mining\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web usage mining\" data-key=\"e82b2d043edec6f318cae66425e8bafa\">Web usage mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intrusion_detection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intrusion detection\" data-key=\"1bc8a7889354f177551215bcbb759cc1\">intrusion detection<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continuous_production\" title=\"Continuous production\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"372caa1c1f73f3847fc5bc6b0abaa54a\">continuous production<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01737c6289ef7671d2c932a51babe26b\">bioinformatics<\/a>. In contrast with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sequence_mining\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sequence mining\" data-key=\"1a30e9cfab48374ced380b93858f24ef\">sequence mining<\/a>, association rule learning typically does not consider the order of items either within a transaction or across transactions.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>Learning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning algorithms that combine a discovery component, typically a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_algorithm\" title=\"Genetic algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f15c0d036941031692b8f72bc60e8262\">genetic algorithm<\/a>, with a learning component, performing either <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">supervised learning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">reinforcement learning<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">unsupervised learning<\/a>. They seek to identify a set of context-dependent rules that collectively store and apply knowledge in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Piecewise\" title=\"Piecewise\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da0d7ac74cb08716d5b9783f3f83f5cc\">piecewise<\/a> manner in order to make predictions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_logic_programming\" title=\"Inductive logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93a737196e39fde2d25f8168760d20ff\">Inductive logic programming<\/a> (ILP) is an approach to rule learning using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_programming\" title=\"Logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6c0943d2bbff45f5ba0d111f9a594b7\">logic programming<\/a> as a uniform representation for input examples, background knowledge, and hypotheses. Given an encoding of the known background knowledge and a set of examples represented as a logical database of facts, an ILP system will derive a hypothesized logic program that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entailment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Entailment\" data-key=\"a4592c33fb06a23d9fc9536e4fdffdca\">entails<\/a> all positive and no negative examples. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_programming\" title=\"Inductive programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69d5262a06126ec1a0a045ff4a9f8e3e\">Inductive programming<\/a> is a related field that considers any kind of programming language for representing hypotheses (and not only logic programming), such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_programming\" title=\"Functional programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86692f4d835f0c297483717a66ba067f\">functional programs<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Inductive logic programming is particularly useful in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01737c6289ef7671d2c932a51babe26b\">bioinformatics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">natural language processing<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gordon_Plotkin\" title=\"Gordon Plotkin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57d07b9355ea892d527e5a32932fd133\">Gordon Plotkin<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ehud_Shapiro\" title=\"Ehud Shapiro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4234dd688b6927b7e16074b90a3ac857\">Ehud Shapiro<\/a> laid the initial theoretical foundation for inductive machine learning in a logical setting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> Shapiro built their first implementation (Model Inference System) in 1981: a Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> The term <i>inductive<\/i> here refers to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_reasoning\" title=\"Inductive reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3abdea09fcc6b3b94276f6f00c70460\">philosophical<\/a> induction, suggesting a theory to explain observed facts, rather than <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_induction\" title=\"Mathematical induction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd44a079605b12d46ebf6dc1c7ced911\">mathematical induction<\/a>, proving a property for all members of a well-ordered set.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Models\">Models<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Performing machine learning can involve creating a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_model\" title=\"Statistical model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"471ef69d6cb5a7420b7742ce0844575d\">model<\/a>, which is trained on some training data and then can process additional data to make predictions. Various types of models have been used and researched for machine learning systems.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Artificial_neural_networks\">Artificial neural networks<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">Artificial neural network<\/a><\/div><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Colored_neural_network.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"337045b136c1c78311818d970942386b\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/46\/Colored_neural_network.svg\/300px-Colored_neural_network.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"361\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>An artificial neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuron\" title=\"Neuron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05a82b92028de241144df7d8e40c0874\">neurons<\/a> in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brain\" title=\"Brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082ad629c00df0dab8bbb250e180d036\">brain<\/a>. Here, each circular node represents an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neuron\" title=\"Artificial neuron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"668d1d9d3deaa7608bdfafd938e6fed7\">artificial neuron<\/a> and an arrow represents a connection from the output of one artificial neuron to the input of another.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Artificial neural networks (ANNs), or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Connectionism\" title=\"Connectionism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b94d106a53858fb714ed83605033a37\">connectionist<\/a> systems, are computing systems vaguely inspired by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biological_neural_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Biological neural network\" data-key=\"175705890c69b4d3af5db8ad125fc82a\">biological neural networks<\/a> that constitute animal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brain\" title=\"Brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082ad629c00df0dab8bbb250e180d036\">brains<\/a>. Such systems \"learn\" to perform tasks by considering examples, generally without being programmed with any task-specific rules.\n<\/p><p>An ANN is a model based on a collection of connected units or nodes called \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neuron\" title=\"Artificial neuron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"668d1d9d3deaa7608bdfafd938e6fed7\">artificial neurons<\/a>\", which loosely model the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuron\" title=\"Neuron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05a82b92028de241144df7d8e40c0874\">neurons<\/a> in a biological <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brain\" title=\"Brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082ad629c00df0dab8bbb250e180d036\">brain<\/a>. Each connection, like the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synapse\" title=\"Synapse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1958d647475c9555458b4dd995ea29\">synapses<\/a> in a biological <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brain\" title=\"Brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082ad629c00df0dab8bbb250e180d036\">brain<\/a>, can transmit information, a \"signal\", from one artificial neuron to another. An artificial neuron that receives a signal can process it and then signal additional artificial neurons connected to it. In common ANN implementations, the signal at a connection between artificial neurons is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Real_number\" title=\"Real number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"073f2651c133e30ec9563386a1e1273c\">real number<\/a>, and the output of each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections between artificial neurons are called \"edges\". Artificial neurons and edges typically have a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weight_(mathematics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Weight (mathematics)\" data-key=\"f3555724ea835fd67e8bed4b40295a73\">weight<\/a> that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Artificial neurons may have a threshold such that the signal is only sent if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically, artificial neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different kinds of transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer) to the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times.\n<\/p><p>The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_brain\" title=\"Human brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff33b42bebe76bd7734491bdb8768fa1\">human brain<\/a> would. However, over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, leading to deviations from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biology\" title=\"Biology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81772f42e96739a4294322e11168b1f8\">biology<\/a>. Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety of tasks, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">computer vision<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">machine translation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_network\" title=\"Social network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb8cd53dfbe2a36158d9abd6d4b86cdb\">social network<\/a> filtering, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_game_playing\" title=\"General game playing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b659f2ed91c7a28bca494393765fd1\">playing board and video games<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_diagnosis\" title=\"Medical diagnosis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3271571a31d7a690a4694c12932a148\">medical diagnosis<\/a>.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a> consists of multiple hidden layers in an artificial neural network. This approach tries to model the way the human brain processes light and sound into vision and hearing. Some successful applications of deep learning are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">computer vision<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Decision_trees\">Decision trees<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_tree_learning\" title=\"Decision tree learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4164d60d7492f2ce658e44b26d1d2702\">Decision tree learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Decision_Tree.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"f4e60cdc9bbf18246abdc39040991659\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/eb\/Decision_Tree.jpg\/220px-Decision_Tree.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"228\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A decision tree showing survival probability of passengers on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Titanic\" title=\"Titanic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65b9aff6a5296d1783ca80eaecc6a104\">Titanic<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Decision tree learning uses a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_tree\" title=\"Decision tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e8d0b5084951f9afa32e59b5a237e30\">decision tree<\/a> as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_modeling\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Predictive modeling\" data-key=\"7b5a8612567538244b872ef348528e1b\">predictive model<\/a> to go from observations about an item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value (represented in the leaves). It is one of the predictive modeling approaches used in statistics, data mining, and machine learning. Tree models where the target variable can take a discrete set of values are called classification trees; in these tree structures, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leaf_node\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Leaf node\" data-key=\"2ee645ea433c1fd4dbbb9734bc5722b6\">leaves<\/a> represent class labels, and branches represent <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_conjunction\" title=\"Logical conjunction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b05026ed121fd0ca870726965b50256\">conjunctions<\/a> of features that lead to those class labels. Decision trees where the target variable can take continuous values (typically <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Real_numbers\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Real numbers\" data-key=\"357cbc5a5680a7069d25a01c0bfbc691\">real numbers<\/a>) are called regression trees. In decision analysis, a decision tree can be used to visually and explicitly represent decisions and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision making\" data-key=\"f7ca18573163d657813ebb8dfb5bff55\">decision making<\/a>. In data mining, a decision tree describes data, but the resulting classification tree can be an input for decision-making.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Support-vector_machines\">Support-vector machines<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support-vector_machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Support-vector machine\" data-key=\"5cff0f9816d2f29d795d51844d687b93\">Support-vector machine<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Support-vector machines (SVMs), also known as support-vector networks, are a set of related <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">supervised learning<\/a> methods used for classification and regression. Given a set of training examples, each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that predicts whether a new example falls into one category.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CorinnaCortes_76-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CorinnaCortes-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup> An SVM training algorithm is a non-<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probabilistic_classification\" title=\"Probabilistic classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19872390b6d9c232ac78d35df9415f1f\">probabilistic<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Binary_classifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Binary classifier\" data-key=\"9fa2289dd525d165369dcab2f50f13e6\">binary<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_classifier\" title=\"Linear classifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71c3a51e0caeeaf4e12b4ad6c9967337\">linear classifier<\/a>, although methods such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Platt_scaling\" title=\"Platt scaling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d54b7f827a077340a9e049d85025cec8\">Platt scaling<\/a> exist to use SVM in a probabilistic classification setting. In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can efficiently perform a non-linear classification using what is called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel_trick\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Kernel trick\" data-key=\"03f10e6f703047b9e5d944e38a1d94f3\">kernel trick<\/a>, implicitly mapping their inputs into high-dimensional feature spaces.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regression_analysis\">Regression analysis<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">Regression analysis<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Linear_regression.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"33458f3a5de620779d38504f4ac06ee4\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/3a\/Linear_regression.svg\/290px-Linear_regression.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"290\" height=\"191\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Illustration of linear regression on a data set<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Regression analysis encompasses a large variety of statistical methods to estimate the relationship between input variables and their associated features. Its most common form is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_regression\" title=\"Linear regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85453f53b8a2cdb252a2e05dbd419405\">linear regression<\/a>, where a single line is drawn to best fit the given data according to a mathematical criterion such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ordinary_least_squares\" title=\"Ordinary least squares\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57e6db8c9e78478f6d11c30f9d620409\">ordinary least squares<\/a>. The latter is often extended by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regularization_(mathematics)\" title=\"Regularization (mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09e8bc8d29e5ebbe05052b0d0262c201\">regularization<\/a> methods to mitigate overfitting and bias, as in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ridge_regression\" title=\"Ridge regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"627918e4e451397a0a601986286678f4\">ridge regression<\/a>. When dealing with non-linear problems, go-to models include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polynomial_regression\" title=\"Polynomial regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c619d2f0ea24a8e2aed736d6b494a339\">polynomial regression<\/a> (for example, used for trendline fitting in Microsoft Excel<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logistic_regression\" title=\"Logistic regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02aceaf0d8cb200b9c48cd2f097bb1dc\">logistic regression<\/a> (often used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">statistical classification<\/a>) or even <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel_regression\" title=\"Kernel regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7a6172f9bede45000502070cab7ce4a\">kernel regression<\/a>, which introduces non-linearity by taking advantage of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel_trick\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Kernel trick\" data-key=\"03f10e6f703047b9e5d944e38a1d94f3\">kernel trick<\/a> to implicitly map input variables to higher-dimensional space.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bayesian_networks\">Bayesian networks<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian network<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SimpleBayesNetNodes.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f8d0c2c1d18191aa7726806a2f116e0\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fd\/SimpleBayesNetNodes.svg\/220px-SimpleBayesNetNodes.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"114\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A simple Bayesian network. Rain influences whether the sprinkler is activated, and both rain and the sprinkler influence whether the grass is wet.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>A Bayesian network, belief network, or directed acyclic graphical model is a probabilistic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphical_model\" title=\"Graphical model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96879083bb03e34a53730fbb180daea8\">graphical model<\/a> that represents a set of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_variables\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Random variables\" data-key=\"6d50837904f9a05673b58c21d5a80697\">random variables<\/a> and their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conditional_independence\" title=\"Conditional independence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48b804100af58c7ba14169a689650c6d\">conditional independence<\/a> with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directed_acyclic_graph\" title=\"Directed acyclic graph\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ffc54b1becafa75ddce26d12f6300ea0\">directed acyclic graph<\/a> (DAG). For example, a Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic relationships between diseases and symptoms. Given symptoms, the network can be used to compute the probabilities of the presence of various diseases. Efficient algorithms exist that perform <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inference\" title=\"Inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a83751a82d1ce852f34d85b5ebb0eba\">inference<\/a> and learning. Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech signals<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peptide_sequence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Peptide sequence\" data-key=\"8f009f5522b07699995eb04a1a66728f\">protein sequences<\/a>, are called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_Bayesian_network\" title=\"Dynamic Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c77f6b75feb8e5df8f5bea6a137d340c\">dynamic Bayesian networks<\/a>. Generalizations of Bayesian networks that can represent and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Influence_diagram\" title=\"Influence diagram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24c61a851a8262b0a3186b220d7710aa\">influence diagrams<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Gaussian_processes\">Gaussian processes<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gaussian_processes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gaussian processes\" data-key=\"0b14506bbef0b7457bf9b4bd2f55406a\">Gaussian processes<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Regressions_sine_demo.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"a40a70929eeb2c70ede100ed233c2d48\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a7\/Regressions_sine_demo.svg\/220px-Regressions_sine_demo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"110\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>An example of Gaussian Process Regression (prediction) compared with other regression models<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>A Gaussian process is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stochastic_process\" title=\"Stochastic process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44f7c46211dfad95272887282940ad69\">stochastic process<\/a> in which every finite collection of the random variables in the process has a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multivariate_normal_distribution\" title=\"Multivariate normal distribution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6613f320fd69c461b42e3549bcfceef6\">multivariate normal distribution<\/a>, and it relies on a pre-defined <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Covariance_function\" title=\"Covariance function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f177b2850dd7108c5f3a8d6f64ca03\">covariance function<\/a>, or kernel, that models how pairs of points relate to each other depending on their locations.\n<\/p><p>Given a set of observed points, or input\u2013output examples, the distribution of the (unobserved) output of a new point as function of its input data can be directly computed by looking like the observed points and the covariances between those points and the new, unobserved point.\n<\/p><p>Gaussian processes are popular surrogate models in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_optimization\" title=\"Bayesian optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ac354a0f984a882dcec284e272fb038\">Bayesian optimization<\/a> used to do <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hyperparameter_optimization\" title=\"Hyperparameter optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23f73873a73a296727b75e4f32b45884\">hyperparameter optimization<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Genetic_algorithms\">Genetic algorithms<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_algorithm\" title=\"Genetic algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f15c0d036941031692b8f72bc60e8262\">Genetic algorithm<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A genetic algorithm (GA) is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_algorithm\" title=\"Search algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8e2192ba143c7f57418b352fefb05f1\">search algorithm<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristic_(computer_science)\" title=\"Heuristic (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed4166fcb2ae0a69da5ac93b79f41785\">heuristic<\/a> technique that mimics the process of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_selection\" title=\"Natural selection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cae9a9a763c86d44cc6c6b5cd83b94f\">natural selection<\/a>, using methods such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mutation_(genetic_algorithm)\" title=\"Mutation (genetic algorithm)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86e7ab0d9a060275eb8ab1f594dc9d07\">mutation<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crossover_(genetic_algorithm)\" title=\"Crossover (genetic algorithm)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d8286420f591c0d2e2abd68fc03fe2e\">crossover<\/a> to generate new <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromosome_(genetic_algorithm)\" title=\"Chromosome (genetic algorithm)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b37927b5c03e81662bc24cd5db9008e\">genotypes<\/a> in the hope of finding good solutions to a given problem. In machine learning, genetic algorithms were used in the 1980s and 1990s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup> Conversely, machine learning techniques have been used to improve the performance of genetic and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_algorithm\" title=\"Evolutionary algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2be5565f46780928629b4705cf141f08\">evolutionary algorithms<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-81\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Belief_functions\">Belief functions<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dempster%E2%80%93Shafer_theory\" title=\"Dempster\u2013Shafer theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc92e256fd7b80e55c6f4802b50a541c\">Dempster\u2013Shafer theory<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The theory of belief functions, also referred to as evidence theory or Dempster\u2013Shafer theory, is a general framework for reasoning with uncertainty, with understood connections to other frameworks such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability\" title=\"Probability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44ea3f63d04643beddabc48ace7e9515\">probability<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Possibility_theory\" title=\"Possibility theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1182b1a345c8cb75f7bf96b9000ba90a\">possibility<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Imprecise_probability\" title=\"Imprecise probability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56dff6e33220d13215bd850ee3bab144\">imprecise probability theories<\/a>. These theoretical frameworks can be thought of as a kind of learner and have some analogous properties of how evidence is combined (e.g., Dempster's rule of combination), just like how in a pmf-based Bayesian approach would combine probabilities. However, there are many caveats to these beliefs functions when compared to Bayesian approaches in order to incorporate ignorance and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uncertainty_quantification\" title=\"Uncertainty quantification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"920ca556b13eb83d1031df6d59160852\">Uncertainty quantification<\/a>. These belief function approaches that are implemented within the machine learning domain typically leverage a fusion approach of various ensemble methods to better handle the learner's decision boundary, low samples, and ambiguous class issues that standard machine learning approach tend to have difficulty resolving.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:6_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:6-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:7_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:7-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:8_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:8-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> However, the computational complexity of these algorithms are dependent on the number of propositions (classes), and can lead a much higher computation time when compared to other machine learning approaches.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Training_models\">Training models<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Typically, machine learning models require a high quantity of reliable data in order for the models to perform accurate predictions. When training a machine learning model, machine learning engineers need to target and collect a large and representative <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sample_(statistics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sample (statistics)\" data-key=\"5f27441544b1c58e696b79a19556d105\">sample<\/a> of data. Data from the training set can be as varied as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corpus_of_text\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Corpus of text\" data-key=\"bdc349221b6d9924875a2cf5db9a0028\">corpus of text<\/a>, a collection of images, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sensor\" title=\"Sensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f309353c1f8a54286958707160bba6d\">sensor<\/a> data, and data collected from individual users of a service. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overfitting\" title=\"Overfitting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d1e3e9cfe8881363e47824ef11c4bc\">Overfitting<\/a> is something to watch out for when training a machine learning model. Trained models derived from biased or non-evaluated data can result in skewed or undesired predictions. Bias models may result in detrimental outcomes thereby furthering the negative impacts on society or objectives. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithmic_bias\" title=\"Algorithmic bias\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03a3ae18f9e582251dac4193d8945a43\">Algorithmic bias<\/a> is a potential result of data not being fully prepared for training. Machine learning ethics is becoming a field of study and notably be integrated within machine learning engineering teams.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Federated_learning\">Federated learning<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federated_learning\" title=\"Federated learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7e39f963bf5f73502fdcd4f1530d532\">Federated learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Federated learning is an adapted form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Distributed artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10fb6ab5ee4ba93a62a8232d3038067e\">distributed artificial intelligence<\/a> to training machine learning models that decentralizes the training process, allowing for users' privacy to be maintained by not needing to send their data to a centralized server. This also increases efficiency by decentralizing the training process to many devices. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gboard\" title=\"Gboard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79c89f74d5857cbf5ce93ae79a913296\">Gboard<\/a> uses federated machine learning to train search query prediction models on users' mobile phones without having to send individual searches back to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google\" title=\"Google\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b915ee8daf11a90fecc2d0bd0513feb\">Google<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-82\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There are many applications for machine learning, including:\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 21em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Precision_agriculture\" title=\"Precision agriculture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a270130803dbb6797d83c859bb52e33\">Agriculture<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_anatomy\" title=\"Computational anatomy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4597420d73d23642bfcd3a36c9883cf0\">Anatomy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adaptive_website\" title=\"Adaptive website\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51dc1050fa2f48d1e9a81332f976e227\">Adaptive website<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affective_computing\" title=\"Affective computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2d2895ad8508fe3d7e92180ab59a670\">Affective computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Astroinformatics\" title=\"Astroinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00df4f7e78654b83b20128eefe439e57\">Astronomy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_decision-making\" title=\"Automated decision-making\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0dc856796d1c733810ab35120d21b090\">Automated decision-making<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Banking\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Banking\" data-key=\"130d6ac80c8cbb2debee0d8e2b601b67\">Banking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behaviorism\" title=\"Behaviorism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cb50f4611218cfe66b3842f348ce6c0\">Behaviorism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01737c6289ef7671d2c932a51babe26b\">Bioinformatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface\" title=\"Brain\u2013computer interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e57672df0847d4c3682202101a199a0e\">Brain\u2013machine interfaces<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cheminformatics\" title=\"Cheminformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c23d43efab9d8b91d88fac55cfcad92\">Cheminformatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Citizen_Science\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Citizen Science\" data-key=\"f8ece46b76d478b9af4129f0a4fdbf37\">Citizen Science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Climate_Science\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Climate Science\" data-key=\"7a3c44ea3adfbb7fe728b548ecd85cb0\">Climate Science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_simulation\" title=\"Network simulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"893b65707a026a3baf68c9eea352f2ac\">Computer networks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Credit-card_fraud\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Credit-card fraud\" data-key=\"1e6ee329f463c0022a2e79fb7a17044e\">Credit-card fraud<\/a> detection<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8771428f8ff5b31246abf8b197186672\">Data quality<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_sequence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"DNA sequence\" data-key=\"0b1846e4c4cc314377d8abfe5c748233\">DNA sequence<\/a> classification<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_economics\" title=\"Computational economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d8fed1215b4760401d67c1c0c3c99b0\">Economics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_market\" title=\"Financial market\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ee19b062f5467042e8f1bfd84c3bcf2\">Financial market<\/a> analysis<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_game_playing\" title=\"General game playing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b659f2ed91c7a28bca494393765fd1\">General game playing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Handwriting_recognition\" title=\"Handwriting recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5bb29c981e9020cf84826712e97ecd3\">Handwriting recognition<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in healthcare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a83c45f6d758fe57b1fe4cb086a660dd\">Healthcare<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">Information retrieval<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insurance\" title=\"Insurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d77f0f5d6a8807cf42570e516d2f5319\">Insurance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_fraud\" title=\"Internet fraud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f5db62d5e30a813343db439fa21a34b\">Internet fraud<\/a> detection<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_graph_embedding\" title=\"Knowledge graph embedding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a03128a68ed6b1bdfa7bac154e4fca27\">Knowledge graph embedding<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_linguistics\" title=\"Computational linguistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a4d0ed13e4c3a04f8b9f007301a182\">Linguistics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_control\" title=\"Machine learning control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"762caf8acf2669bb0b74ea6e4ee7d71c\">Machine learning control<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">Machine perception<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">Machine translation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marketing\" title=\"Marketing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fc25da4af284af2b3cae5726440415e\">Marketing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_medical_diagnosis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated medical diagnosis\" data-key=\"b3ea211a3e3189cf5474fbc4abb020e4\">Medical diagnosis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural-language_understanding\" title=\"Natural-language understanding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc275c68d99ba7b2527d92dccdd80b8a\">Natural language understanding<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online_advertising\" title=\"Online advertising\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c104040ed5298d8e7f9e5bc8eab89d33\">Online advertising<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">Optimization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recommender_system\" title=\"Recommender system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd8c39f11ec163e4c363222f532670c0\">Recommender systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robot_locomotion\" title=\"Robot locomotion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"406480a0fd10d06c8f55b75c2aebe443\">Robot locomotion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_engines\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Search engines\" data-key=\"3a2bcd029c77c401e1f23457fa8cc80a\">Search engines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sentiment_analysis\" title=\"Sentiment analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65a8d6b4bb74d78435b7c0e113f93692\">Sentiment analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sequence_mining\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sequence mining\" data-key=\"1a30e9cfab48374ced380b93858f24ef\">Sequence mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_engineering\" title=\"Software engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe0adbaec2a85b6f2d492710b645f017\">Software engineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">Speech recognition<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structural_health_monitoring\" title=\"Structural health monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc740a37a05a52fef78278212931b98a\">Structural health monitoring<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Syntactic_pattern_recognition\" title=\"Syntactic pattern recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44d2d2708cafe7de19cda496e1689a55\">Syntactic pattern recognition<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telecommunication\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Telecommunication\" data-key=\"4e6c5b88185933f9f03eb88df6b15551\">Telecommunication<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_theorem_proving\" title=\"Automated theorem proving\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70283ba307cba4927c2ddd74c3e82e5c\">Theorem proving<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_series\" title=\"Time series\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22f08af55c3f78b806aba1078bca7b65\">Time-series forecasting<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tomographic_reconstruction\" title=\"Tomographic reconstruction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c0f9e72ada9c6bdc3c3e2b3ae5e6b38\">Tomographic reconstruction<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-84\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_behavior_analytics\" title=\"User behavior analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2cf4e88d03cb5cf8fb04cd2275eeb7f\">User behavior analytics<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>In 2006, the media-services provider <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Netflix\" title=\"Netflix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"159d2de18846270b7627fe92c6a3a64f\">Netflix<\/a> held the first \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Netflix_Prize\" title=\"Netflix Prize\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afd5ebf854037fa00b6211a16ffe1ae3\">Netflix Prize<\/a>\" competition to find a program to better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy of its existing Cinematch movie recommendation algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team made up of researchers from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AT%26T_Labs\" title=\"AT&amp;T Labs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fbba6341f0946d57570159b4775c5c4\">AT&amp;T Labs<\/a>-Research in collaboration with the teams Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ensemble_Averaging\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ensemble Averaging\" data-key=\"4c7362658be404840f1cd42b51b40da3\">ensemble model<\/a> to win the Grand Prize in 2009 for $1 million.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-85\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup> Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realized that viewers' ratings were not the best indicators of their viewing patterns (\"everything is a recommendation\") and they changed their recommendation engine accordingly.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-86\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup> In 2010 The Wall Street Journal wrote about the firm Rebellion Research and their use of machine learning to predict the financial crisis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup> In 2012, co-founder of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sun_Microsystems\" title=\"Sun Microsystems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cb42aeb8819d4b7b30d0d668f5642ee\">Sun Microsystems<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vinod_Khosla\" title=\"Vinod Khosla\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a4b7359d233c05513483f5cd2dd1eb6\">Vinod Khosla<\/a>, predicted that 80% of medical doctors jobs would be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning medical diagnostic software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-88\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup> In 2014, it was reported that a machine learning algorithm had been applied in the field of art history to study fine art paintings and that it may have revealed previously unrecognized influences among artists.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-89\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-89\">[89]<\/a><\/sup> In 2019 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Springer_Nature\" title=\"Springer Nature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"06decdde2594c7a3eeb6605ac6e933be\">Springer Nature<\/a> published the first research book created using machine learning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-90\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup> In 2020, machine learning technology was used to help make diagnoses and aid researchers in developing a cure for COVID-19.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-91\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-91\">[91]<\/a><\/sup> Machine learning was recently applied to predict the pro-environmental behavior of travelers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-92\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-92\">[92]<\/a><\/sup> Recently, machine learning technology was also applied to optimize smartphone's performance and thermal behavior based on the user's interaction with the phone.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">[93]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-94\">[94]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-95\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-95\">[95]<\/a><\/sup> When applied correctly, machine learning algorithms (MLAs) can utilize a wide range of company characteristics to predict stock returns without overfitting. By employing effective feature engineering and combining forecasts, MLAs can generate results that far surpass those obtained from basic linear techniques like OLS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-96\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-96\">[96]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Limitations\">Limitations<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Although machine learning has been transformative in some fields, machine-learning programs often fail to deliver expected results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-97\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-97\">[97]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-98\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-98\">[98]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-99\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-99\">[99]<\/a><\/sup> Reasons for this are numerous: lack of (suitable) data, lack of access to the data, data bias, privacy problems, badly chosen tasks and algorithms, wrong tools and people, lack of resources, and evaluation problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-100\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-100\">[100]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black_box\" title=\"Black box\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"817a7de7c3ee6454d45768f6f806dc78\">black box theory<\/a>\" poses another yet significant challenge. Black box refers to a situation where the algorithm or the process of producing an output is entirely opaque, meaning that even the coders of the algorithm cannot audit the pattern that the machine extracted out of the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:12_101-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:12-101\">[101]<\/a><\/sup> The House of Lords Select Committee, which claimed that such an \u201cintelligence system\u201d that could have a \u201csubstantial impact on an individual\u2019s life\u201d would not be considered acceptable unless it provided \u201ca full and satisfactory explanation for the decisions\u201d it makes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:12_101-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:12-101\">[101]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2018, a self-driving car from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uber\" title=\"Uber\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eb0bccbaa389a07e4a72d81113dad78\">Uber<\/a> failed to detect a pedestrian, who was killed after a collision.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-102\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-102\">[102]<\/a><\/sup> Attempts to use machine learning in healthcare with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Watson_(computer)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Watson (computer)\" data-key=\"0df5ae01410cdbe57cfcc8c38c5ae97d\">IBM Watson<\/a> system failed to deliver even after years of time and billions of dollars invested.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-103\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-103\">[103]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-104\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-104\">[104]<\/a><\/sup> Microsoft's chatbot has been reported to produce hostile and offensive response against its users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-105\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-105\">[105]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Machine learning has been used as a strategy to update the evidence related to a systematic review and increased reviewer burden related to the growth of biomedical literature. While it has improved with training sets, it has not yet developed sufficiently to reduce the workload burden without limiting the necessary sensitivity for the findings research themselves.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-106\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-106\">[106]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bias\">Bias<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithmic_bias\" title=\"Algorithmic bias\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03a3ae18f9e582251dac4193d8945a43\">Algorithmic bias<\/a><\/div><p>Machine learning approaches in particular can suffer from different data biases. A machine learning system trained specifically on current customers may not be able to predict the needs of new customer groups that are not represented in the training data. When trained on human-made data, machine learning is likely to pick up the constitutional and unconscious biases already present in society.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:15_107-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:15-107\">[107]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Language models learned from data have been shown to contain human-like biases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-108\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-108\">[108]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-109\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-109\">[109]<\/a><\/sup> An experiment carried out by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ProPublica\" title=\"ProPublica\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68bdaf85b437ea30d7bcf3eb48115b53\">ProPublica<\/a>, a predictive policing company, regarding machine learning algorithm\u2019s insight towards the recidivism rates among prisoners falsely flagged \u201cblack defendants high risk twice as often as white defendants.\u201d<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:22_110-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:22-110\">[110]<\/a><\/sup> In 2015, Google photos would often tag black people as gorillas,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:22_110-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:22-110\">[110]<\/a><\/sup> and in 2018 this still was not well resolved, but Google reportedly was still using the workaround to remove all gorillas from the training data, and thus was not able to recognize real gorillas at all.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-111\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-111\">[111]<\/a><\/sup> Similar issues with recognizing non-white people have been found in many other systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-112\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-112\">[112]<\/a><\/sup> In 2016, Microsoft tested a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chatbot\" title=\"Chatbot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c17657a30241a7e24a12eb6a70fd475\">chatbot<\/a> that learned from Twitter, and it quickly picked up racist and sexist language.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-113\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-113\">[113]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Because of such challenges, the effective use of machine learning may take longer to be adopted in other domains.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-114\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-114\">[114]<\/a><\/sup> Concern for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fairness_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Fairness (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c4297acb6d19a768bdd031d21cf24c0\">fairness<\/a> in machine learning, that is, reducing bias in machine learning and propelling its use for human good is increasingly expressed by artificial intelligence scientists, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fei-Fei_Li\" title=\"Fei-Fei Li\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c80fa97875a7fa6ea11ad0fdb799e402\">Fei-Fei Li<\/a>, who reminds engineers that \"There's nothing artificial about AI...It's inspired by people, it's created by people, and\u2014most importantly\u2014it impacts people. It is a powerful tool we are only just beginning to understand, and that is a profound responsibility.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-115\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-115\">[115]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Explainability\">Explainability<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Explainable_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Explainable artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24398fe237ee37c8d3fe21fa7272c05c\">Explainable artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Explainable AI (XAI), or Interpretable AI, or Explainable Machine Learning (XML), is artificial intelligence (AI) in which humans can understand the decisions or predictions made by the AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-116\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-116\">[116]<\/a><\/sup> It contrasts with the \"black box\" concept in machine learning where even its designers cannot explain why an AI arrived at a specific decision.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-117\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-117\">[117]<\/a><\/sup> By refining the mental models of users of AI-powered systems and dismantling their misconceptions, XAI promises to help users perform more effectively. XAI may be an implementation of the social right to explanation.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overfitting\">Overfitting<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overfitting\" title=\"Overfitting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d1e3e9cfe8881363e47824ef11c4bc\">Overfitting<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Overfitted_Data.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"810a6a6c3be413bf8eb2dc2e541fb2dd\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/68\/Overfitted_Data.png\/220px-Overfitted_Data.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"149\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>The blue line could be an example of overfitting a linear function due to random noise.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Settling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all the past training data is known as overfitting. Many systems attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in accordance with how well it fits the data but penalizing the theory in accordance with how complex the theory is.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_6,_Chapter_7_118-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_6,_Chapter_7-118\">[118]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_limitations_and_vulnerabilities\">Other limitations and vulnerabilities<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Learners can also disappoint by \"learning the wrong lesson\". A toy example is that an image classifier trained only on pictures of brown horses and black cats might conclude that all brown patches are likely to be horses.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015286_119-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015286-119\">[119]<\/a><\/sup> A real-world example is that, unlike humans, current image classifiers often do not primarily make judgments from the spatial relationship between components of the picture, and they learn relationships between pixels that humans are oblivious to, but that still correlate with images of certain types of real objects. Modifying these patterns on a legitimate image can result in \"adversarial\" images that the system misclassifies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-120\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-120\">[120]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-121\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-121\">[121]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or from non-pattern perturbations. For some systems, it is possible to change the output by only changing a single adversarially chosen pixel.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TD_1_122-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TD_1-122\">[122]<\/a><\/sup> Machine learning models are often vulnerable to manipulation and\/or evasion via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adversarial_machine_learning\" title=\"Adversarial machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cd3a5fff3d71a70b9cf0ff530a73296\">adversarial machine learning<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-123\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-123\">[123]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Researchers have demonstrated how <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backdoor_(computing)\" title=\"Backdoor (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1d88a200650aff5c48f98c7ee2360cd\">backdoors<\/a> can be placed undetectably into classifying (e.g., for categories \"spam\" and well-visible \"not spam\" of posts) machine learning models which are often developed and\/or trained by third parties. Parties can change the classification of any input, including in cases for which a type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithmic_transparency\" title=\"Algorithmic transparency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae203c60f659ace92cee58893001beba\">data\/software transparency<\/a> is provided, possibly including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/White-box_testing\" title=\"White-box testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86458edb2c0cf54347b9f06aa6501df6\">white-box access<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-124\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-124\">[124]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-125\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-125\">[125]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-126\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-126\">[126]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Model_assessments\">Model assessments<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Classification of machine learning models can be validated by accuracy estimation techniques like the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test_set\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Test set\" data-key=\"2460161930eafcaabbd99b80650cb9cb\">holdout<\/a> method, which splits the data in a training and test set (conventionally 2\/3 training set and 1\/3 test set designation) and evaluates the performance of the training model on the test set. In comparison, the K-fold-<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross-validation_(statistics)\" title=\"Cross-validation (statistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f02ed4ea32a43eebb80fe23486adaa6\">cross-validation<\/a> method randomly partitions the data into K subsets and then K experiments are performed each respectively considering 1 subset for evaluation and the remaining K-1 subsets for training the model. In addition to the holdout and cross-validation methods, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bootstrapping_(statistics)\" title=\"Bootstrapping (statistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adeadfbbb4812f855896d499b8810c0\">bootstrap<\/a>, which samples n instances with replacement from the dataset, can be used to assess model accuracy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-127\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-127\">[127]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In addition to overall accuracy, investigators frequently report <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sensitivity_and_specificity\" title=\"Sensitivity and specificity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0896ae4364a22374174157b02f755cf\">sensitivity and specificity<\/a> meaning True Positive Rate (TPR) and True Negative Rate (TNR) respectively. Similarly, investigators sometimes report the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/False_positive_rate\" title=\"False positive rate\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"773bf5c8f936d0f8d0ea2cd12609a0ac\">false positive rate<\/a> (FPR) as well as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/False_negative_rate\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"False negative rate\" data-key=\"24f8698ae3a7b9d7999069a35bc17799\">false negative rate<\/a> (FNR). However, these rates are ratios that fail to reveal their numerators and denominators. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_operating_characteristic\" title=\"Total operating characteristic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a22c63ed4f897773a63a069ebe81a842\">total operating characteristic<\/a> (TOC) is an effective method to express a model's diagnostic ability. TOC shows the numerators and denominators of the previously mentioned rates, thus TOC provides more information than the commonly used <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Receiver_operating_characteristic\" title=\"Receiver operating characteristic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8254d481444efffa04c623c06fe7070\">receiver operating characteristic<\/a> (ROC) and ROC's associated area under the curve (AUC).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-128\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-128\">[128]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ethics\">Ethics<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_control_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI control problem\" data-key=\"3a4b505ea3c272cedd95e33aec03d295\">AI control problem<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toronto_Declaration\" title=\"Toronto Declaration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb2f988fbaa9e6dde1164dc09f953c9a\">Toronto Declaration<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Ethics of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"608ca5c55237a263936a26d2500d09a6\">Ethics of artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Machine learning poses a host of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_ethics\" title=\"Machine ethics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3a0c55ae3309465a1780ba9c3038f57\">ethical questions<\/a>. Systems that are trained on datasets collected with biases may exhibit these biases upon use (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithmic_bias\" title=\"Algorithmic bias\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03a3ae18f9e582251dac4193d8945a43\">algorithmic bias<\/a>), thus digitizing cultural prejudices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-129\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-129\">[129]<\/a><\/sup> For example, in 1988, the UK's Commission for Racial Equality found that St. George's Medical School had been using a computer program trained from data of previous admissions staff and this program had denied nearly 60 candidates who were found to be either women or had non-European sounding names.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_130-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-130\">[130]<\/a><\/sup> Using job hiring data from a firm with racist hiring policies may lead to a machine learning system duplicating the bias by scoring job applicants by similarity to previous successful applicants.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Edionwe_Outline_131-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Edionwe_Outline-131\">[131]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Jeffries_Outline_132-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Jeffries_Outline-132\">[132]<\/a><\/sup> Another example includes predictive policing company <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geolitica\" title=\"Geolitica\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53aa97811d6f2dcb7e2b7b6f9ff8a8ad\">Geolitica<\/a>'s predictive algorithm that resulted in \u201cdisproportionately high levels of over-policing in low-income and minority communities\u201d after being trained with historical crime data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:23_133-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:23-133\">[133]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While responsible <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_collection\" title=\"Data collection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c480fa3155cedfb5132e5258cdc0aa80\">collection of data<\/a> and documentation of algorithmic rules used by a system is considered a critical part of machine learning, some researchers blame lack of participation and representation of minority population in the field of AI for machine learning's vulnerability to biases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-134\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-134\">[134]<\/a><\/sup> In fact, according to research carried out by the Computing Research Association (CRA) in 2021, \u201cfemale faculty merely make up 16.1%\u201d of all faculty members who focus on AI among several universities around the world.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:32_135-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:32-135\">[135]<\/a><\/sup> Furthermore, among the group of \u201cnew U.S. resident AI PhD graduates,\u201d 45% identified as white, 22.4% as Asian, 3.2% as Hispanic, and 2.4% as African American, which further demonstrates a lack of diversity in the field of AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:32_135-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:32-135\">[135]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>AI can be well-equipped to make decisions in technical fields, which rely heavily on data and historical information. These decisions rely on objectivity and logical reasoning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-136\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-136\">[136]<\/a><\/sup> Because human languages contain biases, machines trained on language <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text_corpus\" title=\"Text corpus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"788482749050db6fe187385cc144bc73\">corpora<\/a><\/i> will necessarily also learn these biases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-137\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-137\">[137]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-138\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-138\">[138]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other forms of ethical challenges, not related to personal biases, are seen in health care. There are concerns among health care professionals that these systems might not be designed in the public's interest but as income-generating machines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-139\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-139\">[139]<\/a><\/sup> This is especially true in the United States where there is a long-standing ethical dilemma of improving health care, but also increasing profits. For example, the algorithms could be designed to provide patients with unnecessary tests or medication in which the algorithm's proprietary owners hold stakes. There is potential for machine learning in health care to provide professionals an additional tool to diagnose, medicate, and plan recovery paths for patients, but this requires these biases to be mitigated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-140\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-140\">[140]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hardware\">Hardware<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Since the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to more efficient methods for training <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_neural_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Deep neural network\" data-key=\"a9ed700c42e118a181e5612b1dbfbd9a\">deep neural networks<\/a> (a particular narrow subdomain of machine learning) that contain many layers of non-linear hidden units.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-141\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-141\">[141]<\/a><\/sup> By 2019, graphic processing units (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GPU\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GPU\" data-key=\"db3ef2b28ed656dce3597710a302f862\">GPUs<\/a>), often with AI-specific enhancements, had displaced CPUs as the dominant method of training large-scale commercial cloud AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-142\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-142\">[142]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenAI\" title=\"OpenAI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4980df9317894d76a3309b4bed8d51e4\">OpenAI<\/a> estimated the hardware computing used in the largest deep learning projects from AlexNet (2012) to AlphaZero (2017), and found a 300,000-fold increase in the amount of compute required, with a doubling-time trendline of 3.4 months.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-143\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-143\">[143]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-144\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-144\">[144]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Neuromorphic.2FPhysical_Neural_Networks\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Neuromorphic\/Physical_Neural_Networks\">Neuromorphic\/Physical Neural Networks<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_neural_network\" title=\"Physical neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d60141470437681807204f41707244bc\">physical neural network<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuromorphic_engineering\" title=\"Neuromorphic engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f5ca10ba55e1013132581a530d1046a\">Neuromorphic computer<\/a> is a type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural network<\/a> in which an electrically adjustable material is used to emulate the function of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemical_synapse\" title=\"Chemical synapse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38db21351a2f49592a0974fff64295f4\">neural synapse<\/a>. \"Physical\" neural network is used to emphasize the reliance on physical hardware used to emulate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neurons\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neurons\" data-key=\"a7fa55e0708c294c62c2e008adc2a510\">neurons<\/a> as opposed to software-based approaches. More generally the term is applicable to other artificial neural networks in which a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memristor\" title=\"Memristor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a9d89fcc155ef599a047080b8cb087d\">memristor<\/a> or other electrically adjustable resistance material is used to emulate a neural synapse.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-145\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-145\">[145]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-146\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-146\">[146]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Embedded_Machine_Learning\">Embedded Machine Learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><b>Embedded Machine Learning<\/b> is a sub-field of machine learning, where the machine learning model is run on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embedded_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Embedded systems\" data-key=\"51d9c3c401ff6ee2ae6781e1b5b920ea\">embedded systems<\/a> with limited computing resources such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wearable_computer\" title=\"Wearable computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"558c7f84922d6dddc0204702ee768574\">wearable computers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edge_device\" title=\"Edge device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1a87bbf4768211ea4879c4c4afec180\">edge devices<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microcontrollers\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Microcontrollers\" data-key=\"2f0d7615892b9331182c86265220a89a\">microcontrollers<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-147\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-147\">[147]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-148\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-148\">[148]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-149\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-149\">[149]<\/a><\/sup> Running machine learning model in embedded devices removes the need for transferring and storing data on cloud servers for further processing, henceforth, reducing data breaches and privacy leaks happening because of transferring data, and also minimizes theft of intellectual properties, personal data and business secrets. Embedded Machine Learning could be applied through several techniques including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hardware_acceleration\" title=\"Hardware acceleration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08eca6db41178b30cfface10fe61d940\">hardware acceleration<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-150\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-150\">[150]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-151\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-151\">[151]<\/a><\/sup> using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Approximate_computing\" title=\"Approximate computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"933841297f658860e98316919872535a\">approximate computing<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-152\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-152\">[152]<\/a><\/sup> optimization of machine learning models and many more.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-153\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-153\">[153]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-154\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-154\">[154]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Software\">Software<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_suite\" title=\"Software suite\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d8f2d5129b04c90d56e5efe62482452\">Software suites<\/a> containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the following:\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Free_and_open-source_software\">Free and open-source software<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-Open-source_software\"><\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 18em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caffe_(software)\" title=\"Caffe (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f41b29caf168f68aefa65f66fda44409\">Caffe<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deeplearning4j\" title=\"Deeplearning4j\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea4c677cd54f457e0b1e6db895ea192d\">Deeplearning4j<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DeepSpeed\" title=\"DeepSpeed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93d57ab5ae5cb78913118bb121f7c62b\">DeepSpeed<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ELKI\" title=\"ELKI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5875eb65694616d929e61a21990b3fc3\">ELKI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_JAX\" title=\"Google JAX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fb91bc5cffba0c1a71adc14c48c8158\">Google JAX<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infer.NET\" title=\"Infer.NET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed22173ff09cef4bf5e75ddeea929826\">Infer.NET<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Keras\" title=\"Keras\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b104db4c00efd14ab61066d5ed12da02\">Keras<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kubeflow\" title=\"Kubeflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4db0c844d9a088da310afae1ed956329\">Kubeflow<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LightGBM\" title=\"LightGBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c7ea9845364f4e17c606da3d042ebcf\">LightGBM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Mahout\" title=\"Apache Mahout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeb4724dc023db9fa7c20d444d49a4f2\">Mahout<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mallet_(software_project)\" title=\"Mallet (software project)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f00845b711cda17a329aad55a4b5bab6\">Mallet<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Cognitive_Toolkit\" title=\"Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b12459fe9713a263e6449bbbc522493b\">Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ML.NET\" title=\"ML.NET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"267f07695108db0cc273ac3038a51942\">ML.NET<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mlpack\" title=\"Mlpack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebe20838eecdf93f4c56e474913a90b1\">mlpack<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MXNet\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MXNet\" data-key=\"f66fe083b2326c2d169d5ecafa8fe106\">MXNet<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenNN\" title=\"OpenNN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ac25cc1e0b57f7e0d9d8252afbebca3\">OpenNN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Orange_(software)\" title=\"Orange (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e31be634139ed2f50c915e71a4bc5a31\">Orange<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pandas_(software)\" title=\"Pandas (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4da4c3da599da885efff853c42b3609a\">pandas (software)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ROOT\" title=\"ROOT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7156f381cf47b633533a9c47747a4e44\">ROOT<\/a> (TMVA with ROOT)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scikit-learn\" title=\"Scikit-learn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e9baac6399c5b2a01d32ed79685060f\">scikit-learn<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shogun_(toolbox)\" title=\"Shogun (toolbox)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8de3a0aad80a43e4a0d08627f40027fa\">Shogun<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Spark#MLlib_Machine_Learning_Library\" title=\"Apache Spark\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8861acbb2539b63a8c63a47702326de\">Spark MLlib<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_SystemML\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Apache SystemML\" data-key=\"4f9fb855e46ce8db2c5f3f7628761825\">SystemML<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TensorFlow\" title=\"TensorFlow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68adf147371b6522b59dbf636fd0c4c6\">TensorFlow<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Torch_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Torch (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7eb292e8efff1ebd45a059a1157f3d44\">Torch<\/a> \/ <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PyTorch\" title=\"PyTorch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"567da5fffc2a0654a44ed4e34d3cfa4c\">PyTorch<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weka_(machine_learning)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Weka (machine learning)\" data-key=\"bb84ec309cc29afa9b4e20566cd336d1\">Weka<\/a> \/ <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MOA_(Massive_Online_Analysis)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MOA (Massive Online Analysis)\" data-key=\"e8f72cf61ea065798d43a05d1bbc3669\">MOA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XGBoost\" title=\"XGBoost\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e14e51612b5a68aab15b27fe0532b58\">XGBoost<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yooreeka\" title=\"Yooreeka\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36b0390e3eb7337de85e44d9aabb7aa1\">Yooreeka<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Proprietary_software_with_free_and_open-source_editions\">Proprietary software with free and open-source editions<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KNIME\" title=\"KNIME\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1aba78fe28e4faf376abd3a46d64179\">KNIME<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RapidMiner\" title=\"RapidMiner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae57d48c59aeab8e6d6bde3706fa3947\">RapidMiner<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Proprietary_software\">Proprietary software<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 18em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_Machine_Learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Amazon Machine Learning\" data-key=\"8124139a130dbd81e464f0533c39bae4\">Amazon Machine Learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Angoss\" title=\"Angoss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24b48d3f50870d6544ab5e6cca88af89\">Angoss<\/a> KnowledgeSTUDIO<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Azure_Machine_Learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Azure Machine Learning\" data-key=\"5278de93946d2fbe09045ebf639d9cb3\">Azure Machine Learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_Watson_Studio\" title=\"IBM Watson Studio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"12b13f7249c0c3bd00e78359386c987c\">IBM Watson Studio<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Cloud_Platform#Cloud_AI\" title=\"Google Cloud Platform\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3aad388a3f92b3be49721deff23d9767\">Google Cloud Vertex AI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_APIs\" title=\"Google APIs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc7106f29f7433637ec2ff0c7edcc44f\">Google Prediction API<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SPSS_Modeler\" title=\"SPSS Modeler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f79b15a79e91e6f6c6f1927fb4ad123\">IBM SPSS Modeler<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KXEN_Inc.\" title=\"KXEN Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f827f83eadeedb2d4bfe348d59a7cce\">KXEN Modeler<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LIONsolver\" title=\"LIONsolver\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b93506bbeca29c2d008a9b7ee8e5f2c\">LIONsolver<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematica\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mathematica\" data-key=\"713dfff001f5147ec7603eac761b5008\">Mathematica<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MATLAB\" title=\"MATLAB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"242cf4906bffee581ab22741b7da9cf5\">MATLAB<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_Designer\" title=\"Neural Designer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a8d006dcf230a73daf53ebd81087dbb\">Neural Designer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NeuroSolutions\" title=\"NeuroSolutions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f2b74dbdc02abd4067edc073fb4c33a\">NeuroSolutions<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_Data_Mining\" title=\"Oracle Data Mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ad2ca524e5b2c2bd9a70d7a2038658d\">Oracle Data Mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_Cloud#Platform_as_a_Service_(PaaS)\" title=\"Oracle Cloud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9669561a3a0a41d3f3d3865502edd4f7\">Oracle AI Platform Cloud Service<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PolyAnalyst\" title=\"PolyAnalyst\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf26e84de7009cdeab94d85112cfe39e\">PolyAnalyst<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RCASE\" title=\"RCASE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b1e95a87761c5e1e03a7867b1db27ca\">RCASE<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAS_(software)#Components\" title=\"SAS (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f23d80ccc4a187d33e5527a73d97a9a\">SAS Enterprise Miner<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SequenceL\" title=\"SequenceL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f98c18a495770a9c5cd9c28cc9821695\">SequenceL<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Splunk\" title=\"Splunk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"564b668b55344073832a9965904416ab\">Splunk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/STATISTICA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"STATISTICA\" data-key=\"a47380324938227ba8de983f2781538f\">STATISTICA<\/a> Data Miner<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Journals\">Journals<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Machine_Learning_Research\" title=\"Journal of Machine Learning Research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0986ff6f540bccf40ef2dfe3f7e45775\">Journal of Machine Learning Research<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\">Machine Learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nature_Machine_Intelligence\" title=\"Nature Machine Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac029fc9a33048beed38e1fe7cf6b8e9\">Nature Machine Intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_Computation_(journal)\" title=\"Neural Computation (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95c4bedade192c2df34a585aee812a74\">Neural Computation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_Transactions_on_Pattern_Analysis_and_Machine_Intelligence\" title=\"IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e10dcbde1528851549f7e50e8030c023\">IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Conferences\">Conferences<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AAAI_Conference_on_Artificial_Intelligence\" title=\"AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23dc4fbd904b7e27cecb8b69ed928690\">AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_for_Computational_Linguistics\" title=\"Association for Computational Linguistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a9195f0e52126cbfc5d77505a75ac22\">Association for Computational Linguistics (<b>ACL<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Conference_on_Machine_Learning_and_Principles_and_Practice_of_Knowledge_Discovery_in_Databases\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases\" data-key=\"7ae5a17d5466e528d4f36680e1e646f7\">European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases (<b>ECML PKDD<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Computational_Intelligence_Methods_for_Bioinformatics_and_Biostatistics\" title=\"International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f697738d212874a44f8278e4cd8ae92\">International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics (<b>CIBB<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Machine_Learning\" title=\"International Conference on Machine Learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afdcffd4f79def1da21bef6ece0e65ec\">International Conference on Machine Learning (<b>ICML<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Learning_Representations\" title=\"International Conference on Learning Representations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0a25d10322360cd22711cb94bd7a2f7\">International Conference on Learning Representations (<b>ICLR<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Intelligent_Robots_and_Systems\" title=\"International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22ea9fdbf17755c0881163761b431b75\">International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (<b>IROS<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conference_on_Knowledge_Discovery_and_Data_Mining\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining\" data-key=\"0568f7de857cb8a157fdf4fb67796ef5\">Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (<b>KDD<\/b>)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conference_on_Neural_Information_Processing_Systems\" title=\"Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0730e0e4164eeb30eb2d903a1979b3ec\">Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (<b>NeurIPS<\/b>)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_machine_learning\" title=\"Automated machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf546d54bcba69734c4ae557eb27bc71\">Automated machine learning<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Process of automating the application of machine learning<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">Big data<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Extremely large or complex datasets<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Differentiable_programming\" title=\"Differentiable programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1472d6b79a41e8cc5f4319839d5de0a3\">Differentiable programming<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Programming paradigm<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Force_control\" title=\"Force control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52d35f8808f4e52f9f33e469f08487b6\">Force control<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_important_publications_in_computer_science#Machine_learning\" title=\"List of important publications in computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea24477ae7cecc9f81653febcd0b6019\">List of important publications in machine learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_datasets_for_machine-learning_research\" title=\"List of datasets for machine-learning research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9429ca0cecce3817e6ad4b4da64a0438\">List of datasets for machine-learning research<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The definition \"without being explicitly programmed\" is often attributed to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur_Samuel_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"Arthur Samuel (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07ca64ab9edc7c8977958d425055d049\">Arthur Samuel<\/a>, who coined the term \"machine learning\" in 1959, but the phrase is not found verbatim in this publication, and may be a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paraphrase\" title=\"Paraphrase\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f3b203c703d086e1bbe1e5e884c778e1\">paraphrase<\/a> that appeared later. Confer \"Paraphrasing Arthur Samuel (1959), the question is: How can computers learn to solve problems without being explicitly programmed?\" in <cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKozaBennettAndreKeane1996\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Koza, John R.; Bennett, Forrest H.; Andre, David; Keane, Martin A. (1996). \"Automated Design of Both the Topology and Sizing of Analog Electrical Circuits Using Genetic Programming\". <i>Artificial Intelligence in Design '96<\/i>. Artificial Intelligence in Design '96. Springer, Dordrecht. pp.&#160;151\u2013170. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-94-009-0279-4_9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-94-009-0279-4_9<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-94-010-6610-5<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.atitle=Automated+Design+of+Both+the+Topology+and+Sizing+of+Analog+Electrical+Circuits+Using+Genetic+Programming&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence+in+Design+%2796&amp;rft.pages=151-170&amp;rft.pub=Springer%2C+Dordrecht&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-009-0279-4_9&amp;rft.isbn=978-94-010-6610-5&amp;rft.aulast=Koza&amp;rft.aufirst=John+R.&amp;rft.au=Bennett%2C+Forrest+H.&amp;rft.au=Andre%2C+David&amp;rft.au=Keane%2C+Martin+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ibm-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ibm_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ibm.com\/topics\/machine-learning\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is Machine Learning?\"<\/a>. <i>IBM<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2023-06-27<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=IBM&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+Machine+Learning%3F&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Ftopics%2Fmachine-learning&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:6-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:6_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:6_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZhou2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Zhou, Victor (2019-12-20). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/towardsdatascience.com\/machine-learning-for-beginners-an-introduction-to-neural-networks-d49f22d238f9\" target=\"_blank\">\"Machine Learning for Beginners: An Introduction to Neural Networks\"<\/a>. <i>Medium<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220309053518\/https:\/\/towardsdatascience.com\/machine-learning-for-beginners-an-introduction-to-neural-networks-d49f22d238f9\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-03-09<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-08-15<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Medium&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+Learning+for+Beginners%3A+An+Introduction+to+Neural+Networks&amp;rft.date=2019-12-20&amp;rft.aulast=Zhou&amp;rft.aufirst=Victor&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftowardsdatascience.com%2Fmachine-learning-for-beginners-an-introduction-to-neural-networks-d49f22d238f9&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-tvt-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-tvt_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHuNiuCarrascoLennox2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Hu, Junyan; Niu, Hanlin; Carrasco, Joaquin; Lennox, Barry; Arvin, Farshad (2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2Ftvt.2020.3034800\" target=\"_blank\">\"Voronoi-Based Multi-Robot Autonomous Exploration in Unknown Environments via Deep Reinforcement Learning\"<\/a>. <i>IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology<\/i>. <b>69<\/b> (12): 14413\u201314423. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2Ftvt.2020.3034800\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/tvt.2020.3034800<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0018-9545\" target=\"_blank\">0018-9545<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:228989788\" target=\"_blank\">228989788<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Vehicular+Technology&amp;rft.atitle=Voronoi-Based+Multi-Robot+Autonomous+Exploration+in+Unknown+Environments+via+Deep+Reinforcement+Learning&amp;rft.volume=69&amp;rft.issue=12&amp;rft.pages=14413-14423&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A228989788%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0018-9545&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Ftvt.2020.3034800&amp;rft.aulast=Hu&amp;rft.aufirst=Junyan&amp;rft.au=Niu%2C+Hanlin&amp;rft.au=Carrasco%2C+Joaquin&amp;rft.au=Lennox%2C+Barry&amp;rft.au=Arvin%2C+Farshad&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1109%252Ftvt.2020.3034800&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:7-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:7_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:7_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFYoosefzadeh-NajafabadiHughTulpanSulik2021\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Yoosefzadeh-Najafabadi, Mohsen; Hugh, Earl; Tulpan, Dan; Sulik, John; Eskandari, Milad (2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7835636\" target=\"_blank\">\"Application of Machine Learning Algorithms in Plant Breeding: Predicting Yield From Hyperspectral Reflectance in Soybean?\"<\/a>. <i>Front. Plant Sci<\/i>. <b>11<\/b>: 624273. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389%2Ffpls.2020.624273\" target=\"_blank\">10.3389\/fpls.2020.624273<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7835636\" target=\"_blank\">7835636<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33510761\" target=\"_blank\">33510761<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Front.+Plant+Sci.&amp;rft.atitle=Application+of+Machine+Learning+Algorithms+in+Plant+Breeding%3A+Predicting+Yield+From+Hyperspectral+Reflectance+in+Soybean%3F&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.pages=624273&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7835636%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33510761&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpls.2020.624273&amp;rft.aulast=Yoosefzadeh-Najafabadi&amp;rft.aufirst=Mohsen&amp;rft.au=Hugh%2C+Earl&amp;rft.au=Tulpan%2C+Dan&amp;rft.au=Sulik%2C+John&amp;rft.au=Eskandari%2C+Milad&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7835636&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-bishop2006-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-bishop2006_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-bishop2006_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-bishop2006_6-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBishop2006\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christopher_M._Bishop\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Christopher M. 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M.<\/a> (2006), <i>Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning<\/i>, Springer, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-387-31073-2<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Pattern+Recognition+and+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-387-31073-2&amp;rft.aulast=Bishop&amp;rft.aufirst=C.+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Machine learning and pattern recognition \"can be viewed as two facets of the same field\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bishop2006_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bishop2006-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: vii\">:\u200avii\u200a<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:9-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:9_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:9_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFriedman1998\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerome_H._Friedman\" title=\"Jerome H. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 September<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nautilus&amp;rft.atitle=How+the+Computer+Got+Its+Revenge+on+the+Soviet+Union&amp;rft.date=2015-04-09&amp;rft.aulast=Gerovitch&amp;rft.aufirst=Slava&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnautil.us%2Fissue%2F23%2Fdominoes%2Fhow-the-computer-got-its-revenge-on-the-soviet-union&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLindsay1964\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Lindsay, Richard P. (1 September 1964). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/106591296401700364\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Impact of Automation On Public Administration\"<\/a>. <i>Western Political Quarterly<\/i>. <b>17<\/b> (3): 78\u201381. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F106591296401700364\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/106591296401700364<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0043-4078\" target=\"_blank\">0043-4078<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:154021253\" target=\"_blank\">154021253<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211006190841\/https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/106591296401700364\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 October 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Hebb\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific American<\/i>. <b>268<\/b> (1): 124\u2013129. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/1993SciAm.268a.124M\" target=\"_blank\">1993SciAm.268a.124M<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0193-124\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/scientificamerican0193-124<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0036-8733\" target=\"_blank\">0036-8733<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\" data-key=\"5452009cc6ddc0c9ed86584fc7a26cc8\">JSTOR<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/24941344\" target=\"_blank\">24941344<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/8418480\" target=\"_blank\">8418480<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&amp;rft.atitle=The+Mind+and+Donald+O.+Hebb&amp;rft.volume=268&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=124-129&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24941344%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993SciAm.268a.124M&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8418480&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0193-124&amp;rft.issn=0036-8733&amp;rft.aulast=Milner&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24941344&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\"Science: The Goof Button\", <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_(magazine)\" title=\"Time (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78c9635caebb304ac06552edc287561a\">Time (magazine)<\/a>, 18 August 1961.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Nilsson N. Learning Machines, McGraw Hill, 1965.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Duda, R., Hart P. Pattern Recognition and Scene Analysis, Wiley Interscience, 1973<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">S. Bozinovski \"Teaching space: A representation concept for adaptive pattern classification\" COINS Technical Report No. 81-28, Computer and Information Science Department, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, MA, 1981. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.cs.umass.edu\/publication\/docs\/1981\/UM-CS-1981-028.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.cs.umass.edu\/publication\/docs\/1981\/UM-CS-1981-028.pdf<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210225070218\/https:\/\/web.cs.umass.edu\/publication\/docs\/1981\/UM-CS-1981-028.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2021-02-25 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mitchell-1997-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mitchell-1997_19-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Mitchell-1997_19-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMitchell,_T.1997\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mitchell, T. (1997). <i>Machine Learning<\/i>. McGraw Hill. p.&#160;2. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-07-042807-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Machine+Learning&amp;rft.pages=2&amp;rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-07-042807-2&amp;rft.au=Mitchell%2C+T.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHarnad2008\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stevan_Harnad\" title=\"Stevan Harnad\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"194de853d0694ce77570cd4dd421682d\">Harnad, Stevan<\/a> (2008), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120309113922\/http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/12954\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Annotation Game: On Turing (1950) on Computing, Machinery, and Intelligence\"<\/a>, in Epstein, Robert; Peters, Grace (eds.), <i>The Turing Test Sourcebook: Philosophical and Methodological Issues in the Quest for the Thinking Computer<\/i>, Kluwer, pp.&#160;23\u201366, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781402067082<\/bdi>, archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/12954\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2012-03-09<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2012-12-11<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+Annotation+Game%3A+On+Turing+%281950%29+on+Computing%2C+Machinery%2C+and+Intelligence&amp;rft.btitle=The+Turing+Test+Sourcebook%3A+Philosophical+and+Methodological+Issues+in+the+Quest+for+the+Thinking+Computer&amp;rft.pages=23-66&amp;rft.pub=Kluwer&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=9781402067082&amp;rft.aulast=Harnad&amp;rft.aufirst=Stevan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk%2F12954%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/edzion.com\/2020\/12\/09\/introduction-to-ai-part-1\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introduction to AI Part 1\"<\/a>. <i>Edzion<\/i>. 2020-12-08. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210218005157\/https:\/\/edzion.com\/2020\/12\/09\/introduction-to-ai-part-1\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2021-02-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(1994). \"Neural Networks and statistical models\". <i>SUGI 19: proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual SAS Users Group International Conference<\/i>. SAS Institute. pp.&#160;1538\u201350. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781555446116<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/35546178\" target=\"_blank\">35546178<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Neural+Networks+and+statistical+models&amp;rft.btitle=SUGI+19%3A+proceedings+of+the+Nineteenth+Annual+SAS+Users+Group+International+Conference&amp;rft.pages=1538-50&amp;rft.pub=SAS+Institute&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35546178&amp;rft.isbn=9781555446116&amp;rft.aulast=Sarle&amp;rft.aufirst=Warren+S.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-aima-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-aima_24-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-aima_24-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-aima_24-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-aima_24-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell, Stuart<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig, Peter<\/a> (2003) [1995]. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_Intelligence:_A_Modern_Approach\" title=\"Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9dbb28c25594c66d5bac1148dc06e5f6\">Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach<\/a><\/i> (2nd&#160;ed.). Prentice Hall. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0137903955<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+Modern+Approach&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=978-0137903955&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.aufirst=Stuart&amp;rft.au=Norvig%2C+Peter&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-changing-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-changing_25-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-changing_25-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLangley2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Langley, Pat (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10994-011-5242-y\" target=\"_blank\">\"The changing science of machine learning\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\">Machine Learning<\/a><\/i>. <b>82<\/b> (3): 275\u20139. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10994-011-5242-y\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s10994-011-5242-y<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Machine+Learning&amp;rft.atitle=The+changing+science+of+machine+learning&amp;rft.volume=82&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=275-9&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10994-011-5242-y&amp;rft.aulast=Langley&amp;rft.aufirst=Pat&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10994-011-5242-y&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLe_RouxBengioFitzgibbon2012\" class=\"citation encyclopaedia cs1\">Le Roux, Nicolas; Bengio, Yoshua; Fitzgibbon, Andrew (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JPQx7s2L1A8C&q=%22Improving+First+and+Second-Order+Methods+by+Modeling+Uncertainty&pg=PA403\" target=\"_blank\">\"Improving First and Second-Order Methods by Modeling Uncertainty\"<\/a>. In Sra, Suvrit; Nowozin, Sebastian; Wright, Stephen J. (eds.). <i>Optimization for Machine Learning<\/i>. MIT Press. p.&#160;404. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780262016469<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230117053335\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JPQx7s2L1A8C&q=%22Improving+First+and+Second-Order+Methods+by+Modeling+Uncertainty&pg=PA403\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2023-01-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2020-11-12<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Improving+First+and+Second-Order+Methods+by+Modeling+Uncertainty&amp;rft.btitle=Optimization+for+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.pages=404&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9780262016469&amp;rft.aulast=Le+Roux&amp;rft.aufirst=Nicolas&amp;rft.au=Bengio%2C+Yoshua&amp;rft.au=Fitzgibbon%2C+Andrew&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJPQx7s2L1A8C%26q%3D%2522Improving%2BFirst%2Band%2BSecond-Order%2BMethods%2Bby%2BModeling%2BUncertainty%26pg%3DPA403&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBzdokAltmanKrzywinski2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bzdok, Danilo; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Naomi_Altman\" title=\"Naomi Altman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eb389d0ca05eae138e342d50ac070ea\">Altman, Naomi<\/a>; Krzywinski, Martin (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6082636\" target=\"_blank\">\"Statistics versus Machine Learning\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nature_Methods\" title=\"Nature Methods\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a64d0de18dcdabd4b440d695fde211c\">Nature Methods<\/a><\/i>. <b>15<\/b> (4): 233\u2013234. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fnmeth.4642\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/nmeth.4642<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6082636\" target=\"_blank\">6082636<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/30100822\" target=\"_blank\">30100822<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Methods&amp;rft.atitle=Statistics+versus+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.volume=15&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=233-234&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6082636%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30100822&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnmeth.4642&amp;rft.aulast=Bzdok&amp;rft.aufirst=Danilo&amp;rft.au=Altman%2C+Naomi&amp;rft.au=Krzywinski%2C+Martin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6082636&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-mi_jordan_ama-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-mi_jordan_ama_28-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-mi_jordan_ama_28-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMichael_I._Jordan2014\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_I._Jordan\" title=\"Michael I. Jordan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85a970be35318eab19c293827bd3c5c9\">Michael I. Jordan<\/a> (2014-09-10). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/MachineLearning\/comments\/2fxi6v\/ama_michael_i_jordan\/ckelmtt?context=3\" target=\"_blank\">\"statistics and machine learning\"<\/a>. reddit. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171018192328\/https:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/MachineLearning\/comments\/2fxi6v\/ama_michael_i_jordan\/ckelmtt\/?context=3\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2017-10-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-10-01<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=statistics+and+machine+learning&amp;rft.pub=reddit&amp;rft.date=2014-09-10&amp;rft.au=Michael+I.+Jordan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reddit.com%2Fr%2FMachineLearning%2Fcomments%2F2fxi6v%2Fama_michael_i_jordan%2Fckelmtt%3Fcontext%3D3&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hung et al. Algorithms to Measure Surgeon Performance and Anticipate Clinical Outcomes in Robotic Surgery. JAMA Surg. 2018<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:4-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:4_30-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCornell_University_Library2001\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Cornell University Library (August 2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/projecteuclid.org\/download\/pdf_1\/euclid.ss\/1009213726\" target=\"_blank\">\"Breiman: Statistical Modeling: The Two Cultures (with comments and a rejoinder by the author)\"<\/a>. <i>Statistical Science<\/i>. <b>16<\/b> (3). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1214%2Fss%2F1009213726\" target=\"_blank\">10.1214\/ss\/1009213726<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:62729017\" target=\"_blank\">62729017<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170626042637\/http:\/\/projecteuclid.org\/download\/pdf_1\/euclid.ss\/1009213726\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 June 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 August<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Statistical+Science&amp;rft.atitle=Breiman%3A+Statistical+Modeling%3A+The+Two+Cultures+%28with+comments+and+a+rejoinder+by+the+author%29&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.date=2001-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1214%2Fss%2F1009213726&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A62729017%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.au=Cornell+University+Library&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprojecteuclid.org%2Fdownload%2Fpdf_1%2Feuclid.ss%2F1009213726&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-islr-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-islr_31-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGareth_JamesDaniela_WittenTrevor_HastieRobert_Tibshirani2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Gareth James; Daniela Witten; Trevor Hastie; Robert Tibshirani (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www-bcf.usc.edu\/~gareth\/ISL\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>An Introduction to Statistical Learning<\/i><\/a>. Springer. p.&#160;vii. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190623150237\/http:\/\/www-bcf.usc.edu\/~gareth\/ISL\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2019-06-23<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-10-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Statistical+Learning&amp;rft.pages=vii&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.au=Gareth+James&amp;rft.au=Daniela+Witten&amp;rft.au=Trevor+Hastie&amp;rft.au=Robert+Tibshirani&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-bcf.usc.edu%2F~gareth%2FISL%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SP_1-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SP_1_32-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRamezanpour,_A.Beam,_A.L.Chen,_J.H.Mashaghi,_A.2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Ramezanpour, A.; Beam, A.L.; Chen, J.H.; Mashaghi, A. (17 November 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7699346\" target=\"_blank\">\"Statistical Physics for Medical Diagnostics: Learning, Inference, and Optimization Algorithms\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diagnostics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Diagnostics\" data-key=\"5e8290cb5a240b29a2b9a5331e23d624\">Diagnostics<\/a><\/i>. <b>10<\/b> (11): 972. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Fdiagnostics10110972\" target=\"_blank\">10.3390\/diagnostics10110972<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7699346\" target=\"_blank\">7699346<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33228143\" target=\"_blank\">33228143<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Diagnostics&amp;rft.atitle=Statistical+Physics+for+Medical+Diagnostics%3A+Learning%2C+Inference%2C+and+Optimization+Algorithms&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=972&amp;rft.date=2020-11-17&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7699346%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33228143&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fdiagnostics10110972&amp;rft.au=Ramezanpour%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Beam%2C+A.L.&amp;rft.au=Chen%2C+J.H.&amp;rft.au=Mashaghi%2C+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7699346&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SP_2-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SP_2_33-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMashaghi,_A.Ramezanpour,_A.2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Mashaghi, A.; Ramezanpour, A. (16 March 2018). \"Statistical physics of medical diagnostics: Study of a probabilistic model\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_Review_E\" title=\"Physical Review E\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8283ccb90820a77d27d0fb96db839524\">Physical Review E<\/a><\/i>. <b>97<\/b> (3\u20131): 032118. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1803.10019\" target=\"_blank\">1803.10019<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2018PhRvE..97c2118M\" target=\"_blank\">2018PhRvE..97c2118M<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1103%2FPhysRevE.97.032118\" target=\"_blank\">10.1103\/PhysRevE.97.032118<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29776109\" target=\"_blank\">29776109<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:4955393\" target=\"_blank\">4955393<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+E&amp;rft.atitle=Statistical+physics+of+medical+diagnostics%3A+Study+of+a+probabilistic+model&amp;rft.volume=97&amp;rft.issue=3%E2%80%931&amp;rft.pages=032118&amp;rft.date=2018-03-16&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4955393%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018PhRvE..97c2118M&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1803.10019&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29776109&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevE.97.032118&amp;rft.au=Mashaghi%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Ramezanpour%2C+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:5-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:5_34-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMohriRostamizadehTalwalkar2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mehryar_Mohri\" title=\"Mehryar Mohri\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"119fc87451b751ec9b1281df60079ea3\">Mohri, Mehryar<\/a>; Rostamizadeh, Afshin; Talwalkar, Ameet (2012). <i>Foundations of Machine Learning<\/i>. US, Massachusetts: MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780262018258<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.place=US%2C+Massachusetts&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9780262018258&amp;rft.aulast=Mohri&amp;rft.aufirst=Mehryar&amp;rft.au=Rostamizadeh%2C+Afshin&amp;rft.au=Talwalkar%2C+Ameet&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-alpaydin-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-alpaydin_35-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAlpaydin,_Ethem2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Alpaydin, Ethem (2010). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/introductiontoma00alpa_0\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Machine Learning<\/i><\/a><\/span>. London: The MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-262-01243-0<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 February<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-262-01243-0&amp;rft.au=Alpaydin%2C+Ethem&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontoma00alpa_0&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJordanMitchell2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Jordan, M. I.; Mitchell, T. M. (17 July 2015). \"Machine learning: Trends, perspectives, and prospects\". <i>Science<\/i>. <b>349<\/b> (6245): 255\u2013260. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2015Sci...349..255J\" target=\"_blank\">2015Sci...349..255J<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.aaa8415\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.aaa8415<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/26185243\" target=\"_blank\">26185243<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:677218\" target=\"_blank\">677218<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+learning%3A+Trends%2C+perspectives%2C+and+prospects&amp;rft.volume=349&amp;rft.issue=6245&amp;rft.pages=255-260&amp;rft.date=2015-07-17&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aaa8415&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A677218%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26185243&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Sci...349..255J&amp;rft.aulast=Jordan&amp;rft.aufirst=M.+I.&amp;rft.au=Mitchell%2C+T.+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEl_NaqaMurphy2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">El Naqa, Issam; Murphy, Martin J. (2015). \"What is Machine Learning?\". <i>Machine Learning in Radiation Oncology<\/i>. pp.&#160;3\u201311. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-319-18305-3_1\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-319-18305-3_1<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-319-18304-6<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:178586107\" target=\"_blank\">178586107<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+Machine+Learning%3F&amp;rft.btitle=Machine+Learning+in+Radiation+Oncology&amp;rft.pages=3-11&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A178586107%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-18305-3_1&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-319-18304-6&amp;rft.aulast=El+Naqa&amp;rft.aufirst=Issam&amp;rft.au=Murphy%2C+Martin+J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOkolieSavageOgbagaGunes2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Okolie, Jude A.; Savage, Shauna; Ogbaga, Chukwuma C.; Gunes, Burcu (June 2022). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.totert.2022.100001\" target=\"_blank\">\"Assessing the potential of machine learning methods to study the removal of pharmaceuticals from wastewater using biochar or activated carbon\"<\/a>. <i>Total Environment Research Themes<\/i>. <b>1\u20132<\/b>: 100001. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.totert.2022.100001\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.totert.2022.100001<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:249022386\" target=\"_blank\">249022386<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Total+Environment+Research+Themes&amp;rft.atitle=Assessing+the+potential+of+machine+learning+methods+to+study+the+removal+of+pharmaceuticals+from+wastewater+using+biochar+or+activated+carbon&amp;rft.volume=1-2&amp;rft.pages=100001&amp;rft.date=2022-06&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.totert.2022.100001&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249022386%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Okolie&amp;rft.aufirst=Jude+A.&amp;rft.au=Savage%2C+Shauna&amp;rft.au=Ogbaga%2C+Chukwuma+C.&amp;rft.au=Gunes%2C+Burcu&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.totert.2022.100001&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-39\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRussellNorvig2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2010). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_Intelligence:_A_Modern_Approach\" title=\"Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9dbb28c25594c66d5bac1148dc06e5f6\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach<\/i><\/a> (Third&#160;ed.). Prentice Hall. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780136042594<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+Modern+Approach&amp;rft.edition=Third&amp;rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=9780136042594&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.aufirst=Stuart+J.&amp;rft.au=Norvig%2C+Peter&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMohriRostamizadehTalwalkar2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mohri, Mehryar; Rostamizadeh, Afshin; Talwalkar, Ameet (2012). <i>Foundations of Machine Learning<\/i>. The MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780262018258<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9780262018258&amp;rft.aulast=Mohri&amp;rft.aufirst=Mehryar&amp;rft.au=Rostamizadeh%2C+Afshin&amp;rft.au=Talwalkar%2C+Ameet&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:3-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_41-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAlpaydin2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Alpaydin, Ethem (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=7f5bBAAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Machine Learning<\/i><\/a>. MIT Press. p.&#160;9. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-262-01243-0<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230117053338\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=7f5bBAAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2023-01-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-11-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.pages=9&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-262-01243-0&amp;rft.aulast=Alpaydin&amp;rft.aufirst=Ethem&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7f5bBAAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JordanBishop2004-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-JordanBishop2004_42-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJordanBishop2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Jordan, Michael I.; Bishop, Christopher M. (2004). \"Neural Networks\". In Allen B. Tucker (ed.). <i>Computer Science Handbook, Second Edition (Section VII: Intelligent Systems)<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-11-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=An+analysis+of+single-layer+networks+in+unsupervised+feature+learning&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Coates&amp;rft.aufirst=Adam&amp;rft.au=Lee%2C+Honglak&amp;rft.au=Ng%2C+Andrew+Y.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmachinelearning.wustl.edu%2Fmlpapers%2Fpaper_files%2FAISTATS2011_CoatesNL11.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCsurkaDanceFanWillamowski2004\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Csurka, Gabriella; Dance, Christopher C.; Fan, Lixin; Willamowski, Jutta; Bray, C\u00e9dric (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cs.cmu.edu\/~efros\/courses\/LBMV07\/Papers\/csurka-eccv-04.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Visual categorization with bags of keypoints<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. ECCV Workshop on Statistical Learning in Computer Vision. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190713040210\/http:\/\/www.cs.cmu.edu\/~efros\/courses\/LBMV07\/Papers\/csurka-eccv-04.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2019-07-13<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2019-08-29<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=Visual+categorization+with+bags+of+keypoints&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.aulast=Csurka&amp;rft.aufirst=Gabriella&amp;rft.au=Dance%2C+Christopher+C.&amp;rft.au=Fan%2C+Lixin&amp;rft.au=Willamowski%2C+Jutta&amp;rft.au=Bray%2C+C%C3%A9dric&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.cmu.edu%2F~efros%2Fcourses%2FLBMV07%2FPapers%2Fcsurka-eccv-04.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-jurafsky-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-jurafsky_56-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDaniel_JurafskyJames_H._Martin2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Daniel Jurafsky; James H. Martin (2009). <i>Speech and Language Processing<\/i>. Pearson Education International. pp.&#160;145\u2013146.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Speech+and+Language+Processing&amp;rft.pages=145-146&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Education+International&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.au=Daniel+Jurafsky&amp;rft.au=James+H.+Martin&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLuPlataniotisVenetsanopoulos2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Lu, Haiping; Plataniotis, K.N.; Venetsanopoulos, A.N. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dsp.utoronto.ca\/~haiping\/Publication\/SurveyMSL_PR2011.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Survey of Multilinear Subspace Learning for Tensor Data\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Pattern Recognition<\/i>. <b>44<\/b> (7): 1540\u20131551. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2011PatRe..44.1540L\" target=\"_blank\">2011PatRe..44.1540L<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.patcog.2011.01.004\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.patcog.2011.01.004<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190710225429\/http:\/\/www.dsp.utoronto.ca\/~haiping\/Publication\/SurveyMSL_PR2011.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2019-07-10<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Now Publishers Inc. pp.&#160;1\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-60198-294-0<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230117053339\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cq5ewg7FniMC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2023-01-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2015). \"On the Computational Intractability of Exact and Approximate Dictionary Learning\". <i>IEEE Signal Processing Letters<\/i>. <b>22<\/b> (1): 45\u201349. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1405.6664\" target=\"_blank\">1405.6664<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2015ISPL...22...45T\" target=\"_blank\">2015ISPL...22...45T<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FLSP.2014.2345761\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/LSP.2014.2345761<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:13342762\" target=\"_blank\">13342762<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Signal+Processing+Letters&amp;rft.atitle=On+the+Computational+Intractability+of+Exact+and+Approximate+Dictionary+Learning&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=45-49&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1405.6664&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13342762%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FLSP.2014.2345761&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015ISPL...22...45T&amp;rft.aulast=Tillmann&amp;rft.aufirst=A.+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michal_Aharon\" title=\"Michal Aharon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a57ee4094c2260d6531fa6239eb6be80\">Aharon, M<\/a>, M Elad, and A Bruckstein. 2006. \"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sites.fas.harvard.edu\/~cs278\/papers\/ksvd.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">K-SVD: An Algorithm for Designing Overcomplete Dictionaries for Sparse Representation<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181123142158\/http:\/\/sites.fas.harvard.edu\/~cs278\/papers\/ksvd.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2018-11-23 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>.\" Signal Processing, IEEE Transactions on 54 (11): 4311\u20134322<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_61-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZimekSchubert2017\" class=\"citation cs2\">Zimek, Arthur; Schubert, Erich (2017), \"Outlier Detection\", <i>Encyclopedia of Database Systems<\/i>, Springer New York, pp.&#160;1\u20135, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-1-4899-7993-3_80719-1\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-1-4899-7993-3_80719-1<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781489979933<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Outlier+Detection&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Database+Systems&amp;rft.pages=1-5&amp;rft.pub=Springer+New+York&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4899-7993-3_80719-1&amp;rft.isbn=9781489979933&amp;rft.aulast=Zimek&amp;rft.aufirst=Arthur&amp;rft.au=Schubert%2C+Erich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHodgeAustin2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Hodge, V. J.; Austin, J. (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eprints.whiterose.ac.uk\/767\/1\/hodgevj4.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Survey of Outlier Detection Methodologies\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Artificial Intelligence Review<\/i>. <b>22<\/b> (2): 85\u2013126. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CiteSeerX (identifier)\" data-key=\"d1ea3e5168e7880002688dac1448af19\">CiteSeerX<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.318.4023\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.318.4023<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10462-004-4304-y\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s10462-004-4304-y<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:59941878\" target=\"_blank\">59941878<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150622042146\/http:\/\/eprints.whiterose.ac.uk\/767\/1\/hodgevj4.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2015-06-22<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-11-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Artificial+Intelligence+Review&amp;rft.atitle=A+Survey+of+Outlier+Detection+Methodologies&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=85-126&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.318.4023%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59941878%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10462-004-4304-y&amp;rft.aulast=Hodge&amp;rft.aufirst=V.+J.&amp;rft.au=Austin%2C+J.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.whiterose.ac.uk%2F767%2F1%2Fhodgevj4.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-63\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDokasErtozKumarLazarevic2002\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Dokas, Paul; Ertoz, Levent; Kumar, Vipin; Lazarevic, Aleksandar; Srivastava, Jaideep; Tan, Pang-Ning (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www-users.cse.umn.edu\/~lazar027\/MINDS\/papers\/nsf_ngdm_2002.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data mining for network intrusion detection\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Proceedings NSF Workshop on Next Generation Data Mining<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150923211542\/http:\/\/www.csee.umbc.edu\/~kolari1\/Mining\/ngdm\/dokas.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2015-09-23<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Ritter\"<\/a>. <i>PLOS ONE<\/i>. <b>15<\/b> (1): e0226880. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1902.07501\" target=\"_blank\">1902.07501<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0226880\" target=\"_blank\">10.1371\/journal.pone.0226880<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6940144\" target=\"_blank\">6940144<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31896135\" target=\"_blank\">31896135<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&amp;rft.atitle=Learning+efficient+haptic+shape+exploration+with+a+rigid+tactile+sensor+array%2C+S.+Fleer%2C+A.+Moringen%2C+R.+Klatzky%2C+H.+Ritter&amp;rft.volume=15&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=e0226880&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6940144%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31896135&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1902.07501&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0226880&amp;rft.aulast=Fleer&amp;rft.aufirst=S.&amp;rft.au=Moringen%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Klatzky%2C+R.+L.&amp;rft.au=Ritter%2C+H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6940144&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-66\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMoringenFleerWalckRitter2020\" class=\"citation cs2\">Moringen, Alexandra; 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(2009-09-22). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155%2F2009%2F736398\" target=\"_blank\">\"Learning Classifier Systems: A Complete Introduction, Review, and Roadmap\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Artificial Evolution and Applications<\/i>. <b>2009<\/b>: 1\u201325. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155%2F2009%2F736398\" target=\"_blank\">10.1155\/2009\/736398<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1687-6229\" target=\"_blank\">1687-6229<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Artificial+Evolution+and+Applications&amp;rft.atitle=Learning+Classifier+Systems%3A+A+Complete+Introduction%2C+Review%2C+and+Roadmap&amp;rft.volume=2009&amp;rft.pages=1-25&amp;rft.date=2009-09-22&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2009%2F736398&amp;rft.issn=1687-6229&amp;rft.aulast=Urbanowicz&amp;rft.aufirst=Ryan+J.&amp;rft.au=Moore%2C+Jason+H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1155%252F2009%252F736398&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-71\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-71\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Plotkin G.D. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk\/bitstream\/handle\/1842\/6656\/Plotkin1972.pdf;sequence=1\" target=\"_blank\">Automatic Methods of Inductive Inference<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171222051034\/https:\/\/www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk\/bitstream\/handle\/1842\/6656\/Plotkin1972.pdf;sequence=1\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2017-12-22 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1970.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-72\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-72\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shapiro, Ehud Y. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ftp.cs.yale.edu\/publications\/techreports\/tr192.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Inductive inference of theories from facts<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210821071609\/http:\/\/ftp.cs.yale.edu\/publications\/techreports\/tr192.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2021-08-21 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, Research Report 192, Yale University, Department of Computer Science, 1981. Reprinted in J.-L. Lassez, G. Plotkin (Eds.), Computational Logic, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1991, pp. 199\u2013254.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-73\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shapiro, Ehud Y. (1983). <i>Algorithmic program debugging<\/i>. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-262-19218-7<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-74\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shapiro, Ehud Y. \"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=1623364\" target=\"_blank\">The model inference system<\/a>.\" Proceedings of the 7th international joint conference on Artificial intelligence-Volume 2. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc., 1981.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-75\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Honglak Lee, Roger Grosse, Rajesh Ranganath, Andrew Y. Ng. \"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/download?doi=10.1.1.149.802&rep=rep1&type=pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Convolutional Deep Belief Networks for Scalable Unsupervised Learning of Hierarchical Representations<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171018182235\/http:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/download?doi=10.1.1.149.802&rep=rep1&type=pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2017-10-18 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>\" Proceedings of the 26th Annual International Conference on Machine Learning, 2009.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CorinnaCortes-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CorinnaCortes_76-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCortesVapnik1995\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corinna_Cortes\" title=\"Corinna Cortes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7410b36ec09bb4edaf4fa40cf0304209\">Cortes, Corinna<\/a>; Vapnik, Vladimir N. (1995). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2FBF00994018\" target=\"_blank\">\"Support-vector networks\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\">Machine Learning<\/a><\/i>. <b>20<\/b> (3): 273\u2013297. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2FBF00994018\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/BF00994018<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Machine+Learning&amp;rft.atitle=Support-vector+networks&amp;rft.volume=20&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=273-297&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00994018&amp;rft.aulast=Cortes&amp;rft.aufirst=Corinna&amp;rft.au=Vapnik%2C+Vladimir+N.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252FBF00994018&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-77\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFStevenson\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Stevenson, Christopher. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/facultystaff.richmond.edu\/~cstevens\/301\/Excel4.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tutorial: Polynomial Regression in Excel\"<\/a>. <i>facultystaff.richmond.edu<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130602200850\/https:\/\/facultystaff.richmond.edu\/~cstevens\/301\/Excel4.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 June 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=facultystaff.richmond.edu&amp;rft.atitle=Tutorial%3A+Polynomial+Regression+in+Excel&amp;rft.aulast=Stevenson&amp;rft.aufirst=Christopher&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffacultystaff.richmond.edu%2F~cstevens%2F301%2FExcel4.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The documentation for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scikit-learn\" title=\"Scikit-learn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e9baac6399c5b2a01d32ed79685060f\">scikit-learn<\/a> also has similar <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/scikit-learn.org\/stable\/auto_examples\/gaussian_process\/plot_compare_gpr_krr.html\" target=\"_blank\">examples<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20221102184805\/https:\/\/scikit-learn.org\/stable\/auto_examples\/gaussian_process\/plot_compare_gpr_krr.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2022-11-02 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoldbergHolland1988\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Goldberg, David E.; Holland, John H. (1988). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/deepblue.lib.umich.edu\/bitstream\/2027.42\/46947\/1\/10994_2005_Article_422926.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Genetic algorithms and machine learning\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\">Machine Learning<\/a><\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (2): 95\u201399. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fbf00113892\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/bf00113892<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:35506513\" target=\"_blank\">35506513<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110516025803\/http:\/\/deepblue.lib.umich.edu\/bitstream\/2027.42\/46947\/1\/10994_2005_Article_422926.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2011-05-16<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2019-09-03<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Machine+Learning&amp;rft.atitle=Genetic+algorithms+and+machine+learning&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=95-99&amp;rft.date=1988&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00113892&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A35506513%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Goldberg&amp;rft.aufirst=David+E.&amp;rft.au=Holland%2C+John+H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeepblue.lib.umich.edu%2Fbitstream%2F2027.42%2F46947%2F1%2F10994_2005_Article_422926.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMichieSpiegelhalterTaylor1994\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Michie, D.; Spiegelhalter, D. J.; Taylor, C. C. (1994). \"Machine Learning, Neural and Statistical Classification\". <i>Ellis Horwood Series in Artificial Intelligence<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/1994mlns.book.....M\" target=\"_blank\">1994mlns.book.....M<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Ellis+Horwood+Series+in+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+Learning%2C+Neural+and+Statistical+Classification&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994mlns.book.....M&amp;rft.aulast=Michie&amp;rft.aufirst=D.&amp;rft.au=Spiegelhalter%2C+D.+J.&amp;rft.au=Taylor%2C+C.+C.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-81\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZhangZhanLinChen2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zhang, Jun; Zhan, Zhi-hui; Lin, Ying; Chen, Ni; Gong, Yue-jiao; Zhong, Jing-hui; Chung, Henry S.H.; Li, Yun; Shi, Yu-hui (2011). \"Evolutionary Computation Meets Machine Learning: A Survey\". <i>Computational Intelligence Magazine<\/i>. <b>6<\/b> (4): 68\u201375. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2Fmci.2011.942584\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/mci.2011.942584<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:6760276\" target=\"_blank\">6760276<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Computational+Intelligence+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Evolutionary+Computation+Meets+Machine+Learning%3A+A+Survey&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=68-75&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Fmci.2011.942584&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6760276%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Zhang&amp;rft.aufirst=Jun&amp;rft.au=Zhan%2C+Zhi-hui&amp;rft.au=Lin%2C+Ying&amp;rft.au=Chen%2C+Ni&amp;rft.au=Gong%2C+Yue-jiao&amp;rft.au=Zhong%2C+Jing-hui&amp;rft.au=Chung%2C+Henry+S.H.&amp;rft.au=Li%2C+Yun&amp;rft.au=Shi%2C+Yu-hui&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-82\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ai.googleblog.com\/2017\/04\/federated-learning-collaborative.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Federated Learning: Collaborative Machine Learning without Centralized Training Data\"<\/a>. <i>Google AI Blog<\/i>. 6 April 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190607054623\/https:\/\/ai.googleblog.com\/2017\/04\/federated-learning-collaborative.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2019-06-07<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2019-06-08<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Google+AI+Blog&amp;rft.atitle=Federated+Learning%3A+Collaborative+Machine+Learning+without+Centralized+Training+Data&amp;rft.date=2017-04-06&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fai.googleblog.com%2F2017%2F04%2Ffederated-learning-collaborative.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-83\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Machine learning is included in the <a href=\"#Curriculum\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA)\">CFA Curriculum<\/a> (discussion is top-down); see: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cfainstitute.org\/-\/media\/documents\/study-session\/2020-l2-ss3.ashx\" target=\"_blank\">Kathleen DeRose and Christophe Le Lanno (2020). \"Machine Learning\"<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200113085425\/https:\/\/www.cfainstitute.org\/-\/media\/documents\/study-session\/2020-l2-ss3.ashx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2020-01-13 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-84\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFIvanenkoSmolikWantaMidura2023\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Ivanenko, Mikhail; Smolik, Waldemar T.; Wanta, Damian; Midura, Mateusz; Wr\u00f3blewski, Przemys\u0142aw; Hou, Xiaohan; Yan, Xiaoheng (2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC10538128\" target=\"_blank\">\"Image Reconstruction Using Supervised Learning in Wearable Electrical Impedance Tomography of the Thorax\"<\/a>. <i>Sensors<\/i>. <b>23<\/b> (18): 7774. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2023Senso..23.7774I\" target=\"_blank\">2023Senso..23.7774I<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Fs23187774\" target=\"_blank\">10.3390\/s23187774<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC10538128\" target=\"_blank\">10538128<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/37765831\" target=\"_blank\">37765831<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Sensors&amp;rft.atitle=Image+Reconstruction+Using+Supervised+Learning+in+Wearable+Electrical+Impedance+Tomography+of+the+Thorax&amp;rft.volume=23&amp;rft.issue=18&amp;rft.pages=7774&amp;rft.date=2023&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10538128%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37765831&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fs23187774&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023Senso..23.7774I&amp;rft.aulast=Ivanenko&amp;rft.aufirst=Mikhail&amp;rft.au=Smolik%2C+Waldemar+T.&amp;rft.au=Wanta%2C+Damian&amp;rft.au=Midura%2C+Mateusz&amp;rft.au=Wr%C3%B3blewski%2C+Przemys%C5%82aw&amp;rft.au=Hou%2C+Xiaohan&amp;rft.au=Yan%2C+Xiaoheng&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10538128&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-85\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151110062742\/http:\/\/www2.research.att.com\/~volinsky\/netflix\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"BelKor Home Page\"<\/a> research.att.com<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-86\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160531002916\/http:\/\/techblog.netflix.com\/2012\/04\/netflix-recommendations-beyond-5-stars.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Netflix Tech Blog: Netflix Recommendations: Beyond the 5 stars (Part 1)\"<\/a>. 2012-04-06. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/techblog.netflix.com\/2012\/04\/netflix-recommendations-beyond-5-stars.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 31 May 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 August<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Netflix+Tech+Blog%3A+Netflix+Recommendations%3A+Beyond+the+5+stars+%28Part+1%29&amp;rft.date=2012-04-06&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftechblog.netflix.com%2F2012%2F04%2Fnetflix-recommendations-beyond-5-stars.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-87\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFScott_Patterson2010\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Scott Patterson (13 July 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/SB10001424052748703834604575365310813948080\" target=\"_blank\">\"Letting the Machines Decide\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Wall_Street_Journal\" title=\"The Wall Street Journal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f01ac1e33bbf6d25fdd85331ab0ea2f\">The Wall Street Journal<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180624151019\/https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/SB10001424052748703834604575365310813948080\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 June 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Letting+the+Machines+Decide&amp;rft.pub=The+Wall+Street+Journal&amp;rft.date=2010-07-13&amp;rft.au=Scott+Patterson&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB10001424052748703834604575365310813948080&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-88\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-88\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVinod_Khosla2012\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Vinod Khosla (January 10, 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2012\/01\/10\/doctors-or-algorithms\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Do We Need Doctors or Algorithms?\"<\/a>. Tech Crunch. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180618175811\/https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2012\/01\/10\/doctors-or-algorithms\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on June 18, 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">October 20,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Do+We+Need+Doctors+or+Algorithms%3F&amp;rft.pub=Tech+Crunch&amp;rft.date=2012-01-10&amp;rft.au=Vinod+Khosla&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechcrunch.com%2F2012%2F01%2F10%2Fdoctors-or-algorithms%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-89\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-89\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/medium.com\/the-physics-arxiv-blog\/when-a-machine-learning-algorithm-studied-fine-art-paintings-it-saw-things-art-historians-had-never-b8e4e7bf7d3e\" target=\"_blank\">When A Machine Learning Algorithm Studied Fine Art Paintings, It Saw Things Art Historians Had Never Noticed<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160604072143\/https:\/\/medium.com\/the-physics-arxiv-blog\/when-a-machine-learning-algorithm-studied-fine-art-paintings-it-saw-things-art-historians-had-never-b8e4e7bf7d3e\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2016-06-04 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, <i>The Physics at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv\" title=\"ArXiv\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b604eac0fe0659f490c93649bb7700\">ArXiv<\/a> blog<\/i><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-90\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-90\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVincent2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Vincent, James (2019-04-10). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2019\/4\/10\/18304558\/ai-writing-academic-research-book-springer-nature-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"The first AI-generated textbook shows what robot writers are actually good at\"<\/a>. <i>The Verge<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190505200409\/https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2019\/4\/10\/18304558\/ai-writing-academic-research-book-springer-nature-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2019-05-05<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2019-05-05<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Verge&amp;rft.atitle=The+first+AI-generated+textbook+shows+what+robot+writers+are+actually+good+at&amp;rft.date=2019-04-10&amp;rft.aulast=Vincent&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2019%2F4%2F10%2F18304558%2Fai-writing-academic-research-book-springer-nature-artificial-intelligence&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-91\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-91\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVaishyaJavaidKhanHaleem2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Vaishya, Raju; Javaid, Mohd; Khan, Ibrahim Haleem; Haleem, Abid (July 1, 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7195043\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications for COVID-19 pandemic\"<\/a>. <i>Diabetes &amp; Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research &amp; Reviews<\/i>. <b>14<\/b> (4): 337\u2013339. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.dsx.2020.04.012\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.dsx.2020.04.012<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7195043\" target=\"_blank\">7195043<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/32305024\" target=\"_blank\">32305024<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Diabetes+%26+Metabolic+Syndrome%3A+Clinical+Research+%26+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence+%28AI%29+applications+for+COVID-19+pandemic&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=337-339&amp;rft.date=2020-07-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7195043%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32305024&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.dsx.2020.04.012&amp;rft.aulast=Vaishya&amp;rft.aufirst=Raju&amp;rft.au=Javaid%2C+Mohd&amp;rft.au=Khan%2C+Ibrahim+Haleem&amp;rft.au=Haleem%2C+Abid&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7195043&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-92\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-92\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRezapouraghdamAkhshikRamkissoon2021\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rezapouraghdam, Hamed; Akhshik, Arash; Ramkissoon, Haywantee (March 10, 2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F09669582.2021.1887878\" target=\"_blank\">\"Application of machine learning to predict visitors' green behavior in marine protected areas: evidence from Cyprus\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Sustainable Tourism<\/i>. <b>31<\/b> (11): 2479\u20132505. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F09669582.2021.1887878\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/09669582.2021.1887878<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/10037%2F24073\" target=\"_blank\">10037\/24073<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Sustainable+Tourism&amp;rft.atitle=Application+of+machine+learning+to+predict+visitors%27+green+behavior+in+marine+protected+areas%3A+evidence+from+Cyprus&amp;rft.volume=31&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=2479-2505&amp;rft.date=2021-03-10&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10037%2F24073&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09669582.2021.1887878&amp;rft.aulast=Rezapouraghdam&amp;rft.aufirst=Hamed&amp;rft.au=Akhshik%2C+Arash&amp;rft.au=Ramkissoon%2C+Haywantee&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F09669582.2021.1887878&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-93\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-93\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDeySinghWangMcDonald-Maier2020\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dey, Somdip; Singh, Amit Kumar; Wang, Xiaohang; McDonald-Maier, Klaus (2020-06-15). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/9116294\" target=\"_blank\">\"User Interaction Aware Reinforcement Learning for Power and Thermal Efficiency of CPU-GPU Mobile MPSoCs\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/repository.essex.ac.uk\/27546\/1\/User%20Interaction%20Aware%20Reinforcement%20Learning.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>2020 Design, Automation &amp; Test in Europe Conference &amp; Exhibition (DATE)<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. pp.&#160;1728\u20131733. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.23919%2FDATE48585.2020.9116294\" target=\"_blank\">10.23919\/DATE48585.2020.9116294<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-9819263-4-7<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:219858480\" target=\"_blank\">219858480<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211213192526\/https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/9116294\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2021-12-13<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=User+Interaction+Aware+Reinforcement+Learning+for+Power+and+Thermal+Efficiency+of+CPU-GPU+Mobile+MPSoCs&amp;rft.btitle=2020+Design%2C+Automation+%26+Test+in+Europe+Conference+%26+Exhibition+%28DATE%29&amp;rft.pages=1728-1733&amp;rft.date=2020-06-15&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219858480%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.23919%2FDATE48585.2020.9116294&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-9819263-4-7&amp;rft.aulast=Dey&amp;rft.aufirst=Somdip&amp;rft.au=Singh%2C+Amit+Kumar&amp;rft.au=Wang%2C+Xiaohang&amp;rft.au=McDonald-Maier%2C+Klaus&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F9116294&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-94\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-94\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFQuested\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Quested, Tony. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.businessweekly.co.uk\/news\/academia-research\/smartphones-get-smarter-essex-innovation\" target=\"_blank\">\"Smartphones get smarter with Essex innovation\"<\/a>. <i>Business Weekly<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210624200126\/https:\/\/www.businessweekly.co.uk\/news\/academia-research\/smartphones-get-smarter-essex-innovation\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2021-06-24<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Business+Weekly&amp;rft.atitle=Smartphones+get+smarter+with+Essex+innovation&amp;rft.aulast=Quested&amp;rft.aufirst=Tony&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessweekly.co.uk%2Fnews%2Facademia-research%2Fsmartphones-get-smarter-essex-innovation&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-95\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-95\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWilliams2020\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Williams, Rhiannon (2020-07-21). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/inews.co.uk\/news\/technology\/future-smartphones-prolong-battery-life-monitoring-behaviour-558689\" target=\"_blank\">\"Future smartphones 'will prolong their own battery life by monitoring owners' behaviour'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I_(newspaper)\" title=\"I (newspaper)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2dc3881895a548895e39caae2f060d59\">i<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210624201153\/https:\/\/inews.co.uk\/news\/technology\/future-smartphones-prolong-battery-life-monitoring-behaviour-558689\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2021-06-24<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=i&amp;rft.atitle=Future+smartphones+%27will+prolong+their+own+battery+life+by+monitoring+owners%27+behaviour%27&amp;rft.date=2020-07-21&amp;rft.aulast=Williams&amp;rft.aufirst=Rhiannon&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finews.co.uk%2Fnews%2Ftechnology%2Ffuture-smartphones-prolong-battery-life-monitoring-behaviour-558689&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-96\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-96\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRasekhschaffeJones2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Rasekhschaffe, Keywan Christian; Jones, Robert C. (2019-07-01). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/full\/10.1080\/0015198X.2019.1596678\" target=\"_blank\">\"Machine Learning for Stock Selection\"<\/a>. <i>Financial Analysts Journal<\/i>. <b>75<\/b> (3): 70\u201388. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F0015198X.2019.1596678\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/0015198X.2019.1596678<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0015-198X\" target=\"_blank\">0015-198X<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:108312507\" target=\"_blank\">108312507<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Financial+Analysts+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+Learning+for+Stock+Selection&amp;rft.volume=75&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=70-88&amp;rft.date=2019-07-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A108312507%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0015-198X&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0015198X.2019.1596678&amp;rft.aulast=Rasekhschaffe&amp;rft.aufirst=Keywan+Christian&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+Robert+C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F0015198X.2019.1596678&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-97\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-97\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170320225010\/https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2016-11-10\/why-machine-learning-models-often-fail-to-learn-quicktake-q-a\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why Machine Learning Models Often Fail to Learn: QuickTake Q&amp;A\"<\/a>. <i>Bloomberg.com<\/i>. 2016-11-10. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2016-11-10\/why-machine-learning-models-often-fail-to-learn-quicktake-q-a\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2017-03-20<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2017-04-10<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Bloomberg.com&amp;rft.atitle=Why+Machine+Learning+Models+Often+Fail+to+Learn%3A+QuickTake+Q%26A&amp;rft.date=2016-11-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2016-11-10%2Fwhy-machine-learning-models-often-fail-to-learn-quicktake-q-a&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-98\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-98\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hbr.org\/2017\/04\/the-first-wave-of-corporate-ai-is-doomed-to-fail\" target=\"_blank\">\"The First Wave of Corporate AI Is Doomed to Fail\"<\/a>. <i>Harvard Business Review<\/i>. 2017-04-18. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180821032004\/https:\/\/hbr.org\/2017\/04\/the-first-wave-of-corporate-ai-is-doomed-to-fail\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-08-21<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Harvard+Business+Review&amp;rft.atitle=The+First+Wave+of+Corporate+AI+Is+Doomed+to+Fail&amp;rft.date=2017-04-18&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhbr.org%2F2017%2F04%2Fthe-first-wave-of-corporate-ai-is-doomed-to-fail&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-99\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-99\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/venturebeat.com\/2016\/09\/17\/why-the-a-i-euphoria-is-doomed-to-fail\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why the A.I. euphoria is doomed to fail\"<\/a>. <i>VentureBeat<\/i>. 2016-09-18. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180819124138\/https:\/\/venturebeat.com\/2016\/09\/17\/why-the-a-i-euphoria-is-doomed-to-fail\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-08-19<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=VentureBeat&amp;rft.atitle=Why+the+A.I.+euphoria+is+doomed+to+fail&amp;rft.date=2016-09-18&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fventurebeat.com%2F2016%2F09%2F17%2Fwhy-the-a-i-euphoria-is-doomed-to-fail%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-100\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-100\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.kdnuggets.com\/2018\/07\/why-machine-learning-project-fail.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"9 Reasons why your machine learning project will fail\"<\/a>. <i>www.kdnuggets.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180821031802\/https:\/\/www.kdnuggets.com\/2018\/07\/why-machine-learning-project-fail.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-08-21<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.kdnuggets.com&amp;rft.atitle=9+Reasons+why+your+machine+learning+project+will+fail&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kdnuggets.com%2F2018%2F07%2Fwhy-machine-learning-project-fail.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:12-101\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:12_101-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:12_101-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBabutaOswaldRinik2018\" class=\"citation report cs1\">Babuta, Alexander; Oswald, Marion; Rinik, Christine (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/resrep37375.8\" target=\"_blank\">Transparency and Intelligibility<\/a> (Report). Royal United Services Institute (RUSI). pp.&#160;17\u201322.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Transparency+and+Intelligibility&amp;rft.pages=17-22&amp;rft.pub=Royal+United+Services+Institute+%28RUSI%29&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.aulast=Babuta&amp;rft.aufirst=Alexander&amp;rft.au=Oswald%2C+Marion&amp;rft.au=Rinik%2C+Christine&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fresrep37375.8&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-102\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-102\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.economist.com\/the-economist-explains\/2018\/05\/29\/why-ubers-self-driving-car-killed-a-pedestrian\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why Uber's self-driving car killed a pedestrian\"<\/a>. <i>The Economist<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180821031818\/https:\/\/www.economist.com\/the-economist-explains\/2018\/05\/29\/why-ubers-self-driving-car-killed-a-pedestrian\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-08-21<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Economist&amp;rft.atitle=Why+Uber%27s+self-driving+car+killed+a+pedestrian&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fthe-economist-explains%2F2018%2F05%2F29%2Fwhy-ubers-self-driving-car-killed-a-pedestrian&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-103\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-103\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/2018\/07\/25\/ibm-watson-recommended-unsafe-incorrect-treatments\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"IBM's Watson recommended 'unsafe and incorrect' cancer treatments \u2013 STAT\"<\/a>. <i>STAT<\/i>. 2018-07-25. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180821062616\/https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/2018\/07\/25\/ibm-watson-recommended-unsafe-incorrect-treatments\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-08-21<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-21<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=STAT&amp;rft.atitle=IBM%27s+Watson+recommended+%27unsafe+and+incorrect%27+cancer+treatments+%E2%80%93+STAT&amp;rft.date=2018-07-25&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.statnews.com%2F2018%2F07%2F25%2Fibm-watson-recommended-unsafe-incorrect-treatments%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-104\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-104\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHernandezGreenwald2018\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Hernandez, Daniela; Greenwald, Ted (2018-08-11). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/ibm-bet-billions-that-watson-could-improve-cancer-treatment-it-hasnt-worked-1533961147\" target=\"_blank\">\"IBM Has a Watson Dilemma\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Wall_Street_Journal\" title=\"The Wall Street Journal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f01ac1e33bbf6d25fdd85331ab0ea2f\">The Wall Street Journal<\/a><\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0099-9660\" target=\"_blank\">0099-9660<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180821031906\/https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/ibm-bet-billions-that-watson-could-improve-cancer-treatment-it-hasnt-worked-1533961147\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-08-21<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-21<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=IBM+Has+a+Watson+Dilemma&amp;rft.date=2018-08-11&amp;rft.issn=0099-9660&amp;rft.aulast=Hernandez&amp;rft.aufirst=Daniela&amp;rft.au=Greenwald%2C+Ted&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fibm-bet-billions-that-watson-could-improve-cancer-treatment-it-hasnt-worked-1533961147&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-105\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-105\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAllyn2023\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Allyn, Bobby (Feb 27, 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2023\/02\/27\/1159630243\/how-microsofts-experiment-in-artificial-intelligence-tech-backfired\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Microsoft's experiment in artificial intelligence tech backfired\"<\/a>. <i>National Public Radio<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">Dec 8,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=National+Public+Radio&amp;rft.atitle=How+Microsoft%27s+experiment+in+artificial+intelligence+tech+backfired&amp;rft.date=2023-02-27&amp;rft.aulast=Allyn&amp;rft.aufirst=Bobby&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2023%2F02%2F27%2F1159630243%2Fhow-microsofts-experiment-in-artificial-intelligence-tech-backfired&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-106\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-106\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFReddyPatelWeyrichFenton2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Reddy, Shivani M.; Patel, Sheila; Weyrich, Meghan; Fenton, Joshua; Viswanathan, Meera (2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7574591\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comparison of a traditional systematic review approach with review-of-reviews and semi-automation as strategies to update the evidence\"<\/a>. <i>Systematic Reviews<\/i>. <b>9<\/b> (1): 243. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186%2Fs13643-020-01450-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/s13643-020-01450-2<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2046-4053\" target=\"_blank\">2046-4053<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7574591\" target=\"_blank\">7574591<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33076975\" target=\"_blank\">33076975<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Systematic+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Comparison+of+a+traditional+systematic+review+approach+with+review-of-reviews+and+semi-automation+as+strategies+to+update+the+evidence&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=243&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7574591%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=2046-4053&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33076975&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs13643-020-01450-2&amp;rft.aulast=Reddy&amp;rft.aufirst=Shivani+M.&amp;rft.au=Patel%2C+Sheila&amp;rft.au=Weyrich%2C+Meghan&amp;rft.au=Fenton%2C+Joshua&amp;rft.au=Viswanathan%2C+Meera&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7574591&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:15-107\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:15_107-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGarcia2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Garcia, Megan (2016). \"Racist in the Machine\". <i>World Policy Journal<\/i>. <b>33<\/b> (4): 111\u2013117. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1215%2F07402775-3813015\" target=\"_blank\">10.1215\/07402775-3813015<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0740-2775\" target=\"_blank\">0740-2775<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:151595343\" target=\"_blank\">151595343<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=World+Policy+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Racist+in+the+Machine&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=111-117&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151595343%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0740-2775&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F07402775-3813015&amp;rft.aulast=Garcia&amp;rft.aufirst=Megan&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-108\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-108\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCaliskanBrysonNarayanan2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Caliskan, Aylin; Bryson, Joanna J.; Narayanan, Arvind (2017-04-14). \"Semantics derived automatically from language corpora contain human-like biases\". <i>Science<\/i>. <b>356<\/b> (6334): 183\u2013186. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1608.07187\" target=\"_blank\">1608.07187<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2017Sci...356..183C\" target=\"_blank\">2017Sci...356..183C<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.aal4230\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.aal4230<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0036-8075\" target=\"_blank\">0036-8075<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/28408601\" target=\"_blank\">28408601<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:23163324\" target=\"_blank\">23163324<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Semantics+derived+automatically+from+language+corpora+contain+human-like+biases&amp;rft.volume=356&amp;rft.issue=6334&amp;rft.pages=183-186&amp;rft.date=2017-04-14&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23163324%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Sci...356..183C&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1608.07187&amp;rft.issn=0036-8075&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aal4230&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28408601&amp;rft.aulast=Caliskan&amp;rft.aufirst=Aylin&amp;rft.au=Bryson%2C+Joanna+J.&amp;rft.au=Narayanan%2C+Arvind&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-109\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-109\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Opinion+%7C+Artificial+Intelligence%27s+White+Guy+Problem&amp;rft.date=2016-06-25&amp;rft.aulast=Crawford&amp;rft.aufirst=Kate&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F06%2F26%2Fopinion%2Fsunday%2Fartificial-intelligences-white-guy-problem.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-113\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-113\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMetz\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Metz, Rachel. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/601111\/why-microsoft-accidentally-unleashed-a-neo-nazi-sexbot\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why Microsoft's teen chatbot, Tay, said lots of awful things online\"<\/a>. <i>MIT Technology Review<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181109023754\/https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/601111\/why-microsoft-accidentally-unleashed-a-neo-nazi-sexbot\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-11-09<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=MIT+Technology+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Why+Microsoft%27s+teen+chatbot%2C+Tay%2C+said+lots+of+awful+things+online&amp;rft.aulast=Metz&amp;rft.aufirst=Rachel&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologyreview.com%2Fs%2F601111%2Fwhy-microsoft-accidentally-unleashed-a-neo-nazi-sexbot%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-114\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-114\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSimonite\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Simonite, Tom. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/603944\/microsoft-ai-isnt-yet-adaptable-enough-to-help-businesses\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Microsoft says its racist chatbot illustrates how AI isn't adaptable enough to help most businesses\"<\/a>. <i>MIT Technology Review<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181109022820\/https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/603944\/microsoft-ai-isnt-yet-adaptable-enough-to-help-businesses\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-11-09<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=MIT+Technology+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Microsoft+says+its+racist+chatbot+illustrates+how+AI+isn%27t+adaptable+enough+to+help+most+businesses&amp;rft.aulast=Simonite&amp;rft.aufirst=Tom&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologyreview.com%2Fs%2F603944%2Fmicrosoft-ai-isnt-yet-adaptable-enough-to-help-businesses%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-115\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-115\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHempel2018\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Hempel, Jessi (2018-11-13). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/fei-fei-li-artificial-intelligence-humanity\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Fei-Fei Li's Quest to Make Machines Better for Humanity\"<\/a>. <i>Wired<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1059-1028\" target=\"_blank\">1059-1028<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201214095220\/https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/fei-fei-li-artificial-intelligence-humanity\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2020-12-14<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Zhang, Xuesong; Bohrer, Gil; Liu, Yanlan; Zhou, Yuyu; Martin, Jay; LI, Yang; Zhao, Kaiguang (2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0168192323001508\" target=\"_blank\">\"Crop yield prediction via explainable AI and interpretable machine learning: Dangers of black box models for evaluating climate change impacts on crop yield\"<\/a>. <i>Agricultural and Forest Meteorology<\/i>. <b>336<\/b>: 109458. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.agrformet.2023.109458\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.agrformet.2023.109458<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:258552400\" target=\"_blank\">258552400<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Agricultural+and+Forest+Meteorology&amp;rft.atitle=Crop+yield+prediction+via+explainable+AI+and+interpretable+machine+learning%3A+Dangers+of+black+box+models+for+evaluating+climate+change+impacts+on+crop+yield&amp;rft.volume=336&amp;rft.pages=109458&amp;rft.date=2023&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.agrformet.2023.109458&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A258552400%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Hu&amp;rft.aufirst=Tongxi&amp;rft.au=Zhang%2C+Xuesong&amp;rft.au=Bohrer%2C+Gil&amp;rft.au=Liu%2C+Yanlan&amp;rft.au=Zhou%2C+Yuyu&amp;rft.au=Martin%2C+Jay&amp;rft.au=LI%2C+Yang&amp;rft.au=Zhao%2C+Kaiguang&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0168192323001508&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_6,_Chapter_7-118\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_6,_Chapter_7_118-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, Chapter 6, Chapter 7.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015286-119\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015286_119-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, p.&#160;286.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-120\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-120\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/technology-41845878\" target=\"_blank\">\"Single pixel change fools AI programs\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. 3 November 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180322011306\/http:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/technology-41845878\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 March 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=Single+pixel+change+fools+AI+programs&amp;rft.date=2017-11-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Ftechnology-41845878&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-121\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-121\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/ai-has-a-hallucination-problem-thats-proving-tough-to-fix\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI Has a Hallucination Problem That's Proving Tough to Fix\"<\/a>. <i>WIRED<\/i>. 2018. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180312024533\/https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/ai-has-a-hallucination-problem-thats-proving-tough-to-fix\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 12 March 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=WIRED&amp;rft.atitle=AI+Has+a+Hallucination+Problem+That%27s+Proving+Tough+to+Fix&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fstory%2Fai-has-a-hallucination-problem-thats-proving-tough-to-fix%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TD_1-122\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TD_1_122-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMadry,_A.Makelov,_A.Schmidt,_L.Tsipras,_D.2019\" class=\"citation arxiv cs1\">Madry, A.; Makelov, A.; Schmidt, L.; Tsipras, D.; Vladu, A. (4 September 2019). \"Towards deep learning models resistant to adversarial attacks\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1706.06083\" target=\"_blank\">1706.06083<\/a><\/span> [<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/archive\/stat.ML\" target=\"_blank\">stat.ML<\/a>].<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=preprint&amp;rft.jtitle=arXiv&amp;rft.atitle=Towards+deep+learning+models+resistant+to+adversarial+attacks&amp;rft.date=2019-09-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1706.06083&amp;rft.au=Madry%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Makelov%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Schmidt%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Tsipras%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Vladu%2C+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-123\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-123\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cltc.berkeley.edu\/aml\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Adversarial Machine Learning \u2013 CLTC UC Berkeley Center for Long-Term Cybersecurity\"<\/a>. <i>CLTC<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220517045352\/https:\/\/cltc.berkeley.edu\/aml\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-05-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-05-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=CLTC&amp;rft.atitle=Adversarial+Machine+Learning+%E2%80%93+CLTC+UC+Berkeley+Center+for+Long-Term+Cybersecurity&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcltc.berkeley.edu%2Faml%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-124\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-124\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.com\/2022\/04\/21\/machine_learning_models_backdoors\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Machine-learning models vulnerable to undetectable backdoors\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Register\" title=\"The Register\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2eb0545423025dd1f51e39f5eed0591\">The Register<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220513171215\/https:\/\/www.theregister.com\/2022\/04\/21\/machine_learning_models_backdoors\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 May 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 May<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Register&amp;rft.atitle=Machine-learning+models+vulnerable+to+undetectable+backdoors&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.com%2F2022%2F04%2F21%2Fmachine_learning_models_backdoors%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-125\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-125\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/machine-learningbackdoor\" target=\"_blank\">\"Undetectable Backdoors Plantable In Any Machine-Learning Algorithm\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_Spectrum\" title=\"IEEE Spectrum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb31bac59e904a476465eedf8472a85e\">IEEE Spectrum<\/a><\/i>. 10 May 2022. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220511152052\/https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/machine-learningbackdoor\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 May 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 May<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Spectrum&amp;rft.atitle=Undetectable+Backdoors+Plantable+In+Any+Machine-Learning+Algorithm&amp;rft.date=2022-05-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Fmachine-learningbackdoor&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-126\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-126\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoldwasserKimVaikuntanathanZamir2022\" class=\"citation arxiv cs1\">Goldwasser, Shafi; Kim, Michael P.; Vaikuntanathan, Vinod; Zamir, Or (14 April 2022). \"Planting Undetectable Backdoors in Machine Learning Models\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2204.06974\" target=\"_blank\">2204.06974<\/a><\/span> [<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/archive\/cs.LG\" target=\"_blank\">cs.LG<\/a>].<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=preprint&amp;rft.jtitle=arXiv&amp;rft.atitle=Planting+Undetectable+Backdoors+in+Machine+Learning+Models&amp;rft.date=2022-04-14&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2204.06974&amp;rft.aulast=Goldwasser&amp;rft.aufirst=Shafi&amp;rft.au=Kim%2C+Michael+P.&amp;rft.au=Vaikuntanathan%2C+Vinod&amp;rft.au=Zamir%2C+Or&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-127\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-127\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKohavi1995\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kohavi, Ron (1995). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ai.stanford.edu\/~ronnyk\/accEst.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Study of Cross-Validation and Bootstrap for Accuracy Estimation and Model Selection\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180712102706\/http:\/\/web.cs.iastate.edu\/~jtian\/cs573\/Papers\/Kohavi-IJCAI-95.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2018-07-12<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2023-03-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Joint+Conference+on+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.atitle=A+Study+of+Cross-Validation+and+Bootstrap+for+Accuracy+Estimation+and+Model+Selection&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.aulast=Kohavi&amp;rft.aufirst=Ron&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fai.stanford.edu%2F~ronnyk%2FaccEst.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-128\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-128\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPontiusSi2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Pontius, Robert Gilmore; Si, Kangping (2014). \"The total operating characteristic to measure diagnostic ability for multiple thresholds\". <i>International Journal of Geographical Information Science<\/i>. <b>28<\/b> (3): 570\u2013583. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2014IJGIS..28..570P\" target=\"_blank\">2014IJGIS..28..570P<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F13658816.2013.862623\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/13658816.2013.862623<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:29204880\" target=\"_blank\">29204880<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Geographical+Information+Science&amp;rft.atitle=The+total+operating+characteristic+to+measure+diagnostic+ability+for+multiple+thresholds&amp;rft.volume=28&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=570-583&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29204880%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13658816.2013.862623&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014IJGIS..28..570P&amp;rft.aulast=Pontius&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+Gilmore&amp;rft.au=Si%2C+Kangping&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-129\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-129\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBostrom2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Bostrom, Nick (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304015020\/http:\/\/www.nickbostrom.com\/ethics\/artificial-intelligence.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nickbostrom.com\/ethics\/artificial-intelligence.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 4 March 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 April<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Ethics+of+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Bostrom&amp;rft.aufirst=Nick&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nickbostrom.com%2Fethics%2Fartificial-intelligence.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:1-130\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_130-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGarcia2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Garcia, Megan (2016). \"Racist in the Machine\". <i>World Policy Journal<\/i>. <b>33<\/b> (4): 111\u2013117. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1215%2F07402775-3813015\" target=\"_blank\">10.1215\/07402775-3813015<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0740-2775\" target=\"_blank\">0740-2775<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:151595343\" target=\"_blank\">151595343<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=World+Policy+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Racist+in+the+Machine&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=111-117&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151595343%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0740-2775&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F07402775-3813015&amp;rft.aulast=Garcia&amp;rft.aufirst=Megan&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Edionwe_Outline-131\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Edionwe_Outline_131-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEdionwe\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Edionwe, Tolulope. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/theoutline.com\/post\/1571\/the-fight-against-racist-algorithms\" target=\"_blank\">\"The fight against racist algorithms\"<\/a>. <i>The Outline<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171117174504\/https:\/\/theoutline.com\/post\/1571\/the-fight-against-racist-algorithms\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 November 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Outline&amp;rft.atitle=The+fight+against+racist+algorithms&amp;rft.aulast=Edionwe&amp;rft.aufirst=Tolulope&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheoutline.com%2Fpost%2F1571%2Fthe-fight-against-racist-algorithms&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Jeffries_Outline-132\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Jeffries_Outline_132-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJeffries\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Jeffries, Adrianne. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/theoutline.com\/post\/1439\/machine-learning-is-racist-because-the-internet-is-racist\" target=\"_blank\">\"Machine learning is racist because the internet is racist\"<\/a>. <i>The Outline<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171117174503\/https:\/\/theoutline.com\/post\/1439\/machine-learning-is-racist-because-the-internet-is-racist\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 November 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Outline&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+learning+is+racist+because+the+internet+is+racist&amp;rft.aulast=Jeffries&amp;rft.aufirst=Adrianne&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheoutline.com%2Fpost%2F1439%2Fmachine-learning-is-racist-because-the-internet-is-racist&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:23-133\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:23_133-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSilvaKenney2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Silva, Selena; Kenney, Martin (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/26545017\" target=\"_blank\">\"Algorithms, Platforms, and Ethnic Bias: An Integrative Essay\"<\/a>. <i>Phylon (1960-)<\/i>. <b>55<\/b> (1 &amp; 2): 9\u201337. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0031-8906\" target=\"_blank\">0031-8906<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\" data-key=\"5452009cc6ddc0c9ed86584fc7a26cc8\">JSTOR<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/26545017\" target=\"_blank\">26545017<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Phylon+%281960-%29&amp;rft.atitle=Algorithms%2C+Platforms%2C+and+Ethnic+Bias%3A+An+Integrative+Essay&amp;rft.volume=55&amp;rft.issue=1+%26+2&amp;rft.pages=9-37&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26545017%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft.issn=0031-8906&amp;rft.aulast=Silva&amp;rft.aufirst=Selena&amp;rft.au=Kenney%2C+Martin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26545017&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-134\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-134\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWong2023\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wong, Carissa (2023-03-30). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/d41586-023-00935-z\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI 'fairness' research held back by lack of diversity\"<\/a>. <i>Nature<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fd41586-023-00935-z\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/d41586-023-00935-z<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/36997714\" target=\"_blank\">36997714<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:257857012\" target=\"_blank\">257857012<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=AI+%27fairness%27+research+held+back+by+lack+of+diversity&amp;rft.date=2023-03-30&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A257857012%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36997714&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fd41586-023-00935-z&amp;rft.aulast=Wong&amp;rft.aufirst=Carissa&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fd41586-023-00935-z&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:32-135\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:32_135-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:32_135-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZhang\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zhang, Jack Clark. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/aiindex.stanford.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/11\/2021-AI-Index-Report_Master.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence Index Report 2021\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Stanford Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence<\/i>.<\/cite><span 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ETHICS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Nick Bostrom<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151220175220\/http:\/\/www.nickbostrom.com\/ethics\/artificial-intelligence.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2015-12-20<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2020-11-18<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Nick+Bostrom&amp;rft.atitle=THE+ETHICS+OF+ARTIFICIAL+INTELLIGENCE&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Bostrom&amp;rft.aufirst=Nick&amp;rft.au=Yudkowsky%2C+Eliezer&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nickbostrom.com%2Fethics%2Fartificial-intelligence.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-137\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-137\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFM.O.R._PratesP.H.C._AvelarL.C._Lamb2019\" class=\"citation arxiv cs1\">M.O.R. Prates; P.H.C. Avelar; L.C. Lamb (11 Mar 2019). \"Assessing Gender Bias in Machine Translation \u2013 A Case Study with Google Translate\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1809.02208\" target=\"_blank\">1809.02208<\/a><\/span> [<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/archive\/cs.CY\" target=\"_blank\">cs.CY<\/a>].<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=preprint&amp;rft.jtitle=arXiv&amp;rft.atitle=Assessing+Gender+Bias+in+Machine+Translation+%E2%80%93+A+Case+Study+with+Google+Translate&amp;rft.date=2019-03-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1809.02208&amp;rft.au=M.O.R.+Prates&amp;rft.au=P.H.C.+Avelar&amp;rft.au=L.C.+Lamb&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-138\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-138\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNarayanan2016\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Narayanan, Arvind (August 24, 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/freedom-to-tinker.com\/2016\/08\/24\/language-necessarily-contains-human-biases-and-so-will-machines-trained-on-language-corpora\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Language necessarily contains human biases, and so will machines trained on language corpora\"<\/a>. <i>Freedom to Tinker<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180625021555\/https:\/\/freedom-to-tinker.com\/2016\/08\/24\/language-necessarily-contains-human-biases-and-so-will-machines-trained-on-language-corpora\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on June 25, 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">November 19,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Freedom+to+Tinker&amp;rft.atitle=Language+necessarily+contains+human+biases%2C+and+so+will+machines+trained+on+language+corpora&amp;rft.date=2016-08-24&amp;rft.aulast=Narayanan&amp;rft.aufirst=Arvind&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffreedom-to-tinker.com%2F2016%2F08%2F24%2Flanguage-necessarily-contains-human-biases-and-so-will-machines-trained-on-language-corpora%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-139\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-139\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCharShahMagnus2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Char, Danton S.; Shah, Nigam H.; Magnus, David (2018-03-15). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5962261\" target=\"_blank\">\"Implementing Machine Learning in Health Care \u2014 Addressing Ethical Challenges\"<\/a>. <i>New England Journal of Medicine<\/i>. <b>378<\/b> (11): 981\u2013983. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056%2FNEJMp1714229\" target=\"_blank\">10.1056\/NEJMp1714229<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0028-4793\" target=\"_blank\">0028-4793<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5962261\" target=\"_blank\">5962261<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29539284\" target=\"_blank\">29539284<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Implementing+Machine+Learning+in+Health+Care+%E2%80%94+Addressing+Ethical+Challenges&amp;rft.volume=378&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=981-983&amp;rft.date=2018-03-15&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5962261%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=0028-4793&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29539284&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMp1714229&amp;rft.aulast=Char&amp;rft.aufirst=Danton+S.&amp;rft.au=Shah%2C+Nigam+H.&amp;rft.au=Magnus%2C+David&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5962261&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-140\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-140\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCharShahMagnus2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Char, D. S.; Shah, N. H.; Magnus, D. (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5962261\" target=\"_blank\">\"Implementing Machine Learning in Health Care\u2014Addressing Ethical Challenges\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_England_Journal_of_Medicine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"New England Journal of Medicine\" data-key=\"2cb213a5728264b7c1c3debe5601dd75\">New England Journal of Medicine<\/a><\/i>. <b>378<\/b> (11): 981\u2013983. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056%2Fnejmp1714229\" target=\"_blank\">10.1056\/nejmp1714229<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5962261\" target=\"_blank\">5962261<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29539284\" target=\"_blank\">29539284<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Implementing+Machine+Learning+in+Health+Care%E2%80%94Addressing+Ethical+Challenges&amp;rft.volume=378&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=981-983&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5962261%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29539284&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2Fnejmp1714229&amp;rft.aulast=Char&amp;rft.aufirst=D.+S.&amp;rft.au=Shah%2C+N.+H.&amp;rft.au=Magnus%2C+D.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5962261&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-141\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-141\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFResearch2015\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Research, AI (23 October 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/airesearch.com\/ai-research-papers\/deep-neural-networks-for-acoustic-modeling-in-speech-recognition\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Deep Neural Networks for Acoustic Modeling in Speech Recognition\"<\/a>. <i>airesearch.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160201033801\/http:\/\/airesearch.com\/ai-research-papers\/deep-neural-networks-for-acoustic-modeling-in-speech-recognition\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 1 February 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=airesearch.com&amp;rft.atitle=Deep+Neural+Networks+for+Acoustic+Modeling+in+Speech+Recognition&amp;rft.date=2015-10-23&amp;rft.aulast=Research&amp;rft.aufirst=AI&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fairesearch.com%2Fai-research-papers%2Fdeep-neural-networks-for-acoustic-modeling-in-speech-recognition%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-142\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-142\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/big-data\/ai-machine-learning\/gpus-continue-to-dominate-the-ai-accelerator-market-for-now\/a\/d-id\/1336475\" target=\"_blank\">\"GPUs Continue to Dominate the AI Accelerator Market for Now\"<\/a>. <i>InformationWeek<\/i>. December 2019. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200610094310\/https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/big-data\/ai-machine-learning\/gpus-continue-to-dominate-the-ai-accelerator-market-for-now\/a\/d-id\/1336475\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 June 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 June<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=InformationWeek&amp;rft.atitle=GPUs+Continue+to+Dominate+the+AI+Accelerator+Market+for+Now&amp;rft.date=2019-12&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2Fbig-data%2Fai-machine-learning%2Fgpus-continue-to-dominate-the-ai-accelerator-market-for-now%2Fa%2Fd-id%2F1336475&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-143\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-143\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRay2019\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Ray, Tiernan (2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/article\/ai-is-changing-the-entire-nature-of-compute\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI is changing the entire nature of compute\"<\/a>. <i>ZDNet<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200525144635\/https:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/article\/ai-is-changing-the-entire-nature-of-compute\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 25 May 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 June<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=ZDNet&amp;rft.atitle=AI+is+changing+the+entire+nature+of+compute&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.aulast=Ray&amp;rft.aufirst=Tiernan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdnet.com%2Farticle%2Fai-is-changing-the-entire-nature-of-compute%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-144\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-144\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/openai.com\/blog\/ai-and-compute\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI and Compute\"<\/a>. <i>OpenAI<\/i>. 16 May 2018. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200617200602\/https:\/\/openai.com\/blog\/ai-and-compute\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 June 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 June<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=OpenAI&amp;rft.atitle=AI+and+Compute&amp;rft.date=2018-05-16&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenai.com%2Fblog%2Fai-and-compute%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-145\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-145\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/syncedreview.com\/2021\/05\/27\/deepmind-podracer-tpu-based-rl-frameworks-deliver-exceptional-performance-at-low-cost-28\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cornell &amp; NTT's Physical Neural Networks: A \"Radical Alternative for Implementing Deep Neural Networks\" That Enables Arbitrary Physical Systems Training | Synced\"<\/a>. 27 May 2021. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211027183428\/https:\/\/syncedreview.com\/2021\/05\/27\/deepmind-podracer-tpu-based-rl-frameworks-deliver-exceptional-performance-at-low-cost-28\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 October 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 October<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Cornell+%26+NTT%27s+Physical+Neural+Networks%3A+A+%22Radical+Alternative+for+Implementing+Deep+Neural+Networks%22+That+Enables+Arbitrary+Physical+Systems+Training+%26%23124%3B+Synced&amp;rft.date=2021-05-27&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsyncedreview.com%2F2021%2F05%2F27%2Fdeepmind-podracer-tpu-based-rl-frameworks-deliver-exceptional-performance-at-low-cost-28%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-146\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-146\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.com\/2021\/10\/05\/analogue_neural_network_research\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Nano-spaghetti to solve neural network power consumption\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211006150057\/https:\/\/www.theregister.com\/2021\/10\/05\/analogue_neural_network_research\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2021-10-06<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-10-12<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Nano-spaghetti+to+solve+neural+network+power+consumption&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.com%2F2021%2F10%2F05%2Fanalogue_neural_network_research%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-147\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-147\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFafoutisMarchegianiElstsPope2018\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Fafoutis, Xenofon; Marchegiani, Letizia; Elsts, Atis; Pope, James; Piechocki, Robert; Craddock, Ian (2018-05-07). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/8355116\" target=\"_blank\">\"Extending the battery lifetime of wearable sensors with embedded machine learning\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/research-information.bris.ac.uk\/en\/publications\/b8fdb58b-7114-45c6-82e4-4ab239c1327f\" target=\"_blank\"><i>2018 IEEE 4th World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT)<\/i><\/a>. pp.&#160;269\u2013274. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FWF-IoT.2018.8355116\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/WF-IoT.2018.8355116<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/1983%2Fb8fdb58b-7114-45c6-82e4-4ab239c1327f\" target=\"_blank\">1983\/b8fdb58b-7114-45c6-82e4-4ab239c1327f<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4673-9944-9<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:19192912\" target=\"_blank\">19192912<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220118182543\/https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/abstract\/document\/8355116?casa_token=LCpUeGLS1e8AAAAA:2OjuJfNwZBnV2pgDxfnEAC-jbrETv_BpTcX35_aFqN6IULFxu1xbYbVSRpD-zMd4GCUMELyG\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Extending+the+battery+lifetime+of+wearable+sensors+with+embedded+machine+learning&amp;rft.btitle=2018+IEEE+4th+World+Forum+on+Internet+of+Things+%28WF-IoT%29&amp;rft.pages=269-274&amp;rft.date=2018-05-07&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1983%2Fb8fdb58b-7114-45c6-82e4-4ab239c1327f&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19192912%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FWF-IoT.2018.8355116&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4673-9944-9&amp;rft.aulast=Fafoutis&amp;rft.aufirst=Xenofon&amp;rft.au=Marchegiani%2C+Letizia&amp;rft.au=Elsts%2C+Atis&amp;rft.au=Pope%2C+James&amp;rft.au=Piechocki%2C+Robert&amp;rft.au=Craddock%2C+Ian&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F8355116&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-148\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-148\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/analyticsindiamag.com\/a-beginners-guide-to-machine-learning-for-embedded-systems\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Beginner's Guide To Machine learning For Embedded Systems\"<\/a>. <i>Analytics India Magazine<\/i>. 2021-06-02. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220118182754\/https:\/\/analyticsindiamag.com\/a-beginners-guide-to-machine-learning-for-embedded-systems\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Analytics+India+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=A+Beginner%27s+Guide+To+Machine+learning+For+Embedded+Systems&amp;rft.date=2021-06-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanalyticsindiamag.com%2Fa-beginners-guide-to-machine-learning-for-embedded-systems%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-149\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-149\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSynced2022\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Synced (2022-01-12). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/syncedreview.com\/2022\/01\/12\/deepmind-podracer-tpu-based-rl-frameworks-deliver-exceptional-performance-at-low-cost-183\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Google, Purdue &amp; Harvard U's Open-Source Framework for TinyML Achieves up to 75x Speedups on FPGAs | Synced\"<\/a>. <i>syncedreview.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220118182404\/https:\/\/syncedreview.com\/2022\/01\/12\/deepmind-podracer-tpu-based-rl-frameworks-deliver-exceptional-performance-at-low-cost-183\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=syncedreview.com&amp;rft.atitle=Google%2C+Purdue+%26+Harvard+U%27s+Open-Source+Framework+for+TinyML+Achieves+up+to+75x+Speedups+on+FPGAs+%7C+Synced&amp;rft.date=2022-01-12&amp;rft.au=Synced&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsyncedreview.com%2F2022%2F01%2F12%2Fdeepmind-podracer-tpu-based-rl-frameworks-deliver-exceptional-performance-at-low-cost-183%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-150\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-150\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGiriChiuDi_GuglielmoMantovani2020\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Giri, Davide; Chiu, Kuan-Lin; Di Guglielmo, Giuseppe; Mantovani, Paolo; Carloni, Luca P. (2020-06-15). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/9116317\" target=\"_blank\">\"ESP4ML: Platform-Based Design of Systems-on-Chip for Embedded Machine Learning\"<\/a>. <i>2020 Design, Automation &amp; Test in Europe Conference &amp; Exhibition (DATE)<\/i>. pp.&#160;1049\u20131054. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2004.03640\" target=\"_blank\">2004.03640<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.23919%2FDATE48585.2020.9116317\" target=\"_blank\">10.23919\/DATE48585.2020.9116317<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-9819263-4-7<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:210928161\" target=\"_blank\">210928161<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220118182342\/https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/abstract\/document\/9116317?casa_token=5I_Tmgrrbu4AAAAA:v7pDHPEWlRuo2Vk3pU06194PO0-W21UOdyZqADrZxrRdPBZDMLwQrjJSAHUhHtzJmLu_VdgW\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=ESP4ML%3A+Platform-Based+Design+of+Systems-on-Chip+for+Embedded+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.btitle=2020+Design%2C+Automation+%26+Test+in+Europe+Conference+%26+Exhibition+%28DATE%29&amp;rft.pages=1049-1054&amp;rft.date=2020-06-15&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2004.03640&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A210928161%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.23919%2FDATE48585.2020.9116317&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-9819263-4-7&amp;rft.aulast=Giri&amp;rft.aufirst=Davide&amp;rft.au=Chiu%2C+Kuan-Lin&amp;rft.au=Di+Guglielmo%2C+Giuseppe&amp;rft.au=Mantovani%2C+Paolo&amp;rft.au=Carloni%2C+Luca+P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F9116317&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-151\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-151\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLouisAzadDelshadtehraniGupta2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Louis, Marcia Sahaya; Azad, Zahra; Delshadtehrani, Leila; Gupta, Suyog; Warden, Pete; Reddi, Vijay Janapa; Joshi, Ajay (2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/edge.seas.harvard.edu\/publications\/towards-deep-learning-using-tensorflow-lite-risc-v\" target=\"_blank\">\"Towards Deep Learning using TensorFlow Lite on RISC-V\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harvard_University\" title=\"Harvard University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ab8916caf331d92cae577b077c74c57\">Harvard University<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220117031909\/https:\/\/edge.seas.harvard.edu\/publications\/towards-deep-learning-using-tensorflow-lite-risc-v\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Harvard+University&amp;rft.atitle=Towards+Deep+Learning+using+TensorFlow+Lite+on+RISC-V&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.aulast=Louis&amp;rft.aufirst=Marcia+Sahaya&amp;rft.au=Azad%2C+Zahra&amp;rft.au=Delshadtehrani%2C+Leila&amp;rft.au=Gupta%2C+Suyog&amp;rft.au=Warden%2C+Pete&amp;rft.au=Reddi%2C+Vijay+Janapa&amp;rft.au=Joshi%2C+Ajay&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedge.seas.harvard.edu%2Fpublications%2Ftowards-deep-learning-using-tensorflow-lite-risc-v&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-152\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-152\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFIbrahimOstaAlamehSaleh2019\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ibrahim, Ali; Osta, Mario; Alameh, Mohamad; Saleh, Moustafa; Chible, Hussein; Valle, Maurizio (2019-01-21). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/8617877\" target=\"_blank\">\"Approximate Computing Methods for Embedded Machine Learning\"<\/a>. <i>2018 25th IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits and Systems (ICECS)<\/i>. pp.&#160;845\u2013848. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FICECS.2018.8617877\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/ICECS.2018.8617877<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-5386-9562-3<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:58670712\" target=\"_blank\">58670712<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220117031855\/https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/abstract\/document\/8617877?casa_token=arUW5Oy-tzwAAAAA:I9x6edlfskM6kGNFUN9zAFrjEBv_8kYTz7ERTxtXu9jAqdrYCcDbbwjBdgwXvb6QAH_-0VJJ\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Approximate+Computing+Methods+for+Embedded+Machine+Learning&amp;rft.btitle=2018+25th+IEEE+International+Conference+on+Electronics%2C+Circuits+and+Systems+%28ICECS%29&amp;rft.pages=845-848&amp;rft.date=2019-01-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A58670712%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FICECS.2018.8617877&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-5386-9562-3&amp;rft.aulast=Ibrahim&amp;rft.aufirst=Ali&amp;rft.au=Osta%2C+Mario&amp;rft.au=Alameh%2C+Mohamad&amp;rft.au=Saleh%2C+Moustafa&amp;rft.au=Chible%2C+Hussein&amp;rft.au=Valle%2C+Maurizio&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F8617877&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-153\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-153\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dblp.org\/rec\/journals\/corr\/abs-1903-01855.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"dblp: TensorFlow Eager: A Multi-Stage, Python-Embedded DSL for Machine Learning\"<\/a>. <i>dblp.org<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220118182335\/https:\/\/dblp.org\/rec\/journals\/corr\/abs-1903-01855.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2022-01-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-01-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=dblp.org&amp;rft.atitle=dblp%3A+TensorFlow+Eager%3A+A+Multi-Stage%2C+Python-Embedded+DSL+for+Machine+Learning.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdblp.org%2Frec%2Fjournals%2Fcorr%2Fabs-1903-01855.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-154\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-154\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrancoFerreiraCabral2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Branco, S\u00e9rgio; Ferreira, Andr\u00e9 G.; Cabral, Jorge (2019-11-05). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Felectronics8111289\" target=\"_blank\">\"Machine Learning in Resource-Scarce Embedded Systems, FPGAs, and End-Devices: A Survey\"<\/a>. <i>Electronics<\/i>. <b>8<\/b> (11): 1289. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Felectronics8111289\" target=\"_blank\">10.3390\/electronics8111289<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/1822%2F62521\" target=\"_blank\">1822\/62521<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2079-9292\" target=\"_blank\">2079-9292<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Electronics&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+Learning+in+Resource-Scarce+Embedded+Systems%2C+FPGAs%2C+and+End-Devices%3A+A+Survey&amp;rft.volume=8&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=1289&amp;rft.date=2019-11-05&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1822%2F62521&amp;rft.issn=2079-9292&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Felectronics8111289&amp;rft.aulast=Branco&amp;rft.aufirst=S%C3%A9rgio&amp;rft.au=Ferreira%2C+Andr%C3%A9+G.&amp;rft.au=Cabral%2C+Jorge&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Felectronics8111289&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sources\">Sources<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDomingos2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pedro_Domingos\" title=\"Pedro Domingos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"054fdd869e12e909b1bb7842a2b55e14\">Domingos, Pedro<\/a> (September 22, 2015). <i>The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basic_Books\" title=\"Basic Books\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a45c9bfeb695415c9b540ec18eb0af4c\">Basic Books<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0465065707<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Master+Algorithm%3A+How+the+Quest+for+the+Ultimate+Learning+Machine+Will+Remake+Our+World&amp;rft.pub=Basic+Books&amp;rft.date=2015-09-22&amp;rft.isbn=978-0465065707&amp;rft.aulast=Domingos&amp;rft.aufirst=Pedro&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNilsson1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nils_Nilsson_(researcher)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nils Nilsson (researcher)\" data-key=\"5ec99f61dc752c5fa3f7b86c24345070\">Nilsson, Nils<\/a> (1998). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/artificialintell0000nils\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis<\/i><\/a><\/span>. Morgan Kaufmann. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-55860-467-4<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726131654\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/artificialintell0000nils\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 November<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+New+Synthesis&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-55860-467-4&amp;rft.aulast=Nilsson&amp;rft.aufirst=Nils&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartificialintell0000nils&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell, Stuart J.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig, Peter<\/a> (2003), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aima.cs.berkeley.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach<\/i><\/a> (2nd&#160;ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-13-790395-2<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+Modern+Approach&amp;rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=0-13-790395-2&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.aufirst=Stuart+J.&amp;rft.au=Norvig%2C+Peter&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faima.cs.berkeley.edu%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Poole, David; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Mackworth\" title=\"Alan Mackworth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0e12463d5ba2a3f90905d9ae7c57867\">Mackworth, Alan<\/a>; Goebel, Randy (1998). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/computationalint00pool\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach<\/i><\/a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-19-510270-3<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726131436\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/computationalint00pool\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 August<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computational+Intelligence%3A+A+Logical+Approach&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-510270-3&amp;rft.aulast=Poole&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.au=Mackworth%2C+Alan&amp;rft.au=Goebel%2C+Randy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomputationalint00pool&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine+learning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em\">\n<ul><li>Nils J. Nilsson, <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ai.stanford.edu\/people\/nilsson\/mlbook.html\" target=\"_blank\">Introduction to Machine Learning<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190816182600\/http:\/\/ai.stanford.edu\/people\/nilsson\/mlbook.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2019-08-16 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trevor_Hastie\" title=\"Trevor Hastie\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91f46d294bbb721bc3e895facdc46e27\">Trevor Hastie<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert_Tibshirani\" title=\"Robert Tibshirani\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97b4a3b2851f5269177b933f4fd7b428\">Robert Tibshirani<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerome_H._Friedman\" title=\"Jerome H. Friedman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b49981e69e36d417e6a0c3a3424ebc05\">Jerome H. Friedman<\/a> (2001). <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.stanford.edu\/~hastie\/ElemStatLearn\/\" target=\"_blank\">The Elements of Statistical Learning<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131027220938\/http:\/\/www-stat.stanford.edu\/%7Etibs\/ElemStatLearn\/\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2013-10-27 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i>, Springer. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-387-95284-5.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pedro_Domingos\" title=\"Pedro Domingos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"054fdd869e12e909b1bb7842a2b55e14\">Pedro Domingos<\/a> (September 2015), <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Master_Algorithm\" title=\"The Master Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18c2fcdd2e2c3cfc53b5f3dd7dfe8550\">The Master Algorithm<\/a><\/i>, Basic Books, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-465-06570-7<\/li>\n<li>Ian H. Witten and Eibe Frank (2011). <i>Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques<\/i> Morgan Kaufmann, 664pp., <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-12-374856-0.<\/li>\n<li>Ethem Alpaydin (2004). <i>Introduction to Machine Learning<\/i>, MIT Press, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-262-01243-0.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_J._C._MacKay\" title=\"David J. C. MacKay\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c68ba369472121bb53d09946a459f4d\">David J. C. MacKay<\/a>. <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk\/mackay\/itila\/book.html\" target=\"_blank\">Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160217105359\/http:\/\/www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk\/mackay\/itila\/book.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2016-02-17 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-521-64298-1<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richard_O._Duda\" title=\"Richard O. Duda\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"342e1889be74692ed6bb1d247a459bb1\">Richard O. Duda<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_E._Hart\" title=\"Peter E. Hart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e681444931ad91c64647360c56579ea1\">Peter E. Hart<\/a>, David G. Stork (2001) <i>Pattern classification<\/i> (2nd edition), Wiley, New York, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-471-05669-3.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christopher_Bishop\" title=\"Christopher Bishop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e148f47e5c7f88c2cd72fe1c57a49a7\">Christopher Bishop<\/a> (1995). <i>Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition<\/i>, Oxford University Press. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-19-853864-2.<\/li>\n<li>Stuart Russell &amp; Peter Norvig, (2009). <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aima.cs.berkeley.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\">Artificial Intelligence \u2013 A Modern Approach<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110228023805\/http:\/\/aima.cs.berkeley.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2011-02-28 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i>. Pearson, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9789332543515.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Solomonoff\" title=\"Ray Solomonoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"938a83ba5a77aced401a2894a2e4abde\">Ray Solomonoff<\/a>, <i>An Inductive Inference Machine<\/i>, IRE Convention Record, Section on Information Theory, Part 2, pp., 56\u201362, 1957.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Solomonoff\" title=\"Ray Solomonoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"938a83ba5a77aced401a2894a2e4abde\">Ray Solomonoff<\/a>, <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/world.std.com\/~rjs\/indinf56.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">An Inductive Inference Machine<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110426161749\/http:\/\/world.std.com\/~rjs\/indinf56.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2011-04-26 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i> A privately circulated report from the 1956 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dartmouth_workshop\" title=\"Dartmouth workshop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c9c16aef7f504ef818e0ea59764de30\">Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on AI<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Kevin P. Murphy (2021). <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/probml.github.io\/pml-book\/book1.html\" target=\"_blank\">Probabilistic Machine Learning: An Introduction<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210411153246\/https:\/\/probml.github.io\/pml-book\/book1.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2021-04-11 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/i>, MIT Press.<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"f4d3caba744ae3fd1e5b2eb3fad01b5c\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fa\/Wikiquote-logo.svg\/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"13\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> Quotations related to Machine learning at Wikiquote<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171230081341\/http:\/\/machinelearning.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">International Machine Learning Society<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/mloss.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">mloss<\/a> is an academic database of open-source machine learning software.<\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw\u2010web.eqiad.main\u201068897b7589\u2010z8vs9\nCached time: 20240110125807\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 1.923 seconds\nReal time usage: 2.291 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 13997\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 449768\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 7837\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 21\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 37\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 503486\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 1.217\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 26776078\/52428800 bytes\nLua Profile:\n<\/p>\n<pre> dataWrapper <mw.lua:672> 220 ms 18.6%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub 200 ms 16.9%\n ? 160 ms 13.6%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction 120 ms 10.2%\n (for generator) <mw.lua:684> 60 ms 5.1%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match 40 ms 3.4%\n match 40 ms 3.4%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain 40 ms 3.4%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements 40 ms 3.4%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub 40 ms 3.4%\n [others] 220 ms 18.6%\n<\/pre>\n<p>Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 1881.402 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>45.19% 850.267 1 Template:Reflist\n15.46% 290.885 48 Template:Cite_journal\n 7.72% 145.257 5 Template:Annotated_link\n 7.28% 137.034 2 Template:Refn\n 7.04% 132.516 29 Template:Cite_web\n 6.65% 125.110 23 Template:Cite_book\n 6.61% 124.293 4 Template:Cite_conference\n 6.23% 117.182 2 Template:Sfn\n 4.60% 86.607 1 Template:Machine_learning_bar\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:233488-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110125804 and revision id 1194703446. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110154223\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.446 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.821 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 468979\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 608.966 1 wikipedia:Machine_learning\n100.00% 608.966 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:12008-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110154222 and revision id 48271. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Machine_learning\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Machine_learning<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_images":[],"79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122_timestamp":1704907018,"0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_type":"article","0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_title":"Laboratory automation","0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation","0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_plaintext":"\n\nLaboratory automationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory_automation?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation<\/a>\nCategory: Automation and artificial intelligenceHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 12 June 2022, at 14:34.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 6,276 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_automation rootpage-Laboratory_automation skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory automation<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory_automation?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory_automation\" data-key=\"035711b891e560e9b9819d6b0644849a\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171658\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.093 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.170 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 103\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 165.730 1 wikipedia:Laboratory_automation\n100.00% 165.730 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:2135-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171658 and revision id 48270. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_images":[],"0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331_timestamp":1704907017,"0d6f53b8041934738836e4f80a4a6a5c_type":"article","0d6f53b8041934738836e4f80a4a6a5c_title":"Knowledge representation and reasoning","0d6f53b8041934738836e4f80a4a6a5c_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning","0d6f53b8041934738836e4f80a4a6a5c_plaintext":"\n\nKnowledge representation and reasoningFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchField of artificial intelligence\nKnowledge representation and reasoning (KRR, KR&amp;R, KR\u00b2) is the field of artificial intelligence (AI) dedicated to representing information about the world in a form that a computer system can use to solve complex tasks such as diagnosing a medical condition or having a dialog in a natural language. Knowledge representation incorporates findings from psychology[1] about how humans solve problems, and represent knowledge in order to design formalisms that will make complex systems easier to design and build. Knowledge representation and reasoning also incorporates findings from logic to automate various kinds of reasoning, such as the application of rules or the relations of sets and subsets.\nExamples of knowledge representation formalisms include semantic nets, systems architecture, frames, rules, logic programs and ontologies. Examples of automated reasoning engines include inference engines, theorem provers, model generators and classifiers.\n\n\n\nHistory \nPart of a series onArtificial intelligence\nMajor goals\nArtificial general intelligence\nPlanning\nComputer vision\nGeneral game playing\nKnowledge reasoning\nMachine learning\nNatural language processing\nRobotics\nAI safety\n\nApproaches\nSymbolic\nDeep learning\nBayesian networks\nEvolutionary algorithms\nSituated approach\nHybrid intelligent systems\nSystems integration\n\nApplications\nProjects\nDeepfake\nMachine translation\nArt\nHealthcare\nMental health\nGovernment\nMusic\nIndustry\nEarth sciences\nBioinformatics\nPhysics\n\nPhilosophy\nChinese room\nFriendly AI\nControl problem\/Takeover\nEthics\nExistential risk\nTuring test\nRegulation\n\nHistory\nTimeline\nProgress\nAI winter\nAI boom\n\nTechnology\nProgramming languages\n\nGlossary\nGlossary\nvte\nThe earliest work in computerized knowledge representation was focused on general problem-solvers such as the General Problem Solver (GPS) system developed by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon in 1959 and the Advice Taker proposed by John McCarthy also in 1959. GPS featured data structures for planning and decomposition. The system would begin with a goal. It would then decompose that goal into sub-goals and then set out to construct strategies that could accomplish each subgoal. The Advisor Taker, on the other hand, proposed the use of the predicate calculus to represent common sense reasoning.\nMany of the early approaches to knowledge represention in AI used graph representations and semantic networks, similar to knowledge graphs today. In such approaches, problem solving was a form of graph traversal[2] or path-finding, as in the A* search algorithm. Typical applications included robot plan-formation and game-playing.\nOther researchers focused on developing automated theorem-provers for first-order logic, motivated by the use of mathematical logic to formalise mathematics and to automate the proof of mathematical theorems. A major step in this direction was the development of the resolution method by John Alan Robinson.\nIn the meanwhile, John McCarthy and Pat Hayes developed the situation calculus as a logical representation of common sense knowledge about the laws of cause and effect. Cordell Green, in turn, showed how to do robot plan-formation by applying resolution to the situation calculus. He also showed how to use resolution for question-answering and automatic programming.[3]\nIn contrast, researchers at MIT rejected the resolution uniform proof procedure paradigm and advocated the procedural embedding of knowledge instead.[4] The resulting conflict between the use of logical representations and the use of procedural representations was resolved in the early 1970s with the development of logic programming and Prolog, using SLD resolution to treat Horn clauses as goal-reduction procedures.\nThe early development of logic programming was largely a European phenomenon. In North America, AI researchers such as Ed Feigenbaum and Frederick Hayes-Roth began to advocate the representation of domain-specific knowledge rather than general-purpose reasoning.[5]\nThese efforts led to the cognitive revolution in psychology and to the phase of AI focused on knowledge representation that resulted in expert systems in the 1970s and 80s, production systems, frame languages, etc. Rather than general problem solvers, AI changed its focus to expert systems that could match human competence on a specific task, such as medical diagnosis.[6]\nExpert systems gave us the terminology still in use today where AI systems are divided into a knowledge base, with facts about the world and rules, and an inference engine, which applies the rules to the knowledge base in order to answer questions and solve problems. In these early systems the knowledge base tended to be a fairly flat structure, essentially assertions about the values of variables used by the rules.[7]\nMeanwhile, Marvin Minsky developed the concept of frame in the mid-1970s.[8] A frame is similar to an object class: It is an abstract description of a category describing things in the world, problems, and potential solutions. Frames were originally used on systems geared toward human interaction, e.g. understanding natural language and the social settings in which various default expectations such as ordering food in a restaurant narrow the search space and allow the system to choose appropriate responses to dynamic situations.\nIt was not long before the frame communities and the rule-based researchers realized that there was a synergy between their approaches. Frames were good for representing the real world, described as classes, subclasses, slots (data values) with various constraints on possible values. Rules were good for representing and utilizing complex logic such as the process to make a medical diagnosis. Integrated systems were developed that combined frames and rules. One of the most powerful and well known was the 1983 Knowledge Engineering Environment (KEE) from Intellicorp. KEE had a complete rule engine with forward and backward chaining. It also had a complete frame-based knowledge base with triggers, slots (data values), inheritance, and message passing. Although message passing originated in the object-oriented community rather than AI it was quickly embraced by AI researchers as well in environments such as KEE and in the operating systems for Lisp machines from Symbolics, Xerox, and Texas Instruments.[9]\nThe integration of frames, rules, and object-oriented programming was significantly driven by commercial ventures such as KEE and Symbolics spun off from various research projects. At the same time as this was occurring, there was another strain of research that was less commercially focused and was driven by mathematical logic and automated theorem proving.[citation needed ] One of the most influential languages in this research was the KL-ONE language of the mid-'80s. KL-ONE was a frame language that had a rigorous semantics, formal definitions for concepts such as an Is-A relation.[10] KL-ONE and languages that were influenced by it such as Loom had an automated reasoning engine that was based on formal logic rather than on IF-THEN rules. This reasoner is called the classifier. A classifier can analyze a set of declarations and infer new assertions, for example, redefine a class to be a subclass or superclass of some other class that wasn't formally specified. In this way the classifier can function as an inference engine, deducing new facts from an existing knowledge base. The classifier can also provide consistency checking on a knowledge base (which in the case of KL-ONE languages is also referred to as an Ontology).[11]\nAnother area of knowledge representation research was the problem of common-sense reasoning. One of the first realizations learned from trying to make software that can function with human natural language was that humans regularly draw on an extensive foundation of knowledge about the real world that we simply take for granted but that is not at all obvious to an artificial agent. Basic principles of common-sense physics, causality, intentions, etc. An example is the frame problem, that in an event driven logic there need to be axioms that state things maintain position from one moment to the next unless they are moved by some external force. In order to make a true artificial intelligence agent that can converse with humans using natural language and can process basic statements and questions about the world, it is essential to represent this kind of knowledge.[citation needed ] One of the most ambitious programs to tackle this problem was Doug Lenat's Cyc project. Cyc established its own Frame language and had large numbers of analysts document various areas of common-sense reasoning in that language. The knowledge recorded in Cyc included common-sense models of time, causality, physics, intentions, and many others.[12]\nThe starting point for knowledge representation is the knowledge representation hypothesis first formalized by Brian C. Smith in 1985:[13]\n\nAny mechanically embodied intelligent process will be comprised of structural ingredients that a) we as external observers naturally take to represent a propositional account of the knowledge that the overall process exhibits, and b) independent of such external semantic attribution, play a formal but causal and essential role in engendering the behavior that manifests that knowledge.\nCurrently, one of the most active areas of knowledge representation research are projects associated with the Semantic Web.[citation needed ] The Semantic Web seeks to add a layer of semantics (meaning) on top of the current Internet. Rather than indexing web sites and pages via keywords, the Semantic Web creates large ontologies of concepts. Searching for a concept will be more effective than traditional text only searches. Frame languages and automatic classification play a big part in the vision for the future Semantic Web. The automatic classification gives developers technology to provide order on a constantly evolving network of knowledge. Defining ontologies that are static and incapable of evolving on the fly would be very limiting for Internet-based systems. The classifier technology provides the ability to deal with the dynamic environment of the Internet.\nRecent projects funded primarily by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) have integrated frame languages and classifiers with markup languages based on XML. The Resource Description Framework (RDF) provides the basic capability to define classes, subclasses, and properties of objects. The Web Ontology Language (OWL) provides additional levels of semantics and enables integration with classification engines.[14][15]\n\nOverview \nKnowledge-representation is a field of artificial intelligence that focuses on designing computer representations that capture information about the world that can be used for solving complex problems.\nThe justification for knowledge representation is that conventional procedural code is not the best formalism to use to solve complex problems. Knowledge representation makes complex software easier to define and maintain than procedural code and can be used in expert systems.\nFor example, talking to experts in terms of business rules rather than code lessens the semantic gap between users and developers and makes development of complex systems more practical.\nKnowledge representation goes hand in hand with automated reasoning because one of the main purposes of explicitly representing knowledge is to be able to reason about that knowledge, to make inferences, assert new knowledge, etc. Virtually all knowledge representation languages have a reasoning or inference engine as part of the system.[16]\nA key trade-off in the design of a knowledge representation formalism is that between expressivity and practicality. The ultimate knowledge representation formalism in terms of expressive power and compactness is First Order Logic (FOL). There is no more powerful formalism than that used by mathematicians to define general propositions about the world. However, FOL has two drawbacks as a knowledge representation formalism: ease of use and practicality of implementation. First order logic can be intimidating even for many software developers. Languages that do not have the complete formal power of FOL can still provide close to the same expressive power with a user interface that is more practical for the average developer to understand. The issue of practicality of implementation is that FOL in some ways is too expressive. With FOL it is possible to create statements (e.g. quantification over infinite sets) that would cause a system to never terminate if it attempted to verify them.\nThus, a subset of FOL can be both easier to use and more practical to implement. This was a driving motivation behind rule-based expert systems. IF-THEN rules provide a subset of FOL but a very useful one that is also very intuitive. The history of most of the early AI knowledge representation formalisms; from databases to semantic nets to theorem provers and production systems can be viewed as various design decisions on whether to emphasize expressive power or computability and efficiency.[17]\nIn a key 1993 paper on the topic, Randall Davis of MIT outlined five distinct roles to analyze a knowledge representation framework:[18]\n\n\"A knowledge representation (KR) is most fundamentally a surrogate, a substitute for the thing itself, used to enable an entity to determine consequences by thinking rather than acting,\" [18] i.e., \"by reasoning about the world rather than taking action in it.\"[18]\n\"It is a set of ontological commitments\",[18] i.e., \"an answer to the question: In what terms should I think about the world?\" [18]\n\"It is a fragmentary theory of intelligent reasoning, expressed in terms of three components: (i) the representation's fundamental conception of intelligent reasoning; (ii) the set of inferences the representation sanctions; and (iii) the set of inferences it recommends.\"[18]\n\"It is a medium for pragmatically efficient computation\",[18] i.e., \"the computational environment in which thinking is accomplished. One contribution to this pragmatic efficiency is supplied by the guidance a representation provides for organizing information\" [18] so as \"to facilitate making the recommended inferences.\"[18]\n\"It is a medium of human expression\",[18] i.e., \"a language in which we say things about the world.\"[18]\nKnowledge representation and reasoning are a key enabling technology for the Semantic Web. Languages based on the Frame model with automatic classification provide a layer of semantics on top of the existing Internet. Rather than searching via text strings as is typical today, it will be possible to define logical queries and find pages that map to those queries.[14] The automated reasoning component in these systems is an engine known as the classifier. Classifiers focus on the subsumption relations in a knowledge base rather than rules. A classifier can infer new classes and dynamically change the ontology as new information becomes available. This capability is ideal for the ever-changing and evolving information space of the Internet.[19]\nThe Semantic Web integrates concepts from knowledge representation and reasoning with markup languages based on XML. The Resource Description Framework (RDF) provides the basic capabilities to define knowledge-based objects on the Internet with basic features such as Is-A relations and object properties. The Web Ontology Language (OWL) adds additional semantics and integrates with automatic classification reasoners.[20]\n\nCharacteristics \nIn 1985, Ron Brachman categorized the core issues for knowledge representation as follows:[21]\n\nPrimitives. What is the underlying framework used to represent knowledge? Semantic networks were one of the first knowledge representation primitives. Also, data structures and algorithms for general fast search. In this area, there is a strong overlap with research in data structures and algorithms in computer science. In early systems, the Lisp programming language, which was modeled after the lambda calculus, was often used as a form of functional knowledge representation. Frames and Rules were the next kind of primitive. Frame languages had various mechanisms for expressing and enforcing constraints on frame data. All data in frames are stored in slots. Slots are analogous to relations in entity-relation modeling and to object properties in object-oriented modeling. Another technique for primitives is to define languages that are modeled after First Order Logic (FOL). The most well known example is Prolog, but there are also many special-purpose theorem-proving environments. These environments can validate logical models and can deduce new theories from existing models. Essentially they automate the process a logician would go through in analyzing a model. Theorem-proving technology had some specific practical applications in the areas of software engineering. For example, it is possible to prove that a software program rigidly adheres to a formal logical specification.\nMeta-representation. This is also known as the issue of reflection in computer science. It refers to the capability of a formalism to have access to information about its own state. An example would be the meta-object protocol in Smalltalk and CLOS that gives developers run time access to the class objects and enables them to dynamically redefine the structure of the knowledge base even at run time. Meta-representation means the knowledge representation language is itself expressed in that language. For example, in most Frame based environments all frames would be instances of a frame class. That class object can be inspected at run time, so that the object can understand and even change its internal structure or the structure of other parts of the model. In rule-based environments, the rules were also usually instances of rule classes. Part of the meta protocol for rules were the meta rules that prioritized rule firing.\nIncompleteness. Traditional logic requires additional axioms and constraints to deal with the real world as opposed to the world of mathematics. Also, it is often useful to associate degrees of confidence with a statement. I.e., not simply say \"Socrates is Human\" but rather \"Socrates is Human with confidence 50%\". This was one of the early innovations from expert systems research which migrated to some commercial tools, the ability to associate certainty factors with rules and conclusions. Later research in this area is known as fuzzy logic.[22]\nDefinitions and universals vs. facts and defaults. Universals are general statements about the world such as \"All humans are mortal\". Facts are specific examples of universals such as \"Socrates is a human and therefore mortal\". In logical terms definitions and universals are about universal quantification while facts and defaults are about existential quantifications. All forms of knowledge representation must deal with this aspect and most do so with some variant of set theory, modeling universals as sets and subsets and definitions as elements in those sets.\nNon-monotonic reasoning. Non-monotonic reasoning allows various kinds of hypothetical reasoning. The system associates facts asserted with the rules and facts used to justify them and as those facts change updates the dependent knowledge as well. In rule based systems this capability is known as a truth maintenance system.[23]\nExpressive adequacy. The standard that Brachman and most AI researchers use to measure expressive adequacy is usually First Order Logic (FOL). Theoretical limitations mean that a full implementation of FOL is not practical. Researchers should be clear about how expressive (how much of full FOL expressive power) they intend their representation to be.[24]\nReasoning efficiency. This refers to the run time efficiency of the system. The ability of the knowledge base to be updated and the reasoner to develop new inferences in a reasonable period of time. In some ways, this is the flip side of expressive adequacy. In general, the more powerful a representation, the more it has expressive adequacy, the less efficient its automated reasoning engine will be. Efficiency was often an issue, especially for early applications of knowledge representation technology. They were usually implemented in interpreted environments such as Lisp, which were slow compared to more traditional platforms of the time.\nOntology engineering \nMain articles: Ontology engineering and Ontology language\nIn the early years of knowledge-based systems the knowledge-bases were fairly small. The knowledge-bases that were meant to actually solve real problems rather than do proof of concept demonstrations needed to focus on well defined problems. So for example, not just medical diagnosis as a whole topic, but medical diagnosis of certain kinds of diseases.\nAs knowledge-based technology scaled up, the need for larger knowledge bases and for modular knowledge bases that could communicate and integrate with each other became apparent. This gave rise to the discipline of ontology engineering, designing and building large knowledge bases that could be used by multiple projects. One of the leading research projects in this area was the Cyc project. Cyc was an attempt to build a huge encyclopedic knowledge base that would contain not just expert knowledge but common-sense knowledge. In designing an artificial intelligence agent, it was soon realized that representing common-sense knowledge, knowledge that humans simply take for granted, was essential to make an AI that could interact with humans using natural language. Cyc was meant to address this problem. The language they defined was known as CycL.\nAfter CycL, a number of ontology languages have been developed. Most are declarative languages, and are either frame languages, or are based on first-order logic. Modularity\u2014the ability to define boundaries around specific domains and problem spaces\u2014is essential for these languages because as stated by Tom Gruber, \"Every ontology is a treaty- a social agreement among people with common motive in sharing.\" There are always many competing and differing views that make any general-purpose ontology impossible. A general-purpose ontology would have to be applicable in any domain and different areas of knowledge need to be unified.[25]\nThere is a long history of work attempting to build ontologies for a variety of task domains, e.g., an ontology for liquids,[26] the lumped element model widely used in representing electronic circuits (e.g.,[27]), as well as ontologies for time, belief, and even programming itself. Each of these offers a way to see some part of the world.\nThe lumped element model, for instance, suggests that we think of circuits in terms of components with connections between them, with signals flowing instantaneously along the connections. This is a useful view, but not the only possible one. A different ontology arises if we need to attend to the electrodynamics in the device: Here signals propagate at finite speed and an object (like a resistor) that was previously viewed as a single component with an I\/O behavior may now have to be thought of as an extended medium through which an electromagnetic wave flows.\nOntologies can of course be written down in a wide variety of languages and notations (e.g., logic, LISP, etc.); the essential information is not the form of that language but the content, i.e., the set of concepts offered as a way of thinking about the world. Simply put, the important part is notions like connections and components, not the choice between writing them as predicates or LISP constructs.\nThe commitment made selecting one or another ontology can produce a sharply different view of the task at hand. Consider the difference that arises in selecting the lumped element view of a circuit rather than the electrodynamic view of the same device. As a second example, medical diagnosis viewed in terms of rules (e.g., MYCIN) looks substantially different from the same task viewed in terms of frames (e.g., INTERNIST). Where MYCIN sees the medical world as made up of empirical associations connecting symptom to disease, INTERNIST sees a set of prototypes, in particular prototypical diseases, to be matched against the case at hand.\n\nSee also \nAlphabet of human thought\nBelief revision\nChunking (psychology)\nCommonsense knowledge base\nConceptual graph\nDATR, a language for lexical knowledge representation\nFO(.), a KR language based on First-order logic\nLogic programming\nLogico-linguistic modeling\nKnowledge graph\nKnowledge management\nMind map\nSemantic technology\nValuation-based system\nReferences \n\n\n^ Schank, Roger; Abelson, Robert (1977). Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding: An Inquiry Into Human Knowledge Structures. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. \n\n^ Doran, J. E.; Michie, D. (1966-09-20). \"Experiments with the Graph Traverser program\". Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A. 294 (1437): 235\u2013259. Bibcode:1966RSPSA.294..235D. doi:10.1098\/rspa.1966.0205. S2CID&#160;21698093. \n\n^ Green, Cordell. Application of Theorem Proving to Problem Solving (PDF) . IJCAI 1969. \n\n^ Hewitt, C., 2009. Inconsistency robustness in logic programs. arXiv preprint arXiv:0904.3036. \n\n^ Kowalski, Robert (1986). \"The limitation of logic\". Proceedings of the 1986 ACM fourteenth annual conference on Computer science - CSC '86. pp.&#160;7\u201313. doi:10.1145\/324634.325168. ISBN&#160;0-89791-177-6. S2CID&#160;17211581. \n\n^ Nilsson, Nils (1995). \"Eye on the Prize\". AI Magazine. 16: 2. \n\n^ Hayes-Roth, Frederick; Waterman, Donald; Lenat, Douglas (1983). Building Expert Systems. Addison-Wesley. ISBN&#160;978-0-201-10686-2. \n\n^ Marvin Minsky, A Framework for Representing Knowledge, MIT-AI Laboratory Memo 306, June, 1974 \n\n^ Mettrey, William (1987). \"An Assessment of Tools for Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems\". AI Magazine. 8 (4). Archived from the original on 2013-11-10. Retrieved 2013-12-24 . \n\n^ Brachman, Ron (1978). \"A Structural Paradigm for Representing Knowledge\" (PDF) . Bolt, Beranek, and Neumann Technical Report (3605). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 30, 2020. \n\n^ MacGregor, Robert (June 1991). \"Using a description classifier to enhance knowledge representation\". IEEE Expert. 6 (3): 41\u201346. doi:10.1109\/64.87683. S2CID&#160;29575443. \n\n^ Lenat, Doug; R. V. Guha (January 1990). Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems: Representation and Inference in the Cyc Project. Addison-Wesley. ISBN&#160;978-0201517521. \n\n^ Smith, Brian C. (1985). \"Prologue to Reflections and Semantics in a Procedural Language\". In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). Readings in Knowledge Representation. Morgan Kaufmann. pp.&#160;31\u201340. ISBN&#160;978-0-934613-01-9. \n\n^ a b Berners-Lee, Tim; Hendler, James; Lassila, Ora (May 17, 2001). \"The Semantic Web \u2013 A new form of Web content that is meaningful to computers will unleash a revolution of new possibilities\". Scientific American. 284 (5): 34\u201343. doi:10.1038\/scientificamerican0501-34. Archived from the original on April 24, 2013. \n\n^ Knublauch, Holger; Oberle, Daniel; Tetlow, Phil; Wallace, Evan (2006-03-09). \"A Semantic Web Primer for Object-Oriented Software Developers\". W3C. Archived from the original on 2018-01-06. Retrieved 2008-07-30 . \n\n^ Hayes-Roth, Frederick; Waterman, Donald; Lenat, Douglas (1983). Building Expert Systems. Addison-Wesley. pp.&#160;6\u20137. ISBN&#160;978-0-201-10686-2. \n\n^ Levesque, Hector; Brachman, Ronald (1985). \"A Fundamental Tradeoff in Knowledge Representation and Reasoning\". In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). Readings in Knowledge Representation. Morgan Kaufmann. p.&#160;49. ISBN&#160;978-0-934613-01-9. The good news in reducing KR service to theorem proving is that we now have a very clear, very specific notion of what the KR system should do; the bad new is that it is also clear that the services can not be provided... deciding whether or not a sentence in FOL is a theorem... is unsolvable. \n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k Davis, Randall; Shrobe, Howard; Szolovits, Peter (Spring 1993). \"What Is a Knowledge Representation?\". AI Magazine. 14 (1): 17\u201333. Archived from the original on 2012-04-06. Retrieved 2011-03-23 . \n\n^ Macgregor, Robert (August 13, 1999). \"Retrospective on Loom\". isi.edu. Information Sciences Institute. Archived from the original on 25 October 2013. Retrieved 10 December 2013 . \n\n^ Knublauch, Holger; Oberle, Daniel; Tetlow, Phil; Wallace, Evan (2006-03-09). \"A Semantic Web Primer for Object-Oriented Software Developers\". W3C. Archived from the original on 2018-01-06. Retrieved 2008-07-30 . \n\n^ Brachman, Ron (1985). \"Introduction\". In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). Readings in Knowledge Representation . Morgan Kaufmann. pp.&#160;XVI\u2013XVII. ISBN&#160;978-0-934613-01-9. \n\n^ Bih, Joseph (2006). \"Paradigm Shift: An Introduction to Fuzzy Logic\" (PDF) . IEEE Potentials. 25: 6\u201321. doi:10.1109\/MP.2006.1635021. S2CID&#160;15451765. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 June 2014. Retrieved 24 December 2013 . \n\n^ Zlatarva, Nellie (1992). \"Truth Maintenance Systems and their Application for Verifying Expert System Knowledge Bases\". Artificial Intelligence Review. 6: 67\u2013110. doi:10.1007\/bf00155580. S2CID&#160;24696160. \n\n^ Levesque, Hector; Brachman, Ronald (1985). \"A Fundamental Tradeoff in Knowledge Representation and Reasoning\". In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). Readings in Knowledge Representation. Morgan Kaufmann. pp.&#160;41\u201370. ISBN&#160;978-0-934613-01-9. \n\n^ Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2010), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3rd ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-604259-7, p. 437-439 \n\n^ Hayes P, Naive physics I: Ontology for liquids. University of Essex report, 1978, Essex, UK. \n\n^ Davis R, Shrobe H E, Representing Structure and Behavior of Digital Hardware, IEEE Computer, Special Issue on Knowledge Representation, 16(10):75-82. \n\n\nFurther reading \nRonald J. Brachman; What IS-A is and isn't. An Analysis of Taxonomic Links in Semantic Networks; IEEE Computer, 16 (10); October 1983\nRonald J. Brachman, Hector J. Levesque Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, Morgan Kaufmann, 2004 ISBN&#160;978-1-55860-932-7\nRonald J. Brachman, Hector J. Levesque (eds) Readings in Knowledge Representation, Morgan Kaufmann, 1985, ISBN&#160;0-934613-01-X\nChein, M., Mugnier, M.-L. (2009),Graph-based Knowledge Representation: Computational Foundations of Conceptual Graphs, Springer, 2009,ISBN&#160;978-1-84800-285-2.\nRandall Davis, Howard Shrobe, and Peter Szolovits; What Is a Knowledge Representation? AI Magazine, 14(1):17-33,1993\nRonald Fagin, Joseph Y. Halpern, Yoram Moses, Moshe Y. Vardi Reasoning About Knowledge, MIT Press, 1995, ISBN&#160;0-262-06162-7\nJean-Luc Hainaut, Jean-Marc Hick, Vincent Englebert, Jean Henrard, Didier Roland: Understanding Implementations of IS-A Relations. ER 1996: 42-57\nHermann Helbig: Knowledge Representation and the Semantics of Natural Language, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 2006\nFrank van Harmelen, Vladimir Lifschitz and Bruce Porter: Handbook of Knowledge Representation 2007.\nArthur B. Markman: Knowledge Representation Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998\nJohn F. Sowa: Knowledge Representation: Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations. Brooks\/Cole: New York, 2000\nAdrian Walker, Michael McCord, John F. Sowa, and Walter G. Wilson: Knowledge Systems and Prolog, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley, 1990\nMary-Anne Williams and Hans Rott: \"Frontiers in Belief Revision, Kluwer\", 2001.\nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Knowledge representation .\n\nWhat is a Knowledge Representation? by Randall Davis and others\nIntroduction to Knowledge Modeling by Pejman Makhfi\nIntroduction to Description Logics course by Enrico Franconi, Faculty of Computer Science, Free University of Bolzano, Italy\nDATR Lexical knowledge representation language\nLoom Project Home Page\nPrinciples of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning Incorporated \nDescription Logic in Practice: A CLASSIC Application\nThe Rule Markup Initiative\nNelements KOS - a non-free 3d knowledge representation system\n\nvteComputer scienceNote: This template roughly follows the 2012 ACM Computing Classification System.Hardware\nPrinted circuit board\nPeripheral\nIntegrated circuit\nVery Large Scale Integration\nSystems on Chip 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lang=\"en\">Knowledge representation and reasoning<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Field of artificial intelligence<\/div>\n<p><b>Knowledge representation and reasoning<\/b> (<b>KRR<\/b>, <b>KR&amp;R<\/b>, <b>KR\u00b2<\/b>) is the field of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI) dedicated to representing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a> about the world in a form that a computer system can use to solve complex tasks such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer-aided_diagnosis\" title=\"Computer-aided diagnosis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f654bf96b59cc27c875fdd77f45f4697\">diagnosing a medical condition<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_user_interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Natural language user interface\" data-key=\"e7c60f04f9da60566224f74c5bf313bb\">having a dialog in a natural language<\/a>. Knowledge representation incorporates findings from psychology<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> about how humans solve problems, and represent knowledge in order to design <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Formal_system\" title=\"Formal system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb9435463d4170c0a6c0e938eecf9637\">formalisms<\/a> that will make complex systems easier to design and build. Knowledge representation and reasoning also incorporates findings from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic\" title=\"Logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1765a5c4c6dcb7becba1cf644fe3897\">logic<\/a> to automate various kinds of <i>reasoning<\/i>, such as the application of rules or the relations of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Set_theory\" title=\"Set theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7da89c571331a0d221dcd2f06dc34637\">sets<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subset\" title=\"Subset\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23d5135d15000145d2284e9e6ba5f081\">subsets<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Examples of knowledge representation formalisms include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_network\" title=\"Semantic network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64a11922fbc4867fa40750caf3480c27\">semantic nets<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_architecture\" title=\"Systems architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e578d55a1b1faa6049ce08a6ef48e7a\">systems architecture<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Frame (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5de0ade622122365c91ffa3e5ebb99e7\">frames<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rule-based_system\" title=\"Rule-based system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7acb4508f6397b1198a859c2dd7bc13e\"> rules<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_programming\" title=\"Logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6c0943d2bbff45f5ba0d111f9a594b7\"> logic programs<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(information_science)\" title=\"Ontology (information science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6cd018caae9a0c95e80b08c71758343\">ontologies<\/a>. Examples of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_reasoning\" title=\"Automated reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de14c9c0d69a0cb33e3fcbd45499d1f\">automated reasoning<\/a> engines include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inference_engine\" title=\"Inference engine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9b2b016bbabb61097234156e189d313\">inference engines<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_theorem_proving\" title=\"Automated theorem proving\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70283ba307cba4927c2ddd74c3e82e5c\">theorem provers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boolean_satisfiability_problem\" title=\"Boolean satisfiability problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f145e6f5db6a47712313fd550711ca35\"> model generators<\/a> and classifiers.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a series on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Outline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c37a26aa0fabe57fce6dc9d3efc57f0\">Artificial intelligence<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><figure class=\"mw-halign-center\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3af2ed3786d80b830eea607a8344e75\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7a\/Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\/100px-Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"100\" height=\"85\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence#Goals\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb9c1836d3769054e30ba50b411472bf\">Major goals<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">Artificial general intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">Planning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_game_playing\" title=\"General game playing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b659f2ed91c7a28bca494393765fd1\">General game playing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Knowledge reasoning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">Machine learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">Robotics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_safety\" title=\"AI safety\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb7e6c3b6e6290bdd2aab3d5c2210b1c\">AI safety<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Approaches<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolic_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Symbolic artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90f04195cac03010b9702e7b8db7ad93\">Symbolic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian networks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_algorithm\" title=\"Evolutionary algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2be5565f46780928629b4705cf141f08\">Evolutionary algorithms<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Situated_approach_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Situated approach (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d371530e69c0c92a2f6c8ddfec6102dc\">Situated approach<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hybrid_intelligent_system\" title=\"Hybrid intelligent system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"134de857fb48c47e99864f5b0a8a0887\">Hybrid intelligent systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_systems_integration\" title=\"Artificial intelligence systems integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03e8fe4cbdde2b0dfe6d6cf013a21d2c\">Systems integration<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applications_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Applications of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d70560409a044fef08a6f24b39d11d72\">Applications<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_artificial_intelligence_projects\" title=\"List of artificial intelligence projects\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b22c368db35a66355e3bbe9abefb0276\">Projects<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deepfake\" title=\"Deepfake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7165f1f34948befd7dc51d4f1941b98f\">Deepfake<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">Machine translation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_art\" title=\"Artificial intelligence art\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7a322db732edd374428a32ee9b588e4\">Art<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in healthcare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a83c45f6d758fe57b1fe4cb086a660dd\">Healthcare<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_mental_health\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in mental health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de7daf7fdd8ae3f7b3c22b6c78b505aa\">Mental health<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_government\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in government\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9448e3d83145520174134747105bd90e\">Government<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Music_and_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Music and artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"716b81931e24b5bb1fe02b1e4e6942ea\">Music<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_industry\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in industry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36d21770ca3861059b0f98b63319134e\">Industry<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_earth_sciences\" title=\"Machine learning in earth sciences\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c36894eb9ff1755893995191a5ab3b70\">Earth sciences<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_bioinformatics\" title=\"Machine learning in bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5ec4af63e9b8dc58cfeea658e348087\">Bioinformatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_physics\" title=\"Machine learning in physics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb87665b89561b156f33e004c9e9e3e4\">Physics<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Philosophy of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72fe09222fe7606d43e990764f3076b4\">Philosophy<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_room\" title=\"Chinese room\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40e4f68def9042fbadc20dbe8654fdca\">Chinese room<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Friendly_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Friendly artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d558aa453b40936ba47deaaf4ac9a5b\">Friendly AI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_control_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI control problem\" data-key=\"3a4b505ea3c272cedd95e33aec03d295\">Control problem<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_takeover\" title=\"AI takeover\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd96aa0bbc21e9e558b5130997c9dd87\">Takeover<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Ethics of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"608ca5c55237a263936a26d2500d09a6\">Ethics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Existential risk from artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2417fff2c86867851343cad51bd9bfb9\">Existential risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_test\" title=\"Turing test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f309ecb31df135db989e843377fb9d\">Turing test<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulation_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Regulation of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bbabae0e8e2c822aa2ced8fec6ac219\">Regulation<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"History of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb00251245fc858edc9c12e32694439\">History<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Timeline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e9d017e0ebfd460857b2be655c57964\">Timeline<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Progress_in_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Progress in artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d8510838c2ea7a333c8e1efa7a70fea\">Progress<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_winter\" title=\"AI winter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0128870650338adbb7c06bbe1dadc305\">AI winter<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_boom\" title=\"AI boom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb752fa087789f1afcf9c7b8c3e70e85\">AI boom<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Technology<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_programming_languages_for_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"List of programming languages for artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3911d7eb588c4af3da6d6e2d106be4b\">Programming languages<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Glossary<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Glossary of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"441c02aab14ebdf235a3e39d66538693\">Glossary<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The earliest work in computerized knowledge representation was focused on general problem-solvers such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Problem_Solver\" title=\"General Problem Solver\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e16c1731c492fc53c663a4b5115d5012\">General Problem Solver<\/a> (GPS) system developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allen_Newell\" title=\"Allen Newell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92e155bb916e0a942167e5882906563e\">Allen Newell<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbert_A._Simon\" title=\"Herbert A. Simon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d9e38903367abeb4880342cd666b2b0\">Herbert A. Simon<\/a> in 1959 and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advice_Taker\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Advice Taker\" data-key=\"038b6c60d1778219916c4ddb9bcc9726\">Advice Taker<\/a> proposed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"John McCarthy (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"498a2d3b08b0a194821bc61ed3b973fe\">John McCarthy<\/a> also in 1959. GPS featured data structures for planning and decomposition. The system would begin with a goal. It would then decompose that goal into sub-goals and then set out to construct strategies that could accomplish each subgoal. The Advisor Taker, on the other hand, proposed the use of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predicate_calculus\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Predicate calculus\" data-key=\"db610cc41b3a2d0adf1cc0825662eacb\">predicate calculus<\/a> to represent <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_sense_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Common sense reasoning\" data-key=\"d3815139e019100faeb90fa8ac17bb16\">common sense reasoning<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Many of the early approaches to knowledge represention in AI used graph representations and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Semantic networks\" data-key=\"419cd6bc9ff224e4484496883ac2560a\">semantic networks<\/a>, similar to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_graphs\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge graphs\" data-key=\"3884bc3c4bf4d155b703751134612581\">knowledge graphs<\/a> today. In such approaches, problem solving was a form of graph traversal<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> or path-finding, as in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/A*_search_algorithm\" title=\"A* search algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6b35f945632692d3f6a55cc3e6b8b14\">A* search algorithm<\/a>. Typical applications included robot plan-formation and game-playing.\n<\/p><p>Other researchers focused on developing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_theorem_proving\" title=\"Automated theorem proving\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70283ba307cba4927c2ddd74c3e82e5c\"> automated theorem-provers<\/a> for first-order logic, motivated by the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_logic\" title=\"Mathematical logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20231b819e738dc63cf3e2fb7f171e0b\">mathematical logic<\/a> to formalise mathematics and to automate the proof of mathematical theorems. A major step in this direction was the development of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resolution_prover\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Resolution prover\" data-key=\"06b27283b3d0cb312062a4bbb7dc44b4\">resolution method<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Alan_Robinson\" title=\"John Alan Robinson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a6e0427a980a68ae6f2027a0bf40236\">John Alan Robinson<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In the meanwhile, John McCarthy and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pat_Hayes\" title=\"Pat Hayes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c87acb97fd58c19013d368bd50cfd2a\">Pat Hayes<\/a> developed the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Situation_calculus\" title=\"Situation calculus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4054713bef9d121fb1ad13be0606a97\">situation calculus<\/a> as a logical representation of common sense knowledge about the laws of cause and effect. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cordell_Green\" title=\"Cordell Green\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e6f4126ee883cadd0cba147649d6d52\">Cordell Green<\/a>, in turn, showed how to do robot plan-formation by applying resolution to the situation calculus. He also showed how to use resolution for question-answering and automatic programming.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In contrast, researchers at MIT rejected the resolution uniform proof procedure paradigm and advocated the procedural embedding of knowledge instead.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> The resulting conflict between the use of logical representations and the use of procedural representations was resolved in the early 1970s with the development of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_programming\" title=\"Logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6c0943d2bbff45f5ba0d111f9a594b7\">logic programming<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prolog\" title=\"Prolog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa2833d010677a23881b973b47826430\">Prolog<\/a>, using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SLD_resolution\" title=\"SLD resolution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f98e15d779c1b04243dd0bb885db14ee\">SLD resolution<\/a> to treat <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Horn_clause\" title=\"Horn clause\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08129ab108d3d828c170b1b7c3c33116\">Horn clauses<\/a> as goal-reduction procedures.\n<\/p><p>The early development of logic programming was largely a European phenomenon. In North America, AI researchers such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ed_Feigenbaum\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ed Feigenbaum\" data-key=\"1e972ded869bfb8e0f62b978d41b2ff0\">Ed Feigenbaum<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rick_Hayes-Roth\" title=\"Rick Hayes-Roth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14e037037b4062e3a3b49edb6e0c2efb\">Frederick Hayes-Roth<\/a> began to advocate the representation of domain-specific knowledge rather than general-purpose reasoning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>These efforts led to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_revolution\" title=\"Cognitive revolution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d2a60b8baa33d04e53bcc46a31bd1bc\">cognitive revolution<\/a> in psychology and to the phase of AI focused on knowledge representation that resulted in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expert systems\" data-key=\"44411c04edd68e6a954aa2e9e23afff0\">expert systems<\/a> in the 1970s and 80s, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Production_system_(computer_science)\" title=\"Production system (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33565c94287bb403e1350b7da6ef2672\">production systems<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Frame language\" data-key=\"53fad2c78f047485fa054d1ff0dc7af5\">frame languages<\/a>, etc. Rather than general problem solvers, AI changed its focus to expert systems that could match human competence on a specific task, such as medical diagnosis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Expert systems gave us the terminology still in use today where AI systems are divided into a <i>knowledge base<\/i>, with facts about the world and rules, and an <i>inference engine<\/i>, which applies the rules to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_base\" title=\"Knowledge base\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dae3d5f45726413ec5e9e2654dec91e8\">knowledge base<\/a> in order to answer questions and solve problems. In these early systems the knowledge base tended to be a fairly flat structure, essentially assertions about the values of variables used by the rules.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Meanwhile, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marvin_Minsky\" title=\"Marvin Minsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5677de93e5b6dc185b95ffc880ffe34\">Marvin Minsky<\/a> developed the concept of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Frame (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5de0ade622122365c91ffa3e5ebb99e7\">frame<\/a> in the mid-1970s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> A frame is similar to an object class: It is an abstract description of a category describing things in the world, problems, and potential solutions. Frames were originally used on systems geared toward human interaction, e.g. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_understanding\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Natural language understanding\" data-key=\"8a18ab2d60594427abf27f5ca0823085\">understanding natural language<\/a> and the social settings in which various default expectations such as ordering food in a restaurant narrow the search space and allow the system to choose appropriate responses to dynamic situations.\n<\/p><p>It was not long before the frame communities and the rule-based researchers realized that there was a synergy between their approaches. Frames were good for representing the real world, described as classes, subclasses, slots (data values) with various constraints on possible values. Rules were good for representing and utilizing complex logic such as the process to make a medical diagnosis. Integrated systems were developed that combined frames and rules. One of the most powerful and well known was the 1983 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_Engineering_Environment\" title=\"Knowledge Engineering Environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3904e932b8a4900690bc6b16e30943c4\">Knowledge Engineering Environment<\/a> (KEE) from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IntelliCorp_(software)\" title=\"IntelliCorp (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"daa50e2ed95e37611e84b57f0b6420c0\">Intellicorp<\/a>. KEE had a complete rule engine with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forward_chaining\" title=\"Forward chaining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"816c7a2d7a6b9a461f4ff5e72cd29fa3\">forward<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backward_chaining\" title=\"Backward chaining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5efd143343ba959844997778b3ac4b6\">backward chaining<\/a>. It also had a complete frame-based knowledge base with triggers, slots (data values), inheritance, and message passing. Although message passing originated in the object-oriented community rather than AI it was quickly embraced by AI researchers as well in environments such as KEE and in the operating systems for Lisp machines from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolics\" title=\"Symbolics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed29d5fabc71fe2ef1777700ec6de5ae\">Symbolics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Xerox\" title=\"Xerox\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01872e289c76d5ea02fd933d2d40d2ce\">Xerox<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Texas_Instruments\" title=\"Texas Instruments\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f10c46ac9407316a4cd88b1b9f29546d\">Texas Instruments<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The integration of frames, rules, and object-oriented programming was significantly driven by commercial ventures such as KEE and Symbolics spun off from various research projects. At the same time as this was occurring, there was another strain of research that was less commercially focused and was driven by mathematical logic and automated theorem proving.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> One of the most influential languages in this research was the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KL-ONE\" title=\"KL-ONE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf43b88d5cde7f0f519300c8936ec806\">KL-ONE<\/a> language of the mid-'80s. KL-ONE was a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Frame language\" data-key=\"53fad2c78f047485fa054d1ff0dc7af5\">frame language<\/a> that had a rigorous semantics, formal definitions for concepts such as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Is-a\" title=\"Is-a\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec2665fea1b418ba8bed1e5881d4d085\">Is-A relation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> KL-ONE and languages that were influenced by it such as Loom had an automated reasoning engine that was based on formal logic rather than on IF-THEN rules. This reasoner is called the classifier. A classifier can analyze a set of declarations and infer new assertions, for example, redefine a class to be a subclass or superclass of some other class that wasn't formally specified. In this way the classifier can function as an inference engine, deducing new facts from an existing knowledge base. The classifier can also provide consistency checking on a knowledge base (which in the case of KL-ONE languages is also referred to as an Ontology).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Another area of knowledge representation research was the problem of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commonsense_reasoning\" title=\"Commonsense reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0997a9bcf171a85e9d4fb631fb9bc768\">common-sense reasoning<\/a>. One of the first realizations learned from trying to make software that can function with human natural language was that humans regularly draw on an extensive foundation of knowledge about the real world that we simply take for granted but that is not at all obvious to an artificial agent. Basic principles of common-sense physics, causality, intentions, etc. An example is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_problem\" title=\"Frame problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51f6d2eccfe1f077362bc8264e5cf325\">frame problem<\/a>, that in an event driven logic there need to be axioms that state things maintain position from one moment to the next unless they are moved by some external force. In order to make a true artificial intelligence agent that can <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_user_interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Natural language user interface\" data-key=\"e7c60f04f9da60566224f74c5bf313bb\">converse with humans using natural language<\/a> and can process basic statements and questions about the world, it is essential to represent this kind of knowledge.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> One of the most ambitious programs to tackle this problem was Doug Lenat's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyc\" title=\"Cyc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db8ad97a96ff39f5d7c763a3ef3e0b7c\">Cyc<\/a> project. Cyc established its own Frame language and had large numbers of analysts document various areas of common-sense reasoning in that language. The knowledge recorded in Cyc included common-sense models of time, causality, physics, intentions, and many others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The starting point for knowledge representation is the <i>knowledge representation hypothesis<\/i> first formalized by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brian_Cantwell_Smith\" title=\"Brian Cantwell Smith\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7debcc1c643b3d6e10ef7cb1f727fe2\">Brian C. Smith<\/a> in 1985:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Any mechanically embodied intelligent process will be comprised of structural ingredients that a) we as external observers naturally take to represent a propositional account of the knowledge that the overall process exhibits, and b) independent of such external semantic attribution, play a formal but causal and essential role in engendering the behavior that manifests that knowledge.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Currently, one of the most active areas of knowledge representation research are projects associated with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_Web\" title=\"Semantic Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9ae7ad3bff2f083332c721eff5ad88f\">Semantic Web<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> The Semantic Web seeks to add a layer of semantics (meaning) on top of the current Internet. Rather than indexing web sites and pages via keywords, the Semantic Web creates large <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(information_science)\" title=\"Ontology (information science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6cd018caae9a0c95e80b08c71758343\">ontologies<\/a> of concepts. Searching for a concept will be more effective than traditional text only searches. Frame languages and automatic classification play a big part in the vision for the future Semantic Web. The automatic classification gives developers technology to provide order on a constantly evolving network of knowledge. Defining ontologies that are static and incapable of evolving on the fly would be very limiting for Internet-based systems. The classifier technology provides the ability to deal with the dynamic environment of the Internet.\n<\/p><p>Recent projects funded primarily by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency\" data-key=\"b292921b789d71e25707a4ab51522280\">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency<\/a> (DARPA) have integrated frame languages and classifiers with markup languages based on XML. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource_Description_Framework\" title=\"Resource Description Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84df3c8186c49293d7c93180e1489de\">Resource Description Framework<\/a> (RDF) provides the basic capability to define classes, subclasses, and properties of objects. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_Ontology_Language\" title=\"Web Ontology Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556d5da6276c12ca0c34d72be5fe7f5\">Web Ontology Language<\/a> (OWL) provides additional levels of semantics and enables integration with classification engines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Berners-Lee_34\u201343_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Berners-Lee_34\u201343-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overview\">Overview<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Knowledge-representation is a field of artificial intelligence that focuses on designing computer representations that capture information about the world that can be used for solving complex problems.\n<\/p><p>The justification for knowledge representation is that conventional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Procedural_code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Procedural code\" data-key=\"ebfd777524ae01019da25757691698ac\">procedural code<\/a> is not the best formalism to use to solve complex problems. Knowledge representation makes complex software easier to define and maintain than procedural code and can be used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expert systems\" data-key=\"44411c04edd68e6a954aa2e9e23afff0\">expert systems<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>For example, talking to experts in terms of business rules rather than code lessens the semantic gap between users and developers and makes development of complex systems more practical.\n<\/p><p>Knowledge representation goes hand in hand with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_reasoning\" title=\"Automated reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de14c9c0d69a0cb33e3fcbd45499d1f\">automated reasoning<\/a> because one of the main purposes of explicitly representing knowledge is to be able to reason about that knowledge, to make inferences, assert new knowledge, etc. Virtually all <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation language\" data-key=\"d82c80a21b2bfa53c6ffc33609a61176\">knowledge representation languages<\/a> have a reasoning or inference engine as part of the system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A key trade-off in the design of a knowledge representation formalism is that between expressivity and practicality. The ultimate knowledge representation formalism in terms of expressive power and compactness is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First_Order_Logic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"First Order Logic\" data-key=\"24af0bf6ccbc8e816dacaa43c2e27e41\">First Order Logic<\/a> (FOL). There is no more powerful formalism than that used by mathematicians to define general propositions about the world. However, FOL has two drawbacks as a knowledge representation formalism: ease of use and practicality of implementation. First order logic can be intimidating even for many software developers. Languages that do not have the complete formal power of FOL can still provide close to the same expressive power with a user interface that is more practical for the average developer to understand. The issue of practicality of implementation is that FOL in some ways is too expressive. With FOL it is possible to create statements (e.g. quantification over infinite sets) that would cause a system to never terminate if it attempted to verify them.\n<\/p><p>Thus, a subset of FOL can be both easier to use and more practical to implement. This was a driving motivation behind rule-based expert systems. IF-THEN rules provide a subset of FOL but a very useful one that is also very intuitive. The history of most of the early AI knowledge representation formalisms; from databases to semantic nets to theorem provers and production systems can be viewed as various design decisions on whether to emphasize expressive power or computability and efficiency.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In a key 1993 paper on the topic, Randall Davis of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology\" title=\"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6d082af902828b7c6c2395cc18da224\">MIT<\/a> outlined five distinct roles to analyze a knowledge representation framework:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>\"A knowledge representation (KR) is most fundamentally a surrogate, a substitute for the thing itself, used to enable an entity to determine consequences by thinking rather than acting,\" <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> i.e., \"by reasoning about the world rather than taking action in it.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"It is a set of ontological commitments\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> i.e., \"an answer to the question: In what terms should I think about the world?\" <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"It is a fragmentary theory of intelligent reasoning, expressed in terms of three components: (i) the representation's fundamental conception of intelligent reasoning; (ii) the set of inferences the representation sanctions; and (iii) the set of inferences it recommends.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"It is a medium for pragmatically efficient computation\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> i.e., \"the computational environment in which thinking is accomplished. One contribution to this pragmatic efficiency is supplied by the guidance a representation provides for organizing information\" <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> so as \"to facilitate making the recommended inferences.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"It is a medium of human expression\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> i.e., \"a language in which we say things about the world.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_18-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Knowledge representation and reasoning are a key enabling technology for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_Web\" title=\"Semantic Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9ae7ad3bff2f083332c721eff5ad88f\">Semantic Web<\/a>. Languages based on the Frame model with automatic classification provide a layer of semantics on top of the existing Internet. Rather than searching via text strings as is typical today, it will be possible to define logical queries and find pages that map to those queries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Berners-Lee_34\u201343_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Berners-Lee_34\u201343-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> The automated reasoning component in these systems is an engine known as the classifier. Classifiers focus on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subsumption_relation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Subsumption relation\" data-key=\"8c17bcb3a1016b18b2b3f8221c9af54a\">subsumption<\/a> relations in a knowledge base rather than rules. A classifier can infer new classes and dynamically change the ontology as new information becomes available. This capability is ideal for the ever-changing and evolving information space of the Internet.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The Semantic Web integrates concepts from knowledge representation and reasoning with markup languages based on XML. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource_Description_Framework\" title=\"Resource Description Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84df3c8186c49293d7c93180e1489de\">Resource Description Framework<\/a> (RDF) provides the basic capabilities to define knowledge-based objects on the Internet with basic features such as Is-A relations and object properties. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_Ontology_Language\" title=\"Web Ontology Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556d5da6276c12ca0c34d72be5fe7f5\">Web Ontology Language<\/a> (OWL) adds additional semantics and integrates with automatic classification reasoners.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Characteristics\">Characteristics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In 1985, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ronald_J._Brachman\" title=\"Ronald J. Brachman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"761196ca97b7209890740b07ad42990f\"> Ron Brachman<\/a> categorized the core issues for knowledge representation as follows:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Primitives. What is the underlying framework used to represent knowledge? <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_network\" title=\"Semantic network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64a11922fbc4867fa40750caf3480c27\">Semantic networks<\/a> were one of the first knowledge representation primitives. Also, data structures and algorithms for general fast search. In this area, there is a strong overlap with research in data structures and algorithms in computer science. In early systems, the Lisp programming language, which was modeled after the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lambda_calculus\" title=\"Lambda calculus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"484f16801cc3264bf3cfeaa210fa377a\">lambda calculus<\/a>, was often used as a form of functional knowledge representation. Frames and Rules were the next kind of primitive. Frame languages had various mechanisms for expressing and enforcing constraints on frame data. All data in frames are stored in slots. Slots are analogous to relations in entity-relation modeling and to object properties in object-oriented modeling. Another technique for primitives is to define languages that are modeled after <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First_Order_Logic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"First Order Logic\" data-key=\"24af0bf6ccbc8e816dacaa43c2e27e41\">First Order Logic<\/a> (FOL). The most well known example is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prolog\" title=\"Prolog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa2833d010677a23881b973b47826430\">Prolog<\/a>, but there are also many special-purpose theorem-proving environments. These environments can validate logical models and can deduce new theories from existing models. Essentially they automate the process a logician would go through in analyzing a model. Theorem-proving technology had some specific practical applications in the areas of software engineering. For example, it is possible to prove that a software program rigidly adheres to a formal logical specification.<\/li>\n<li>Meta-representation. This is also known as the issue of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reflection_(computer_programming)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Reflection (computer programming)\" data-key=\"286018871c8d02381216850d9944818a\">reflection<\/a> in computer science. It refers to the capability of a formalism to have access to information about its own state. An example would be the meta-object protocol in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smalltalk\" title=\"Smalltalk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35720316361402c3cc59477a157424dc\">Smalltalk<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CLOS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CLOS\" data-key=\"6cfeb75725364a1b455e52eb5862a302\">CLOS<\/a> that gives developers run time access to the class objects and enables them to dynamically redefine the structure of the knowledge base even at run time. Meta-representation means the knowledge representation language is itself expressed in that language. For example, in most Frame based environments all frames would be instances of a frame class. That class object can be inspected at run time, so that the object can understand and even change its internal structure or the structure of other parts of the model. In rule-based environments, the rules were also usually instances of rule classes. Part of the meta protocol for rules were the meta rules that prioritized rule firing.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Completeness_(logic)\" title=\"Completeness (logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b44738e9a820d0f457b1b70cc727a40b\">Incompleteness<\/a>. Traditional logic requires additional axioms and constraints to deal with the real world as opposed to the world of mathematics. Also, it is often useful to associate degrees of confidence with a statement. I.e., not simply say \"Socrates is Human\" but rather \"Socrates is Human with confidence 50%\". This was one of the early innovations from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_system\" title=\"Expert system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6a738b57cf1f26d8d60f3adb61e3384\">expert systems<\/a> research which migrated to some commercial tools, the ability to associate certainty factors with rules and conclusions. Later research in this area is known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\" title=\"Fuzzy logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b5089e9114f91c54ad40c5615094874\">fuzzy logic<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Definitions and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universals\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Universals\" data-key=\"c15c8294b7381bbfc3ab21bfd05e3b6a\">universals<\/a> vs. facts and defaults. Universals are general statements about the world such as \"All humans are mortal\". Facts are specific examples of universals such as \"Socrates is a human and therefore mortal\". In logical terms definitions and universals are about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_quantification\" title=\"Universal quantification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85e230ee65e0ddafa39fd23499a73bd5\">universal quantification<\/a> while facts and defaults are about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Existential_quantification\" title=\"Existential quantification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36eac4bfff9feb0cdf02d45ce1e186e2\">existential quantifications<\/a>. All forms of knowledge representation must deal with this aspect and most do so with some variant of set theory, modeling universals as sets and subsets and definitions as elements in those sets.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-monotonic_logic\" title=\"Non-monotonic logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c13bba29e69b618970cbd7fe0b603ec\">Non-monotonic reasoning<\/a>. Non-monotonic reasoning allows various kinds of hypothetical reasoning. The system associates facts asserted with the rules and facts used to justify them and as those facts change updates the dependent knowledge as well. In rule based systems this capability is known as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Truth_maintenance_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Truth maintenance system\" data-key=\"516fd5a85c3dd28cc79cb46ae41539ca\">truth maintenance system<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_completeness\" title=\"Functional completeness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd011bccc8f1a8818f59dade11130d66\">Expressive adequacy<\/a>. The standard that Brachman and most AI researchers use to measure expressive adequacy is usually First Order Logic (FOL). Theoretical limitations mean that a full implementation of FOL is not practical. Researchers should be clear about how expressive (how much of full FOL expressive power) they intend their representation to be.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Reasoning efficiency. This refers to the run time efficiency of the system. The ability of the knowledge base to be updated and the reasoner to develop new inferences in a reasonable period of time. In some ways, this is the flip side of expressive adequacy. In general, the more powerful a representation, the more it has expressive adequacy, the less efficient its <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_reasoning\" title=\"Automated reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de14c9c0d69a0cb33e3fcbd45499d1f\">automated reasoning<\/a> engine will be. Efficiency was often an issue, especially for early applications of knowledge representation technology. They were usually implemented in interpreted environments such as Lisp, which were slow compared to more traditional platforms of the time.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ontology_engineering\">Ontology engineering<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_engineering\" title=\"Ontology engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7301add05a4401a3cf8a4206c33f8ab\">Ontology engineering<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_language\" title=\"Ontology language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af996a1192f3157b936a98d48aa0f6e6\">Ontology language<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In the early years of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge-based_systems\" title=\"Knowledge-based systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bffcea858c3df76f05800f5f4b7ee0bd\">knowledge-based systems<\/a> the knowledge-bases were fairly small. The knowledge-bases that were meant to actually solve real problems rather than do proof of concept demonstrations needed to focus on well defined problems. So for example, not just medical diagnosis as a whole topic, but medical diagnosis of certain kinds of diseases.\n<\/p><p>As knowledge-based technology scaled up, the need for larger knowledge bases and for modular knowledge bases that could communicate and integrate with each other became apparent. This gave rise to the discipline of ontology engineering, designing and building large knowledge bases that could be used by multiple projects. One of the leading research projects in this area was the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyc\" title=\"Cyc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db8ad97a96ff39f5d7c763a3ef3e0b7c\">Cyc<\/a> project. Cyc was an attempt to build a huge encyclopedic knowledge base that would contain not just expert knowledge but common-sense knowledge. In designing an artificial intelligence agent, it was soon realized that representing common-sense knowledge, knowledge that humans simply take for granted, was essential to make an AI that could interact with humans using natural language. Cyc was meant to address this problem. The language they defined was known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CycL\" title=\"CycL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"271556a01d4479b450d28292055ec508\">CycL<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>After CycL, a number of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_language\" title=\"Ontology language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af996a1192f3157b936a98d48aa0f6e6\">ontology languages<\/a> have been developed. Most are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Declarative_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Declarative language\" data-key=\"88dd948600cb98be63f0552d0e089546\">declarative languages<\/a>, and are either <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Frame language\" data-key=\"53fad2c78f047485fa054d1ff0dc7af5\">frame languages<\/a>, or are based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First-order_logic\" title=\"First-order logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0440e828c0aa870ff198a30aba920282\">first-order logic<\/a>. Modularity\u2014the ability to define boundaries around specific domains and problem spaces\u2014is essential for these languages because as stated by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tom_Gruber\" title=\"Tom Gruber\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42ad27588527775abf2bab7165be027b\">Tom Gruber<\/a>, \"Every ontology is a treaty- a social agreement among people with common motive in sharing.\" There are always many competing and differing views that make any general-purpose ontology impossible. A general-purpose ontology would have to be applicable in any domain and different areas of knowledge need to be unified.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There is a long history of work attempting to build ontologies for a variety of task domains, e.g., an ontology for liquids,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lumped_element_model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Lumped element model\" data-key=\"8307cb22e5e7a63a73efe99e9d31c4bb\">lumped element model<\/a> widely used in representing electronic circuits (e.g.,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>), as well as ontologies for time, belief, and even programming itself. Each of these offers a way to see some part of the world.\n<\/p><p>The lumped element model, for instance, suggests that we think of circuits in terms of components with connections between them, with signals flowing instantaneously along the connections. This is a useful view, but not the only possible one. A different ontology arises if we need to attend to the electrodynamics in the device: Here signals propagate at finite speed and an object (like a resistor) that was previously viewed as a single component with an I\/O behavior may now have to be thought of as an extended medium through which an electromagnetic wave flows.\n<\/p><p>Ontologies can of course be written down in a wide variety of languages and notations (e.g., logic, LISP, etc.); the essential information is not the form of that language but the content, i.e., the set of concepts offered as a way of thinking about the world. Simply put, the important part is notions like connections and components, not the choice between writing them as predicates or LISP constructs.\n<\/p><p>The commitment made selecting one or another ontology can produce a sharply different view of the task at hand. Consider the difference that arises in selecting the lumped element view of a circuit rather than the electrodynamic view of the same device. As a second example, medical diagnosis viewed in terms of rules (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MYCIN\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MYCIN\" data-key=\"44771f0a2fc43201e554cb520104e81c\">MYCIN<\/a>) looks substantially different from the same task viewed in terms of frames (e.g., INTERNIST). Where MYCIN sees the medical world as made up of empirical associations connecting symptom to disease, INTERNIST sees a set of prototypes, in particular prototypical diseases, to be matched against the case at hand.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alphabet_of_human_thought\" title=\"Alphabet of human thought\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00c387fd101dccca083eae37b441fd51\">Alphabet of human thought<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Belief_revision\" title=\"Belief revision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9c074365d370fd02c83e831818f51a1\">Belief revision<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chunking_(psychology)\" title=\"Chunking (psychology)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"673d2856f54ad043aaa28a2084fa6595\">Chunking (psychology)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commonsense_knowledge_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Commonsense knowledge (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16b81fa933cef3a57fa57bbf1cdeff04\">Commonsense knowledge base<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conceptual_graph\" title=\"Conceptual graph\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d57f713babf99ed6061091295e08d52\">Conceptual graph<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DATR\" title=\"DATR\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6617e4fb6d53889b0bdce01f53fd0d82\">DATR<\/a>, a language for lexical knowledge representation<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FO(.)\" title=\"FO(.)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95cdb9717c2155afe77040f58cd74def\">FO(.)<\/a>, a KR language based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First-order_logic\" title=\"First-order logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0440e828c0aa870ff198a30aba920282\">First-order logic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_programming\" title=\"Logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6c0943d2bbff45f5ba0d111f9a594b7\">Logic programming<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logico-linguistic_modeling\" title=\"Logico-linguistic modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dec30a413e1386188d714770cd451af6\">Logico-linguistic modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_graph\" title=\"Knowledge graph\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2cf094fb66cbb67506c8816ebe34f2ad\">Knowledge graph<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mind_map\" title=\"Mind map\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c33e529161a6efd850ce10a0a53efbce\">Mind map<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_technology\" title=\"Semantic technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69f453de5528324adcae34ff440e9b18\">Semantic technology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Valuation-based_system\" title=\"Valuation-based system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"06d1cd7bb47d387e849fff419694b23e\">Valuation-based system<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchankAbelson1977\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Schank, Roger; Abelson, Robert (1977). <i>Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding: An Inquiry Into Human Knowledge Structures<\/i>. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Scripts%2C+Plans%2C+Goals%2C+and+Understanding%3A+An+Inquiry+Into+Human+Knowledge+Structures&amp;rft.pub=Lawrence+Erlbaum+Associates%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.date=1977&amp;rft.aulast=Schank&amp;rft.aufirst=Roger&amp;rft.au=Abelson%2C+Robert&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDoranMichie1966\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Doran, J. E.; Michie, D. (1966-09-20). \"Experiments with the Graph Traverser program\". <i>Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A<\/i>. <b>294<\/b> (1437): 235\u2013259. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/1966RSPSA.294..235D\" target=\"_blank\">1966RSPSA.294..235D<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098%2Frspa.1966.0205\" target=\"_blank\">10.1098\/rspa.1966.0205<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:21698093\" target=\"_blank\">21698093<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proc.+R.+Soc.+Lond.+A&amp;rft.atitle=Experiments+with+the+Graph+Traverser+program&amp;rft.volume=294&amp;rft.issue=1437&amp;rft.pages=235-259&amp;rft.date=1966-09-20&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21698093%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspa.1966.0205&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1966RSPSA.294..235D&amp;rft.aulast=Doran&amp;rft.aufirst=J.+E.&amp;rft.au=Michie%2C+D.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGreen\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Green, Cordell. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ijcai.org\/Proceedings\/69\/Papers\/023.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Application of Theorem Proving to Problem Solving<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. IJCAI 1969.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=Application+of+Theorem+Proving+to+Problem+Solving&amp;rft.aulast=Green&amp;rft.aufirst=Cordell&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ijcai.org%2FProceedings%2F69%2FPapers%2F023.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hewitt, C., 2009. Inconsistency robustness in logic programs. arXiv preprint arXiv:0904.3036.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKowalski1986\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kowalski, Robert (1986). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/324634.325168\" target=\"_blank\">\"The limitation of logic\"<\/a>. <i>Proceedings of the 1986 ACM fourteenth annual conference on Computer science - CSC '86<\/i>. pp.&#160;7\u201313. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F324634.325168\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/324634.325168<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-89791-177-6<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:17211581\" target=\"_blank\">17211581<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+limitation+of+logic&amp;rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+1986+ACM+fourteenth+annual+conference+on+Computer+science+-+CSC+%2786&amp;rft.pages=7-13&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17211581%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F324634.325168&amp;rft.isbn=0-89791-177-6&amp;rft.aulast=Kowalski&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1145%2F324634.325168&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNilsson1995\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Nilsson, Nils (1995). \"Eye on the Prize\". <i>AI Magazine<\/i>. <b>16<\/b>: 2.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=AI+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Eye+on+the+Prize&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.pages=2&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.aulast=Nilsson&amp;rft.aufirst=Nils&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHayes-RothWatermanLenat1983\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hayes-Roth, Frederick; Waterman, Donald; Lenat, Douglas (1983). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/buildingexpertsy00temd\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Building Expert Systems<\/i><\/a>. 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Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cs.umd.edu\/~golbeck\/LBSC690\/SemanticWeb.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on April 24, 2013.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&amp;rft.atitle=The+Semantic+Web+%E2%80%93+A+new+form+of+Web+content+that+is+meaningful+to+computers+will+unleash+a+revolution+of+new+possibilities&amp;rft.volume=284&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=34-43&amp;rft.date=2001-05-17&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0501-34&amp;rft.aulast=Berners-Lee&amp;rft.aufirst=Tim&amp;rft.au=Hendler%2C+James&amp;rft.au=Lassila%2C+Ora&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.umd.edu%2F~golbeck%2FLBSC690%2FSemanticWeb.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKnublauchOberleTetlowWallace2006\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Knublauch, Holger; Oberle, Daniel; Tetlow, Phil; Wallace, Evan (2006-03-09). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2001\/sw\/BestPractices\/SE\/ODSD\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Semantic Web Primer for Object-Oriented Software Developers\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W3C\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"W3C\" data-key=\"9ac7cb7a1dd566b78bc8d5b6ab1ccd27\">W3C<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180106172902\/http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2001\/sw\/BestPractices\/SE\/ODSD\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-01-06<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2008-07-30<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Semantic+Web+Primer+for+Object-Oriented+Software+Developers&amp;rft.pub=W3C&amp;rft.date=2006-03-09&amp;rft.aulast=Knublauch&amp;rft.aufirst=Holger&amp;rft.au=Oberle%2C+Daniel&amp;rft.au=Tetlow%2C+Phil&amp;rft.au=Wallace%2C+Evan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2001%2Fsw%2FBestPractices%2FSE%2FODSD%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHayes-RothWatermanLenat1983\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hayes-Roth, Frederick; Waterman, Donald; Lenat, Douglas (1983). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/buildingexpertsy00temd\/page\/6\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Building Expert Systems<\/i><\/a>. Addison-Wesley. pp.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/buildingexpertsy00temd\/page\/6\" target=\"_blank\">6\u20137<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-201-10686-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Building+Expert+Systems&amp;rft.pages=6-7&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&amp;rft.date=1983&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-201-10686-2&amp;rft.aulast=Hayes-Roth&amp;rft.aufirst=Frederick&amp;rft.au=Waterman%2C+Donald&amp;rft.au=Lenat%2C+Douglas&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbuildingexpertsy00temd%2Fpage%2F6&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLevesqueBrachman1985\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Levesque, Hector; Brachman, Ronald (1985). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/readingsinknowle00brac\/page\/49\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Fundamental Tradeoff in Knowledge Representation and Reasoning\"<\/a>. In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). <i>Readings in Knowledge Representation<\/i>. Morgan Kaufmann. p.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/readingsinknowle00brac\/page\/49\" target=\"_blank\">49<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-934613-01-9<\/bdi>. <q>The good news in reducing KR service to theorem proving is that we now have a very clear, very specific notion of what the KR system should do; the bad new is that it is also clear that the services can not be provided... deciding whether or not a sentence in FOL is a theorem... is unsolvable.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=A+Fundamental+Tradeoff+in+Knowledge+Representation+and+Reasoning&amp;rft.btitle=Readings+in+Knowledge+Representation&amp;rft.pages=49&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-934613-01-9&amp;rft.aulast=Levesque&amp;rft.aufirst=Hector&amp;rft.au=Brachman%2C+Ronald&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freadingsinknowle00brac%2Fpage%2F49&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_18-10\"><sup><i><b>k<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDavisShrobeSzolovits1993\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Davis, Randall; Shrobe, Howard; Szolovits, Peter (Spring 1993). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aaai.org\/ojs\/index.php\/aimagazine\/article\/view\/1029\/947\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is a Knowledge Representation?\"<\/a>. <i>AI Magazine<\/i>. <b>14<\/b> (1): 17\u201333. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120406094445\/http:\/\/www.aaai.org\/ojs\/index.php\/aimagazine\/article\/view\/1029\/947\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2012-04-06<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-03-23<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=AI+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=What+Is+a+Knowledge+Representation%3F&amp;rft.ssn=spring&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=17-33&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.aulast=Davis&amp;rft.aufirst=Randall&amp;rft.au=Shrobe%2C+Howard&amp;rft.au=Szolovits%2C+Peter&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaai.org%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Faimagazine%2Farticle%2Fview%2F1029%2F947&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMacgregor1999\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Macgregor, Robert (August 13, 1999). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131025063241\/http:\/\/www.isi.edu\/isd\/LOOM\/papers\/macgregor\/Loom_Retrospective.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Retrospective on Loom\"<\/a>. <i>isi.edu<\/i>. Information Sciences Institute. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.isi.edu\/isd\/LOOM\/papers\/macgregor\/Loom_Retrospective.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 October 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 December<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=isi.edu&amp;rft.atitle=Retrospective+on+Loom&amp;rft.date=1999-08-13&amp;rft.aulast=Macgregor&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isi.edu%2Fisd%2FLOOM%2Fpapers%2Fmacgregor%2FLoom_Retrospective.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKnublauchOberleTetlowWallace2006\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Knublauch, Holger; Oberle, Daniel; Tetlow, Phil; Wallace, Evan (2006-03-09). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2001\/sw\/BestPractices\/SE\/ODSD\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Semantic Web Primer for Object-Oriented Software Developers\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W3C\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"W3C\" data-key=\"9ac7cb7a1dd566b78bc8d5b6ab1ccd27\">W3C<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180106172902\/http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2001\/sw\/BestPractices\/SE\/ODSD\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2018-01-06<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2008-07-30<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Semantic+Web+Primer+for+Object-Oriented+Software+Developers&amp;rft.pub=W3C&amp;rft.date=2006-03-09&amp;rft.aulast=Knublauch&amp;rft.aufirst=Holger&amp;rft.au=Oberle%2C+Daniel&amp;rft.au=Tetlow%2C+Phil&amp;rft.au=Wallace%2C+Evan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2001%2Fsw%2FBestPractices%2FSE%2FODSD%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrachman1985\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Brachman, Ron (1985). \"Introduction\". In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/readingsinknowle00brac\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Readings in Knowledge Representation<\/i><\/a><\/span>. Morgan Kaufmann. pp.&#160;XVI\u2013XVII. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-934613-01-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Introduction&amp;rft.btitle=Readings+in+Knowledge+Representation&amp;rft.pages=XVI-XVII&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-934613-01-9&amp;rft.aulast=Brachman&amp;rft.aufirst=Ron&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freadingsinknowle00brac&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBih2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bih, Joseph (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cse.unr.edu\/~bebis\/CS365\/Papers\/FuzzyLogic.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Paradigm Shift: An Introduction to Fuzzy Logic\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IEEE Potentials<\/i>. <b>25<\/b>: 6\u201321. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FMP.2006.1635021\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/MP.2006.1635021<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:15451765\" target=\"_blank\">15451765<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140612022317\/http:\/\/www.cse.unr.edu\/~bebis\/CS365\/Papers\/FuzzyLogic.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 12 June 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 December<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Potentials&amp;rft.atitle=Paradigm+Shift%3A+An+Introduction+to+Fuzzy+Logic&amp;rft.volume=25&amp;rft.pages=6-21&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMP.2006.1635021&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15451765%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Bih&amp;rft.aufirst=Joseph&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cse.unr.edu%2F~bebis%2FCS365%2FPapers%2FFuzzyLogic.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZlatarva1992\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zlatarva, Nellie (1992). \"Truth Maintenance Systems and their Application for Verifying Expert System Knowledge Bases\". <i>Artificial Intelligence Review<\/i>. <b>6<\/b>: 67\u2013110. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fbf00155580\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/bf00155580<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:24696160\" target=\"_blank\">24696160<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Artificial+Intelligence+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Truth+Maintenance+Systems+and+their+Application+for+Verifying+Expert+System+Knowledge+Bases&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.pages=67-110&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00155580&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24696160%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Zlatarva&amp;rft.aufirst=Nellie&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLevesqueBrachman1985\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Levesque, Hector; Brachman, Ronald (1985). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/readingsinknowle00brac\/page\/41\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Fundamental Tradeoff in Knowledge Representation and Reasoning\"<\/a>. In Ronald Brachman and Hector J. Levesque (ed.). <i>Readings in Knowledge Representation<\/i>. Morgan Kaufmann. pp.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/readingsinknowle00brac\/page\/41\" target=\"_blank\">41\u201370<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-934613-01-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=A+Fundamental+Tradeoff+in+Knowledge+Representation+and+Reasoning&amp;rft.btitle=Readings+in+Knowledge+Representation&amp;rft.pages=41-70&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-934613-01-9&amp;rft.aulast=Levesque&amp;rft.aufirst=Hector&amp;rft.au=Brachman%2C+Ronald&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freadingsinknowle00brac%2Fpage%2F41&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+representation+and+reasoning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2010), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_Intelligence:_A_Modern_Approach\" title=\"Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9dbb28c25594c66d5bac1148dc06e5f6\">Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach<\/a> (3rd ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-13-604259-7, p. 437-439<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hayes P, Naive physics I: Ontology for liquids. University of Essex report, 1978, Essex, UK.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Davis R, Shrobe H E, Representing Structure and Behavior of Digital Hardware, IEEE Computer, Special Issue on Knowledge Representation, 16(10):75-82.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ronald_J._Brachman\" title=\"Ronald J. Brachman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"761196ca97b7209890740b07ad42990f\">Ronald J. Brachman<\/a>; <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20040110031608\/http:\/\/citeseer.nj.nec.com\/context\/177306\/0\" target=\"_blank\">What IS-A is and isn't. An Analysis of Taxonomic Links in Semantic Networks<\/a>; IEEE Computer, 16 (10); October 1983<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ronald_J._Brachman\" title=\"Ronald J. Brachman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"761196ca97b7209890740b07ad42990f\">Ronald J. Brachman<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hector_J._Levesque\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hector J. Levesque\" data-key=\"d683137bc61ede5b6a6e2f6c997094a0\">Hector J. Levesque<\/a> <i>Knowledge Representation and Reasoning<\/i>, Morgan Kaufmann, 2004 <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-55860-932-7<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ronald_J._Brachman\" title=\"Ronald J. Brachman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"761196ca97b7209890740b07ad42990f\">Ronald J. Brachman<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hector_J._Levesque\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hector J. Levesque\" data-key=\"d683137bc61ede5b6a6e2f6c997094a0\">Hector J. Levesque<\/a> (eds) <i>Readings in Knowledge Representation<\/i>, Morgan Kaufmann, 1985, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-934613-01-X<\/li>\n<li>Chein, M., Mugnier, M.-L. (2009),<i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lirmm.fr\/gbkrbook\/\" target=\"_blank\">Graph-based Knowledge Representation: Computational Foundations of Conceptual Graphs<\/a><\/i>, Springer, 2009,<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-84800-285-2.<\/li>\n<li>Randall Davis, Howard Shrobe, and Peter Szolovits; <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/citeseer.ist.psu.edu\/davis93what.html\" target=\"_blank\">What Is a Knowledge Representation?<\/a> AI Magazine, 14(1):17-33,1993<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ronald_Fagin\" title=\"Ronald Fagin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"081bd890b6d07cfabea2364233db1f39\">Ronald Fagin<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseph_Y._Halpern\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Joseph Y. Halpern\" data-key=\"b0b411545a2b97bd4a0c7b5394a46917\">Joseph Y. Halpern<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yoram_Moses\" title=\"Yoram Moses\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a671003f78ccf81b00c726227484174\">Yoram Moses<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moshe_Y._Vardi\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Moshe Y. Vardi\" data-key=\"f8451ef55809a44ee9b110f3d68a49be\">Moshe Y. Vardi<\/a> <i>Reasoning About Knowledge<\/i>, MIT Press, 1995, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-262-06162-7<\/li>\n<li>Jean-Luc Hainaut, Jean-Marc Hick, Vincent Englebert, Jean Henrard, Didier Roland: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070211062250\/http:\/\/www.informatik.uni-trier.de\/~ley\/db\/conf\/er\/HainautHEHR96.html\" target=\"_blank\">Understanding Implementations of IS-A Relations<\/a>. ER 1996: 42-57<\/li>\n<li>Hermann Helbig: <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/14.139.206.50:8080\/jspui\/bitstream\/1\/2412\/1\/Helbig,%20Hermann%20-%20Knowledge%20Representation%20and%20the%20Semantics%20of%20Natural%20Language.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Knowledge Representation and the Semantics of Natural Language<\/a><\/i>, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 2006<\/li>\n<li>Frank van Harmelen, Vladimir Lifschitz and Bruce Porter: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dai.fmph.uniba.sk\/~sefranek\/kri\/handbook\/handbook_of_kr.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Handbook of Knowledge Representation<\/a> 2007.<\/li>\n<li>Arthur B. Markman: <i>Knowledge Representation<\/i> Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_F._Sowa\" title=\"John F. Sowa\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"775c4a7479a275442f9d81cf1af575ee\">John F. Sowa<\/a>: <i>Knowledge Representation<\/i>: Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations. Brooks\/Cole: New York, 2000<\/li>\n<li>Adrian Walker, Michael McCord, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_F._Sowa\" title=\"John F. Sowa\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"775c4a7479a275442f9d81cf1af575ee\">John F. Sowa<\/a>, and Walter G. Wilson: <i>Knowledge Systems and Prolog<\/i>, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley, 1990<\/li>\n<li>Mary-Anne Williams and Hans Rott: \"Frontiers in Belief Revision, Kluwer\", 2001.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/medg.lcs.mit.edu\/ftp\/psz\/k-rep.html\" target=\"_blank\">What is a Knowledge Representation?<\/a> by Randall Davis and others<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.makhfi.com\/KCM_intro.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Introduction to Knowledge Modeling<\/a> by Pejman Makhfi<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.inf.unibz.it\/~franconi\/dl\/course\/\" target=\"_blank\">Introduction to Description Logics course<\/a> by Enrico Franconi, Faculty of Computer Science, Free University of Bolzano, Italy<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ccl.kuleuven.ac.be\/LKR\/html\/datr.html\" target=\"_blank\">DATR Lexical knowledge representation language<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.isi.edu\/isd\/LOOM\/LOOM-HOME.html\" target=\"_blank\">Loom Project Home Page<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/kr.org\" target=\"_blank\">Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning Incorporated <\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.research.att.com\/sw\/tools\/classic\/tm\/ijcai-95-with-scenario.html\" target=\"_blank\">Description Logic in Practice: A CLASSIC Application<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20031202202839\/http:\/\/www.dfki.uni-kl.de\/ruleml\/\" target=\"_blank\">The Rule Markup Initiative<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/nelements.org\" target=\"_blank\">Nelements KOS<\/a> - a non-free 3d knowledge representation system<\/li><\/ul>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1450\nCached time: 20240109111906\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.532 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.754 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3880\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 110001\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 4363\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 16\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 8\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 101720\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.330\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 7638529\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 638.465 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>34.35% 219.287 1 Template:Reflist\n16.36% 104.458 9 Template:Cite_book\n13.87% 88.527 1 Template:Commons_category\n13.31% 84.981 1 Template:Sister_project\n12.94% 82.590 1 Template:Side_box\n12.92% 82.471 1 Template:Artificial_intelligence\n12.58% 80.305 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists\n10.24% 65.374 1 Template:Short_description\n 7.66% 48.919 3 Template:Citation_needed\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:16920-0!canonical and timestamp 20240109111905 and revision id 1194520410. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning\" data-key=\"1f39a572a7265863b802980dc3015f78\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110164854\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.203 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.589 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 132563\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 525.157 1 wikipedia:Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning\n100.00% 525.157 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:13965-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110164854 and revision id 51252. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","0d6f53b8041934738836e4f80a4a6a5c_images":[],"0d6f53b8041934738836e4f80a4a6a5c_timestamp":1704907017,"68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_type":"article","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_title":"Inventory control","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_plaintext":"\n\nInventory controlFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchEnsuring the correct level of stock\nInventory control or stock control can be broadly defined as \"the activity of checking a shop's stock\".[1] It is the process of ensuring that the right amount of supply is available within a business.[2] However, a more focused definition takes into account the more science-based, methodical practice of not only verifying a business's inventory but also maximising the amount of profit from the least amount of inventory investment without affecting customer satisfaction.[3] Other facets of inventory control include forecasting future demand, supply chain management, production control, financial flexibility, purchasing data, loss prevention and turnover, and customer satisfaction.[4] \nAn extension of inventory control is the inventory control system. This may come in the form of a technological system and its programmed software used for managing various aspects of inventory problems,[5] or it may refer to a methodology (which may include the use of technological barriers) for handling loss prevention in a business.[6][7] The inventory control system allows for companies to assess their current state concerning assets, account balances, and financial reports.[2]\n\n\n\nInventory control management \nAn inventory control system is used to keep inventories in a desired state while continuing to adequately supply customers,[8][9] and its success depends on maintaining clear records on a periodic or perpetual basis.[9][10] \nInventory management software often plays an important role in the modern inventory control system, providing timely and accurate analytical, optimization, and forecasting techniques for complex inventory management problems.[11][12] Typical features of this type of software include:[9][12]\n\ninventory tracking and forecasting tools that use selectable algorithms and review cycles to identify anomalies and other areas of concern\ninventory optimization\npurchase and replenishment tools that include automated and manual replenishment components, inventory calculations, and lot size optimization\nlead time variability management\nsafety stock calculation and forecasting\ninventory cost management\nshelf-life and slow-mover logic\nmultiple location support\nMobile\/Moving Inventory Support\nThrough this functionality, a business may better detail what has sold, how quickly, and at what price, for example. Reports could be used to predict when to stock up on extra products around a holiday or to make decisions about special offers, discontinuing products, and so on. \nInventory control techniques often rely upon barcodes and radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags to provide automatic identification of inventory objects\u2014including but not limited to merchandise, consumables, fixed assets, circulating tools, library books, and capital equipment\u2014which in turn can be processed with inventory management software.[13] A new trend in inventory management is to label inventory and assets with a QR Code, which can then be read with smart-phones to keep track of inventory count and movement.[14] These new systems are especially useful for field service operations, where an employee needs to record inventory transaction or look up inventory stock in the field, away from the computers and hand-held scanners.\nThe control of inventory involves managing the physical quantities as well as the costing of the goods as it flows through the supply chain. In managing the cost prices of the goods throughout the supply chain, several costing methods are employed:\n\nRetail method\nWeighted Average Price method\nFIFO (First In First Out) method\nLIFO (Last In First Out) method\nLPP (Last Purchase Price) method\nBNM (Bottle neck method)\nThe calculation can be done for different periods. If the calculation is done on a monthly basis, then it is referred to the periodic method. In this method, the available stock is calculated by:\nADD Stock at beginning of period\r\n\nADD Stock purchased during the period\r\n\nAVERAGE total cost by total qty to arrive at the Average Cost of Goods for the period.\n\nThis Average Cost Price is applied to all movements and adjustments in that period. \r\n\nEnding stock in qty is arrived at by Applying all the changes in qty to the Available balance. \r\n\nMultiplying the stock balance in qty by the Average cost gives the Stock cost at the end of the period.\n\nUsing the perpetual method, the calculation is done upon every purchase transaction.\nThus, the calculation is the same based on the periodic calculation whether by period (periodic) or by transaction (perpetual).\nThe only difference is the 'periodicity' or scope of the calculation.\n\nPeriodic is done monthly\nPerpetual is done for the duration of the purchase until the next purchase\nIn practice, the daily averaging has been used to closely approximate the perpetual method.\n6. Bottle neck method (depends on proper planning support)\n\nAdvantages and disadvantages \nInventory control systems have advantages and disadvantages, based on what style of system is being run. A purely periodic (physical) inventory control system takes \"an actual physical count and valuation of all inventory on hand ... at the close of an accounting period,\"[15] whereas a perpetual inventory control system takes an initial count of an entire inventory and then closely monitors any additions and deletions as they occur.[15][10] Various advantages and disadvantages, in comparison, include:\n\nPeriodic is technically the more accurate as it considers both counted and valued inventory.[15]\nPeriodic is more time-consuming than perpetual.[15]\nPerpetual can lower the cost of carrying inventory vs. periodic.[10]\nPerpetual is typically more costly to run than periodic.[10]\nPerpetual needs to be verified from time to time against an actual physical count, due to scrap, human error, theft, and other variables.[15][16]\nVs. inventory management \nWhile it is sometimes used interchangeably, inventory management and inventory control deal with different aspects of inventory.\nInventory management is a broader term pertaining to the regulation of all inventory aspects, from what is already present in the warehouse to how the inventory arrived and where the product's final destination will be.[2] This management involves tracking field inventory throughout the supply chain, from sourcing to order fulfilment. It encompasses the entire process of procuring, storing, and profiting off merchandise or services.[2]\nInventory control is the process of managing stock once it arrives at a warehouse, store or other storage location. It is solely concerned with regulating what is already present, and involves planning for sales and stock-outs, optimizing inventory for maximum benefit and preventing the pile-up of dead stock.[17]\n\nBusiness models \nJust-in-time inventory (JIT), vendor managed inventory (VMI) and customer managed inventory (CMI) are a few of the popular models being employed by organizations looking to have greater stock management control.\nJIT is a model that attempts to replenish inventory for organizations when the inventory is required. The model attempts to avoid excess inventory and its associated costs. As a result, companies receive inventory only when the need for more stock is approaching.\nVMI (vendor managed inventory) and (co-managed inventory) are two business models that adhere to the JIT inventory principles. VMI gives the vendor in a vendor\/customer relationship the ability to monitor, plan and control inventory for their customers. Customers relinquish the order making responsibilities in exchange for timely inventory replenishment that increases organizational efficiency.\nCMI allows the customer to order and control their inventory from their vendors\/suppliers. Both VMI and CMI benefit the vendor as well as the customer. Vendors see a significant increase in sales due to increased inventory turns and cost savings realized by their customers, while customers realize similar benefits.\n\nSee also \n\nAutomated identification and data capture&#160;\u2013 Methods of automatically identifying objects by computer systemPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nDocument automation&#160;\u2013 Design of systems for electronic documents\nEconomic lot scheduling problem&#160;\u2013 Problem in operations management and inventory theory\nEconomic order quantity&#160;\u2013 Production scheduling model\nInventory theory&#160;\u2013 Mathematical study concerned with the design of inventory systemsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback \nNewsvendor model&#160;\u2013 Mathematical model to assist inventory levels\nScan-based trading&#160;\u2013 inventory systemPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback \nStorage management system&#160;\u2013 Data storage techniquePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nStock management&#160;\u2013 Function of understanding stock mix of a company and the different demands on that stockPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nSupply chain management&#160;\u2013 Management of the flow of goods and services\nVendor-managed inventory&#160;\u2013 Inventory management method\nWarehouse management system&#160;\u2013 Software designed to support and optimize warehouse and distribution center management\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"stock control\". Macmillan Dictionary. Macmillan Publishers Limited. Retrieved 21 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d Schwarz, Lisa (18 September 2018). \"Essential Guide to Inventory Control\". \n\n^ Lewis, C. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Demand forecasting and inventory control\". Demand Forecasting and Inventory Control. Routledge. p.&#160;3\u201320. ISBN&#160;9781136346835. \n\n^ Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 1: Introduction\". Inventory Control. Springer. p.&#160;1\u20136. ISBN&#160;9783319157290. \n\n^ Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 2: Forecasting\". Inventory Control. Springer. p.&#160;7\u201335. ISBN&#160;9783319157290. \n\n^ Hayes, R. (2014). Retail Security and Loss Prevention. Butterworth-Heinemann. p.&#160;30. ISBN&#160;9781483296005. \n\n^ Wesley, R.L.; Wanat, J.A. (2016). A Guide to Internal Loss Prevention. Elsevier. pp.&#160;81\u20133. ISBN&#160;9781483135731. \n\n^ Chorafas, D.N., ed. (1965). \"Chapter 13: Specifications for Inventory Control\". Systems and Simulation. Mathematics in Science and Engineering. Vol.&#160;14. Elsevier. pp.&#160;233\u201352. doi:10.1016\/S0076-5392(09)60019-9. ISBN&#160;9780123749185. \n\n^ a b c Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 11: Implementation\". Inventory Control. Springer. p.&#160;223\u201334. ISBN&#160;9783319157290. \n\n^ a b c d Wild, R. (2002). Essentials of Operations Management. Cengage Learning. pp.&#160;332\u20133. ISBN&#160;9781844800520. \n\n^ Azadivar, F.; Rangarajan, A. (2016). \"10.6 Inventory Management in Practice\". In Ravindran, A.R. (ed.). Operations Research and Management Science Handbook. CRC Press. pp.&#160;10-34\u201310-35. ISBN&#160;9781420009712. \n\n^ a b Donath, B.; Mazel, J.; Dubin, C.; Patterson, P., eds. (2002). \"Part II Inventory Management - Chapter 4: Software and Technology\". The IOMA Handbook of Logistics and Inventory Management. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;504\u201338. ISBN&#160;9780471209355. \n\n^ Gulati, R.; Smith, R. (2009). Maintenance and Reliability Best Practices. Industrial Press, Inc. pp.&#160;122\u20134. ISBN&#160;9780831133115. \n\n^ Pantano, E.; Nguyen, B.; Dennis, C.; et&#160;al. (2017). Internet Retailing and Future Perspectives. Routledge. p.&#160;PT301. ISBN&#160;9781317378761. \n\n^ a b c d e Dopson, L.R.; Hayes, D.K. (2015). Food and Beverage Cost Control. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;115\u201317. ISBN&#160;9781118988497. \n\n^ Waller, M.A.; Esper, T.L. (2014). The Definitive Guide to Inventory Management: Principles and Strategies for the Efficient Flow of Inventory Across the Supply Chain. Pearson Education. pp.&#160;150\u20131. ISBN&#160;9780133448825. \n\n^ \"How to Control Inventory Stock Levels?\". SeeBiz. 2021-06-21. Retrieved 2022-05-13 . \n\n\nFurther reading \nSilver, Edward A., David F. Pyke, and Rein Peterson. Inventory Management and Production Planning and Scheduling, 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 1998. ISBN&#160;0-471-11947-4\nZipkin, Paul H. Foundations of Inventory Management. Boston: McGraw Hill, 2000. ISBN&#160;0-256-11379-3\nAxsaeter, Sven. Inventory Control. Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 2000. ISBN&#160;0-387-33250-2\nPorteus, Evan L. Foundations of Stochastic Inventory Theory. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002. ISBN&#160;0-8047-4399-1\nSnyder, Lawrence V. Fundamentals of Supply Chain Theory, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc, 2019. ISBN&#160;978-1-119-02484-2\nRossi, Roberto. Inventory Analytics. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, 2021. ISBN&#160;978-1-800-64176-1\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 16:57.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,775 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Inventory_control rootpage-Inventory_control skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Inventory control<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Ensuring the correct level of stock<\/div>\n<p><b>Inventory control<\/b> or <b>stock control<\/b> can be broadly defined as \"the activity of checking a shop's stock\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MacDiction_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MacDiction-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> It is the process of ensuring that the right amount of supply is available within a business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-imcontrols_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-imcontrols-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> However, a more focused definition takes into account the more science-based, methodical practice of not only verifying a business's inventory but also maximising the amount of profit from the least amount of inventory investment without affecting customer satisfaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LewisDemand12_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LewisDemand12-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Other facets of inventory control include forecasting future demand, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain_management\" title=\"Supply chain management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9ab29cff9b4cb170ab64c685242c8b0\">supply chain management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Production_control\" title=\"Production control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52910a29f58322182b24677bdd33a987\">production control<\/a>, financial flexibility, purchasing data, loss prevention and turnover, and customer satisfaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>An extension of inventory control is the inventory control system. This may come in the form of a technological system and its programmed software used for managing various aspects of inventory problems,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-2_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-2-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> or it may refer to a methodology (which may include the use of technological barriers) for handling <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loss_prevention\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Loss prevention\" data-key=\"c37cfd1e02fe32cf4c70ea912872fb20\">loss prevention<\/a> in a business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HayesRetail14_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HayesRetail14-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WesleyAGuide16_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WesleyAGuide16-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> The inventory control system allows for companies to assess their current state concerning assets, account balances, and financial reports.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-imcontrols_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-imcontrols-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Inventory_control_management\">Inventory control management<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>An inventory control system is used to keep inventories in a desired state while continuing to adequately supply customers,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChorafasSystems65_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChorafasSystems65-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> and its success depends on maintaining clear records on a periodic or perpetual basis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WildEssentials02-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_management_software\" title=\"Inventory management software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ba6892940d566697709847f1ce530d8\">Inventory management software<\/a> often plays an important role in the modern inventory control system, providing timely and accurate analytical, optimization, and forecasting techniques for complex inventory management problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AzadivarOperations16_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AzadivarOperations16-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DonathIOMA02_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DonathIOMA02-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Typical features of this type of software include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_9-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DonathIOMA02_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DonathIOMA02-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>inventory tracking and forecasting tools that use selectable algorithms and review cycles to identify anomalies and other areas of concern<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_optimization\" title=\"Inventory optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46ef225e7e40d52d6016f0272514731f\">inventory optimization<\/a><\/li>\n<li>purchase and replenishment tools that include automated and manual replenishment components, inventory calculations, and lot size optimization<\/li>\n<li>lead time variability management<\/li>\n<li>safety stock calculation and forecasting<\/li>\n<li>inventory cost management<\/li>\n<li>shelf-life and slow-mover logic<\/li>\n<li>multiple location support<\/li>\n<li>Mobile\/Moving Inventory Support<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Through this functionality, a business may better detail what has sold, how quickly, and at what <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Price\" title=\"Price\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"407990f1b54f4308cf1bf0fcfe0bc1af\">price<\/a>, for example. Reports could be used to predict when to stock up on extra products around a holiday or to make decisions about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special_offer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Special offer\" data-key=\"8631c8e2d8d01fe69647af4cdf0f806a\">special offers<\/a>, discontinuing products, and so on. \n<\/p><p>Inventory control techniques often rely upon <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode\" title=\"Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1852a2c48f6042c16ca0c8a87abed56\">barcodes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio-frequency_identification\" title=\"Radio-frequency identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142e22fc78bf4acc0c1806ea4d00e395\">radio-frequency identification<\/a> (RFID) tags to provide automatic identification of inventory objects\u2014including but not limited to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Merchandise\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Merchandise\" data-key=\"4e67a1d55dca02b3ed79e5ae1d838b5e\">merchandise<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consumable\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Consumable\" data-key=\"90f04ba6b9b520b2afd23d68ca47fb80\">consumables<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fixed_asset\" title=\"Fixed asset\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5b34315f53a1826ae82b51aae4a3b3e\">fixed assets<\/a>, circulating tools, library books, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capital_equipment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Capital equipment\" data-key=\"23b6ccebd9d90518dd882474e82a17b3\">capital equipment<\/a>\u2014which in turn can be processed with inventory management software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GulatiMaint09_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GulatiMaint09-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> A new trend in inventory management is to label inventory and assets with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_Code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"QR Code\" data-key=\"fe1e6436e7c024095606b74293cbd082\">QR Code<\/a>, which can then be read with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart-phone\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Smart-phone\" data-key=\"7c83c2b55dc5cd7666e93de7c79bdf6d\">smart-phones<\/a> to keep track of inventory count and movement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PantanoInternet17_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PantanoInternet17-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> These new systems are especially useful for field service operations, where an employee needs to record inventory transaction or look up inventory stock in the field, away from the computers and hand-held scanners.\n<\/p><p>The control of inventory involves managing the physical quantities as well as the costing of the goods as it flows through the supply chain. In managing the cost prices of the goods throughout the supply chain, several costing methods are employed:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Retail method<\/li>\n<li>Weighted Average Price method<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FIFO_and_LIFO_accounting\" title=\"FIFO and LIFO accounting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2e5b520e324aacfd3128c1db5fd8cc2\">FIFO<\/a> (First In First Out) method<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FIFO_and_LIFO_accounting\" title=\"FIFO and LIFO accounting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2e5b520e324aacfd3128c1db5fd8cc2\">LIFO<\/a> (Last In First Out) method<\/li>\n<li>LPP (Last Purchase Price) method<\/li>\n<li>BNM (Bottle neck method)<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The calculation can be done for different periods. If the calculation is done on a monthly basis, then it is referred to the periodic method. In this method, the available stock is calculated by:\n<\/p><p>ADD Stock at beginning of period<br \/>\n<\/p><p>ADD Stock purchased during the period<br \/>\nAVERAGE total cost by total qty to arrive at the Average Cost of Goods for the period.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>This Average Cost Price is applied to all movements and adjustments in that period. <br \/>\n<\/p><p>Ending stock in qty is arrived at by Applying all the changes in qty to the Available balance. <br \/>\nMultiplying the stock balance in qty by the Average cost gives the Stock cost at the end of the period.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>Using the perpetual method, the calculation is done upon every purchase transaction.\n<\/p><p>Thus, the calculation is the same based on the periodic calculation whether by period (periodic) or by transaction (perpetual).\n<\/p><p>The only difference is the 'periodicity' or scope of the calculation.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Periodic is done monthly<\/li>\n<li>Perpetual is done for the duration of the purchase until the next purchase<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In practice, the daily averaging has been used to closely approximate the perpetual method.\n6. Bottle neck method (depends on proper planning support)\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Advantages_and_disadvantages\">Advantages and disadvantages<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Inventory control systems have advantages and disadvantages, based on what style of system is being run. A purely periodic (physical) inventory control system takes \"an actual physical count and valuation of all inventory on hand ... at the close of an accounting period,\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> whereas a perpetual inventory control system takes an initial count of an entire inventory and then closely monitors any additions and deletions as they occur.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WildEssentials02-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Various advantages and disadvantages, in comparison, include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Periodic is technically the more accurate as it considers both counted and valued inventory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Periodic is more time-consuming than perpetual.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Perpetual can lower the cost of carrying inventory vs. periodic.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WildEssentials02-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Perpetual is typically more costly to run than periodic.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WildEssentials02-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Perpetual needs to be verified from time to time against an actual physical count, due to scrap, human error, theft, and other variables.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WallerTheDef14_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WallerTheDef14-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Vs._inventory_management\">Vs. inventory management<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>While it is sometimes used interchangeably, inventory management and inventory control deal with different aspects of inventory.\n<\/p><p>Inventory management is a broader term pertaining to the regulation of all inventory aspects, from what is already present in the warehouse to how the inventory arrived and where the product's final destination will be.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-imcontrols_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-imcontrols-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> This management involves tracking field inventory throughout the supply chain, from sourcing to order fulfilment. It encompasses the entire process of procuring, storing, and profiting off merchandise or services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-imcontrols_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-imcontrols-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Inventory control is the process of managing stock once it arrives at a warehouse, store or other storage location. It is solely concerned with regulating what is already present, and involves planning for sales and stock-outs, optimizing inventory for maximum benefit and preventing the pile-up of dead stock.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Business_models\">Business models<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Just-in-time_manufacturing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Just-in-time manufacturing\" data-key=\"53f045cdf1b7297943c97f687e14f556\">Just-in-time inventory<\/a> (JIT), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vendor_managed_inventory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Vendor managed inventory\" data-key=\"d282ef4a974e5c917c018f5cb9bcdce7\">vendor managed inventory<\/a> (VMI) and (CMI) are a few of the popular models being employed by organizations looking to have greater stock management control.\n<\/p><p>JIT is a model that attempts to replenish inventory for organizations when the inventory is required. The model attempts to avoid excess inventory and its associated costs. As a result, companies receive inventory only when the need for more stock is approaching.\n<\/p><p>VMI (vendor managed inventory) and (co-managed inventory) are two business models that adhere to the JIT inventory principles. VMI gives the vendor in a vendor\/customer relationship the ability to monitor, plan and control inventory for their customers. Customers relinquish the order making responsibilities in exchange for timely inventory replenishment that increases organizational efficiency.\n<\/p><p>CMI allows the customer to order and control their inventory from their vendors\/suppliers. Both VMI and CMI benefit the vendor as well as the customer. Vendors see a significant increase in sales due to increased inventory turns and cost savings realized by their customers, while customers realize similar benefits.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 22em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_identification_and_data_capture\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated identification and data capture\" data-key=\"6a095044168dde4006e55605a3f7de37\">Automated identification and data capture<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Methods of automatically identifying objects by computer system<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_automation\" title=\"Document automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20ee72738e1b69bef62898c10122f938\">Document automation<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Design of systems for electronic documents<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economic_lot_scheduling_problem\" title=\"Economic lot scheduling problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"010af2642af9f5fcc98ae6ed8a71edb9\">Economic lot scheduling problem<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Problem in operations management and inventory theory<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economic_order_quantity\" title=\"Economic order quantity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ed9237e8432a705dbdc45132e983e49\">Economic order quantity<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Production scheduling model<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_theory\" title=\"Inventory theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4d26ddf97c219b85b8ddf897c1e48ee\">Inventory theory<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Mathematical study concerned with the design of inventory systems<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-wikidata-fallback-annotation\">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Newsvendor_model\" title=\"Newsvendor model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc31bb7a6a084e72f53da010477632e7\">Newsvendor model<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Mathematical model to assist inventory levels<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scan-based_trading\" title=\"Scan-based trading\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84eaf2ef6825e0563775e9b9161188eb\">Scan-based trading<\/a>&#160;\u2013 inventory system<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-wikidata-fallback-annotation\">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Storage_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Storage management system\" data-key=\"466823bd9b86587b701c65363693f283\">Storage management system<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Data storage technique<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stock_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Stock management\" data-key=\"95ee989c342fb4969c0ef7e4ab3da248\">Stock management<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Function of understanding stock mix of a company and the different demands on that stock<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain_management\" title=\"Supply chain management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9ab29cff9b4cb170ab64c685242c8b0\">Supply chain management<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Management of the flow of goods and services<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vendor-managed_inventory\" title=\"Vendor-managed inventory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18f173e4ab573c37e0fde78e9e6c2b27\">Vendor-managed inventory<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Inventory management method<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warehouse_management_system\" title=\"Warehouse management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d3d157e8aa6d091a9d57df3cc86d375\">Warehouse management system<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Software designed to support and optimize warehouse and distribution center management<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-MacDiction-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MacDiction_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.macmillandictionary.com\/dictionary\/british\/stock-control\" target=\"_blank\">\"stock control\"<\/a>. <i>Macmillan Dictionary<\/i>. Macmillan Publishers Limited<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Macmillan+Dictionary&amp;rft.atitle=stock+control&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.macmillandictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fbritish%2Fstock-control&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-imcontrols-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-imcontrols_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-imcontrols_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-imcontrols_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-imcontrols_2-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchwarz2018\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Schwarz, Lisa (18 September 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.netsuite.com\/portal\/resource\/articles\/inventory-management\/what-are-inventory-management-controls.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"Essential Guide to Inventory Control\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Essential+Guide+to+Inventory+Control&amp;rft.date=2018-09-18&amp;rft.aulast=Schwarz&amp;rft.aufirst=Lisa&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.netsuite.com%2Fportal%2Fresource%2Farticles%2Finventory-management%2Fwhat-are-inventory-management-controls.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LewisDemand12-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LewisDemand12_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLewis,_C.2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lewis, C. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Demand forecasting and inventory control\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NOOmR2D88Q0C\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Demand Forecasting and Inventory Control<\/i><\/a>. Routledge. p.&#160;3\u201320. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781136346835<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Demand+forecasting+and+inventory+control&amp;rft.btitle=Demand+Forecasting+and+Inventory+Control&amp;rft.pages=3-20&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9781136346835&amp;rft.au=Lewis%2C+C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNOOmR2D88Q0C&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAxs\u00e4ter,_S.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 1: Introduction\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=v9YjCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Inventory Control<\/i><\/a>. Springer. p.&#160;1\u20136. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783319157290<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction&amp;rft.btitle=Inventory+Control&amp;rft.pages=1-6&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9783319157290&amp;rft.au=Axs%C3%A4ter%2C+S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv9YjCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-2-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-2_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAxs\u00e4ter,_S.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=v9YjCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Forecasting\"<\/a>. <i>Inventory Control<\/i>. Springer. p.&#160;7\u201335. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783319157290<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Forecasting&amp;rft.btitle=Inventory+Control&amp;rft.pages=7-35&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9783319157290&amp;rft.au=Axs%C3%A4ter%2C+S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv9YjCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HayesRetail14-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HayesRetail14_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHayes,_R.2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hayes, R. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=MEGjBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA30\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Retail Security and Loss Prevention<\/i><\/a>. Butterworth-Heinemann. p.&#160;30. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781483296005<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Retail+Security+and+Loss+Prevention&amp;rft.pages=30&amp;rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=9781483296005&amp;rft.au=Hayes%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMEGjBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA30&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WesleyAGuide16-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WesleyAGuide16_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWesley,_R.L.Wanat,_J.A.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Wesley, R.L.; Wanat, J.A. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pA4SBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA81\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A Guide to Internal Loss Prevention<\/i><\/a>. Elsevier. pp.&#160;81\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781483135731<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+Internal+Loss+Prevention&amp;rft.pages=81-3&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=9781483135731&amp;rft.au=Wesley%2C+R.L.&amp;rft.au=Wanat%2C+J.A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpA4SBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA81&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChorafasSystems65-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChorafasSystems65_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChorafas,_D.N.1965\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Chorafas, D.N., ed. (1965). \"Chapter 13: Specifications for Inventory Control\". <i>Systems and Simulation<\/i>. Mathematics in Science and Engineering. Vol.&#160;14. Elsevier. pp.&#160;233\u201352. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0076-5392%2809%2960019-9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/S0076-5392(09)60019-9<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780123749185<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+13%3A+Specifications+for+Inventory+Control&amp;rft.btitle=Systems+and+Simulation&amp;rft.series=Mathematics+in+Science+and+Engineering&amp;rft.pages=233-52&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=1965&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0076-5392%2809%2960019-9&amp;rft.isbn=9780123749185&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_9-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_9-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_9-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAxs\u00e4ter,_S.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=v9YjCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 11: Implementation\"<\/a>. <i>Inventory Control<\/i>. Springer. p.&#160;223\u201334. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783319157290<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+11%3A+Implementation&amp;rft.btitle=Inventory+Control&amp;rft.pages=223-34&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9783319157290&amp;rft.au=Axs%C3%A4ter%2C+S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv9YjCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA223&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WildEssentials02-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-WildEssentials02_10-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWild,_R.2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Wild, R. (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=B5j4D0U6QA0C&pg=PA333\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Essentials of Operations Management<\/i><\/a>. Cengage Learning. pp.&#160;332\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781844800520<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Operations+Management&amp;rft.pages=332-3&amp;rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=9781844800520&amp;rft.au=Wild%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB5j4D0U6QA0C%26pg%3DPA333&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AzadivarOperations16-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AzadivarOperations16_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAzadivar,_F.Rangarajan,_A.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Azadivar, F.; Rangarajan, A. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JSCHFC9zaD4C&pg=SA10-PA34\" target=\"_blank\">\"10.6 Inventory Management in Practice\"<\/a>. In Ravindran, A.R. (ed.). <i>Operations Research and Management Science Handbook<\/i>. CRC Press. pp.&#160;10-34\u201310-35. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781420009712<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=10.6+Inventory+Management+in+Practice&amp;rft.btitle=Operations+Research+and+Management+Science+Handbook&amp;rft.pages=10-34-10-35&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=9781420009712&amp;rft.au=Azadivar%2C+F.&amp;rft.au=Rangarajan%2C+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJSCHFC9zaD4C%26pg%3DSA10-PA34&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DonathIOMA02-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DonathIOMA02_12-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DonathIOMA02_12-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDonath,_B.Mazel,_J.Dubin,_C.Patterson,_P.2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Donath, B.; Mazel, J.; Dubin, C.; Patterson, P., eds. (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=G8E5bMwTrBQC&pg=PA505\" target=\"_blank\">\"Part II Inventory Management - Chapter 4: Software and Technology\"<\/a>. <i>The IOMA Handbook of Logistics and Inventory Management<\/i>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;504\u201338. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780471209355<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Part+II+Inventory+Management+-+Chapter+4%3A+Software+and+Technology&amp;rft.btitle=The+IOMA+Handbook+of+Logistics+and+Inventory+Management&amp;rft.pages=504-38&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=9780471209355&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG8E5bMwTrBQC%26pg%3DPA505&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GulatiMaint09-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GulatiMaint09_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGulati,_R.Smith,_R.2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Gulati, R.; Smith, R. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=igFCp-nz1n8C&pg=PA122\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Maintenance and Reliability Best Practices<\/i><\/a>. Industrial Press, Inc. pp.&#160;122\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780831133115<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Maintenance+and+Reliability+Best+Practices&amp;rft.pages=122-4&amp;rft.pub=Industrial+Press%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=9780831133115&amp;rft.au=Gulati%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Smith%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DigFCp-nz1n8C%26pg%3DPA122&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PantanoInternet17-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PantanoInternet17_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPantano,_E.Nguyen,_B.Dennis,_C.2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Pantano, E.; Nguyen, B.; Dennis, C.; et&#160;al. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=kmyuDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT301\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Internet Retailing and Future Perspectives<\/i><\/a>. Routledge. p.&#160;PT301. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781317378761<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Retailing+and+Future+Perspectives&amp;rft.pages=PT301&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=9781317378761&amp;rft.au=Pantano%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Nguyen%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Dennis%2C+C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkmyuDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT301&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DopsonFood15-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_15-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDopson,_L.R.Hayes,_D.K.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dopson, L.R.; Hayes, D.K. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=yxotCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA115\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Food and Beverage Cost Control<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;115\u201317. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781118988497<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Food+and+Beverage+Cost+Control&amp;rft.pages=115-17&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9781118988497&amp;rft.au=Dopson%2C+L.R.&amp;rft.au=Hayes%2C+D.K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxotCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA115&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WallerTheDef14-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WallerTheDef14_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWaller,_M.A.Esper,_T.L.2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Waller, M.A.; Esper, T.L. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cq8_AwAAQBAJ&pg=150\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Definitive Guide to Inventory Management: Principles and Strategies for the Efficient Flow of Inventory Across the Supply Chain<\/i><\/a>. Pearson Education. pp.&#160;150\u20131. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780133448825<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Definitive+Guide+to+Inventory+Management%3A+Principles+and+Strategies+for+the+Efficient+Flow+of+Inventory+Across+the+Supply+Chain&amp;rft.pages=150-1&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Education&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=9780133448825&amp;rft.au=Waller%2C+M.A.&amp;rft.au=Esper%2C+T.L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcq8_AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3D150&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.seebiz.com\/blog\/how-to-control-inventory-stock-levels\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to Control Inventory Stock Levels?\"<\/a>. <i>SeeBiz<\/i>. 2021-06-21<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-05-13<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=SeeBiz&amp;rft.atitle=How+to+Control+Inventory+Stock+Levels%3F&amp;rft.date=2021-06-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.seebiz.com%2Fblog%2Fhow-to-control-inventory-stock-levels%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Silver, Edward A., David F. Pyke, and Rein Peterson. Inventory Management and Production Planning and Scheduling, 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 1998. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-471-11947-4<\/li>\n<li>Zipkin, Paul H. Foundations of Inventory Management. Boston: McGraw Hill, 2000. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-256-11379-3<\/li>\n<li>Axsaeter, Sven. Inventory Control. Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 2000. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-387-33250-2<\/li>\n<li>Porteus, Evan L. Foundations of Stochastic Inventory Theory. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-8047-4399-1<\/li>\n<li>Snyder, Lawrence V. Fundamentals of Supply Chain Theory, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc, 2019. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-119-02484-2<\/li>\n<li>Rossi, Roberto. Inventory Analytics. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, 2021. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-800-64176-1<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw2367\nCached time: 20240102170313\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.375 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.472 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4060\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 39323\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1723\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 62552\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.243\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 24961351\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 437.008 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>39.76% 173.736 12 Template:Annotated_link\n35.27% 154.141 1 Template:Reflist\n16.26% 71.042 3 Template:Cite_web\n13.84% 60.479 14 Template:Cite_book\n10.43% 45.595 1 Template:Short_description\n 9.10% 39.765 6 Template:ISBN\n 5.70% 24.892 2 Template:Pagetype\n 4.69% 20.513 6 Template:Catalog_lookup_link\n 2.85% 12.460 10 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:2759248-0!canonical and timestamp 20240102170312 and revision id 1183346043. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_control\" data-key=\"29ef56ddbe09d7c185cf3436effd130b\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110034759\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.177 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.363 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 46525\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 336.451 1 wikipedia:Inventory_control\n100.00% 336.451 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10657-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110034759 and revision id 49440. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_images":[],"68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_timestamp":1704907017,"13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_type":"article","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_title":"Internet of things","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_plaintext":"\n\nInternet of thingsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_things?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things<\/a>\nCategories: Automation and artificial intelligenceSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 12 June 2022, at 14:33.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 9,865 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Internet_of_things rootpage-Internet_of_things skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Internet of things<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_things?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_things\" data-key=\"08e522f905854fe34747cc25ffb62f63\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171657\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.087 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.156 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 100\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 151.310 1 wikipedia:Internet_of_things\n100.00% 151.310 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10701-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171657 and revision id 48269. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_images":[],"13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_timestamp":1704907017,"4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_type":"article","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_title":"Environmental monitoring","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_plaintext":"\n\nEnvironmental monitoringFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchMonitoring of the quality of the environment\nPart of a series onPollution A rosette sampler used for ocean monitoring\nAir\nAir quality index\nAtmospheric dispersion modeling\nChlorofluorocarbon\nCombustion\nExhaust gas\nHaze\nGlobal dimming\nGlobal distillation\nOzone depletion\nParticulates\nPersistent organic pollutant\nSmog\nSoot\nVolatile organic compound\nWaste\n\nBiological\nBiological hazard\nGenetic\nIntroduced species (Invasive species)\n\nDigital\nInformation\n\nElectromagnetic\nLight\nEcological\nOverillumination\nRadio spectrum\n\nNatural\nOzone\nRadium and radon in the environment\nVolcanic ash\nWildfire\n\nNoise\nTransportation\nMarine mammals and sonar\nNoise control\n\nRadiation\nActinides\nBioremediation\nDepleted uranium\nNuclear fission\nNuclear fallout\nPlutonium\nPoisoning\nRadioactivity\nUranium\nRadioactive waste\n\nSoil\nAgricultural\nLand degradation\nBioremediation\nDefecation\nElectrical resistance heating\nSoil guideline values\nPhytoremediation\n\nSolid waste\nBiodegradable waste\nBrown waste\nElectronic waste\nFood waste\nGreen waste\nHazardous waste\nIndustrial waste\nLitter\nMining\nMunicipal solid waste\nNanomaterials\nPlastic\nPackaging waste\nPost-consumer waste\nWaste management\n\nSpace\nRockets, satellites, spacecraft\n\nThermal\nUrban heat island\n\nVisual\nAir travel\nAdvertising clutter\nOverhead power lines\nTraffic signs\nVandalism\n\nWar\nChemical warfare\nHerbicidal warfare (Agent Orange)\nNuclear holocaust (Nuclear fallout - nuclear famine - nuclear winter)\nScorched earth\nUnexploded ordnance\nWar and environmental law\n\nWater\nAgricultural wastewater\nBiosolids\nDiseases\nEutrophication\nFirewater\nFreshwater\nGroundwater\nHypoxia\nIndustrial wastewater\nMarine\nMonitoring\nNonpoint source\nNutrient\nOcean acidification\nOil spill\nPharmaceuticals\nFreshwater salinization\nSeptic tanks\nSewage\nShipping\nSludge\nStagnation\nSulfur water\nSurface runoff\nTurbidity\nUrban runoff\nWater quality\nWastewater\n\nTopics\nPollutants\nHeavy metals\nPaint\n\nMisc\nArea source\nDebris\nDust\nGarbology\nLegacy pollution\nMidden\nPoint source\nWaste\nLists\n\nDiseases\nLaw by country\nMost polluted cities\nLeast polluted cities by PM2.5\nTreaties\nCategories\n\nBy country\n\n &#160;Environment portal\n &#160;Ecology portalvte\nEnvironmental monitoring describes the processes and activities that need to take place to characterize and monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental monitoring is used in the preparation of environmental impact assessments, as well as in many circumstances in which human activities carry a risk of harmful effects on the natural environment.\nAll monitoring strategies and programs have reasons and justifications which are often designed to establish the current status of an environment or to establish trends in environmental parameters. In all cases, the results of monitoring will be reviewed, analyzed statistically, and published. The design of a monitoring program must therefore have regard to the final use of the data before monitoring starts.\nEnvironmental monitoring includes monitoring of air quality, soils and water quality.\n\n\nAir quality monitoring \nAir quality monitoring station\n\nFurther information: Air pollution measurement, Air quality index, Continuous emissions monitoring system, Particulate matter sampler, and Portable emissions measurement system\nAir pollutants are atmospheric substances\u2014both naturally occurring and anthropogenic\u2014which may potentially have a negative impact on the environment and organism health. With the evolution of new chemicals and industrial processes has come the introduction or elevation of pollutants in the atmosphere, as well as environmental research and regulations, increasing the demand for air quality monitoring.[1]\nAir quality monitoring is challenging to enact as it requires the effective integration of multiple environmental data sources, which often originate from different environmental networks and institutions.[2] These challenges require specialized observation equipment and tools to establish air pollutant concentrations, including sensor networks, geographic information system (GIS) models, and the Sensor Observation Service (SOS), a web service for querying real-time sensor data.[2] Air dispersion models that combine topographic, emissions, and meteorological data to predict air pollutant concentrations are often helpful in interpreting air monitoring data. Additionally, consideration of anemometer data in the area between sources and the monitor often provides insights on the source of the air contaminants recorded by an air pollution monitor.\nAir quality monitors are operated by citizens,[3][4][5] regulatory agencies,[6][7] non-governmental organisations [8] and researchers[9] to investigate air quality and the effects of air pollution. Interpretation of ambient air monitoring data often involves a consideration of the spatial and temporal representativeness[10] of the data gathered, and the health effects associated with exposure to the monitored levels.[11] If the interpretation reveals concentrations of multiple chemical compounds, a unique \"chemical fingerprint\" of a particular air pollution source may emerge from analysis of the data.[12]\n\nAir sampling \nPassive or \"diffusive\" air sampling depends on meteorological conditions such as wind to diffuse air pollutants to a sorbent medium. Passive samplers, such as diffusion tubes, have the advantage of typically being small, quiet, and easy to deploy, and they are particularly useful in air quality studies that determine key areas for future continuous monitoring.[13]\nAir pollution can also be assessed by biomonitoring with organisms that bioaccumulate air pollutants, such as lichens, mosses, fungi, and other biomass.[14][15] One of the benefits of this type of sampling is how quantitative information can be obtained via measurements of accumulated compounds, representative of the environment from which they came. However, careful considerations must be made in choosing the particular organism, how it's dispersed, and relevance to the pollutant.[15]\nOther sampling methods include the use of a denuder,[16][17] needle trap devices, and microextraction techniques.[18]\n\nSoil monitoring \nCollecting a soil sample in Mexico for pathogen testing\n\nFurther information: Environmental soil science\nSoil monitoring involves the collection and\/or analysis of soil and its associated quality, constituents, and physical status to determine or guarantee its fitness for use. Soil faces many threats, including compaction, contamination, organic material loss, biodiversity loss, slope stability issues, erosion, salinization, and acidification. Soil monitoring helps characterize these threats and other potential risks to the soil, surrounding environments, animal health, and human health.[19]\nAssessing these threats and other risks to soil can be challenging due to a variety of factors, including soil's heterogeneity and complexity, scarcity of toxicity data, lack of understanding of a contaminant's fate, and variability in levels of soil screening.[19] This requires a risk assessment approach and analysis techniques that prioritize environmental protection, risk reduction, and, if necessary, remediation methods.[19] Soil monitoring plays a significant role in that risk assessment, not only aiding in the identification of at-risk and affected areas but also in the establishment of base background values of soil.[19]\nSoil monitoring has historically focused on more classical conditions and contaminants, including toxic elements (e.g., mercury, lead, and arsenic) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs).[19] Historically, testing for these and other aspects of soil, however, has had its own set of challenges, as sampling in most cases is of a destructive in nature, requiring multiple samples over time. Additionally, procedural and analytical errors may be introduced due to variability among references and methods, particularly over time.[20] However, as analytical techniques evolve and new knowledge about ecological processes and contaminant effects disseminate, the focus of monitoring will likely broaden over time and the quality of monitoring will continue to improve.[19]\n\nSoil sampling \nThe two primary types of soil sampling are grab sampling and composite sampling. Grab sampling involves the collection of an individual sample at a specific time and place, while composite sampling involves the collection of a homogenized mixture of multiple individual samples at either a specific place over different times or multiple locations at a specific time.[21] Soil sampling may occur both at shallow ground levels or deep in the ground, with collection methods varying by level collected from. Scoops, augers, core barrel, and solid-tube samplers, and other tools are used at shallow ground levels, whereas split-tube, solid-tube, or hydraulic methods may be used in deep ground.[22]\n\nMonitoring programs \nA portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyzer can be used in the field for testing soils for metal contamination.\n\nSoil contamination monitoring \nFurther information: Soil contamination\nSoil contamination monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in contaminant deposition, movement, and effect. Human-based pressures such as tourism, industrial activity, urban sprawl, construction work, and inadequate agriculture\/forestry practices can contribute to and make worse soil contamination and lead to the soil becoming unfit for its intended use. Both inorganic and organic pollutants may make their way to the soil, having a wide variety of detrimental effects. Soil contamination monitoring is therefore important to identify risk areas, set baselines, and identify contaminated zones for remediation. Monitoring efforts may range from local farms to nationwide efforts, such as those made by China in the late 2000s,[19] providing details such as the nature of contaminants, their quantity, effects, concentration patterns, and remediation feasibility.[23] Monitoring and analytical equipment will ideally will have high response times, high levels of resolution and automation, and a certain degree of self-sufficiency.[24] Chemical techniques may be used to measure toxic elements and POPs using chromatography and spectrometry, geophysical techniques may assess physical properties of large terrains, and biological techniques may use specific organisms to gauge not only contaminant level but also byproducts of contaminant biodegradation. These techniques and others are increasingly becoming more efficient, and laboratory instrumentation is becoming more precise, resulting in more meaningful monitoring outcomes.[25]\n\nSoil erosion monitoring \nFurther information: Soil erosion\nSoil erosion monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil and sediment movement. Monitoring programs have varied over the years, from long-term academic research on university plots to reconnaissance-based surveys of biogeoclimatic areas. In most methods, however, the general focus is on identifying and measuring all the dominant erosion processes in a given area.[26] Additionally, soil erosion monitoring may attempt to quantify the effects of erosion on crop productivity, though challenging \"because of the many complexities in the relationship between soils and plants and their management under a variable climate.\"[27]\n\nSoil salinity monitoring \nFurther information: Soil salinity\nSoil salinity monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil salt content. Both the natural process of seawater intrusion and the human-induced processes of inappropriate soil and water management can lead to salinity problems in soil, with up to one billion hectares of land affected globally (as of 2013).[28] Salinity monitoring at the local level may look closely at the root zone to gauge salinity impact and develop management options, whereas at the regional and national level salinity monitoring may help with identifying areas at-risk and aiding policymakers in tackling the issue before it spreads.[28] The monitoring process itself may be performed using technologies such as remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) to identify salinity via greenness, brightness, and whiteness at the surface level. Direct analysis of soil up close, including the use of electromagnetic induction techniques, may also be used to monitor soil salinity.[28]\n\nWater quality monitoring \nElectrofishing survey methods use a mild electric shock to temporarily stun fish for capture, identification and counting. The fish are then returned to the water unharmed.\n\nDesign of environmental monitoring programmes \nWater quality monitoring is of little use without a clear and unambiguous definition of the reasons for the monitoring and the objectives that it will satisfy. Almost all monitoring (except perhaps remote sensing) is in some part invasive of the environment under study and extensive and poorly planned monitoring carries a risk of damage to the environment. This may be a critical consideration in wilderness areas or when monitoring very rare organisms or those that are averse to human presence. Some monitoring techniques, such as gill netting fish to estimate populations, can be very damaging, at least to the local population and can also degrade public trust in scientists carrying out the monitoring.\nAlmost all mainstream environmentalism monitoring projects form part of an overall monitoring strategy or research field, and these field and strategies are themselves derived from the high levels objectives or aspirations of an organisation. Unless individual monitoring projects fit into a wider strategic framework, the results are unlikely to be published and the environmental understanding produced by the monitoring will be lost.[29][30]\n\nParameters \nsee also Freshwater environmental quality parameters\n\nChemical \nAnalyzing water samples for pesticides\n\nThe range of chemical parameters that have the potential to affect any ecosystem is very large and in all monitoring programmes it is necessary to target a suite of parameters based on local knowledge and past practice for an initial review. The list can be expanded or reduced based on developing knowledge and the outcome of the initial surveys.\nFreshwater environments have been extensively studied for many years and there is a robust understanding of the interactions between chemistry and the environment across much of the world. However, as new materials are developed and new pressures come to bear, revisions to monitoring programmes will be required. In the last 20 years acid rain, synthetic hormone analogues, halogenated hydrocarbons, greenhouse gases and many others have required changes to monitoring strategies.\n\nBiological \nIn ecological monitoring, the monitoring strategy and effort is directed at the plants and animals in the environment under review and is specific to each individual study.\nHowever, in more generalised environmental monitoring, many animals act as robust indicators of the quality of the environment that they are experiencing or have experienced in the recent past.[31] One of the most familiar examples is the monitoring of numbers of Salmonid fish such as brown trout or Atlantic salmon in river systems and lakes to detect slow trends in adverse environmental effects. The steep decline in salmonid fish populations was one of the early indications of the problem that later became known as acid rain.\nIn recent years much more attention has been given to a more holistic approach in which the ecosystem health is assessed and used as the monitoring tool itself.[32] It is this approach that underpins the monitoring protocols of the Water Framework Directive in the European Union.\n\nRadiological \nRadiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to ionizing radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results.[33] The 'measurement' of dose often means the measurement of a dose equivalent quantity as a proxy (i.e. substitute) for a dose quantity that cannot be measured directly. Also, sampling may be involved as a preliminary step to measurement of the content of radionuclides in environmental media. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in IAEA Safety Guide RS\u2013G-1.8[34] and in IAEA Safety Report No. 64.[35]\nRadiation monitoring is often carried out using networks of fixed and deployable sensors such as the US Environmental Protection Agency's Radnet and the SPEEDI network in Japan. Airborne surveys are also made by organizations like the Nuclear Emergency Support Team.\n\nMicrobiological \nBacteria and viruses are the most commonly monitored groups of microbiological organisms and even these are only of great relevance where water in the aquatic environment is subsequently used as drinking water or where water contact recreation such as swimming or canoeing is practised.\nAlthough pathogens are the primary focus of attention, the principal monitoring effort is almost always directed at much more common indicator species such as Escherichia coli,[36] supplemented by overall coliform bacteria counts. The rationale behind this monitoring strategy is that most human pathogens originate from other humans via the sewage stream. Many sewage treatment plants have no sterilisation final stage and therefore discharge an effluent which, although having a clean appearance, still contains many millions of bacteria per litre, the majority of which are relatively harmless coliform bacteria. Counting the number of harmless (or less harmful) sewage bacteria allows a judgement to be made about the probability of significant numbers of pathogenic bacteria or viruses being present. Where E. coli or coliform levels exceed pre-set trigger values, more intensive monitoring including specific monitoring for pathogenic species is then initiated.\n\nPopulations \nMonitoring strategies can produce misleading answers when relaying on counts of species or presence or absence of particular organisms if there is no regard to population size. Understanding the populations dynamics of an organism being monitored is critical.\nAs an example if presence or absence of a particular organism within a 10&#160;km square is the measure adopted by a monitoring strategy, then a reduction of population from 10,000 per square to 10 per square will go unnoticed despite the very significant impact experienced by the organism.\n\nMonitoring programmes \nAll scientifically reliable environmental monitoring is performed in line with a published programme. The programme may include the overall objectives of the organisation, references to the specific strategies that helps deliver the objective and details of specific projects or tasks within those strategies the key feature of any programme is the listing of what is being monitored and how that monitoring is to take place and the time-scale over which it should all happen. Typically, and often as an appendix, a monitoring programme will provide a table of locations, dates and sampling methods that are proposed and which, if undertaken in full, will deliver the published monitoring programme.\nThere are a number of commercial software packages which can assist with the implementation of the programme, monitor its progress and flag up inconsistencies or omissions but none of these can provide the key building block which is the programme itself.\n\nEnvironmental monitoring data management systems \nGiven the multiple types and increasing volumes and importance of monitoring data, commercial software Environmental Data Management Systems (EDMS) or E-MDMS are increasingly in common use by regulated industries. They provide a means of managing all monitoring data in a single central place. Quality validation, compliance checking, verifying all data has been received, and sending alerts are generally automated. Typical interrogation functionality enables comparison of data sets both temporarily and spatially. They will also generate regulatory and other reports.\nOne formal certification scheme exists specifically for environmental data management software. This is provided by the Environment Agency in the U.K. under its Monitoring Certification Scheme (MCERTS).[37][38][39]\n\nSampling methods \nThere are a wide range of sampling methods which depend on the type of environment, the material being sampled and the subsequent analysis of the sample. At its simplest a sample can be filling a clean bottle with river water and submitting it for conventional chemical analysis. At the more complex end, sample data may be produced by complex electronic sensing devices taking sub-samples over fixed or variable time periods.\nSampling methods include judgmental sampling, simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic and grid sampling, adaptive cluster sampling, grab samples, semi-continuous monitoring and continuous, passive sampling, remote surveillance, remote sensing, biomonitoring and other sampling methods.\n\nJudgmental sampling \nIn judgmental sampling, the selection of sampling units (i.e., the number and location and\/or timing of collecting samples) is based on knowledge of the feature or condition under investigation and on professional judgment. Judgmental sampling is distinguished from probability-based sampling in that inferences are based on professional judgment, not statistical scientific theory. Therefore, conclusions about the target population are limited and depend entirely on the validity and accuracy of professional judgment; probabilistic statements about parameters are not possible. As described in subsequent chapters, expert judgment may also be used in conjunction with other sampling designs to produce effective sampling for defensible decisions.[40]\n\nSimple random sampling \nIn simple random sampling, particular sampling units (for example, locations and\/or times) are selected using random numbers, and all possible selections of a given number of units are equally likely. For example, a simple random sample of a set of drums can be taken by numbering all the drums and randomly selecting numbers from that list or by sampling an area by using pairs of random coordinates. This method is easy to understand, and the equations for determining sample size are relatively straightforward. Simple random sampling is most useful when the population of interest is relatively homogeneous; i.e., no major patterns of contamination or \u201chot spots\u201d are expected. The main advantages of this design are:\n\nIt provides statistically unbiased estimates of the mean, proportions, and variability.\nIt is easy to understand and easy to implement.\nSample size calculations and data analysis are very straightforward.\nIn some cases, implementation of a simple random sample can be more difficult than some other types of designs (for example, grid samples) because of the difficulty of precisely identifying random geographic locations. Additionally, simple random sampling can be more costly than other plans if difficulties in obtaining samples due to location causes an expenditure of extra effort.[40]\n\nStratified sampling \nIn stratified sampling, the target population is separated into non-overlapping strata, or subpopulations that are known or thought to be more homogeneous (relative to the environmental medium or the contaminant), so that there tends to be less variation among sampling units in the same stratum than among sampling units in different strata. Strata may be chosen on the basis of spatial or temporal proximity of the units, or on the basis of preexisting information or professional judgment about the site or process. Advantages of this sampling design are that it has potential for achieving greater precision in estimates of the mean and variance, and that it allows computation of reliable estimates for population subgroups of special interest. Greater precision can be obtained if the measurement of interest is strongly correlated with the variable used to make the strata.[40]\n\nSystematic and grid sampling \nIn systematic and grid sampling, samples are taken at regularly spaced intervals over space or time. An initial location or time is chosen at random, and then the remaining sampling locations are defined so that all locations are at regular intervals over an area (grid) or time (systematic). Examples Systematic Grid Sampling - Square Grid Systematic Grid Sampling - Triangular Grids of systematic grids include square, rectangular, triangular, or radial grids.\nCressie, 1993. In random systematic sampling, an initial sampling location (or time) is chosen at random and the remaining sampling sites are specified so that they are located according to a regular pattern. Random systematic sampling is used to search for hot spots and to infer means, percentiles, or other parameters and is also useful for estimating spatial patterns or trends over time. This design provides a practical and easy method for designating sample locations and ensures uniform coverage of a site, unit, or process.[40]\nRanked set sampling is an innovative design that can be highly useful and cost efficient in obtaining better estimates of mean concentration levels in soil and other environmental media by explicitly incorporating the professional judgment of a field investigator or a field screening measurement method to pick specific sampling locations in the field. Ranked set sampling uses a two-phase sampling design that identifies sets of field locations, utilizes inexpensive measurements to rank locations within each set, and then selects one location from each set for sampling. In ranked set sampling, m sets (each of size r) of field locations are identified using simple random sampling. The locations are ranked independently within each set using professional judgment or inexpensive, fast, or surrogate measurements. One sampling unit from each set is then selected (based on the observed ranks) for subsequent measurement using a more accurate and reliable (hence, more expensive) method for the contaminant of interest. Relative to simple random sampling, this design results in more representative samples and so leads to more precise estimates of the population parameters. Ranked set sampling is useful when the cost of locating and ranking locations in the field is low compared to laboratory measurements. It is also appropriate when an inexpensive auxiliary variable (based on expert knowledge or measurement) is available to rank population units with respect to the variable of interest. To use this design effectively, it is important that the ranking method and analytical method are strongly correlated.[40]\n\nAdaptive cluster sampling \nIn adaptive cluster sampling, samples are taken using simple random sampling, and additional samples are taken at locations where measurements exceed some threshold value. Several additional rounds of sampling and analysis may be needed. Adaptive cluster sampling tracks the selection probabilities for later phases of sampling so that an unbiased estimate of the population mean can be calculated despite oversampling of certain areas. An example application of adaptive cluster sampling is delineating the borders of a plume of contamination. Adaptive sampling is useful for estimating or searching for rare characteristics in a population and is appropriate for inexpensive, rapid measurements. It enables delineating the boundaries of hot spots, while also using all data collected with appropriate weighting to give unbiased estimates of the population mean.[40][41]\n\nGrab samples \nCollecting a grab sample on a stream\n\nGrab samples are samples taken of a homogeneous material, usually water, in a single vessel. Filling a clean bottle with river water is a very common example. Grab samples provide a good snap-shot view of the quality of the sampled environment at the point of sampling and at the time of sampling. Without additional monitoring, the results cannot be extrapolated to other times or to other parts of the river, lake or ground-water.[41]:\u200a3\u200a \nIn order to enable grab samples or rivers to be treated as representative, repeat transverse and longitudinal transect surveys taken at different times of day and times of year are required to establish that the grab-sample location is as representative as is reasonably possible. For large rivers such surveys should also have regard to the depth of the sample and how to best manage the sampling locations at times of flood and drought.[41]:\u200a8\u20139\u200a \nIn lakes grab samples are relatively simple to take using depth samplers which can be lowered to a pre-determined depth and then closed trapping a fixed volume of water from the required depth. In all but the shallowest lakes, there are major changes in the chemical composition of lake water at different depths, especially during the summer months when many lakes stratify into a warm, well oxygenated upper layer (epilimnion) and a cool de-oxygenated lower layer (hypolimnion).\nIn the open seas marine environment grab samples can establish a wide range of base-line parameters such as salinity and a range of cation and anion concentrations. However, where changing conditions are an issue such as near river or sewage discharges, close to the effects of volcanism or close to areas of freshwater input from melting ice, a grab sample can only give a very partial answer when taken on its own.\n\nSemi-continuous monitoring and continuous \nAn automated sampling station and data logger (to record temperature, specific conductance, and dissolved oxygen levels)\n\nThere is a wide range of specialized sampling equipment available that can be programmed to take samples at fixed or variable time intervals or in response to an external trigger. For example, an autosampler can be programmed to start taking samples of a river at 8-minute intervals when the rainfall intensity rises above 1&#160;mm \/ hour. The trigger in this case may be a remote rain gauge communicating with the sampler by using cell phone or meteor burst[42] technology. Samplers can also take individual discrete samples at each sampling occasion or bulk up samples into composite so that in the course of one day, such a sampler might produce 12 composite samples each composed of 6 sub-samples taken at 20-minute intervals.\nContinuous or quasi-continuous monitoring involves having an automated analytical facility close to the environment being monitored so that results can, if required, be viewed in real time. Such systems are often established to protect important water supplies such as in the River Dee regulation system but may also be part of an overall monitoring strategy on large strategic rivers where early warning of potential problems is essential. Such systems routinely provide data on parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity and ammonia using sondes.[43] It is also possible to operate gas liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry technologies (GLC\/MS) to examine a wide range of potential organic pollutants. In all examples of automated bank-side analysis there is a requirement for water to be pumped from the river into the monitoring station. Choosing a location for the pump inlet is equally as critical as deciding on the location for a river grab sample. The design of the pump and pipework also requires careful design to avoid artefacts being introduced through the action of pumping the water. Dissolved oxygen concentration is difficult to sustain through a pumped system and GLC\/MS facilities can detect micro-organic contaminants from the pipework and glands.\n\nPassive sampling \nMain article: Passive sampling\nThe use of passive samplers greatly reduces the cost and the need of infrastructure on the sampling location. Passive samplers are semi-disposable and can be produced at a relatively low cost, thus they can be employed in great numbers, allowing for a better cover and more data being collected. Due to being small the passive sampler can also be hidden, and thereby lower the risk of vandalism. Examples of passive sampling devices are the diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) sampler, Chemcatcher, polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS), semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs), stabilized liquid membrane devices (SLMDs), and an air sampling pump.\n\nRemote surveillance \nAlthough on-site data collection using electronic measuring equipment is common-place, many monitoring programmes also use remote surveillance and remote access to data in real time. This requires the on-site monitoring equipment to be connected to a base station via either a telemetry network, land-line, cell phone network or other telemetry system such as Meteor burst. The advantage of remote surveillance is that many data feeds can come into a single base station for storing and analysis. It also enable trigger levels or alert levels to be set for individual monitoring sites and\/or parameters so that immediate action can be initiated if a trigger level is exceeded. The use of remote surveillance also allows for the installation of very discrete monitoring equipment which can often be buried, camouflaged or tethered at depth in a lake or river with only a short whip aerial protruding. Use of such equipment tends to reduce vandalism and theft when monitoring in locations easily accessible by the public.\n\nRemote sensing \nMain article: Remote sensing\nEnvironmental remote sensing uses UAV, aircraft or satellites to monitor the environment using multi-channel sensors.\nThere are two kinds of remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors and in environmental remote sensing, the sensors used are tuned to specific wavelengths from far infrared through visible light frequencies to the far ultraviolet. The volumes of data that can be collected are very large and require dedicated computational support. The output of data analysis from remote sensing are false colour images which differentiate small differences in the radiation characteristics of the environment being monitored. With a skilful operator choosing specific channels it is possible to amplify differences which are imperceptible to the human eye. In particular it is possible to discriminate subtle changes in chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b concentrations in plants and show areas of an environment with slightly different nutrient regimes.\nActive remote sensing emits energy and uses a passive sensor to detect and measure the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. LIDAR is often used to acquire information about the topography of an area, especially when the area is large and manual surveying would be prohibitively expensive or difficult.\nRemote sensing makes it possible to collect data on dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring deforestation in areas such as the Amazon Basin, the effects of climate change on glaciers and Arctic and Antarctic regions, and depth sounding of coastal and ocean depths.\nOrbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or ground-based sensing and analysis, provides information to monitor trends such as El Ni\u00f1o and other natural long and short term phenomena. Other uses include different areas of the earth sciences such as natural resource management, land use planning and conservation.[44]\n\nBiomonitoring \nMain article: Aquatic biomonitoring\nThe use of living organisms as monitoring tools has many advantages. Organisms living in the environment under study are constantly exposed to the physical, biological and chemical influences of that environment. Organisms that have a tendency to accumulate chemical species can often accumulate significant quantities of material from very low concentrations in the environment. Mosses have been used by many investigators to monitor heavy metal concentrations because of their tendency to selectively adsorb heavy metals.[45][46]\nSimilarly, eels have been used to study halogenated organic chemicals, as these are adsorbed into the fatty deposits within the eel.[47]\n\nOther sampling methods \nEcological sampling requires careful planning to be representative and as noninvasive as possible. For grasslands and other low growing habitats the use of a quadrat \u2013 a 1-metre square frame \u2013 is often used with the numbers and types of organisms growing within each quadrat area counted[48]\nSediments and soils require specialist sampling tools to ensure that the material recovered is representative. Such samplers are frequently designed to recover a specified volume of material and may also be designed to recover the sediment or soil living biota as well[49] such as the Ekman grab sampler.\n\nData interpretations \nThe interpretation of environmental data produced from a well designed monitoring programme is a large and complex topic addressed by many publications. Regrettably it is sometimes the case that scientists approach the analysis of results with a pre-conceived outcome in mind and use or misuse statistics to demonstrate that their own particular point of view is correct.\nStatistics remains a tool that is equally easy to use or to misuse to demonstrate the lessons learnt from environmental monitoring.\n\nEnvironmental quality indices \nSince the start of science-based environmental monitoring, a number of quality indices have been devised to help classify and clarify the meaning of the considerable volumes of data involved. Stating that a river stretch is in \"Class B\" is likely to be much more informative than stating that this river stretch has a mean BOD of 4.2, a mean dissolved oxygen of 85%, etc. In the UK the Environment Agency formally employed a system called General Quality Assessment (GQA) which classified rivers into six quality letter bands from A to F based on chemical criteria[50] and on biological criteria.[51] The Environment Agency and its devolved partners in Wales (Countryside Council for Wales, CCW) and Scotland (Scottish Environmental Protection Agency, SEPA) now employ a system of biological, chemical and physical classification for rivers and lakes that corresponds with the EU Water Framework Directive.[52]\n\nSee also \nAgricultural burning\nAgricultural waste\nBiodiversity Monitoring Switzerland\nCarbon monitoring\nCarbon profiling\nCitizen science, research projects that non-scientists can take part in\nCrowdmapping\nEnvironmental technology\nProject Grab Bag\nUnmanned aerial vehicle \u00a7&#160;Applications: drones can be used for various types of environmental monitoring\nReferences \n\n\n^ Forbes, P.B.C. (2015). \"Chapter 1: Perspectives on the Monitoring of Air Pollutants\". In Barcelo, D. (ed.). Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. Vol.&#160;70. Elsevier. pp.&#160;3\u20139. ISBN&#160;9780444635532. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Rada, E.C.; Ragazzi, M.; Brini, M.; et&#160;al. (2016). \"Chapter 1: Perspectives of Low-Cost Sensors Adoption for Air Quality Monitoring\". In Ragazzi, M. (ed.). Air Quality: Monitoring, Measuring, and Modeling Environmental Hazards. CRC Press. ISBN&#160;9781315341859. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ Williams, R.; Kilaru, V.; Snyder, E.; et&#160;al. (June 2014). \"Air Sensor Guidebook\" (PDF) . U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. p.&#160;65. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"GO3 Project\". GO3 Foundation. Archived from the original on 29 May 2018. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"Louisiana Bucket Brigade\". Louisiana Bucket Brigade. 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(2006). \"Chapter 28: Soil Erosion and Sediment Redistribution in River Catchments: Summary, Outlook and Future Requirements\". Soil Erosion and Sediment Redistribution in River Catchments: Measurement, Modelling And Management. CABI International. pp.&#160;297\u2013318. ISBN&#160;9780851990507. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ Pierce, F.J.; Lai, R. (1994). \"Chapter 10: Monitoring soil erosion's impact on crop productivity\". In Lai, R. (ed.). Soil Erosion Research Methods. Soil and Water Conservation Society and St. Lucie Press. ISBN&#160;9781351415965. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b c Shahid, S.A. (2013). \"Chapter 1: Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment, Modeling, Mapping, and Monitoring from Regional to Submicroscopic Scales\". In Shahid, S.A.; Abdelfattah, M.A.; Taha, F.K. (eds.). Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment and Reclamation: Innovative Thinking and Use of Marginal Soil and Water Resources in Irrigated Agriculture. Springer Science+Business Media. pp.&#160;3\u201344. ISBN&#160;9789400756847. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ United Nations Environment Programme. Mineral Resources Forum. \"General guideline for an environmental monitoring programme.\" \n\n^ Stribling J. B. &amp; Davie S.R., \"Design of an environmental monitoring programme for the Lake Allatoona\/Upper Etowah river watershed.\" Proceedings of the 2005 Georgia Water Resources Conference, April 25\u201327, 2005. \n\n^ Hart, C.W.; Fuller, Samuel F.J. (1974). Pollution Ecology of Freshwater Invertebrates. New York: Academic Press. ISBN&#160;0-12-328450-3. \n\n^ Wrona, Frederick J. &amp; Cash, Kevin J. (May 1996). \"The ecosystem approach to environmental assessment: moving from theory to practice\". Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Health. Springer. 5 (2): 89\u201397. doi:10.1007\/BF00662797. \n\n^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2007). IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection (PDF) . Vienna: IAEA. ISBN&#160;978-92-0-100707-0. \n\n^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2005). Environmental and Source Monitoring for Purposes of Radiation Protection, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. RS\u2013G-1.8 (PDF) . Vienna: IAEA. \n\n^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2010). Programmes and Systems for Source and Environmental Radiation Monitoring. Safety Reports Series No. 64. Vienna: IAEA. p.&#160;234. ISBN&#160;978-92-0-112409-8. \n\n^ \"A Guide to Environmental DNA (eDNA) by Biomeme\". Biomeme. \n\n^ Environment Agency (December 2017). \"MCERTS: Quality and performance standards for environmental data management software\". GOV.UK. p.&#160;55. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ Environment Agency (9 February 2017). \"Monitoring emissions to air, land and water (MCERTS)\". GOV.UK. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"MCERTS Certified Products\". CSA Group. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d e f \"Guidance on Choosing a Sampling Design for Environmental Data Collection for Use in Developing a Quality Assurance Project Plan EPA QA\/G-5S\" (PDF) . United States Environmental Protection Agency. October 2002. Retrieved 21 April 2017 . This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. \n\n^ a b c Nollet, Leo M.L., ed. (2000). Handbook of Water Analysis. New York: Marcel Dekker. ISBN&#160;0-8247-8433-2. \n\n^ \nShaw, Elizabeth M. (1984). \"Book reviews: 'Proceedings of the International Symposium on Hydrometeorology' edited by A.I. Johnson &amp; R.A. Clark\" (PDF) . Hydrological Sciences Journal. 29 (4): 462\u2013463. ISSN&#160;0262-6667. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2009-10-22 . \n\n^ Environment Agency (29 September 2015). \"The Sonde of Music\". Environment Agency Creating a Better Place Blog. Retrieved 7 November 2023 . \n\n^ Short, Nicholas M. Sr. \"Remote Sensing Tutorial.\" Archived 2009-10-27 at the Wayback Machine U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Greenbelt, MD. 2009-09-23. \n\n^ Pott, U. &amp; Turpin, D. H. (1998). \"Assessment of Atmospheric Heavy Metals by Moss Monitoring with Isothecium Stoloniferum Brid. in the Fraser Valley, B.C., Canada.\" Water, Air, &amp; Soil Pollution. Vol. 101, Nos. 1\u20134, January 1998, ISSN&#160;0049-6979. \n\n^ Bragazzaa, Marchesinia, Alberb, Bonettic, Lorenzonic, Achillid, Buffonid, De Marcoe, Franchif, Pisonf, Giaquintag, Palmierih Spezzano (2000). \"Monitoring of heavy metal deposition in Northern Italy by moss analysis.\" Environmental Pollution, Vol. 108, No. 2, pp 201\u2013208. \n\n^ C. Belpaire and G. Goemans, \"Eels: contaminant cocktails pinpointing environmental contamination.\" ICES J. Mar. Sci. 64: 1423\u20131436. \n\n^ Offwell Woodland &amp; Wildlife Trust. Devon, UK. \"Ecological Sampling Methods.\" Accessed 2009-10-21. \n\n^ Csuros, Csaba; Csuros, Maria (2002). Environmental sampling and analysis for metals. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p.&#160;219. ISBN&#160;978-1-56670-572-1. \n\n^ Environment Agency, UK. Chemistry classification method Archived 2014-10-27 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Environment Agency. General quality assessment of rivers \u2013 biology Archived 2014-10-27 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ European Union Water Framework Directive, EU WFD \n\n\n\r\n\n\nvteAquatic ecosystemsAquatic ecosystems&#160;\u2013 general and freshwater componentsGeneral\nAcoustic ecology\nAdaptation\nAgent-based models\nAlgal bloom\nAnoxic waters\nAquatic animals (Insects\nMammals)\nAquatic plants\nAquatic science\nBenthos\nBiodiversity research\nBioluminescence\nBiomass\nBiomonitoring\nCascade effect\nColored dissolved organic matter\nCamouflage and mimicry\nDead zone\nEcohydrology\nEcosystems\nEutrophication\nFisheries science\nFood chain\nFood web\nGIS and aquatic science\nHydrobiology\nHypoxia\nIsotope analysis\nMacrobenthos\nMeiobenthos\nMicrobial ecology\nMicrobial food web\nMicrobial loop\nNekton\nNeuston\nParticle\nPelagic zone\nPhotic zone\nPhytoplankton\nPlankton\nPleuston\nPredation\nProductivity\nRamsar Convention\nRespiration\nSchooling\nSediment trap\nSiltation\nSpawning\nSubstrate\nThermal pollution\nToxicology\nTrophic level\nWater column\nZooplankton\nMore...\n Freshwater\nBiology\nBiomes\nEcosystems\nfreshwater\nlake\nriver\nFish\nHyporheic zone\nLimnology\nLake stratification\nMacrophyte\nPond\nFish pond\nRheotaxis\nStream bed\nStream pool\nTrophic state index\nUpland and lowland\nWater garden\nWetland\nbrackish marsh\nfreshwater marsh\nswamp\nbog\nfen\nEnvironmental quality\nMore...\nEcoregions\nFreshwater (List)\nMarine (List)\nThe Everglades\nMaharashtra\nThe North Pacific Subtropical Gyre\nThe San Francisco Estuary\nAquatic ecosystems&#160;\u2013 marine componentsMarine\nMarine biology\nMarine chemistry\nDeep scattering layer\nDiel vertical migration\nEcosystems\nlarge marine\nmarine)\nf-ratio\nFood web\nIron fertilization\nMarine snow\nOcean nourishment\nOceanic physical-biological process\nPrimary production\nOcean turbidity\nPhotophore\nThorson's rule\nUpwelling\nViral shunt\nWhale fall\nMore...\n Marine\r\nlife\nBacteriophages\nCensus\nFish\ncoastal\ncoral reef\ndeep sea\ndemersal\npelagic\nDeep sea communities\nDeep sea creature\nDeep-water coral\nInvertebrates\nLarvae\nMammals\nMarine life\nMicroorganisms\nParadox of the plankton\nProkaryotes\nProtists\nReptiles\nSeabirds\nSeashore wildlife\nVertebrates\nViruses\nWild fisheries\nMarine\r\nhabitats\nCoastal habitats\nCoastal biogeomorphology\nBay mud\nCold seeps\nCoral reefs\nDavidson Seamount\nEstuaries\nIntertidal ecology\nIntertidal wetlands\nKelp forests\nHydrothermal vents\nLagoons\nMangroves\nMarine biomes\nMudflats\nOyster reefs\nRocky shores\nSalt marshes\nSalt pannes and pools\nSeagrass meadows\nSponge grounds\nSponge reefs\nTide pools\nIssues\nCoral bleaching\nEcological values of mangroves\nFisheries and climate change\nHERMIONE\nHuman impact on marine life\nMarine conservation\nMarine conservation activism\nMarine pollution\nMarine Protected Area\n &#160;Oceans portal\nvtePollutionAir\nAcid rain\nAir quality index\nAtmospheric dispersion modeling\nChlorofluorocarbon\nCombustion\nBiofuel\nBiomass\nJoss paper\nOpen burning of waste\nConstruction\nRenovation\nDemolition\nExhaust gas\nDiesel exhaust\nHaze\nSmoke\nIndoor air\nInternal combustion engine\nGlobal dimming\nGlobal distillation\nMining\nOzone depletion\nParticulates\nAsbestos\nMetal working\nOil refining\nWood dust\nWelding\nPersistent organic pollutant\nSmelting\nSmog\nAerosol\nSoot\nBlack carbon\nVolatile organic compound\nWaste\nBiological\nBiological hazard\nGenetic pollution\nIntroduced species\nInvasive species\nDigital\nInformation pollution\nElectromagnetic\nLight\nEcological light pollution\nOverillumination\nRadio spectrum pollution\nNatural\nOzone\nRadium and radon in the environment\nVolcanic ash\nWildfire\nNoise\nTransportation\nLand\nWater\nAir\nRail\nSustainable transport\nUrban\nSonar\nMarine mammals and sonar\nIndustrial\nMilitary\nAbstract\nNoise control\nRadiation\nActinides\nBioremediation\nNuclear fission\nNuclear fallout\nPlutonium\nPoisoning\nRadioactivity\nUranium\nElectromagnetic radiation and health\nRadioactive waste\nSoil\nAgricultural pollution\nHerbicides\nManure waste\nPesticides\nLand degradation\nBioremediation\nOpen defecation\nElectrical resistance heating\nSoil guideline values\nPhytoremediation\nSolid waste\nBiodegradable waste\nBrown waste\nElectronic waste\nBattery recycling\nFood waste\nGreen waste\nHazardous waste\nBiomedical waste\nChemical waste\nConstruction waste\nLead poisoning\nMercury poisoning\nToxic waste\nIndustrial waste\nLead smelting\nLitter\nMining\nCoal mining\nGold mining\nSurface mining\nDeep sea mining\nMining waste\nUranium mining\nMunicipal solid waste\nGarbage\nNanomaterials\nPlastic pollution\nMicroplastics\nPackaging waste\nPost-consumer waste\nWaste management\nLandfill\nThermal treatment\n Space\nSatellite\nVisual\nAir travel\nClutter (advertising)\nTraffic signs\nOverhead power lines\nVandalism\nWar\nChemical warfare\nHerbicidal warfare (Agent Orange)\nNuclear holocaust (Nuclear fallout - nuclear famine - nuclear winter)\nScorched earth\nUnexploded ordnance\nWar and environmental law\nWater\nAgricultural wastewater\nBiological pollution\nDiseases\nEutrophication\nFirewater\nFreshwater\nGroundwater\nHypoxia\nIndustrial wastewater\nMarine\ndebris\nMonitoring\nNonpoint source pollution\nNutrient pollution\nOcean acidification\nOil exploitation\nOil exploration\nOil spill\nPharmaceuticals\nSewage\nSeptic tanks\nPit latrine\nShipping\nStagnation\nSulfur water\nSurface runoff\nThermal\nTurbidity\nUrban runoff\nWater quality\nTopics\nPollutants\nHeavy metals\nPaint\nMisc\nArea source\nDebris\nDust\nGarbology\nLegacy pollution\nMidden\nPoint source\nWaste\nResponses\nCleaner production\nIndustrial ecology\nPollution haven hypothesis\nPollutant release and transfer register\nPolluter pays principle\nPollution control\nWaste minimisation\nZero waste\nLists\nDiseases\nLaw by country\nMost polluted cities\nLeast polluted cities by PM2.5\nMost polluted countries\nTreaties\n Categories (by country) Commons WikiProject Environment WikiProject Ecology &#160;Environment portal &#160;Ecology portal\nAuthority control databases National\nLatvia \nCzech Republic \nOther\nNARA \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring<\/a>\nCategory: Environmental industryHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 September 2022, at 23:21.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,378 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Environmental_monitoring rootpage-Environmental_monitoring skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Environmental monitoring<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Monitoring of the quality of the environment<\/div>\n<table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Pollution\" title=\"Category:Pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6d82cf2156083627fa9778cdb77911e\">series<\/a> on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\" style=\"padding-bottom:0; background:#fadcc5; color:#fadcc5\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pollution\" title=\"Pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f7d7e67c530bb165af7535f3eec1145\"><span style=\"color:#000000;\">Pollution<\/span><\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\/Frameless\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Rosette_sampler_EPA.gif\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"29d75d2489f4559ca6c8c667826b875f\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/03\/Rosette_sampler_EPA.gif\/150px-Rosette_sampler_EPA.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"150\" height=\"225\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><div class=\"sidebar-caption\">A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rosette_sampler\" title=\"Rosette sampler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fa1cb854233a2ded8bcbbbbf5b44988\">rosette sampler<\/a> used for ocean monitoring<\/div><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_pollution\" title=\"Air pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff93abe12fa3d63865b44e344db1d1bb\">Air<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_quality_index\" title=\"Air quality index\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df76e0a73a43819f452de47299a9ab0a\">Air quality index<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling\" title=\"Atmospheric dispersion modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32d9f7bd6af757db9ce26bb1a4b0623f\">Atmospheric dispersion modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chlorofluorocarbon\" title=\"Chlorofluorocarbon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c40308d0d98ddfb7cca9d20f9730ae7\">Chlorofluorocarbon<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Combustion\" title=\"Combustion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa5e9c0adb42af5379a9313e70295263\">Combustion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exhaust_gas\" title=\"Exhaust gas\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25032ce8f75807484fb497874b0fc776\">Exhaust gas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haze\" title=\"Haze\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c8809600a3ed2864ec9d482b82f8547\">Haze<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_dimming\" title=\"Global dimming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea7a123dbb540f75c9baf920345a5cbc\">Global dimming<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_distillation\" title=\"Global distillation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2116803806472c8f8f7ea5658284113c\">Global distillation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ozone_depletion\" title=\"Ozone depletion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d640e7ce227b6ed3b35c3ddd09d99dbf\">Ozone depletion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particulates\" title=\"Particulates\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"071797f440b2db7389d539b3c5b1089a\">Particulates<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Persistent_organic_pollutant\" title=\"Persistent organic pollutant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"212403a5dc3a1fe0de0524231d5bad9e\">Persistent organic pollutant<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smog\" title=\"Smog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eee5bac1d0b2c8d1e7412413026194b6\">Smog<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soot\" title=\"Soot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6409342b6a37dffdfd57178ab50b0480\">Soot<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Volatile_organic_compound\" title=\"Volatile organic compound\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05d177224420a3de7b2d626ee19e83e8\">Volatile organic compound<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waste\" title=\"Waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bcc0e1d9489f708dbaa04840fcf47d7\">Waste<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biological_pollution\" title=\"Biological pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14e16668c4b302f7f2078a1c1706cd8d\">Biological<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biological_hazard\" title=\"Biological hazard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48ba76740039dcd7d880e53683329477\">Biological hazard<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_pollution\" title=\"Genetic pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cb85ab9c1576e19f14d3e9f3cf309ec\">Genetic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Introduced_species\" title=\"Introduced species\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6c8d1f4c11de22f6e03bebaf71b61e4\">Introduced species<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Invasive_species\" title=\"Invasive species\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db52c6ad2e1c2be3297ee2b6ed736d33\">Invasive species<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\">Digital<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_pollution\" title=\"Information pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef776da082e2634e962ed53649dadf0f\">Information<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health\" title=\"Electromagnetic radiation and health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c98a9677d9c8a4ba49a251fc77a879c1\">Electromagnetic<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Light_pollution\" title=\"Light pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57e165e7d1131f24c5279cbd26d0bc5f\">Light<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecological_light_pollution\" title=\"Ecological light pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61e645acc42ddc2b7b60ae2b6d4eef0d\">Ecological<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overillumination\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Overillumination\" data-key=\"b073865ddae91e87b4db01dc1fb0c10d\">Overillumination<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio_spectrum_pollution\" title=\"Radio spectrum pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9862ad2afcd62f87295e5b82e7da1626\">Radio spectrum<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\">Natural<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ozone\" title=\"Ozone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc226fa4bae5671d1659136fa4e8af95\">Ozone<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment\" title=\"Radium and radon in the environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"014e1ffaa20ad6d672b12cf55df2b99e\">Radium and radon in the environment<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Volcanic_ash\" title=\"Volcanic ash\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9501532105afffe55881df0449318566\">Volcanic ash<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wildfire\" title=\"Wildfire\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7e0736598ad86eb14034b9b8c34d6f1\">Wildfire<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Noise_pollution\" title=\"Noise pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e8b0de9adc566183b2d23dd3741f6ea\">Noise<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_effects_of_transport\" title=\"Environmental effects of transport\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7de8c05a158301b985fb7255f69451a\">Transportation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marine_mammals_and_sonar\" title=\"Marine mammals and sonar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6018e5d545f1d394cc93f0dcea6cfb64\">Marine mammals and sonar<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Noise_control\" title=\"Noise control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00d1210ba540595a6c48f4a631b668c3\">Noise control<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radioactive_contamination\" title=\"Radioactive contamination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2481d0d8af5a584325ff1a2b2326dc9e\">Radiation<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Actinides_in_the_environment\" title=\"Actinides in the environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf867f43dc97c88ba499be2720891f59\">Actinides<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste\" title=\"Bioremediation of radioactive waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2906ad64e83fcd2ad25322d63c55ddff\">Bioremediation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Depleted_uranium\" title=\"Depleted uranium\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96071fed64182be1b49e09623448eec4\">Depleted uranium<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_fission_product\" title=\"Nuclear fission product\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"80174d9d5f9f43d2276b3e6cec8bdfe8\">Nuclear fission<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_fallout\" title=\"Nuclear fallout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb5938076d8275166f89b9eec4b8d94c\">Nuclear fallout<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plutonium_in_the_environment\" title=\"Plutonium in the environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aba3d9cbf37882268473f7c2bcef7625\">Plutonium<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acute_radiation_syndrome\" title=\"Acute radiation syndrome\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3f97ddbe1f7b332080798edc21ef702\">Poisoning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_radioactivity\" title=\"Environmental radioactivity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a87fe43d7dddb7baeb57f6c873adc534\">Radioactivity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uranium_in_the_environment\" title=\"Uranium in the environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1c5480fd8e743196aace575fdaaa3c2\">Uranium<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radioactive_waste\" title=\"Radioactive waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46478d5963dc8d5ca184aa599ad2e915\">Radioactive waste<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_contamination\" title=\"Soil contamination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ffa53bc2835f564b612afecd087c8d\">Soil<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agricultural_pollution\" title=\"Agricultural pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14e64fea6542ed30271dd35447f53a62\">Agricultural<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Land_degradation\" title=\"Land degradation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a12c87e060e1fdcb7d0a58f7b7162e73\">Land degradation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioremediation\" title=\"Bioremediation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4de2061ce303d62b32c192bfadba8a5d\">Bioremediation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_defecation\" title=\"Open defecation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa8661526b2a7b61104c3d0faceb7312\">Defecation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrical_resistance_heating\" title=\"Electrical resistance heating\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f79cdbd2dc7595c1bd85f075559dc0cc\">Electrical resistance heating<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_guideline_value\" title=\"Soil guideline value\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01e29c2b1feb4862a79725e8c229748b\">Soil guideline values<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phytoremediation\" title=\"Phytoremediation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4dd20d7e939e56b0b5391c0e52821f9\">Phytoremediation<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\">Solid waste<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biodegradable_waste\" title=\"Biodegradable waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71f74731b3b9176837695af66f4ce312\">Biodegradable waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brown_waste\" title=\"Brown waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"144da1eea96d21d27eb9113b5707dd8e\">Brown waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_waste\" title=\"Electronic waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3cb14f246ba9622017b88db29416c244\">Electronic waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_loss_and_waste\" title=\"Food loss and waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"498abd2ddaced2eb81350ec8799d64fd\">Food waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Green_waste\" title=\"Green waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9216b2f57763910fac28031f8368e18\">Green waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hazardous_waste\" title=\"Hazardous waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbae2fc337edd4c158a13cf5c08c5335\">Hazardous waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_waste\" title=\"Industrial waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42ae36e613ec53fc64cd06a78b008e53\">Industrial waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Litter\" title=\"Litter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"522f1d803a3bc05d9349fbee2a423a78\">Litter<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_effects_of_mining\" title=\"Environmental effects of mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c182d7c7142ed6104ae12aeb02ab7677\">Mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Municipal_solid_waste\" title=\"Municipal solid waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d11bbfbb0ab2f34a3e4b8cf01f61478f\">Municipal solid waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pollution_from_nanomaterials\" title=\"Pollution from nanomaterials\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e4d5475838220095cb3d15d14036122\">Nanomaterials<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plastic_pollution\" title=\"Plastic pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e6647b8470677923fb503366bf3c087\">Plastic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Packaging_waste\" title=\"Packaging waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1e5b16d8557e228e1fa8bd120f7bf9a\">Packaging waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Post-consumer_waste\" title=\"Post-consumer waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73de772477992c4036da31ecee5e2a95\">Post-consumer waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waste_management\" title=\"Waste management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7b9a72b8840376189c4b89eea0ef856\">Waste management<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Space_debris\" title=\"Space debris\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5ec058c814498d430c353f1a6973022\">Space<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Space_debris\" title=\"Space debris\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5ec058c814498d430c353f1a6973022\">Rockets, satellites, spacecraft<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thermal_pollution\" title=\"Thermal pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b87329c9fa7aefbb0d6e32e24d30e39\">Thermal<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Urban_heat_island\" title=\"Urban heat island\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f38b8d43780e908377262f3e1d283d\">Urban heat island<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visual_pollution\" title=\"Visual pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"893894a89eca37957ba851642aa3d69f\">Visual<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_travel\" title=\"Air travel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da78e358f49380c8c6000a7281bc8f83\">Air travel<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clutter_(advertising)\" title=\"Clutter (advertising)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61d6cc6edc2db869ad80c61ba2117d41\">Advertising clutter<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overhead_power_line\" title=\"Overhead power line\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d9de18bf77aba19c2ad95e5aeb796bd\">Overhead power lines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic_sign\" title=\"Traffic sign\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95f77252c7b33ff99d508bd0fd85e76f\">Traffic signs<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vandalism\" title=\"Vandalism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c08614c84c346d61e78184241c5685c\">Vandalism<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_impact_of_war\" title=\"Environmental impact of war\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d161a01d50861053b06955806294f72a\">War<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemical_warfare\" title=\"Chemical warfare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ffb4804a8bfa99566df729806a94f9e\">Chemical warfare<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbicidal_warfare\" title=\"Herbicidal warfare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"feb7cee9405d1fc129dc285c95aa883a\">Herbicidal warfare<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agent_Orange\" title=\"Agent Orange\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9e437c58fbb0ddf3f1ec6b1be91638c\">Agent Orange<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_holocaust\" title=\"Nuclear holocaust\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8e46713ca4e4929d8437bab0e34d9a3\">Nuclear holocaust<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_fallout\" title=\"Nuclear fallout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb5938076d8275166f89b9eec4b8d94c\">Nuclear fallout<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_famine\" title=\"Nuclear famine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8f96db6815a03ccb4bf8254c9b9bcce\">nuclear famine<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_winter\" title=\"Nuclear winter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb67f846731350f0a92c8f061e769317\">nuclear winter<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scorched_earth\" title=\"Scorched earth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdda2645eed6a20aa9d1b2507eab5e1e\">Scorched earth<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unexploded_ordnance\" title=\"Unexploded ordnance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d32f084973946aa8462d1ae2cbc0ad06\">Unexploded ordnance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/War_and_environmental_law\" title=\"War and environmental law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed548d6570248f8548e7998cfd107a63\">War and environmental law<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_pollution\" title=\"Water pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54531d0ebbab4e201a6153717e38b877\">Water<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment\" title=\"Agricultural wastewater treatment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"504e72bd5f617d707302d6cd2584da9f\">Agricultural wastewater<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biosolids\" title=\"Biosolids\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99c012d39ae31ba85062b2e6a5f1a737\">Biosolids<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waterborne_diseases\" title=\"Waterborne diseases\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f9475f33c6afd355a086cc0548659e3\">Diseases<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eutrophication\" title=\"Eutrophication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e5039eca84457fe344148f69b0144d5\">Eutrophication<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewater_(fire_fighting)\" title=\"Firewater (fire fighting)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8003a210efdf41227e05c7d28aa6bbe\">Firewater<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters\" title=\"Freshwater environmental quality parameters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41f2b35e91a480b0be749488a8f295f5\">Freshwater<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Groundwater_pollution\" title=\"Groundwater pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d625dea89026b5b9ca3353fcca0e1742\">Groundwater<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hypoxia_(environmental)\" title=\"Hypoxia (environmental)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd89f980db00a26674504897d05b7c36\">Hypoxia<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_wastewater_treatment\" title=\"Industrial wastewater treatment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71e52ed2b497a2a9987f1ed3a1e7ebcd\">Industrial wastewater<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marine_pollution\" title=\"Marine pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2afa6f89276d17d3150e9ac83d026b36\">Marine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Monitoring<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nonpoint_source_pollution\" title=\"Nonpoint source pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6167cf1118b35fb0a555d185047dbce\">Nonpoint source<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nutrient_pollution\" title=\"Nutrient pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71a37f5d360ef8074710e53ef0913d7d\">Nutrient<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ocean_acidification\" title=\"Ocean acidification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d54bc4baa2b463fc0c08a68e7520436\">Ocean acidification<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oil_spill\" title=\"Oil spill\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ada744f30f0244382ef1e8762e728d4d\">Oil spill<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products\" title=\"Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e082dbc7f5bdd318bc1242c24581dba\">Pharmaceuticals<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freshwater_salinization\" title=\"Freshwater salinization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5c6814594bfc2c29492792be502ca0c\">Freshwater salinization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Septic_tank\" title=\"Septic tank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8c4a8032f66b075e3ce3a9477713a56\">Septic tanks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sewage\" title=\"Sewage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a2b6f66b753d63387d8dfc30977453f\">Sewage<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_effects_of_shipping\" title=\"Environmental effects of shipping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10478e0e18ed4d44c53c16a29fd2810b\">Shipping<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sludge\" title=\"Sludge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6076bc16144f4489cb1363aecaec9a35\">Sludge<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_stagnation\" title=\"Water stagnation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e37d37034ed801480a6c88ec039ca5a4\">Stagnation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sulfur_water\" title=\"Sulfur water\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c16e86d513e75176f0ff4e8794d13a3\">Sulfur water<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surface_runoff\" title=\"Surface runoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"995da15aacfd924fa620a148320eccb3\">Surface runoff<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turbidity\" title=\"Turbidity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3d055ab047e4cc58980abb8c7df0bfb\">Turbidity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Urban_runoff\" title=\"Urban runoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e6c3443d5c5b22e460aaa5c9b60c86b\">Urban runoff<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_quality\" title=\"Water quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"779fe26ba1dc26d6e5a4018e9fcb49b6\">Water quality<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wastewater\" title=\"Wastewater\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb6976477fd99bce8c6f1b0865e7478e\">Wastewater<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\">Topics<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pollutant\" title=\"Pollutant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6925459872f1bf88a6184bdffecd5e8\">Pollutants<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heavy_metals\" title=\"Heavy metals\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ac86d769a2df3f6711d73649d10286b\">Heavy metals<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paint\" title=\"Paint\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77311817e2948874a3f91936867bf239\">Paint<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.1em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;\">Misc<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Area_source_pollution\" title=\"Area source pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1048001466288f16f666b47f76910c78\">Area source<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Debris\" title=\"Debris\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19d081b7e7215c8970a0c0f2308df4be\">Debris<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dust\" title=\"Dust\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1122ab1c4a2ff7d39946d82cf7622b6\">Dust<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Garbology\" title=\"Garbology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8a71df9776b1a6184a2920b66f3119a\">Garbology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legacy_pollution\" title=\"Legacy pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"febb4586aa7725c796a977678f129f57\">Legacy pollution<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Midden\" title=\"Midden\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3db93db728391dae1de383e25ec56159\">Midden<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Point_source_pollution\" title=\"Point source pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13f22b16ad1ef79f3f509968b95fe0ab\">Point source<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waste\" title=\"Waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bcc0e1d9489f708dbaa04840fcf47d7\">Waste<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Lists\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_pollution-related_diseases\" title=\"List of pollution-related diseases\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ba01848dab031b030441e5282edc688\">Diseases<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country\" title=\"List of environmental laws by country\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d219f518d8e05b8e5ee4ff0e769594c\">Law by country<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration\" title=\"List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35a233cdcba1b3001496c504f628b12e\">Most polluted cities<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration\" title=\"List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ff8ef7123eec0cab81d2276a521d336\">Least polluted cities by PM2.5<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_international_environmental_agreements\" title=\"List of international environmental agreements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec0da1303d02d55dbb2cb3fd59656d2f\">Treaties<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Categories\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Pollution_by_country\" title=\"Category:Pollution by country\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10791f6c3a5e2b46b2bd92afc36088a6\">By country<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-below\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;\">\n<ul><li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"86192eb2ed19a42da2aa00c93999bacc\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/bf\/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg\/16px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Environment\" title=\"Portal:Environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f32e209cb3fb00ec6c45392c9ac94c6c\">Environment portal<\/a><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"mw-image-border noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/6a\/Earth_Day_Flag.png\/16px-Earth_Day_Flag.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"11\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/span><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Ecology\" title=\"Portal:Ecology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a75e8eea341fc23e3311f654021d373\">Ecology portal<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><b>Environmental monitoring<\/b> describes the processes and activities that need to take place to characterize and monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental monitoring is used in the preparation of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_impact_assessment\" title=\"Environmental impact assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22131ac74a6b3f2c36b036b90d29a84f\">environmental impact assessments<\/a>, as well as in many circumstances in which human activities carry a risk of harmful effects on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_environment\" title=\"Natural environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6df22bcb227fd5b784896598d50389d7\">natural environment<\/a>.\nAll monitoring strategies and programs have reasons and justifications which are often designed to establish the current status of an environment or to establish trends in environmental parameters. In all cases, the results of monitoring will be reviewed, analyzed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistically<\/a>, and published. The design of a monitoring program must therefore have regard to the final use of the data before monitoring starts.\n<\/p><p>Environmental monitoring includes monitoring of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_pollution\" title=\"Air pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff93abe12fa3d63865b44e344db1d1bb\">air quality<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil\" title=\"Soil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07af34ab9a16e0916f7657b56bc1e474\">soils<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_quality\" title=\"Water quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"779fe26ba1dc26d6e5a4018e9fcb49b6\">water quality<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"toclimit-3\"><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Air_quality_monitoring\">Air quality monitoring<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Perugia,_2012_-_Air_quality_monitoring_station.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"347ad9dba107ea2e9e2aefe43b5e04dc\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9e\/Perugia%2C_2012_-_Air_quality_monitoring_station.jpg\/220px-Perugia%2C_2012_-_Air_quality_monitoring_station.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"330\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Air quality monitoring station<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_pollution_measurement\" title=\"Air pollution measurement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b23a1020e5f47b30378e8e80ea0a813\">Air pollution measurement<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_quality_index\" title=\"Air quality index\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df76e0a73a43819f452de47299a9ab0a\">Air quality index<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continuous_emissions_monitoring_system\" title=\"Continuous emissions monitoring system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b4d3c12ff01cfba5a1841f0f1883f11\">Continuous emissions monitoring system<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particulate_matter_sampler\" title=\"Particulate matter sampler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bacfe747d2304b88b56051e46d5c24a\">Particulate matter sampler<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portable_emissions_measurement_system\" title=\"Portable emissions measurement system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52eea6c49c8b2b2acfcb5255ac33f485\">Portable emissions measurement system<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_pollution\" title=\"Air pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff93abe12fa3d63865b44e344db1d1bb\">Air pollutants<\/a> are atmospheric substances\u2014both naturally occurring and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_impact_on_the_environment\" title=\"Human impact on the environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1cc67a4cf7f17c0a5c3ced4a2edb85f8\">anthropogenic<\/a>\u2014which may potentially have a negative impact on the environment and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organism\" title=\"Organism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cef8762a7bb2e7279ba72134c53b5c13\">organism<\/a> health. With the evolution of new chemicals and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_processes\" title=\"Industrial processes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1d1d815adcc1eaef9537cc278d24b9a\">industrial processes<\/a> has come the introduction or elevation of pollutants in the atmosphere, as well as environmental research and regulations, increasing the demand for air quality monitoring.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesPerspect15_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesPerspect15-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Air quality monitoring is challenging to enact as it requires the effective integration of multiple environmental data sources, which often originate from different environmental networks and institutions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RadaPerspect16_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RadaPerspect16-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> These challenges require specialized observation equipment and tools to establish air pollutant concentrations, including sensor networks, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geographic_information_system\" title=\"Geographic information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f7f83dfa8233daf8b51ca1a9a13ac28\">geographic information system<\/a> (GIS) models, and the Sensor Observation Service (SOS), a web service for querying real-time sensor data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RadaPerspect16_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RadaPerspect16-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling\" title=\"Atmospheric dispersion modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32d9f7bd6af757db9ce26bb1a4b0623f\">Air dispersion models<\/a> that combine topographic, emissions, and meteorological data to predict air pollutant concentrations are often helpful in interpreting air monitoring data. Additionally, consideration of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anemometer\" title=\"Anemometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d6a9c1597b6df28b1be98f1d022ac2d\">anemometer<\/a> data in the area between sources and the monitor often provides insights on the source of the air contaminants recorded by an air pollution monitor.\n<\/p><p>Air quality monitors are operated by citizens,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilliamsAir14_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilliamsAir14-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GO3Home_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GO3Home-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LBBHome_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LBBHome-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> regulatory agencies,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPAList16_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPAList16-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IrelandEPANational17_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IrelandEPANational17-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> non-governmental organisations <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> and researchers<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> to investigate air quality and the effects of air pollution. Interpretation of ambient air monitoring data often involves a consideration of the spatial and temporal representativeness<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> of the data gathered, and the health effects associated with exposure to the monitored levels.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> If the interpretation reveals concentrations of multiple chemical compounds, a unique \"chemical fingerprint\" of a particular air pollution source may emerge from analysis of the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPAReceptor_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPAReceptor-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Air_sampling\">Air sampling<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Passive or \"diffusive\" air sampling depends on meteorological conditions such as wind to diffuse air pollutants to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sorbent\" title=\"Sorbent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c21aeb165a53383034db67d7ddb5a92\">sorbent<\/a> medium. Passive samplers, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diffusion_tube\" title=\"Diffusion tube\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42b81fa1de06d5159c3d7d8d8093fde9\">diffusion tubes<\/a>, have the advantage of typically being small, quiet, and easy to deploy, and they are particularly useful in air quality studies that determine key areas for future continuous monitoring.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PienaarPassive15_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PienaarPassive15-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Air pollution can also be assessed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biomonitoring\" title=\"Biomonitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99ec7ea21b74b4378fe945f94e813ded\">biomonitoring<\/a> with organisms that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioaccumulation\" title=\"Bioaccumulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb77fbd7b9523306b127361251c7b15d\">bioaccumulate<\/a> air pollutants, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lichen\" title=\"Lichen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8b766c43ba30a5fb68bcf48586ab0c6\">lichens<\/a>, mosses, fungi, and other biomass.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesBiomon15_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesBiomon15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> One of the benefits of this type of sampling is how quantitative information can be obtained via measurements of accumulated compounds, representative of the environment from which they came. However, careful considerations must be made in choosing the particular organism, how it's dispersed, and relevance to the pollutant.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesBiomon15_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesBiomon15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other sampling methods include the use of a ,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesDenuders15_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesDenuders15-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NOAAMerc_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NOAAMerc-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> needle trap devices, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microextraction_by_packed_sorbent\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Microextraction by packed sorbent\" data-key=\"a9e9d3afed1c5b8a1941ae0c43641f79\">microextraction<\/a> techniques.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GrandyNovel15_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GrandyNovel15-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_monitoring\">Soil monitoring<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Soil_samples_(15083707144).jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1728941f76de9b099dfb092d6266476\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/59\/Soil_samples_%2815083707144%29.jpg\/220px-Soil_samples_%2815083707144%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"293\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Collecting a soil sample in Mexico for pathogen testing<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_soil_science\" title=\"Environmental soil science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54f1467244d2162ffd3e71dabed4e30d\">Environmental soil science<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Soil monitoring involves the collection and\/or analysis of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil\" title=\"Soil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07af34ab9a16e0916f7657b56bc1e474\">soil<\/a> and its associated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_quality\" title=\"Soil quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e96b35dad6a2da45dc88edcda572757\">quality<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil#Composition\" title=\"Soil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92579759fa691d2c6c93302515d740eb\">constituents<\/a>, and physical status to determine or guarantee its fitness for use. Soil faces many threats, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_compaction_(agriculture)\" title=\"Soil compaction (agriculture)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69d33858c54fafee85cf8b1117cf82f6\">compaction<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_contamination\" title=\"Soil contamination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ffa53bc2835f564b612afecd087c8d\">contamination<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_organic_matter\" title=\"Soil organic matter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"806d25e8a8ab4e6b9e2f1ec96bf0bee2\">organic material<\/a> loss, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_biodiversity\" title=\"Soil biodiversity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a5f0b8bf6918deafa4f53abea423fa8\">biodiversity<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biodiversity_loss\" title=\"Biodiversity loss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7da8cdf24bb4ac06785eccf0b8ad8d0f\">loss<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Slope_stability\" title=\"Slope stability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2360144820198aff0c21d243f6436dc4\">slope stability<\/a> issues, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_erosion\" title=\"Soil erosion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f1bac63af24988c8d3434efa3db2d2e\">erosion<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_salinity\" title=\"Soil salinity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c4f2f5b29fbeabd8d136db52b1fe8e4\">salinization<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_acidification\" title=\"Soil acidification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07c6250fae4e62fb55921c425a9ffca1\">acidification<\/a>. Soil monitoring helps characterize these threats and other potential risks to the soil, surrounding environments, animal health, and human health.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Assessing these threats and other risks to soil can be challenging due to a variety of factors, including soil's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity\" title=\"Homogeneity and heterogeneity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45849e882314b485dd488f487ff2c92b\">heterogeneity<\/a> and complexity, scarcity of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toxicity\" title=\"Toxicity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf1493c55260ac89cbc289c48f5d047b\">toxicity<\/a> data, lack of understanding of a contaminant's fate, and variability in levels of soil screening.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> This requires a risk assessment approach and analysis techniques that prioritize environmental protection, risk reduction, and, if necessary, remediation methods.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> Soil monitoring plays a significant role in that risk assessment, not only aiding in the identification of at-risk and affected areas but also in the establishment of base background values of soil.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Soil monitoring has historically focused on more classical conditions and contaminants, including toxic elements (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mercury_(element)\" title=\"Mercury (element)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5de447275d55881acc7a43b155a6d03\">mercury<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lead\" title=\"Lead\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16836599a94bcaa7594a6d4378aed7f9\">lead<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arsenic\" title=\"Arsenic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86d8ce09585fca3e5e709dcb9b89a13e\">arsenic<\/a>) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Persistent_organic_pollutant\" title=\"Persistent organic pollutant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"212403a5dc3a1fe0de0524231d5bad9e\">persistent organic pollutants<\/a> (POPs).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> Historically, testing for these and other aspects of soil, however, has had its own set of challenges, as sampling in most cases is of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Destructive_testing\" title=\"Destructive testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37bdbef328a7f338ccc808ac3c6691a1\">destructive<\/a> in nature, requiring multiple samples over time. Additionally, procedural and analytical errors may be introduced due to variability among references and methods, particularly over time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DuboisSampling93_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DuboisSampling93-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> However, as analytical techniques evolve and new knowledge about ecological processes and contaminant effects disseminate, the focus of monitoring will likely broaden over time and the quality of monitoring will continue to improve.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_sampling\">Soil sampling<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The two primary types of soil sampling are grab sampling and composite sampling. Grab sampling involves the collection of an individual sample at a specific time and place, while composite sampling involves the collection of a homogenized mixture of multiple individual samples at either a specific place over different times or multiple locations at a specific time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HarterWater08_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HarterWater08-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> Soil sampling may occur both at shallow ground levels or deep in the ground, with collection methods varying by level collected from. Scoops, augers, core barrel, and solid-tube samplers, and other tools are used at shallow ground levels, whereas split-tube, solid-tube, or hydraulic methods may be used in deep ground.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ByrnesField08_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ByrnesField08-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Monitoring_programs\">Monitoring programs<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:20180221-OSEC-LSC-0055_(39518128545).jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc344878b80d11071c155c03aaecac33\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d2\/20180221-OSEC-LSC-0055_%2839518128545%29.jpg\/220px-20180221-OSEC-LSC-0055_%2839518128545%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A portable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/X-ray_fluorescence\" title=\"X-ray fluorescence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"856c8bdcb1034681dbf2ccd5e7f1676c\">X-ray fluorescence<\/a> (XRF) analyzer can be used in the field for testing soils for metal contamination.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_contamination_monitoring\">Soil contamination monitoring<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_contamination\" title=\"Soil contamination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ffa53bc2835f564b612afecd087c8d\">Soil contamination<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Soil contamination monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in contaminant deposition, movement, and effect. Human-based pressures such as tourism, industrial activity, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Urban_sprawl\" title=\"Urban sprawl\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07629d7f692c8fd124637ffd1cec76e7\">urban sprawl<\/a>, construction work, and inadequate agriculture\/forestry practices can contribute to and make worse <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_contamination\" title=\"Soil contamination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ffa53bc2835f564b612afecd087c8d\">soil contamination<\/a> and lead to the soil becoming unfit for its intended use. Both inorganic and organic pollutants may make their way to the soil, having a wide variety of detrimental effects. Soil contamination monitoring is therefore important to identify risk areas, set baselines, and identify contaminated zones for remediation. Monitoring efforts may range from local farms to nationwide efforts, such as those made by China in the late 2000s,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> providing details such as the nature of contaminants, their quantity, effects, concentration patterns, and remediation feasibility.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MirsalSoil13_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MirsalSoil13-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> Monitoring and analytical equipment will ideally will have high response times, high levels of resolution and automation, and a certain degree of self-sufficiency.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KotWasikSome07_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KotWasikSome07-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> Chemical techniques may be used to measure toxic elements and POPs using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromatography\" title=\"Chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9fd89dfd6ca6b31e62d96ab8362fb537\">chromatography<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spectrometer\" title=\"Spectrometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"407611832b25b9df32ec0a38d4bd7b62\">spectrometry<\/a>, geophysical techniques may assess physical properties of large terrains, and biological techniques may use specific organisms to gauge not only contaminant level but also byproducts of contaminant biodegradation. These techniques and others are increasingly becoming more efficient, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8210956018cb8099c02d4932922f49c\">laboratory<\/a> instrumentation is becoming more precise, resulting in more meaningful monitoring outcomes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AelionSoil09_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AelionSoil09-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_erosion_monitoring\">Soil erosion monitoring<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_erosion\" title=\"Soil erosion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f1bac63af24988c8d3434efa3db2d2e\">Soil erosion<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Soil erosion monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil and sediment movement. Monitoring programs have varied over the years, from long-term academic research on university plots to reconnaissance-based surveys of biogeoclimatic areas. In most methods, however, the general focus is on identifying and measuring all the dominant erosion processes in a given area.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OwensSoil06_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OwensSoil06-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, soil erosion monitoring may attempt to quantify the effects of erosion on crop productivity, though challenging \"because of the many complexities in the relationship between soils and plants and their management under a variable climate.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PierveMontitor94_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PierveMontitor94-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_salinity_monitoring\">Soil salinity monitoring<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_salinity\" title=\"Soil salinity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c4f2f5b29fbeabd8d136db52b1fe8e4\">Soil salinity<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Soil salinity monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil salt content. Both the natural process of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saltwater_intrusion\" title=\"Saltwater intrusion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0b0f7b87ff4c82954c4e7688bd12727\">seawater intrusion<\/a> and the human-induced processes of inappropriate soil and water management can lead to salinity problems in soil, with up to one billion hectares of land affected globally (as of 2013).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShahidDevelop13-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> Salinity monitoring at the local level may look closely at the root zone to gauge salinity impact and develop management options, whereas at the regional and national level salinity monitoring may help with identifying areas at-risk and aiding policymakers in tackling the issue before it spreads.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_28-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShahidDevelop13-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> The monitoring process itself may be performed using technologies such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_sensing\" title=\"Remote sensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0550a7cb05977f16dc64ec22dd5822f\">remote sensing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geographic_information_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Geographic information systems\" data-key=\"4a32518293ae8dd9d76fafebdb41a97d\">geographic information systems<\/a> (GIS) to identify salinity via greenness, brightness, and whiteness at the surface level. Direct analysis of soil up close, including the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetic_induction\" title=\"Electromagnetic induction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b70d71029ccb827d5775db103f9190e\">electromagnetic induction<\/a> techniques, may also be used to monitor soil salinity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_28-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShahidDevelop13-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Water_quality_monitoring\">Water quality monitoring<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anglers_using_backpack_electroshocker_to_capture_fish.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"73f13ea7fafadc25658a668c4537d70a\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/45\/Anglers_using_backpack_electroshocker_to_capture_fish.jpg\/220px-Anglers_using_backpack_electroshocker_to_capture_fish.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrofishing\" title=\"Electrofishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47fc2abf7a23f0b1fe16fc9814d14d0b\">Electrofishing<\/a> survey methods use a mild electric shock to temporarily stun fish for capture, identification and counting. The fish are then returned to the water unharmed.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Design_of_environmental_monitoring_programmes\">Design of environmental monitoring programmes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_quality\" title=\"Water quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"779fe26ba1dc26d6e5a4018e9fcb49b6\">Water quality<\/a> monitoring is of little use without a clear and unambiguous definition of the reasons for the monitoring and the objectives that it will satisfy. Almost all monitoring (except perhaps <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_sensing\" title=\"Remote sensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0550a7cb05977f16dc64ec22dd5822f\">remote sensing<\/a>) is in some part invasive of the environment under study and extensive and poorly planned monitoring carries a risk of damage to the environment. This may be a critical consideration in wilderness areas or when monitoring very rare organisms or those that are averse to human presence. Some monitoring techniques, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gillnet\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gillnet\" data-key=\"d31d3211a4b476beed24506d8f93e560\">gill netting<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fish\" title=\"Fish\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbe2db3ab3335fb18520a22926a44cb1\">fish<\/a> to estimate populations, can be very damaging, at least to the local population and can also degrade public trust in scientists carrying out the monitoring.\n<\/p><p>Almost all mainstream environmentalism monitoring projects form part of an overall monitoring strategy or research field, and these field and strategies are themselves derived from the high levels objectives or aspirations of an organisation. Unless individual monitoring projects fit into a wider strategic framework, the results are unlikely to be published and the environmental understanding produced by the monitoring will be lost.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Parameters\">Parameters<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><i>see also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters\" title=\"Freshwater environmental quality parameters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41f2b35e91a480b0be749488a8f295f5\">Freshwater environmental quality parameters<\/a><\/i>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Chemical\">Chemical<\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EPA_GULF_BREEZE_LABORATORY,_CHEMISTRY_LAB._THE_CHEMIST_IS_TESTING_WATER_SAMPLES_FOR_PESTICIDES_-_NARA_-_546277.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e16559b78d89202f06cc5a82ee95e755\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/38\/EPA_GULF_BREEZE_LABORATORY%2C_CHEMISTRY_LAB._THE_CHEMIST_IS_TESTING_WATER_SAMPLES_FOR_PESTICIDES_-_NARA_-_546277.jpg\/220px-EPA_GULF_BREEZE_LABORATORY%2C_CHEMISTRY_LAB._THE_CHEMIST_IS_TESTING_WATER_SAMPLES_FOR_PESTICIDES_-_NARA_-_546277.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"149\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Analyzing water samples for pesticides<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The range of chemical parameters that have the potential to affect any ecosystem is very large and in all monitoring programmes it is necessary to target a suite of parameters based on local knowledge and past practice for an initial review. The list can be expanded or reduced based on developing knowledge and the outcome of the initial surveys.\n<\/p><p>Freshwater environments have been extensively studied for many years and there is a robust understanding of the interactions between chemistry and the environment across much of the world. However, as new materials are developed and new pressures come to bear, revisions to monitoring programmes will be required. In the last 20 years <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acid_rain\" title=\"Acid rain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c421b66baa6187ee2320005fa8b6a1aa\">acid rain<\/a>, synthetic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hormone\" title=\"Hormone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"947295f56751f591b427713a8653daca\">hormone<\/a> analogues, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haloalkane\" title=\"Haloalkane\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd84acb3cd806440389c9802e55b2fac\">halogenated hydrocarbons<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Greenhouse_gas\" title=\"Greenhouse gas\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a62342a91d473c5cd5cd896864fd78d\">greenhouse gases<\/a> and many others have required changes to monitoring strategies.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Biological\">Biological<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In ecological monitoring, the monitoring strategy and effort is directed at the plants and animals in the environment under review and is specific to each individual study.\n<\/p><p>However, in more generalised environmental monitoring, many animals act as robust indicators of the quality of the environment that they are experiencing or have experienced in the recent past.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> One of the most familiar examples is the monitoring of numbers of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salmonid\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Salmonid\" data-key=\"7ecf073f9ed5bf0a3b79fdf5209f7ddc\">Salmonid<\/a> fish such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brown_trout\" title=\"Brown trout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35149329812aa900af3d9ac7e94148c7\">brown trout<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atlantic_salmon\" title=\"Atlantic salmon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"095a7189647975360ae1834358213ac2\">Atlantic salmon<\/a> in river systems and lakes to detect slow trends in adverse environmental effects. The steep decline in salmonid fish populations was one of the early indications of the problem that later became known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acid_rain\" title=\"Acid rain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c421b66baa6187ee2320005fa8b6a1aa\">acid rain<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In recent years much more attention has been given to a more holistic approach in which the ecosystem health is assessed and used as the monitoring tool itself.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> It is this approach that underpins the monitoring protocols of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_Framework_Directive\" title=\"Water Framework Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb52525b96fd843374c94bf2abb30e48\">Water Framework Directive<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Radiological\">Radiological<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radiation_monitoring\" title=\"Radiation monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bf5692970b4cbd30863a136a92cdbc7\">Radiation monitoring<\/a> involves the measurement of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radiation_dose\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Radiation dose\" data-key=\"930168d8a538d3626411eee4a2ffbe49\">radiation dose<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radionuclide\" title=\"Radionuclide\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4afb418f4bec54b659bd7a59d5df7637\">radionuclide<\/a> contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ionizing_radiation\" title=\"Ionizing radiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9c8a741f44f97c559457fd8f300751b\">ionizing radiation<\/a> or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> The 'measurement' of dose often means the measurement of a dose equivalent quantity as a proxy (i.e. substitute) for a dose quantity that cannot be measured directly. Also, sampling may be involved as a preliminary step to measurement of the content of radionuclides in environmental media. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IAEA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IAEA\" data-key=\"af46075c4ca712687dc2219089801ab4\">IAEA<\/a> Safety Guide RS\u2013G-1.8<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup> and in IAEA Safety Report No. 64.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Radiation monitoring is often carried out using networks of fixed and deployable sensors such as the US <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_Protection_Agency\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Environmental Protection Agency\" data-key=\"423c0f946b69c91d37835659bd9297ee\">Environmental Protection Agency<\/a>'s <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/radnet\/\" target=\"_blank\">Radnet<\/a> and the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110319035119\/http:\/\/www.bousai.ne.jp\/eng\/\" target=\"_blank\">SPEEDI<\/a> network in Japan. Airborne surveys are also made by organizations like the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_Emergency_Support_Team\" title=\"Nuclear Emergency Support Team\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37c237be4bf4c600e5315c177f5068bb\">Nuclear Emergency Support Team<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Microbiological\">Microbiological<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bacteria\" title=\"Bacteria\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d4a41314128003854212d9240bb8d56\">Bacteria<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virus\" title=\"Virus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0c053b17e1b20b7f5dde643374d2314\">viruses<\/a> are the most commonly monitored groups of microbiological organisms and even these are only of great relevance where water in the aquatic environment is subsequently used as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drinking_water\" title=\"Drinking water\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9671ba78bf65520df6e161ac53ca118\">drinking water<\/a> or where water contact recreation such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_swimming\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human swimming\" data-key=\"dfa7f4eb74162d673413a3aafdc3a024\">swimming<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canoe\" title=\"Canoe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a414b97482d0777c9e5d2557907a8de\">canoeing<\/a> is practised.\n<\/p><p>Although <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pathogen\" title=\"Pathogen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b7e07b1ddf243781aa837db2568a967\">pathogens<\/a> are the primary focus of attention, the principal monitoring effort is almost always directed at much more common indicator species such as <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Escherichia_coli\" title=\"Escherichia coli\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcf48f970130ee1ba90ab42148fd709b\">Escherichia coli<\/a><\/i>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> supplemented by overall <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coliform_bacteria\" title=\"Coliform bacteria\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc7e5a3945ce8d8f1d72764a0e4da43d\">coliform bacteria<\/a> counts. The rationale behind this monitoring strategy is that most human pathogens originate from other humans via the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sewage\" title=\"Sewage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a2b6f66b753d63387d8dfc30977453f\">sewage<\/a> stream. Many <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sewage_treatment\" title=\"Sewage treatment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3355009fe7057bf6763427d82844af92\">sewage treatment<\/a> plants have no <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disinfection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Disinfection\" data-key=\"d33af2ee32816778cab3a83d6f3f7d97\">sterilisation<\/a> final stage and therefore discharge an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Effluent\" title=\"Effluent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aaf1d3504e4a8663af4eb72b0af84e22\">effluent<\/a> which, although having a clean appearance, still contains many millions of bacteria per litre, the majority of which are relatively harmless coliform bacteria. Counting the number of harmless (or less harmful) sewage bacteria allows a judgement to be made about the probability of significant numbers of pathogenic bacteria or viruses being present. Where <i>E. coli<\/i> or coliform levels exceed pre-set trigger values, more intensive monitoring including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bacteriological_water_analysis\" title=\"Bacteriological water analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3445e3d17f876818905dc7facd58449f\">specific monitoring<\/a> for pathogenic species is then initiated.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Populations\">Populations<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Monitoring strategies can produce misleading answers when relaying on counts of species or presence or absence of particular organisms if there is no regard to population size. Understanding the populations dynamics of an organism being monitored is critical.\n<\/p><p>As an example if presence or absence of a particular organism within a 10&#160;km square is the measure adopted by a monitoring strategy, then a reduction of population from 10,000 per square to 10 per square will go unnoticed despite the very significant impact experienced by the organism.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Monitoring_programmes\">Monitoring programmes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>All scientifically reliable environmental monitoring is performed in line with a published programme. The programme may include the overall objectives of the organisation, references to the specific strategies that helps deliver the objective and details of specific projects or tasks within those strategies the key feature of any programme is the listing of what is being monitored and how that monitoring is to take place and the time-scale over which it should all happen. Typically, and often as an appendix, a monitoring programme will provide a table of locations, dates and sampling methods that are proposed and which, if undertaken in full, will deliver the published monitoring programme.\n<\/p><p>There are a number of commercial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a> packages which can assist with the implementation of the programme, monitor its progress and flag up inconsistencies or omissions but none of these can provide the key building block which is the programme itself.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environmental_monitoring_data_management_systems\">Environmental monitoring data management systems<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Given the multiple types and increasing volumes and importance of monitoring data, commercial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a> Environmental Data Management Systems (EDMS) or E-MDMS are increasingly in common use by regulated industries. They provide a means of managing all monitoring data in a single central place. Quality validation, compliance checking, verifying all data has been received, and sending alerts are generally automated. Typical interrogation functionality enables comparison of data sets both temporarily and spatially. They will also generate regulatory and other reports.\n<\/p><p>One formal certification scheme exists specifically for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_data\" title=\"Environmental data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e45425714879e66e66837c4c78555d1\">environmental data<\/a> management software. This is provided by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environment_Agency\" title=\"Environment Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17f9fe7cf3c0213c6c0a3bfc9574a0d5\">Environment Agency<\/a> in the U.K. under its (MCERTS).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GOVUK_MCERTS17_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GOVUK_MCERTS17-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GOVUK_Monitor17_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GOVUK_Monitor17-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CSA_MCERTS_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CSA_MCERTS-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sampling_methods\">Sampling methods<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are a wide range of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sample_(material)\" title=\"Sample (material)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a44ab1352639dbac19591fca854a841\">sampling<\/a> methods which depend on the type of environment, the material being sampled and the subsequent analysis of the sample. At its simplest a sample can be filling a clean bottle with river water and submitting it for conventional chemical analysis. At the more complex end, sample data may be produced by complex electronic sensing devices taking sub-samples over fixed or variable time periods.\n<\/p><p>Sampling methods include judgmental sampling, simple random sampling, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stratified_sampling\" title=\"Stratified sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"194eaa8c20ec2be4294e93e1dcfbb85b\">stratified sampling<\/a>, systematic and grid sampling, adaptive <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_sampling\" title=\"Cluster sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"072ea568b3acee0f9550801822a02d35\">cluster sampling<\/a>, grab samples, semi-continuous monitoring and continuous, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Passive_sampling\" title=\"Passive sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14c3b08d19cbb02bba1746ad61b06d26\">passive sampling<\/a>, remote surveillance, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_sensing\" title=\"Remote sensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0550a7cb05977f16dc64ec22dd5822f\">remote sensing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biomonitoring\" title=\"Biomonitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99ec7ea21b74b4378fe945f94e813ded\">biomonitoring<\/a> and other sampling methods.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Judgmental_sampling\">Judgmental sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In judgmental sampling, the selection of sampling units (i.e., the number and location and\/or timing of collecting samples) is based on knowledge of the feature or condition under investigation and on professional judgment. Judgmental sampling is distinguished from probability-based sampling in that inferences are based on professional judgment, not statistical scientific theory. Therefore, conclusions about the target population are limited and depend entirely on the validity and accuracy of professional judgment; probabilistic statements about parameters are not possible. As described in subsequent chapters, expert judgment may also be used in conjunction with other sampling designs to produce effective sampling for defensible decisions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Simple_random_sampling\">Simple random sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In simple random sampling, particular sampling units (for example, locations and\/or times) are selected using random numbers, and all possible selections of a given number of units are equally likely. For example, a simple random sample of a set of drums can be taken by numbering all the drums and randomly selecting numbers from that list or by sampling an area by using pairs of random coordinates. This method is easy to understand, and the equations for determining sample size are relatively straightforward. Simple random sampling is most useful when the population of interest is relatively homogeneous; i.e., no major patterns of contamination or \u201chot spots\u201d are expected. The main advantages of this design are:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>It provides statistically unbiased estimates of the mean, proportions, and variability.<\/li>\n<li>It is easy to understand and easy to implement.<\/li>\n<li>Sample size calculations and data analysis are very straightforward.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>In some cases, implementation of a simple random sample can be more difficult than some other types of designs (for example, grid samples) because of the difficulty of precisely identifying random geographic locations. Additionally, simple random sampling can be more costly than other plans if difficulties in obtaining samples due to location causes an expenditure of extra effort.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_40-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stratified_sampling\">Stratified sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stratified_sampling\" title=\"Stratified sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"194eaa8c20ec2be4294e93e1dcfbb85b\">stratified sampling<\/a>, the target population is separated into non-overlapping strata, or subpopulations that are known or thought to be more homogeneous (relative to the environmental medium or the contaminant), so that there tends to be less variation among sampling units in the same stratum than among sampling units in different strata. Strata may be chosen on the basis of spatial or temporal proximity of the units, or on the basis of preexisting information or professional judgment about the site or process. Advantages of this sampling design are that it has potential for achieving greater precision in estimates of the mean and variance, and that it allows computation of reliable estimates for population subgroups of special interest. Greater precision can be obtained if the measurement of interest is strongly correlated with the variable used to make the strata.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_40-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Systematic_and_grid_sampling\">Systematic and grid sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In systematic and grid sampling, samples are taken at regularly spaced intervals over space or time. An initial location or time is chosen at random, and then the remaining sampling locations are defined so that all locations are at regular intervals over an area (grid) or time (systematic). Examples Systematic Grid Sampling - Square Grid Systematic Grid Sampling - Triangular Grids of systematic grids include square, rectangular, triangular, or radial grids.\nCressie, 1993. In random systematic sampling, an initial sampling location (or time) is chosen at random and the remaining sampling sites are specified so that they are located according to a regular pattern. Random systematic sampling is used to search for hot spots and to infer means, percentiles, or other parameters and is also useful for estimating spatial patterns or trends over time. This design provides a practical and easy method for designating sample locations and ensures uniform coverage of a site, unit, or process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_40-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Ranked set sampling is an innovative design that can be highly useful and cost efficient in obtaining better estimates of mean concentration levels in soil and other environmental media by explicitly incorporating the professional judgment of a field investigator or a field screening measurement method to pick specific sampling locations in the field. Ranked set sampling uses a two-phase sampling design that identifies sets of field locations, utilizes inexpensive measurements to rank locations within each set, and then selects one location from each set for sampling. In ranked set sampling, m sets (each of size r) of field locations are identified using simple random sampling. The locations are ranked independently within each set using professional judgment or inexpensive, fast, or surrogate measurements. One sampling unit from each set is then selected (based on the observed ranks) for subsequent measurement using a more accurate and reliable (hence, more expensive) method for the contaminant of interest. Relative to simple random sampling, this design results in more representative samples and so leads to more precise estimates of the population parameters. Ranked set sampling is useful when the cost of locating and ranking locations in the field is low compared to laboratory measurements. It is also appropriate when an inexpensive auxiliary variable (based on expert knowledge or measurement) is available to rank population units with respect to the variable of interest. To use this design effectively, it is important that the ranking method and analytical method are strongly correlated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_40-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Adaptive_cluster_sampling\">Adaptive cluster sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In adaptive <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_sampling\" title=\"Cluster sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"072ea568b3acee0f9550801822a02d35\">cluster sampling<\/a>, samples are taken using simple random sampling, and additional samples are taken at locations where measurements exceed some threshold value. Several additional rounds of sampling and analysis may be needed. Adaptive cluster sampling tracks the selection probabilities for later phases of sampling so that an unbiased estimate of the population mean can be calculated despite oversampling of certain areas. An example application of adaptive cluster sampling is delineating the borders of a plume of contamination. Adaptive sampling is useful for estimating or searching for rare characteristics in a population and is appropriate for inexpensive, rapid measurements. It enables delineating the boundaries of hot spots, while also using all data collected with appropriate weighting to give unbiased estimates of the population mean.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_40-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nollet_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nollet-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Grab_samples\">Grab samples<\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Watersampling.JPG\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6297544a95101d9b6ec5e8777f9ab01\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/84\/Watersampling.JPG\/220px-Watersampling.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"146\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Collecting a grab sample on a stream<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Grab samples are samples taken of a homogeneous material, usually <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water\" title=\"Water\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a2ad3a4493078adcc76891200568551\">water<\/a>, in a single vessel. Filling a clean bottle with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/River\" title=\"River\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d485576e742edf8a32c2c8610519dff5\">river<\/a> water is a very common example. Grab samples provide a good snap-shot view of the quality of the sampled environment at the point of sampling and at the time of sampling. Without additional monitoring, the results cannot be extrapolated to other times or to other parts of the river, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lake\" title=\"Lake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad443d334e37f612db8ccf88febc467d\">lake<\/a> or ground-water.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nollet_41-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nollet-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 3\">:\u200a3\u200a<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In order to enable grab samples or rivers to be treated as representative, repeat transverse and longitudinal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transect\" title=\"Transect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c9cfd5daecf78c857e0d9c2d04f175e\">transect<\/a> surveys taken at different times of day and times of year are required to establish that the grab-sample location is as representative as is reasonably possible. For large rivers such surveys should also have regard to the depth of the sample and how to best manage the sampling locations at times of flood and drought.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nollet_41-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nollet-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 8\u20139\">:\u200a8\u20139\u200a<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In lakes grab samples are relatively simple to take using depth samplers which can be lowered to a pre-determined depth and then closed trapping a fixed volume of water from the required depth. In all but the shallowest lakes, there are major changes in the chemical composition of lake water at different depths, especially during the summer months when many lakes stratify into a warm, well oxygenated upper layer (<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epilimnion\" title=\"Epilimnion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b179a0cb7a57dc76b733f33c45076012\">epilimnion<\/a><\/i>) and a cool de-oxygenated lower layer <i>(<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hypolimnion\" title=\"Hypolimnion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3eb6e7fec16fe15209b4e92cb7df70d5\">hypolimnion<\/a><\/i>).\n<\/p><p>In the open seas marine environment grab samples can establish a wide range of base-line parameters such as salinity and a range of cation and anion concentrations. However, where changing conditions are an issue such as near river or sewage discharges, close to the effects of volcanism or close to areas of freshwater input from melting ice, a grab sample can only give a very partial answer when taken on its own.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Semi-continuous_monitoring_and_continuous\">Semi-continuous monitoring and continuous<\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:WQ_sampling_station_USGS_2004.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"131702a6795c38159f2648b4139badaa\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f5\/WQ_sampling_station_USGS_2004.jpg\/220px-WQ_sampling_station_USGS_2004.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>An automated sampling station and data logger (to record temperature, specific conductance, and dissolved oxygen levels)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>There is a wide range of specialized sampling equipment available that can be programmed to take samples at fixed or variable time intervals or in response to an external trigger. For example, an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autosampler\" title=\"Autosampler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45d3a09cb4c386ea8ecd54daee2ce96b\">autosampler<\/a> can be programmed to start taking samples of a river at 8-minute intervals when the rainfall intensity rises above 1&#160;mm \/ hour. The trigger in this case may be a remote rain gauge communicating with the sampler by using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cell_phone\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cell phone\" data-key=\"d6d23a471e755baed9d28001d9eaf653\">cell phone<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meteor_burst_communications\" title=\"Meteor burst communications\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63ce92d114282d2dd5948063489bf470\">meteor burst<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> technology. Samplers can also take individual discrete samples at each sampling occasion or bulk up samples into composite so that in the course of one day, such a sampler might produce 12 composite samples each composed of 6 sub-samples taken at 20-minute intervals.\n<\/p><p>Continuous or quasi-continuous monitoring involves having an automated analytical facility close to the environment being monitored so that results can, if required, be viewed in real time. Such systems are often established to protect important water supplies such as in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/River_Dee_regulation_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"River Dee regulation system\" data-key=\"290371876a9d1cf9f2a98253f6433e1d\">River Dee regulation system<\/a> but may also be part of an overall monitoring strategy on large strategic rivers where early warning of potential problems is essential. Such systems routinely provide data on parameters such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PH\" title=\"PH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a76a6eb00bd0e1619bee97643933571\">pH<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dissolved_oxygen\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dissolved oxygen\" data-key=\"55204d6e27161618f2e52291edf94fc1\">dissolved oxygen<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conductivity_(electrolytic)\" title=\"Conductivity (electrolytic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"363998998cd4027ca60f926a7e7b3f00\">conductivity<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turbidity\" title=\"Turbidity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3d055ab047e4cc58980abb8c7df0bfb\">turbidity<\/a> and ammonia using sondes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> It is also possible to operate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gas_liquid_chromatography\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gas liquid chromatography\" data-key=\"fcb8b76ff87bbffbf4d7e4c9e4f7dbe1\">gas liquid chromatography<\/a> with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9e8497cbfaef220fa14d9ab192c29a9\">mass spectrometry<\/a> technologies (GLC\/MS) to examine a wide range of potential <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organic_compound\" title=\"Organic compound\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc5fe96ca1b857a8ef7ca0550295a850\">organic<\/a> pollutants. In all examples of automated bank-side analysis there is a requirement for water to be pumped from the river into the monitoring station. Choosing a location for the pump inlet is equally as critical as deciding on the location for a river grab sample. The design of the pump and pipework also requires careful design to avoid artefacts being introduced through the action of pumping the water. Dissolved oxygen concentration is difficult to sustain through a pumped system and GLC\/MS facilities can detect micro-organic contaminants from the pipework and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gland_(engineering)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gland (engineering)\" data-key=\"a93e22ff5a89f63e447b5f5e2aeb9107\">glands<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Passive_sampling\">Passive sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Passive_sampling\" title=\"Passive sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14c3b08d19cbb02bba1746ad61b06d26\">Passive sampling<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The use of passive samplers greatly reduces the cost and the need of infrastructure on the sampling location. Passive samplers are semi-disposable and can be produced at a relatively low cost, thus they can be employed in great numbers, allowing for a better cover and more data being collected. Due to being small the passive sampler can also be hidden, and thereby lower the risk of vandalism. Examples of passive sampling devices are the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diffusive_gradients_in_thin_films\" title=\"Diffusive gradients in thin films\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed08956f87e4f65cd604faa7013347b2\">diffusive gradients in thin films<\/a> (DGT) sampler, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemcatcher\" title=\"Chemcatcher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd8d6cb81ce97bd96153cf9bfaec08ad\">Chemcatcher<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polar_organic_chemical_integrative_sampler\" title=\"Polar organic chemical integrative sampler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a4a3be48d23f8f9b738b2e37d249ce0\">polar organic chemical integrative sampler<\/a> (POCIS), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semipermeable_membrane_devices\" title=\"Semipermeable membrane devices\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45df5e10ab5ec66799bb3b1272a61ff7\">semipermeable membrane devices<\/a> (SPMDs), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stabilized_liquid_membrane_devices\" title=\"Stabilized liquid membrane devices\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8aaa2c80fe4c688d61d0e40149e99ac\">stabilized liquid membrane devices<\/a> (SLMDs), and an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sorbent_tube\" title=\"Sorbent tube\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b2ff65ce963c2c638223fe1fb9f2f028\">air sampling pump<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Remote_surveillance\">Remote surveillance<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Although on-site data collection using electronic measuring equipment is common-place, many monitoring programmes also use remote surveillance and remote access to data in real time. This requires the on-site monitoring equipment to be connected to a base station via either a telemetry network, land-line, cell phone network or other telemetry system such as Meteor burst. The advantage of remote surveillance is that many data feeds can come into a single base station for storing and analysis. It also enable trigger levels or alert levels to be set for individual monitoring sites and\/or parameters so that immediate action can be initiated if a trigger level is exceeded. The use of remote surveillance also allows for the installation of very discrete monitoring equipment which can often be buried, camouflaged or tethered at depth in a lake or river with only a short whip <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antenna_(radio)\" title=\"Antenna (radio)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89ed244f033a8b87fa76efcd8b9edfff\">aerial<\/a> protruding. Use of such equipment tends to reduce <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vandalism\" title=\"Vandalism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c08614c84c346d61e78184241c5685c\">vandalism<\/a> and theft when monitoring in locations easily accessible by the public.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Remote_sensing\">Remote sensing<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_sensing\" title=\"Remote sensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0550a7cb05977f16dc64ec22dd5822f\">Remote sensing<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Environmental remote sensing uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle\" title=\"Unmanned aerial vehicle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41a4e7c5b9ee75018635018effc8f619\">UAV<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aircraft\" title=\"Aircraft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fc19d38e5285f33624093a237e3a2d5\">aircraft<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Satellite\" title=\"Satellite\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c7daf92a6c446a989a06b6d0441e06f\">satellites<\/a> to monitor the environment using multi-channel sensors.\n<\/p><p>There are two kinds of remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors and in environmental remote sensing, the sensors used are tuned to specific wavelengths from far <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrared\" title=\"Infrared\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b2c07d211563e8beacf68339b2123c4\">infrared<\/a> through visible light frequencies to the far <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ultraviolet\" title=\"Ultraviolet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c04581600fb0e327a6ea34d912bd0b22\">ultraviolet<\/a>. The volumes of data that can be collected are very large and require dedicated computational support. The output of data analysis from remote sensing are false colour images which differentiate small differences in the radiation characteristics of the environment being monitored. With a skilful operator choosing specific channels it is possible to amplify differences which are imperceptible to the human eye. In particular it is possible to discriminate subtle changes in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chlorophyll_a\" title=\"Chlorophyll a\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"982812fd60ec4d4d04256db6370e6983\">chlorophyll a<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chlorophyll_b\" title=\"Chlorophyll b\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97541899c39c2177b97b28892be60aeb\">chlorophyll b<\/a> concentrations in plants and show areas of an environment with slightly different nutrient regimes.\n<\/p><p>Active remote sensing emits energy and uses a passive sensor to detect and measure the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LIDAR\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LIDAR\" data-key=\"5ea1471a02ea0833e7da3f4ab60df06e\">LIDAR<\/a> is often used to acquire information about the topography of an area, especially when the area is large and manual surveying would be prohibitively expensive or difficult.\n<\/p><p>Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data on dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deforestation\" title=\"Deforestation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a3d0d2d9f415d6371e9cfb5425ff2cb\">deforestation<\/a> in areas such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_Basin\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Amazon Basin\" data-key=\"085c13f9ff72d77125273dbc1d433fb8\">Amazon Basin<\/a>, the effects of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Climate_change\" title=\"Climate change\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc6dc1603d12a16d564a3a5cd0add93a\">climate change<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glacier\" title=\"Glacier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89c2c1f4841c0d3792c2e10fd1a7b174\">glaciers<\/a> and Arctic and Antarctic regions, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Depth_sounding\" title=\"Depth sounding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"910610864f65c0de25ff3aaf3eef4fa1\">depth sounding<\/a> of coastal and ocean depths.\n<\/p><p>Orbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetic_spectrum\" title=\"Electromagnetic spectrum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d776d699a00c4ea1b23854ace0867792\">electromagnetic spectrum<\/a>, which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or ground-based sensing and analysis, provides information to monitor trends such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/El_Ni%C3%B1o\" title=\"El Ni\u00f1o\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc9177b517078e8acda2834d304b2939\">El Ni\u00f1o<\/a> and other natural long and short term phenomena. Other uses include different areas of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Earth_science\" title=\"Earth science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8aeec1561e4dfde36260e69852762637\">earth sciences<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_resource_management\" title=\"Natural resource management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8403d50aab23f8ff3896755db763f8c3\">natural resource management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Land_use_planning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Land use planning\" data-key=\"f34a4c61e0081896a01519053bab5f3e\">land use planning<\/a> and conservation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Biomonitoring\">Biomonitoring<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aquatic_biomonitoring\" title=\"Aquatic biomonitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f421bc4f806192b01fbd7d4a4a9439c9\">Aquatic biomonitoring<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The use of living organisms as monitoring tools has many advantages. Organisms living in the environment under study are constantly exposed to the physical, biological and chemical influences of that environment. Organisms that have a tendency to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioaccumulation\" title=\"Bioaccumulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb77fbd7b9523306b127361251c7b15d\">accumulate<\/a> chemical species can often accumulate significant quantities of material from very low concentrations in the environment. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moss\" title=\"Moss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d040f4771b13d86ae6075bb927795d6c\">Mosses<\/a> have been used by many investigators to monitor <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heavy_metal_(chemistry)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Heavy metal (chemistry)\" data-key=\"a194a407385f73368e2f90fc04658202\">heavy metal<\/a> concentrations because of their tendency to selectively adsorb heavy metals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Similarly, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eel\" title=\"Eel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa6bfef0b85f65eda4beefaefc3701be\">eels<\/a> have been used to study <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Halogenation\" title=\"Halogenation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e875954205690626acd6faf36899a695\">halogenated<\/a> organic chemicals, as these are adsorbed into the fatty deposits within the eel.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_sampling_methods\">Other sampling methods<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Ecological sampling requires careful planning to be representative and as noninvasive as possible. For grasslands and other low growing habitats the use of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quadrat\" title=\"Quadrat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d258f1668f8fa7adeabb7150cd38ffe\">quadrat<\/a> \u2013 a 1-metre square frame \u2013 is often used with the numbers and types of organisms growing within each quadrat area counted<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Sediments and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil\" title=\"Soil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07af34ab9a16e0916f7657b56bc1e474\">soils<\/a> require specialist sampling tools to ensure that the material recovered is representative. Such samplers are frequently designed to recover a specified volume of material and may also be designed to recover the sediment or soil living biota as well<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup> such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vagn_Walfrid_Ekman\" title=\"Vagn Walfrid Ekman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f56d3f0b5652645b906c886bfb825df\">Ekman<\/a> grab sampler.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_interpretations\">Data interpretations<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The interpretation of environmental data produced from a well designed monitoring programme is a large and complex topic addressed by many publications. Regrettably it is sometimes the case that scientists approach the analysis of results with a pre-conceived outcome in mind and use or misuse statistics to demonstrate that their own particular point of view is correct.\n<\/p><p>Statistics remains a tool that is equally easy to use or to misuse to demonstrate the lessons learnt from environmental monitoring.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environmental_quality_indices\">Environmental quality indices<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Since the start of science-based environmental monitoring, a number of quality indices have been devised to help classify and clarify the meaning of the considerable volumes of data involved. Stating that a river stretch is in \"Class B\" is likely to be much more informative than stating that this river stretch has a mean BOD of 4.2, a mean dissolved oxygen of 85%, etc. In the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UK\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UK\" data-key=\"3be4614aa8ee9ecb1c46bbb0c1feed82\">UK<\/a> the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environment_Agency\" title=\"Environment Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17f9fe7cf3c0213c6c0a3bfc9574a0d5\">Environment Agency<\/a> formally employed a system called General Quality Assessment (GQA) which classified rivers into six quality letter bands from A to F based on chemical criteria<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> and on biological criteria.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> The Environment Agency and its devolved partners in Wales (Countryside Council for Wales, CCW) and Scotland (Scottish Environmental Protection Agency, SEPA) now employ a system of biological, chemical and physical classification for rivers and lakes that corresponds with the EU Water Framework Directive.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agricultural_burning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Agricultural burning\" data-key=\"ba213db7243be6e04085ee18d87cb19b\">Agricultural burning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agricultural_waste\" title=\"Agricultural waste\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ac011eb8164daa44b493d02ddf53e12\">Agricultural waste<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biodiversity_Monitoring_Switzerland\" title=\"Biodiversity Monitoring Switzerland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe1e8d0d808aa5ae27a93836a54ddb0d\">Biodiversity Monitoring Switzerland<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_monitoring\" title=\"Carbon monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"840bdbdd618bb4171feec4b3ad1a9a0e\">Carbon monitoring<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_profiling\" title=\"Carbon profiling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baffee4f977041e697be8119915909fb\">Carbon profiling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Citizen_science#Plastics_and_pollution\" title=\"Citizen science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf71901323763f0ea862f889462b9ae3\">Citizen science<\/a>, research projects that non-scientists can take part in<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crowdmapping\" title=\"Crowdmapping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79adf9138cebc45e7db67122ca6d2b35\">Crowdmapping<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_technology\" title=\"Environmental technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61351ccfd4561e6a51dbad6a5cc29e61\">Environmental technology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_Grab_Bag\" title=\"Project Grab Bag\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5728aab59bda4ef30c368add92d0b305\">Project Grab Bag<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle#Applications\" title=\"Unmanned aerial vehicle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d251bc34ea87f2d48e41e0736b7f3b01\">Unmanned aerial vehicle \u00a7&#160;Applications<\/a>: drones can be used for various types of environmental monitoring<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForbesPerspect15-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesPerspect15_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFForbes,_P.B.C.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Forbes, P.B.C. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hESnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Perspectives on the Monitoring of Air Pollutants\"<\/a>. In Barcelo, D. (ed.). <i>Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques<\/i>. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. Vol.&#160;70. Elsevier. pp.&#160;3\u20139. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780444635532<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Perspectives+on+the+Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants&amp;rft.btitle=Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants%3A+Sampling%2C+Sample+Preparation+and+Analytical+Techniques&amp;rft.series=Comprehensive+Analytical+Chemistry&amp;rft.pages=3-9&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9780444635532&amp;rft.au=Forbes%2C+P.B.C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhESnBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA3&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RadaPerspect16-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-RadaPerspect16_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RadaPerspect16_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRada,_E.C.Ragazzi,_M.Brini,_M.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Rada, E.C.; Ragazzi, M.; Brini, M.; et&#160;al. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-nauDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT27\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Perspectives of Low-Cost Sensors Adoption for Air Quality Monitoring\"<\/a>. In Ragazzi, M. (ed.). <i>Air Quality: Monitoring, Measuring, and Modeling Environmental Hazards<\/i>. CRC Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781315341859<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Perspectives+of+Low-Cost+Sensors+Adoption+for+Air+Quality+Monitoring&amp;rft.btitle=Air+Quality%3A+Monitoring%2C+Measuring%2C+and+Modeling+Environmental+Hazards&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=9781315341859&amp;rft.au=Rada%2C+E.C.&amp;rft.au=Ragazzi%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Brini%2C+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-nauDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT27&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WilliamsAir14-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WilliamsAir14_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWilliams,_R.Kilaru,_V.Snyder,_E.2014\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Williams, R.; Kilaru, V.; Snyder, E.; et&#160;al. (June 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cfpub.epa.gov\/si\/si_public_file_download.cfm?p_download_id=519616\" target=\"_blank\">\"Air Sensor Guidebook\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. p.&#160;65<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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GO3 Foundation. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/go3project.com\/network2\/index.php\/pages\/home\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 29 May 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=GO%3Csub%3E3%3C%2Fsub%3E+Project&amp;rft.pub=GO3+Foundation&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgo3project.com%2Fnetwork2%2Findex.php%2Fpages%2Fhome&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LBBHome-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LBBHome_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labucketbrigade.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Louisiana Bucket Brigade\"<\/a>. Louisiana Bucket Brigade<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Louisiana+Bucket+Brigade&amp;rft.pub=Louisiana+Bucket+Brigade&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labucketbrigade.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPAList16-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-EPAList16_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www3.epa.gov\/ttnamti1\/files\/ambient\/criteria\/AMTIC%20List%20Dec%202016-2.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"List of Designated Reference and Equivalent Methods\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 17 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=List+of+Designated+Reference+and+Equivalent+Methods&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft.date=2016-12-17&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww3.epa.gov%2Fttnamti1%2Ffiles%2Fambient%2Fcriteria%2FAMTIC%2520List%2520Dec%25202016-2.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IrelandEPANational17-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-IrelandEPANational17_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEnvironmental_Protection_Agency_(Ireland)2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Environmental Protection Agency (Ireland) (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.ie\/pubs\/reports\/air\/quality\/epanationalambientprogramme.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme 2017\u20132022<\/i><\/a>. 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CSE, New Delhi<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 Oct<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Centre+for+Science+and+Environment&amp;rft.pub=CSE%2C+New+Delhi.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cseindia.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aaar.org\/publications\/as-t-journal\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AS&amp;T Journal\"<\/a>. American Association for Aerosol Research<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=AS%26T+Journal&amp;rft.pub=American+Association+for+Aerosol+Research&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaar.org%2Fpublications%2Fas-t-journal%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRighini,_G.Cappalletti,_A.Cionno,_I.2013\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Righini, G.; Cappalletti, A.; Cionno, I.; et&#160;al. 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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/air\/aqmportal\/management\/modeling\/receptor.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 3 September 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Air+Quality+Management+Online+Portal&amp;rft.atitle=Receptor+Modeling&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fair%2Faqmportal%2Fmanagement%2Fmodeling%2Freceptor.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PienaarPassive15-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PienaarPassive15_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPienaar,_J.J.Beukes,_J.P.Zyl,_P.G.V.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Pienaar, J.J.; Beukes, J.P.; Zyl, P.G.V.; et&#160;al. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hESnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Passive Diffusion Sampling Devices for Monitoring Ambient Air Concentrations\"<\/a>. In Barcelo, D. (ed.). <i>Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques<\/i>. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. Vol.&#160;70. Elsevier. pp.&#160;13\u201352. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780444635532<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Passive+Diffusion+Sampling+Devices+for+Monitoring+Ambient+Air+Concentrations&amp;rft.btitle=Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants%3A+Sampling%2C+Sample+Preparation+and+Analytical+Techniques&amp;rft.series=Comprehensive+Analytical+Chemistry&amp;rft.pages=13-52&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9780444635532&amp;rft.au=Pienaar%2C+J.J.&amp;rft.au=Beukes%2C+J.P.&amp;rft.au=Zyl%2C+P.G.V.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhESnBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA13&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGarty2001\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Garty, J (2001). \"Biomonitoring Atmospheric Heavy Metals with Lichens: Theory and Application\". <i>Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences<\/i>. <b>20<\/b> (4): 309\u2013371. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F20013591099254\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/20013591099254<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:59062166\" target=\"_blank\">59062166<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Plant+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=Biomonitoring+Atmospheric+Heavy+Metals+with+Lichens%3A+Theory+and+Application&amp;rft.volume=20&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=309-371&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F20013591099254&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59062166%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Garty&amp;rft.aufirst=J&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForbesBiomon15-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesBiomon15_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesBiomon15_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFForbes,_P.B.C.van_der_Wat,_L.Kroukamp,_E.M.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Forbes, P.B.C.; van der Wat, L.; Kroukamp, E.M. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hESnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 3: Biomonitors\"<\/a>. In Barcelo, D. (ed.). <i>Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques<\/i>. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. Vol.&#160;70. Elsevier. pp.&#160;53\u2013107. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780444635532<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+Biomonitors&amp;rft.btitle=Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants%3A+Sampling%2C+Sample+Preparation+and+Analytical+Techniques&amp;rft.series=Comprehensive+Analytical+Chemistry&amp;rft.pages=53-107&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9780444635532&amp;rft.au=Forbes%2C+P.B.C.&amp;rft.au=van+der+Wat%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Kroukamp%2C+E.M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhESnBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA53&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForbesDenuders15-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesDenuders15_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFForbes,_P.B.C.Rohwer,_E.R.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Forbes, P.B.C.; Rohwer, E.R. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hESnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA155\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 5: Denuders\"<\/a>. In Barcelo, D. (ed.). <i>Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques<\/i>. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. Vol.&#160;70. Elsevier. pp.&#160;155\u2013181. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780444635532<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+5%3A+Denuders&amp;rft.btitle=Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants%3A+Sampling%2C+Sample+Preparation+and+Analytical+Techniques&amp;rft.series=Comprehensive+Analytical+Chemistry&amp;rft.pages=155-181&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9780444635532&amp;rft.au=Forbes%2C+P.B.C.&amp;rft.au=Rohwer%2C+E.R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhESnBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA155&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NOAAMerc-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NOAAMerc_17-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.esrl.noaa.gov\/gmd\/obop\/mlo\/programs\/esrl\/hg\/hg.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Elemental, Particulate, and Reactive Gaseous Mercury Monitoring\"<\/a>. NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Elemental%2C+Particulate%2C+and+Reactive+Gaseous+Mercury+Monitoring&amp;rft.pub=NOAA+Earth+System+Research+Laboratory%2C+Global+Monitoring+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esrl.noaa.gov%2Fgmd%2Fobop%2Fmlo%2Fprograms%2Fesrl%2Fhg%2Fhg.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GrandyNovel15-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GrandyNovel15_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGrandy,_J.Asl-Hariri,_S.Paliszyn,_J.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Grandy, J.; Asl-Hariri, S.; Paliszyn, J. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hESnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA208\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 7: Novel and Emerging Air-Sampling Devices\"<\/a>. In Barcelo, D. (ed.). <i>Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques<\/i>. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. Vol.&#160;70. Elsevier. pp.&#160;208\u2013237. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780444635532<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+7%3A+Novel+and+Emerging+Air-Sampling+Devices&amp;rft.btitle=Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants%3A+Sampling%2C+Sample+Preparation+and+Analytical+Techniques&amp;rft.series=Comprehensive+Analytical+Chemistry&amp;rft.pages=208-237&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9780444635532&amp;rft.au=Grandy%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Asl-Hariri%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Paliszyn%2C+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhESnBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA208&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CachadaSoil17-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_19-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCachada,_A.Rocha-Santos,_T.Duarte,_A.C.2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Cachada, A.; Rocha-Santos, T.; Duarte, A.C. (2017). \"Chapter 1: Soil and Pollution: An Introduction to the Main Issues\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fE6ZDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Soil Pollution: From Monitoring to Remediation<\/i><\/a>. Academic Press. pp.&#160;1\u201328. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780128498729<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Soil+and+Pollution%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Main+Issues&amp;rft.btitle=Soil+Pollution%3A+From+Monitoring+to+Remediation&amp;rft.pages=1-28&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=9780128498729&amp;rft.au=Cachada%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Rocha-Santos%2C+T.&amp;rft.au=Duarte%2C+A.C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfE6ZDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DuboisSampling93-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DuboisSampling93_20-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDubois,_J.P.Schulin,_R.1993\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dubois, J.P.; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rainer_Schulin\" title=\"Rainer Schulin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7c67b70836231acfdec6a146b071ea\">Schulin, R.<\/a> (1993). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Amb0BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA271\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sampling and Analytical Techniques as Limiting Factors in Soil Monitoring\"<\/a>. In Schulin, R.; Webster, R.; Desaules, A.; von Steiger, B. (eds.). <i>Soil Monitoring: Early Detection and Surveying of Soil Contamination and Degradation<\/i>. Springer Basel. pp.&#160;271\u20136. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783034875424<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Sampling+and+Analytical+Techniques+as+Limiting+Factors+in+Soil+Monitoring&amp;rft.btitle=Soil+Monitoring%3A+Early+Detection+and+Surveying+of+Soil+Contamination+and+Degradation&amp;rft.pages=271-6&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Basel&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.isbn=9783034875424&amp;rft.au=Dubois%2C+J.P.&amp;rft.au=Schulin%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAmb0BwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA271&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HarterWater08-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HarterWater08_21-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHarter,_T.2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Harter, T. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AmKl8C7zVoAC&pg=PA116\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 8: Water Sampling and Monitoring\"<\/a>. In Harter, T.; Rollins, L. (eds.). <i>Watersheds, Groundwater and Drinking Water: A Practical Guide<\/i>. UCANR Publications. pp.&#160;113\u201338. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781879906815<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=oHhGtPF4JzsC&pg=PA128\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Field Sampling Methods for Remedial Investigations<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp.&#160;128\u2013148. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781420059151<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Field+Sampling+Methods+for+Remedial+Investigations&amp;rft.pages=128-148&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=9781420059151&amp;rft.au=Byrnes%2C+M.E.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoHhGtPF4JzsC%26pg%3DPA128&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MirsalSoil13-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MirsalSoil13_23-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMirsal,_I.2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mirsal, I. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=l9Z9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA172\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Soil Pollution: Origin, Monitoring &amp; Remediation<\/i><\/a>. Springer Science+Business Media. pp.&#160;172\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783662054000<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Soil+Pollution%3A+Origin%2C+Monitoring+%26+Remediation&amp;rft.pages=172-4&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science%2BBusiness+Media&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9783662054000&amp;rft.au=Mirsal%2C+I.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl9Z9BwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA172&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KotWasikSome07-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KotWasikSome07_24-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKot-Wasik,_A.Namie\u015bnik,_J.2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kot-Wasik, A.; Namie\u015bnik, J. (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=0v6Tu4kI7s8C&pg=PA161\" target=\"_blank\">\"Some Advances in Environmental Analytics and Monitoring\"<\/a>. In Twardowska, I.; Allen, H.E.; H\u00e4ggblom, M.M. (eds.). <i>Soil and Water Pollution Monitoring, Protection and Remediation<\/i>. Springer Science+Business Media. pp.&#160;161\u2013174. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781402047282<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Some+Advances+in+Environmental+Analytics+and+Monitoring&amp;rft.btitle=Soil+and+Water+Pollution+Monitoring%2C+Protection+and+Remediation&amp;rft.pages=161-174&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science%2BBusiness+Media&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=9781402047282&amp;rft.au=Kot-Wasik%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Namie%C5%9Bnik%2C+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0v6Tu4kI7s8C%26pg%3DPA161&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AelionSoil09-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AelionSoil09_25-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAelion,_C.M.2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Aelion, C.M. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XUzDDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA148\" target=\"_blank\">\"Soil Contamination Monitoring\"<\/a>. In Inyang, H.I.; Daniels, J.L. (eds.). <i>Environmental Monitoring<\/i>. Vol.&#160;2. EOLSS Publications. pp.&#160;148\u201374. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781905839766<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Soil+Contamination+Monitoring&amp;rft.btitle=Environmental+Monitoring&amp;rft.pages=148-74&amp;rft.pub=EOLSS+Publications&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=9781905839766&amp;rft.au=Aelion%2C+C.M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXUzDDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA148&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OwensSoil06-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-OwensSoil06_26-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOwens,_P.N.Collins,_A.J.2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Owens, P.N.; Collins, A.J. (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=YLbSI4vw_oIC&pg=PA299\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 28: Soil Erosion and Sediment Redistribution in River Catchments: Summary, Outlook and Future Requirements\"<\/a>. <i>Soil Erosion and Sediment Redistribution in River Catchments: Measurement, Modelling And Management<\/i>. CABI International. pp.&#160;297\u2013318. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780851990507<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+28%3A+Soil+Erosion+and+Sediment+Redistribution+in+River+Catchments%3A+Summary%2C+Outlook+and+Future+Requirements&amp;rft.btitle=Soil+Erosion+and+Sediment+Redistribution+in+River+Catchments%3A+Measurement%2C+Modelling+And+Management&amp;rft.pages=297-318&amp;rft.pub=CABI+International&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9780851990507&amp;rft.au=Owens%2C+P.N.&amp;rft.au=Collins%2C+A.J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYLbSI4vw_oIC%26pg%3DPA299&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PierveMontitor94-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PierveMontitor94_27-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPierce,_F.J.Lai,_R.1994\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Pierce, F.J.; Lai, R. (1994). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Ers6DwAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 10: Monitoring soil erosion's impact on crop productivity\"<\/a>. In Lai, R. (ed.). <i>Soil Erosion Research Methods<\/i>. Soil and Water Conservation Society and St. Lucie Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781351415965<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+10%3A+Monitoring+soil+erosion%27s+impact+on+crop+productivity&amp;rft.btitle=Soil+Erosion+Research+Methods&amp;rft.pub=Soil+and+Water+Conservation+Society+and+St.+Lucie+Press&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.isbn=9781351415965&amp;rft.au=Pierce%2C+F.J.&amp;rft.au=Lai%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DErs6DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DRA2-PA3&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShahidDevelop13-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_28-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_28-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_28-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShahid,_S.A.2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Shahid, S.A. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VZlEAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment, Modeling, Mapping, and Monitoring from Regional to Submicroscopic Scales\"<\/a>. In Shahid, S.A.; Abdelfattah, M.A.; Taha, F.K. (eds.). <i>Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment and Reclamation: Innovative Thinking and Use of Marginal Soil and Water Resources in Irrigated Agriculture<\/i>. Springer Science+Business Media. pp.&#160;3\u201344. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9789400756847<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Vienna: IAEA.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Environmental+and+Source+Monitoring+for+Purposes+of+Radiation+Protection%2C+IAEA+Safety+Standards+Series+No.+RS%E2%80%93G-1.8&amp;rft.place=Vienna&amp;rft.pub=IAEA&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.au=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pub.iaea.org%2FMTCD%2Fpublications%2FPDF%2FPub1216_web.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFInternational_Atomic_Energy_Agency2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">International Atomic Energy Agency (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www-pub.iaea.org\/mtcd\/publications\/PubDetails.asp?pubId=8242\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Programmes and Systems for Source and Environmental Radiation Monitoring. Safety Reports Series No. 64<\/i><\/a>. Vienna: IAEA. p.&#160;234. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-92-0-112409-8<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Programmes+and+Systems+for+Source+and+Environmental+Radiation+Monitoring.+Safety+Reports+Series+No.+64.&amp;rft.place=Vienna&amp;rft.pages=234&amp;rft.pub=IAEA&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-92-0-112409-8&amp;rft.au=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pub.iaea.org%2Fmtcd%2Fpublications%2FPubDetails.asp%3FpubId%3D8242&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/biomeme.com\/environmental-dna\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Guide to Environmental DNA (eDNA) by Biomeme\"<\/a>. <i>Biomeme<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Biomeme&amp;rft.atitle=A+Guide+to+Environmental+DNA+%28eDNA%29+by+Biomeme&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiomeme.com%2Fenvironmental-dna%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GOVUK_MCERTS17-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GOVUK_MCERTS17_37-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEnvironment_Agency2017\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Environment Agency (December 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/mcerts-performance-standards-and-test-procedures-for-environmental-data-management-software\" target=\"_blank\">\"MCERTS: Quality and performance standards for environmental data management software\"<\/a>. <i>GOV.UK<\/i>. p.&#160;55<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=GOV.UK&amp;rft.atitle=MCERTS%3A+Quality+and+performance+standards+for+environmental+data+management+software&amp;rft.pages=55&amp;rft.date=2017-12&amp;rft.au=Environment+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fpublications%2Fmcerts-performance-standards-and-test-procedures-for-environmental-data-management-software&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GOVUK_Monitor17-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GOVUK_Monitor17_38-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEnvironment_Agency2017\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Environment Agency (9 February 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/collections\/monitoring-emissions-to-air-land-and-water-mcerts\" target=\"_blank\">\"Monitoring emissions to air, land and water (MCERTS)\"<\/a>. <i>GOV.UK<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=GOV.UK&amp;rft.atitle=Monitoring+emissions+to+air%2C+land+and+water+%28MCERTS%29&amp;rft.date=2017-02-09&amp;rft.au=Environment+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fcollections%2Fmonitoring-emissions-to-air-land-and-water-mcerts&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CSA_MCERTS-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CSA_MCERTS_39-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.csagroupuk.org\/services\/mcerts\/mcerts-product-certification\/mcerts-certified-products\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"MCERTS Certified Products\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=MCERTS+Certified+Products&amp;rft.pub=CSA+Group&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csagroupuk.org%2Fservices%2Fmcerts%2Fmcerts-product-certification%2Fmcerts-certified-products%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPA-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_40-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_40-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_40-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_40-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_40-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_40-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.epa.gov\/nheerl\/arm\/web\/pdf\/epaqag5s.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Guidance on Choosing a Sampling Design for Environmental Data Collection for Use in Developing a Quality Assurance Project Plan EPA QA\/G-5S\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3e4c58eca1cdd38b19280e2fe2ec728\">United States Environmental Protection Agency<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 April<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Guidance+on+Choosing+a+Sampling+Design+for+Environmental+Data+Collection+for+Use+in+Developing+a+Quality+Assurance+Project+Plan+EPA+QA%2FG-5S&amp;rft.pub=United+States+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft.date=2002-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.epa.gov%2Fnheerl%2Farm%2Fweb%2Fpdf%2Fepaqag5s.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"Public Domain\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/6\/62\/PD-icon.svg\/12px-PD-icon.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"12\" height=\"12\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/span><\/span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain\" title=\"Public domain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45d4efd06b4edbf07ca070319cad4b29\">public domain<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Nollet-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Nollet_41-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Nollet_41-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Nollet_41-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNollet2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Nollet, Leo M.L., ed. (2000). <i>Handbook of Water Analysis<\/i>. New York: Marcel Dekker. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-8247-8433-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Water+Analysis&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Marcel+Dekker&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=0-8247-8433-2&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShaw1984\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Shaw, Elizabeth M. 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(1998). \"Assessment of Atmospheric Heavy Metals by Moss Monitoring with Isothecium Stoloniferum Brid. in the Fraser Valley, B.C., Canada.\" <i>Water, Air, &amp; Soil Pollution.<\/i> Vol. 101, Nos. 1\u20134, January 1998, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0049-6979\" target=\"_blank\">0049-6979<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bragazzaa, Marchesinia, Alberb, Bonettic, Lorenzonic, Achillid, Buffonid, De Marcoe, Franchif, Pisonf, Giaquintag, Palmierih Spezzano (2000). \"Monitoring of heavy metal deposition in Northern Italy by moss analysis.\" <i>Environmental Pollution,<\/i> Vol. 108, No. 2, pp 201\u2013208.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">C. Belpaire and G. Goemans, \"Eels: contaminant cocktails pinpointing environmental contamination.\" ICES J. Mar. Sci. 64: 1423\u20131436.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Offwell Woodland &amp; Wildlife Trust. Devon, UK. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.countrysideinfo.co.uk\/howto.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ecological Sampling Methods.\"<\/a> Accessed 2009-10-21.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCsurosCsuros2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Csuros, Csaba; Csuros, Maria (2002). <i>Environmental sampling and analysis for metals<\/i>. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p.&#160;219. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-56670-572-1<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Environmental+sampling+and+analysis+for+metals&amp;rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&amp;rft.pages=219&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-56670-572-1&amp;rft.aulast=Csuros&amp;rft.aufirst=Csaba&amp;rft.au=Csuros%2C+Maria&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Environment Agency, UK. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/apps.environment-agency.gov.uk\/wiyby\/37815.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Chemistry classification method<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141027151813\/http:\/\/apps.environment-agency.gov.uk\/wiyby\/37815.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2014-10-27 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Environment Agency. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/apps.environment-agency.gov.uk\/wiyby\/37817.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">General quality assessment of rivers \u2013 biology<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141027152605\/http:\/\/apps.environment-agency.gov.uk\/wiyby\/37817.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2014-10-27 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_Framework_Directive\" title=\"Water Framework Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb52525b96fd843374c94bf2abb30e48\">European Union Water Framework Directive, EU WFD<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw\u2010web.codfw.main\u2010566b964b46\u2010prldf\nCached time: 20240102045834\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.708 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.886 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4112\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 205717\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1684\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 16\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 18\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 167979\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.378\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 8813635\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 659.633 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>49.92% 329.261 1 Template:Reflist\n27.60% 182.080 23 Template:Cite_book\n13.50% 89.025 1 Template:Pollution_sidebar\n13.09% 86.352 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists\n 8.12% 53.559 1 Template:Short_description\n 7.89% 52.032 16 Template:Cite_web\n 6.05% 39.887 1 Template:Aquatic_ecosystem_topics\n 5.59% 36.843 1 Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups\n 5.37% 35.401 1 Template:Authority_control\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:22228846-0!canonical and timestamp 20240102045833 and revision id 1190923378. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_monitoring\" data-key=\"a8a4b57b749e044e06fc362fba59f330\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110163156\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.255 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.545 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 225885\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 437.101 1 wikipedia:Environmental_monitoring\n100.00% 437.101 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10929-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110163156 and revision id 49404. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_images":[],"4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_timestamp":1704907016,"be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_type":"article","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_title":"Data mining","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_plaintext":"\n\nData miningFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining<\/a>\nCategories: Automation and artificial intelligenceBusiness and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 12 June 2022, at 14:33.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,951 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_mining rootpage-Data_mining skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data mining<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171656\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.096 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.166 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 93\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 159.545 1 wikipedia:Data_mining\n100.00% 159.545 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10943-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171656 and revision id 48268. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_images":[],"be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_timestamp":1704907016,"fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_type":"article","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_title":"Data integration","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_plaintext":"\n\nData integrationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementInformaticsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 September 2022, at 18:04.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,419 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_integration rootpage-Data_integration skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data integration<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171656\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.085 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.155 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 98\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 150.966 1 wikipedia:Data_integration\n100.00% 150.966 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10405-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171655 and revision id 49348. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_images":[],"fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_timestamp":1704907015,"7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_type":"article","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_title":"Data exchange","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_plaintext":"\n\nData exchangeFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_exchange?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 2 March 2019, at 22:13.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,204 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_exchange rootpage-Data_exchange skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data exchange<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_exchange?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_exchange\" data-key=\"c97e148e96943a9053684595427be918\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171639\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.082 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.151 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 95\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 147.532 1 wikipedia:Data_exchange\n100.00% 147.532 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10927-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171639 and revision id 35090. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_images":[],"7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_timestamp":1704906999,"baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_type":"article","baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_title":"Concept processing","baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concept_processing","baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_plaintext":"\n\nConcept processingFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concept_processing?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concept_processing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concept_processing<\/a>\nCategories: Automation and artificial intelligenceHealth informaticsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 September 2022, at 17:08.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,272 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Concept_processing rootpage-Concept_processing skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Concept processing<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concept_processing?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concept_processing\" data-key=\"1c271a1ad9a593278c9c9ce31d1d5801\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171655\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.098 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.174 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 100\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 168.597 1 wikipedia:Concept_processing\n100.00% 168.597 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:9070-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171655 and revision id 49315. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concept_processing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Concept_processing<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_images":[],"baf90d92c3bb5e14eedf0352b39e09b4_timestamp":1704907015,"e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_type":"article","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_title":"Barcode","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_plaintext":"\n\nBarcodeFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchOptical machine-readable representation of data\n It has been suggested that Barcode system be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since December 2023.\nFor the taxonomic method, see DNA barcoding. For a code of conduct for barristers, see Legal ethics.\n\n\nA UPC-A barcode\n\nA barcode or bar code is a method of representing data in a visual, machine-readable form. Initially, barcodes represented data by varying the widths, spacings and sizes of parallel lines. These barcodes, now commonly referred to as linear or one-dimensional (1D), can be scanned by special optical scanners, called barcode readers, of which there are several types.\nLater, two-dimensional (2D) variants were developed, using rectangles, dots, hexagons and other patterns, called 2D barcodes or matrix codes, although they do not use bars as such. Both can be read using purpose-built 2D optical scanners, which exist in a few different forms. Matrix codes can also be read by a digital camera connected to a microcomputer running software that takes a photographic image of the barcode and analyzes the image to deconstruct and decode the code. A mobile device with a built-in camera, such as a smartphone, can function as the latter type of barcode reader using specialized application software and is suitable for both 1D and 2D codes.\n\nBarcoded rolling stock in the UK, 1962\n\nThe barcode was invented by Norman Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver and patented in the US in 1952.[1] The invention was based on Morse code[2] that was extended to thin and thick bars. However, it took over twenty years before this invention became commercially successful. UK magazine Modern Railways December 1962 pages 387\u2013389 record how British Railways had already perfected a barcode-reading system capable of correctly reading rolling stock travelling at 100&#160;mph (160&#160;km\/h) with no mistakes. An early use of one type of barcode in an industrial context was sponsored by the Association of American Railroads in the late 1960s. Developed by General Telephone and Electronics (GTE) and called KarTrak ACI (Automatic Car Identification), this scheme involved placing colored stripes in various combinations on steel plates which were affixed to the sides of railroad rolling stock. Two plates were used per car, one on each side, with the arrangement of the colored stripes encoding information such as ownership, type of equipment, and identification number.[3] The plates were read by a trackside scanner located, for instance, at the entrance to a classification yard, while the car was moving past.[4] The project was abandoned after about ten years because the system proved unreliable after long-term use.[3]\nBarcodes became commercially successful when they were used to automate supermarket checkout systems, a task for which they have become almost universal. The Uniform Grocery Product Code Council had chosen, in 1973, the barcode design developed by George Laurer. Laurer's barcode, with vertical bars, printed better than the circular barcode developed by Woodland and Silver.[5] Their use has spread to many other tasks that are generically referred to as automatic identification and data capture (AIDC). The first successful system using barcodes was in the UK supermarket group Sainsbury's in 1972 using shelf-mounted barcodes [6] which were developed by Plessey.[6] In June 1974, Marsh supermarket in Troy, Ohio used a scanner made by Photographic Sciences Corporation to scan the Universal Product Code (UPC) barcode on a pack of Wrigley's chewing gum.[7][5] QR codes, a specific type of 2D barcode, have recently[when? ] become very popular due to the growth in smartphone ownership.[8]\nOther systems have made inroads in the AIDC market, but the simplicity, universality and low cost of barcodes has limited the role of these other systems, particularly before technologies such as radio-frequency identification (RFID) became available after 1995.\n\n\n\nHistory \n This article duplicates the scope of other articles, specifically Universal Product Code#History. Please discuss this issue and help introduce a summary style to the article. (December 2013 ) \nIn 1948 Bernard Silver, a graduate student at Drexel Institute of Technology in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US overheard the president of the local food chain, Food Fair, asking one of the deans to research a system to automatically read product information during checkout.[9] Silver told his friend Norman Joseph Woodland about the request, and they started working on a variety of systems. Their first working system used ultraviolet ink, but the ink faded too easily and was expensive.[10]\nConvinced that the system was workable with further development, Woodland left Drexel, moved into his father's apartment in Florida, and continued working on the system. His next inspiration came from Morse code, and he formed his first barcode from sand on the beach. \"I just extended the dots and dashes downwards and made narrow lines and wide lines out of them.\"[10] To read them, he adapted technology from optical soundtracks in movies, using a 500-watt incandescent light bulb shining through the paper onto an RCA935 photomultiplier tube (from a movie projector) on the far side. He later decided that the system would work better if it were printed as a circle instead of a line, allowing it to be scanned in any direction.\nOn 20 October 1949, Woodland and Silver filed a patent application for \"Classifying Apparatus and Method\", in which they described both the linear and bull's eye printing patterns, as well as the mechanical and electronic systems needed to read the code. The patent was issued on 7 October 1952 as US Patent 2,612,994.[1] In 1951, Woodland moved to IBM and continually tried to interest IBM in developing the system. The company eventually commissioned a report on the idea, which concluded that it was both feasible and interesting, but that processing the resulting information would require equipment that was some time off in the future.\nIBM offered to buy the patent, but the offer was not accepted. Philco purchased the patent in 1962 and then sold it to RCA sometime later.[10]\n\nCollins at Sylvania \nDuring his time as an undergraduate, David Jarrett Collins worked at the Pennsylvania Railroad and became aware of the need to automatically identify railroad cars. Immediately after receiving his master's degree from MIT in 1959, he started work at GTE Sylvania and began addressing the problem. He developed a system called KarTrak using blue, white and red reflective stripes attached to the side of the cars, encoding a four-digit company identifier and a six-digit car number.[10] Light reflected off the colored stripes was read by photomultiplier vacuum tubes.[11]\nThe Boston and Maine Railroad tested the KarTrak system on their gravel cars in 1961. The tests continued until 1967, when the Association of American Railroads (AAR) selected it as a standard, Automatic Car Identification, across the entire North American fleet. The installations began on 10 October 1967. However, the economic downturn and rash of bankruptcies in the industry in the early 1970s greatly slowed the rollout, and it was not until 1974 that 95% of the fleet was labeled. To add to its woes, the system was found to be easily fooled by dirt in certain applications, which greatly affected accuracy. The AAR abandoned the system in the late 1970s, and it was not until the mid-1980s that they introduced a similar system, this time based on radio tags.[12]\nThe railway project had failed, but a toll bridge in New Jersey requested a similar system so that it could quickly scan for cars that had purchased a monthly pass. Then the U.S. Post Office requested a system to track trucks entering and leaving their facilities. These applications required special retroreflector labels. Finally, Kal Kan asked the Sylvania team for a simpler (and cheaper) version which they could put on cases of pet food for inventory control.\n\nComputer Identics Corporation \nIn 1967, with the railway system maturing, Collins went to management looking for funding for a project to develop a black-and-white version of the code for other industries. They declined, saying that the railway project was large enough, and they saw no need to branch out so quickly.\nCollins then quit Sylvania and formed the Computer Identics Corporation.[10] As its first innovations, Computer Identics moved from using incandescent light bulbs in its systems, replacing them with helium\u2013neon lasers, and incorporated a mirror as well, making it capable of locating a barcode up to a meter (3 feet) in front of the scanner. This made the entire process much simpler and more reliable, and typically enabled these devices to deal with damaged labels, as well, by recognizing and reading the intact portions.\nComputer Identics Corporation installed one of its first two scanning systems in the spring of 1969 at a General Motors (Buick) factory in Flint, Michigan.[10] The system was used to identify a dozen types of transmissions moving on an overhead conveyor from production to shipping. The other scanning system was installed at General Trading Company's distribution center in Carlstadt, New Jersey to direct shipments to the proper loading bay.\n\nUniversal Product Code \nMain article: Universal Product Code\nIn 1966, the National Association of Food Chains (NAFC) held a meeting on the idea of automated checkout systems. RCA, who had purchased the rights to the original Woodland patent, attended the meeting and initiated an internal project to develop a system based on the bullseye code. The Kroger grocery chain volunteered to test it.\nIn the mid-1970s, the NAFC established the Ad-Hoc Committee for U.S. Supermarkets on a Uniform Grocery-Product Code to set guidelines for barcode development. In addition, it created a symbol-selection subcommittee to help standardize the approach. In cooperation with consulting firm, McKinsey &amp; Co., they developed a standardized 11-digit code for identifying products. The committee then sent out a contract tender to develop a barcode system to print and read the code. The request went to Singer, National Cash Register (NCR), Litton Industries, RCA, Pitney-Bowes, IBM and many others.[13] A wide variety of barcode approaches was studied, including linear codes, RCA's bullseye concentric circle code, starburst patterns and others.\nIn the spring of 1971, RCA demonstrated their bullseye code at another industry meeting. IBM executives at the meeting noticed the crowds at the RCA booth and immediately developed their own system. IBM marketing specialist Alec Jablonover remembered that the company still employed Woodland, and he established a new facility in Raleigh-Durham Research Triangle Park to lead development.\nIn July 1972, RCA began an 18-month test in a Kroger store in Cincinnati. Barcodes were printed on small pieces of adhesive paper, and attached by hand by store employees when they were adding price tags. The code proved to have a serious problem; the printers would sometimes smear ink, rendering the code unreadable in most orientations. However, a linear code, like the one being developed by Woodland at IBM, was printed in the direction of the stripes, so extra ink would simply make the code \"taller\" while remaining readable. So on 3 April 1973, the IBM UPC was selected as the NAFC standard. IBM had designed five versions of UPC symbology for future industry requirements: UPC A, B, C, D, and E.[14]\nNCR installed a testbed system at Marsh's Supermarket in Troy, Ohio, near the factory that was producing the equipment. On 26 June 1974, Clyde Dawson pulled a 10-pack of Wrigley's Juicy Fruit gum out of his basket and it was scanned by Sharon Buchanan at 8:01&#160;am. The pack of gum and the receipt are now on display in the Smithsonian Institution. It was the first commercial appearance of the UPC.[15]\nIn 1971, an IBM team was assembled for an intensive planning session, threshing out, 12 to 18 hours a day, how the technology would be deployed and operate cohesively across the system, and scheduling a roll-out plan. By 1973, the team were meeting with grocery manufacturers to introduce the symbol that would need to be printed on the packaging or labels of all of their products. There were no cost savings for a grocery to use it, unless at least 70% of the grocery's products had the barcode printed on the product by the manufacturer. IBM projected that 75% would be needed in 1975. Yet, although this was achieved, there were still scanning machines in fewer than 200 grocery stores by 1977.[16]\nEconomic studies conducted for the grocery industry committee projected over $40 million in savings to the industry from scanning by the mid-1970s. Those numbers were not achieved in that time-frame and some predicted the demise of barcode scanning. The usefulness of the barcode required the adoption of expensive scanners by a critical mass of retailers while manufacturers simultaneously adopted barcode labels. Neither wanted to move first and results were not promising for the first couple of years, with Business Week proclaiming \"The Supermarket Scanner That Failed\" in a 1976 article.[15][17]\nOn the other hand, experience with barcode scanning in those stores revealed additional benefits. The detailed sales information acquired by the new systems allowed greater responsiveness to customer habits, needs and preferences. This was reflected in the fact that about 5 weeks after installing barcode scanners, sales in grocery stores typically started climbing and eventually leveled off at a 10\u201312% increase in sales that never dropped off. There was also a 1\u20132% decrease in operating cost for those stores, and this enabled them to lower prices and thereby to increase market share. It was shown in the field that the return on investment for a barcode scanner was 41.5%. By 1980, 8,000 stores per year were converting.[16]\nSims Supermarkets were the first location in Australia to use barcodes, starting in 1979.[18]\n\nIndustrial adoption \nIn 1981, the United States Department of Defense adopted the use of Code 39 for marking all products sold to the United States military. This system, Logistics Applications of Automated Marking and Reading Symbols (LOGMARS), is still used by DoD and is widely viewed as the catalyst for widespread adoption of barcoding in industrial uses.[19]\n\nUse \nSnack vendor on the Shinkansen train scans a barcode.\nEAN-13 ISBN barcode\nBarcode on a patient identification wristband\nBarcoded parcel\n\nBarcodes are widely used around the world in many contexts. In stores, UPC barcodes are pre-printed on most items other than fresh produce from a grocery store. This speeds up processing at check-outs and helps track items and also reduces instances of shoplifting involving price tag swapping, although shoplifters can now print their own barcodes.[20] Barcodes that encode a book's ISBN are also widely pre-printed on books, journals and other printed materials. In addition, retail chain membership cards use barcodes to identify customers, allowing for customized marketing and greater understanding of individual consumer shopping patterns. At the point of sale, shoppers can get product discounts or special marketing offers through the address or e-mail address provided at registration.\nBarcodes are widely used in the healthcare and hospital settings, ranging from patient identification (to access patient data, including medical history, drug allergies, etc.) to creating SOAP Notes[21] with barcodes to medication management. They are also used to facilitate the separation and indexing of documents that have been imaged in batch scanning applications, track the organization of species in biology,[22] and integrate with in-motion checkweighers to identify the item being weighed in a conveyor line for data collection.\nThey can also be used to keep track of objects and people; they are used to keep track of rental cars, airline luggage, nuclear waste, registered mail, express mail and parcels. Barcoded tickets (which may be printed by the customer on their home printer, or stored on their mobile device) allow the holder to enter sports arenas, cinemas, theatres, fairgrounds, and transportation, and are used to record the arrival and departure of vehicles from rental facilities etc. This can allow proprietors to identify duplicate or fraudulent tickets more easily. Barcodes are widely used in shop floor control applications software where employees can scan work orders and track the time spent on a job.\nBarcodes are also used in some kinds of non-contact 1D and 2D position sensors. A series of barcodes are used in some kinds of absolute 1D linear encoder. The barcodes are packed close enough together that the reader always has one or two barcodes in its field of view. As a kind of fiducial marker, the relative position of the barcode in the field of view of the reader gives incremental precise positioning, in some cases with sub-pixel resolution. The data decoded from the barcode gives the absolute coarse position. An \"address carpet\", used in digital paper, such as Howell's binary pattern and the Anoto dot pattern, is a 2D barcode designed so that a reader, even though only a tiny portion of the complete carpet is in the field of view of the reader, can find its absolute X, Y position and rotation in the carpet.[23][24]\nMatrix codes can embed a hyperlink to a web page. A mobile device with a built-in camera might be used to read the pattern and browse the linked website, which can help a shopper find the best price for an item in the vicinity. Since 2005, airlines use an IATA-standard 2D barcode on boarding passes (Bar Coded Boarding Pass (BCBP)), and since 2008 2D barcodes sent to mobile phones enable electronic boarding passes.[25]\nSome applications for barcodes have fallen out of use. In the 1970s and 1980s, software source code was occasionally encoded in a barcode and printed on paper (Cauzin Softstrip and Paperbyte[26] are barcode symbologies specifically designed for this application), and the 1991 Barcode Battler computer game system used any standard barcode to generate combat statistics.\nArtists have used barcodes in art, such as Scott Blake's Barcode Jesus, as part of the post-modernism movement.\n\nSymbologies \nThe mapping between messages and barcodes is called a symbology. The specification of a symbology includes the encoding of the message into bars and spaces, any required start and stop markers, the size of the quiet zone required to be before and after the barcode, and the computation of a checksum.\nLinear symbologies can be classified mainly by two properties:\n\nContinuous vs. discrete\nCharacters in discrete symbologies are composed of n bars and n&#160;\u2212&#160;1 spaces. There is an additional space between characters, but it does not convey information, and may have any width as long as it is not confused with the end of the code.\nCharacters in continuous symbologies are composed of n bars and n spaces, and usually abut, with one character ending with a space and the next beginning with a bar, or vice versa. A special end pattern that has bars on both ends is required to end the code.\nTwo-width vs. many-width\nA two-width, also called a binary bar code, contains bars and spaces of two widths, \"wide\" and \"narrow\". The precise width of the wide bars and spaces is not critical; typically, it is permitted to be anywhere between 2 and 3 times the width of the narrow equivalents.\nSome other symbologies use bars of two different heights (POSTNET), or the presence or absence of bars (CPC Binary Barcode). These are normally also considered binary bar codes.\nBars and spaces in many-width symbologies are all multiples of a basic width called the module; most such codes use four widths of 1, 2, 3 and 4 modules.\nSome symbologies use interleaving. The first character is encoded using black bars of varying width. The second character is then encoded by varying the width of the white spaces between these bars. Thus, characters are encoded in pairs over the same section of the barcode. Interleaved 2 of 5 is an example of this.\nStacked symbologies repeat a given linear symbology vertically.\nThe most common among the many 2D symbologies are matrix codes, which feature square or dot-shaped modules arranged on a grid pattern. 2D symbologies also come in circular and other patterns and may employ steganography, hiding modules within an image (for example, DataGlyphs).\nLinear symbologies are optimized for laser scanners, which sweep a light beam across the barcode in a straight line, reading a slice of the barcode light-dark patterns. Scanning at an angle makes the modules appear wider, but does not change the width ratios. Stacked symbologies are also optimized for laser scanning, with the laser making multiple passes across the barcode.\nIn the 1990s development of charge-coupled device (CCD) imagers to read barcodes was pioneered by Welch Allyn. Imaging does not require moving parts, as a laser scanner does. In 2007, linear imaging had begun to supplant laser scanning as the preferred scan engine for its performance and durability.\n2D symbologies cannot be read by a laser, as there is typically no sweep pattern that can encompass the entire symbol. They must be scanned by an image-based scanner employing a CCD or other digital camera sensor technology.\n\nBarcode readers \nMain article: Barcode reader\nGTIN barcodes on Coca-Cola bottles. The images at right show how the laser of barcode readers \"see\" the images behind a red filter.\n\nThe earliest, and still[when? ] the cheapest, barcode scanners are built from a fixed light and a single photosensor that is manually moved across the barcode. Barcode scanners can be classified into three categories based on their connection to the computer. The older type is the RS-232 barcode scanner. This type requires special programming for transferring the input data to the application program. Keyboard interface scanners connect to a computer using a PS\/2 or AT keyboard\u2013compatible adaptor cable (a \"keyboard wedge\"). The barcode's data is sent to the computer as if it had been typed on the keyboard.\nLike the keyboard interface scanner, USB scanners do not need custom code for transferring input data to the application program. On PCs running Windows the human interface device emulates the data merging action of a hardware \"keyboard wedge\", and the scanner automatically behaves like an additional keyboard.\nMost modern smartphones are able to decode barcode using their built-in camera. Google's mobile Android operating system can use their own Google Lens application to scan QR codes, or third-party apps like Barcode Scanner to read both one-dimensional barcodes and QR codes. Nokia's Symbian operating system featured a barcode scanner,[27] while mbarcode[28] is a QR code reader for the Maemo operating system. In Apple iOS 11, the native camera app can decode QR codes and can link to URLs, join wireless networks, or perform other operations depending on the QR Code contents.[29] Other paid and free apps are available with scanning capabilities for other symbologies or for earlier iOS versions.[30] With BlackBerry devices, the App World application can natively scan barcodes and load any recognized Web URLs on the device's Web browser. Windows Phone 7.5 is able to scan barcodes through the Bing search app. However, these devices are not designed specifically for the capturing of barcodes. As a result, they do not decode nearly as quickly or accurately as a dedicated barcode scanner or portable data terminal.[citation needed ]\n\nQuality control and verification \nIt is common for producers and users of bar codes to have a quality management system which includes verification and validation of bar codes.[31] Barcode verification examines scanability and the quality of the barcode in comparison to industry standards and specifications.[32] Barcode verifiers are primarily used by businesses that print and use barcodes. Any trading partner in the supply chain can test barcode quality. It is important to verify a barcode to ensure that any reader in the supply chain can successfully interpret a barcode with a low error rate. Retailers levy large penalties for non-compliant barcodes. These chargebacks can reduce a manufacturer's revenue by 2% to 10%.[33]\nA barcode verifier works the way a reader does, but instead of simply decoding a barcode, a verifier performs a series of tests. For linear barcodes these tests are:\n\nEdge contrast (EC)[34]\nThe difference between the space reflectance (Rs) and adjoining bar reflectance (Rb). EC=Rs-Rb\nMinimum bar reflectance (Rb)[34]\nThe smallest reflectance value in a bar.\nMinimum space reflectance (Rs)[34]\nThe smallest reflectance value in a space.\nSymbol contrast (SC)[34]\nSymbol contrast is the difference in reflectance values of the lightest space (including the quiet zone) and the darkest bar of the symbol. The greater the difference, the higher the grade. The parameter is graded as either A, B, C, D, or F. SC=Rmax-Rmin\nMinimum edge contrast (ECmin)[34]\nThe difference between the space reflectance (Rs) and adjoining bar reflectance (Rb). EC=Rs-Rb\nModulation (MOD)[34]\nThe parameter is graded either A, B, C, D, or F. This grade is based on the relationship between minimum edge contrast (ECmin) and symbol contrast (SC). MOD=ECmin\/SC The greater the difference between minimum edge contrast and symbol contrast, the lower the grade. Scanners and verifiers perceive the narrower bars and spaces to have less intensity than wider bars and spaces; the comparison of the lesser intensity of narrow elements to the wide elements is called modulation. This condition is affected by aperture size.\nInter-character gap[34]\nIn discrete barcodes, the space that disconnects the two contiguous characters. When present, inter-character gaps are considered spaces (elements) for purposes of edge determination and reflectance parameter grades.\nDefects\nDecode[34]\nExtracting the information which has been encoded in a bar code symbol.\nDecodability[34]\nCan be graded as A, B, C, D, or F. The Decodability grade indicates the amount of error in the width of the most deviant element in the symbol. The less deviation in the symbology, the higher the grade. Decodability is a measure of print accuracy using the symbology reference decode algorithm.\n2D matrix symbols look at the parameters:\n\nSymbol contrast[34]\nModulation[34]\nDecode[34]\nUnused error correction\nFixed (finder) pattern damage\nGrid non-uniformity\nAxial non-uniformity[35]\nDepending on the parameter, each ANSI test is graded from 0.0 to 4.0 (F to A), or given a pass or fail mark. Each grade is determined by analyzing the scan reflectance profile (SRP), an analog graph of a single scan line across the entire symbol. The lowest of the 8 grades is the scan grade, and the overall ISO symbol grade is the average of the individual scan grades. For most applications a 2.5 (C) is the minimal acceptable symbol grade.[36]\nCompared with a reader, a verifier measures a barcode's optical characteristics to international and industry standards. The measurement must be repeatable and consistent. Doing so requires constant conditions such as distance, illumination angle, sensor angle and verifier aperture. Based on the verification results, the production process can be adjusted to print higher quality barcodes that will scan down the supply chain.\nBar code validation may include evaluations after use (and abuse) testing such as sunlight, abrasion, impact, moisture, etc.[37]\n\nBarcode verifier standards \nBarcode verifier standards are defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), in ISO\/IEC 15426-1 (linear) or ISO\/IEC 15426-2 (2D).[citation needed ] The current international barcode quality specification is ISO\/IEC 15416 (linear) and ISO\/IEC 15415 (2D).[citation needed ] The European Standard EN 1635 has been withdrawn and replaced by ISO\/IEC 15416. The original U.S. barcode quality specification was ANSI X3.182. (UPCs used in the US \u2013 ANSI\/UCC5).[citation needed ] As of 2011 the ISO workgroup JTC1 SC31 was developing a Direct Part Marking (DPM) quality standard: ISO\/IEC TR 29158.[38]\n\nBenefits \nIn point-of-sale management, barcode systems can provide detailed up-to-date information on the business, accelerating decisions and with more confidence. For example:\n\nFast-selling items can be identified quickly and automatically reordered.\nSlow-selling items can be identified, preventing inventory build-up.\nThe effects of merchandising changes can be monitored, allowing fast-moving, more profitable items to occupy the best space.\nHistorical data can be used to predict seasonal fluctuations very accurately.\nItems may be repriced on the shelf to reflect both sale prices and price increases.\nThis technology also enables the profiling of individual consumers, typically through a voluntary registration of discount cards. While pitched as a benefit to the consumer, this practice is considered to be potentially dangerous by privacy advocates.[which? ]\nBesides sales and inventory tracking, barcodes are very useful in logistics and supply chain management.\n\nWhen a manufacturer packs a box for shipment, a unique identifying number (UID) can be assigned to the box.\nA database can link the UID to relevant information about the box; such as order number, items packed, quantity packed, destination, etc.\nThe information can be transmitted through a communication system such as electronic data interchange (EDI) so the retailer has the information about a shipment before it arrives.\nShipments that are sent to a distribution center (DC) are tracked before forwarding. When the shipment reaches its final destination, the UID gets scanned, so the store knows the shipment's source, contents, and cost.\nBarcode scanners are relatively low cost and extremely accurate compared to key-entry, with only about 1 substitution error in 15,000 to 36 trillion characters entered.[39][unreliable source? ] The exact error rate depends on the type of barcode.\n\nTypes of barcodes \nLinear barcodes \nA first generation, \"one dimensional\" barcode that is made up of lines and spaces of various widths or sizes that create specific patterns.\n\n\n\n\nExample\nSymbology\nContinuous or discrete\nBar type\nUses\n\n\n \nCodabar\nDiscrete\nTwo\nOld format used in libraries and blood banks and on airbills (out of date, but still widely used in libraries)\n\n\n\nCode 25 \u2013 Non-interleaved 2 of 5\nContinuous\nTwo\nIndustrial\n\n\n \nCode 25 \u2013 Interleaved 2 of 5\nContinuous\nTwo\nWholesale, libraries International standard ISO\/IEC 16390\n\n\n \nCode 11\nDiscrete\nTwo\nTelephones (out of date)\n\n\n \nFarmacode or Code 32\nDiscrete\nTwo\nItalian pharmacode \u2013 use Code 39 (no international standard available)\n\n\n \nCode 39\nDiscrete\nTwo\nVarious \u2013 international standard ISO\/IEC 16388\n\n\n \nCode 93\nContinuous\nMany\nVarious\n\n\n \nCode 128\nContinuous\nMany\nVarious \u2013 International Standard ISO\/IEC 15417\n\n\n\nCPC Binary\nDiscrete\nTwo\n\n\n\n \nEAN 2\nContinuous\nMany\nAddon code (magazines), GS1-approved \u2013 not an own symbology \u2013 to be used only with an EAN\/UPC according to ISO\/IEC 15420\n\n\n \nEAN 5\nContinuous\nMany\nAddon code (books), GS1-approved \u2013 not an own symbology \u2013 to be used only with an EAN\/UPC according to ISO\/IEC 15420\n\n\n \nEAN-8, EAN-13\nContinuous\nMany\nWorldwide retail, GS1-approved \u2013 International Standard ISO\/IEC 15420\n\n\n\nFacing Identification Mark\nDiscrete\nTwo\nUSPS business reply mail\n\n\n \nGS1-128 (formerly named UCC\/EAN-128), incorrectly referenced as EAN 128 and UCC 128\nContinuous\nMany\nVarious, GS1-approved \u2013 just an application of the Code 128 (ISO\/IEC 15417) using the ANS MH10.8.2 AI Datastructures. It is not a separate symbology.\n\n\n \nGS1 DataBar, formerly Reduced Space Symbology (RSS)\nContinuous\nMany\nVarious, GS1-approved\n\n\n\n \nITF-14\nContinuous\nTwo\nNon-retail packaging levels, GS1-approved \u2013 is just an Interleaved 2\/5 Code (ISO\/IEC 16390) with a few additional specifications, according to the GS1 General Specifications\n\n\n \nITF-6\nContinuous\nTwo\nInterleaved 2 of 5 barcode to encode an addon to ITF-14 and ITF-16 barcodes. The code is used to encode additional data such as items quantity or container weight\n\n\n \nJAN\nContinuous\nMany\nUsed in Japan, similar to and compatible with EAN-13 (ISO\/IEC 15420)\n\n\n \nJapan Post barcode\nDiscrete\n4 bar heights\nJapan Post\n\n\n \nMSI\nContinuous\nTwo\nUsed for warehouse shelves and inventory\n\n\n \nPharmacode\nDiscrete\nTwo\nPharmaceutical packaging (no international standard available)\n\n\n \nPLANET\nContinuous\nTall\/short\nUnited States Postal Service (no international standard available)\n\n\n \nPlessey\nContinuous\nTwo\nCatalogs, store shelves, inventory (no international standard available)\n\n\n \nTelepen\nContinuous\nTwo\nLibraries (UK)\n\n\n \nUniversal Product Code (UPC-A and UPC-E)\nContinuous\nMany\nWorldwide retail, GS1-approved \u2013 International Standard ISO\/IEC 15420\n\n 2D barcodes \n2D barcodes consist of bars, but use both dimensions for encoding.\n\n\n\n\nExample\nSymbology\nContinuous or discrete\nBar type\nUses\n\n\n \n\nAustralia Post barcode\n\nDiscrete\n\n4 bar heights\n\nAn Australia Post 4-state barcode as used on a business reply paid envelope and applied by automated sorting machines to other mail when initially processed in fluorescent ink.[40]\n\n\n \nCode 49\nContinuous\nMany\nVarious\n\n\n \n\nCode 16K\n\n\n\n\n\nThe Code 16K (1988) is a multi-row bar code developed by Ted Williams at Laserlight Systems (USA) in 1992. In the US and France, the code is used in the electronics industry to identify chips and printed circuit boards. Medical applications in the USA are well known. Williams also developed Code 128, and the structure of 16K is based on Code 128. Not coincidentally, 128 squared happened to equal 16,384 or 16K for short. Code 16K resolved an inherent problem with Code 49. Code 49's structure requires a large amount of memory for encoding and decoding tables and algorithms. 16K is a stacked symbology.[41][42]\n\n\n \nDX film edge barcode\nNeither\nTall\/short\nColor print film\n\n\n \nIntelligent Mail barcode\nDiscrete\n4 bar heights\nUnited States Postal Service, replaces both POSTNET and PLANET symbols (formerly named OneCode)\n\n\n \nKarTrak ACI\nDiscrete\nColoured bars\nUsed in North America on railroad rolling equipment\n\n\n \nPostBar\nDiscrete\n4 bar heights\nCanadian Post office\n\n\n \nPOSTNET\nDiscrete\nTall\/short\nUnited States Postal Service (no international standard available)\n\n\n \nRM4SCC \/ KIX\nDiscrete\n4 bar heights\nRoyal Mail \/ PostNL\n\n\n \nRM Mailmark C\nDiscrete\n4 bar heights\nRoyal Mail\n\n\n \nRM Mailmark L\nDiscrete\n4 bar heights\nRoyal Mail\n\n\n \nSpotify codes\nDiscrete\n23 bar heights\nSpotify codes point to artists, songs, podcasts, playlists, and albums. The information is encoded in the height of the bars,[43] so as long as the bar heights are maintained, the code can be handwritten and can vary in color.[44] Patented under EP3444755.\n\n Matrix (2D) codes \nA matrix code or simply a 2D code, is a two-dimensional way to represent information. It can represent more data per unit area. Apart from dots various other patterns can be used.\n\n\n\n\nExample\nName\nNotes\n\n\n \nApp Clip Code\nApple-proprietary code for launching \"App Clips\", a type of applet. 5 concentric rings of three colors (light, dark, middle).[45]\n\n\n \nAR Code\nA type of marker used for placing content inside augmented reality applications. Some AR Codes can contain QR codes inside, so that AR content can be linked to.[46] See also ARTag.\n\n\n \nAztec Code\nDesigned by Andrew Longacre at Welch Allyn (now Honeywell Scanning and Mobility). Public domain. \u2013 International Standard: ISO\/IEC 24778\n\n\n \n\nbCode\n\nA matrix designed for the study of insect behavior.[47] Encodes an 11 bit identifier and 16 bits of read error detection and error correction information. Predominantly used for marking honey bees, but can also be applied to other animals.\n\n\n \n\nBEEtag\n\nA 25 bit (5x5) code matrix of black and white pixels that is unique to each tag surrounded by a white pixel border and a black pixel border. The 25-bit matrix consists of a 15-bit identity code, and a 10-bit error check.[48] It is designed to be a low-cost, image-based tracking system for the study of animal behavior and locomotion.\n\n\n\n\nBeeTagg\n\nA 2D code with honeycomb structures suitable for mobile tagging and was developed by the Swiss company connvision AG.\n\n\n\n\nBokode\n\nA type of data tag which holds much more information than a barcode over the same area. They were developed by a team led by Ramesh Raskar at the MIT Media Lab. The bokode pattern is a tiled series of Data Matrix codes.\n\n\n \n\nBoxing\n\nA high-capacity 2D code is used on piqlFilm by Piql AS[49]\n\n\n\n\nCauzin Softstrip\n\nSoftstrip code was used in the 1980s to encode software, which could be transferred by special scanners from printed journals into your computer hardware.\n\n\n\nCode 1\nPublic domain. Code 1 is currently used in the health care industry for medicine labels and the recycling industry to encode container content for sorting.[50]\n\n\n \nColorCode\nColorZip[51] developed colour barcodes that can be read by camera phones from TV screens; mainly used in Korea.[52]\n\n\n \nColor Construct Code\nColor Construct Code is one of the few code symbologies designed to take advantage of multiple colors.[53][54]\n\n\n \nCronto Visual Cryptogram\n\nThe Cronto Visual Cryptogram (also called photoTAN) is a specialized color barcode, spun out from research at the University of Cambridge by Igor Drokov, Steven Murdoch, and Elena Punskaya.[55] It is used for transaction signing in e-banking; the barcode contains encrypted transaction data which is then used as a challenge to compute a transaction authentication number using a security token.[56]\n\n\n\nCyberCode\nFrom Sony.\n\n\n\nd-touch\nreadable when printed on deformable gloves and stretched and distorted[57][58]\n\n\n \nDataGlyphs\nFrom Palo Alto Research Center (also termed Xerox PARC).[59]\nPatented.[60]\nDataGlyphs can be embedded into a half-tone image or background shading pattern in a way that is almost perceptually invisible, similar to steganography.[61][62]\n\n\n\n \nData Matrix\nFrom Microscan Systems, formerly RVSI Acuity CiMatrix\/Siemens. Public domain. Increasingly used throughout the United States. Single segment Data Matrix is also termed Semacode. \u2013 International Standard: ISO\/IEC 16022.\n\n\n\nDatastrip Code\nFrom Datastrip, Inc.\n\n\n\n\nDigimarc code\n\nThe Digimarc Code is a unique identifier, or code, based on imperceptible patterns that can be applied to marketing materials, including packaging, displays, ads in magazines, circulars, radio and television[63]\n\n\n\ndigital paper\npatterned paper used in conjunction with a digital pen to create handwritten digital documents. The printed dot pattern uniquely identifies the position coordinates on the paper.\n\n\n\n \n\n\nDolby Digital\n\nDigital sound code for printing on cinematic film between the threading holes\n\n\n \nDotCode\nStandardized as AIM Dotcode Rev 3.0. Public domain. Used to track individual cigarette and pharmaceutical packages.\n\n\n\nDot Code A\nAlso known as Philips Dot Code.[64] Patented in 1988.[65]\n\n\n\n\nDWCode\n\nIntroduced by GS1 US and GS1 Germany, the DWCode is a unique, imperceptible data carrier that is repeated across the entire graphics design of a package[66]\n\n\n \nEZcode\nDesigned for decoding by cameraphones;[67] from ScanLife.[68]\n\n\n \nHan Xin Barcode\nCode designed to encode Chinese characters introduced by Association for Automatic Identification and Mobility in 2011.\n\n\n \nHigh Capacity Color Barcode\nHCCB was developed by Microsoft; licensed by ISAN-IA.\n\n\n\nHueCode\nFrom Robot Design Associates. Uses greyscale or colour.[69]\n\n\n\nInterCode\nFrom Iconlab, Inc. The standard 2D Code in South Korea. All 3 South Korean mobile carriers put the scanner program of this code into their handsets to access mobile internet, as a default embedded program.\n\n\n\n \n\n\nJAB Code\n\nJust Another Bar Code is a colored 2D Code. Square or rectangle. License free\n\n\n \nMaxiCode\nUsed by United Parcel Service. Now public domain.\n\n\n\n\nmCode\n\nDesigned by NextCode Corporation, specifically to work with mobile phones and mobile services.[70] It is implementing an independent error detection technique preventing false decoding, it uses a variable-size error correction polynomial, which depends on the exact size of the code.[71]\n\n\n \nMessenger Codes\nProprietary ring-shaped code for Facebook Messenger. Defunct as of 2019, replaced by standard QR codes.\n\n\n \nMicro QR code\nMicro QR code is a smaller version of the QR code standard for applications where symbol size is limited.\n\n\n\nMMCC\nDesigned to disseminate high capacity mobile phone content via existing colour print and electronic media, without the need for network connectivity\n\n\n \nNexCode\nNexCode is developed and patented by S5 Systems.\n\n\n\nNintendo Dot code\nDeveloped by Olympus Corporation to store songs, images, and mini-games for Game Boy Advance on Pok\u00e9mon trading cards.\n\n\n \nPDF417\nOriginated by Symbol Technologies. Public domain. \u2013 International standard: ISO\/IEC 15438\n\n\n\n\nOcode\n\nA proprietary matrix code in hexagonal shape.[72]\n\n\n \nQode\nAmerican proprietary and patented 2D Code from NeoMedia Technologies, Inc.[68]\n\n\n \nQR code\nInitially developed, patented and owned by Denso Wave for automotive components management; they have chosen not to exercise their patent rights. Can encode Latin and Japanese Kanji and Kana characters, music, images, URLs, emails. De facto standard for Japanese cell phones. Used with BlackBerry Messenger to pick up contacts rather than using a PIN code. The most frequently used type of code to scan with smartphones, and one of the most widely used 2D Codes.[73] Public Domain. \u2013 International Standard: ISO\/IEC 18004\n\n\n\nScreencode\nDeveloped and patented[74][75] by Hewlett-Packard Labs. A time-varying 2D pattern using to encode data via brightness fluctuations in an image, for the purpose of high bandwidth data transfer from computer displays to smartphones via smartphone camera input. Inventors Timothy Kindberg and John Collomosse, publicly disclosed at ACM HotMobile 2008.[76]\n\n\n \nShotCode\nCircular pattern codes for camera phones. Originally from High Energy Magic Ltd in name Spotcode. Before that most likely termed TRIPCode.\n\n\n \nSnapcode, also called Boo-R code\nUsed by Snapchat, Spectacles, etc. US9111164B1[77][78][79]\n\n\n\n\nSnowflake Code\n\nA proprietary code developed by Electronic Automation Ltd. in 1981. It is possible to encode more than 100 numeric digits in a space of only 5mm x 5mm. User selectable error correction allows up to 40% of the code to be destroyed and still remain readable. The code is used in the pharmaceutical industry and has an advantage that it can be applied to products and materials in a wide variety of ways, including printed labels, ink-jet printing, laser-etching, indenting or hole punching.[41][80][81]\n\n\n \nSPARQCode\nQR code encoding standard from MSKYNET, Inc.\n\n\n\n\nTLC39\n\nThis is a combination of the two barcodes Code 39 and MicroPDF417, forming a 2D pattern. It is also known as Telecommunications Industry Forum (TCIF) Code 39 or TCIF Linked Code 39.[82]\n\n\n\n\nTrillcode\n\nDesigned for mobile phone scanning.[83] Developed by Lark Computer, a Romanian company.[71]\n\n\n\nVOICEYE\nDeveloped and patented by VOICEYE, Inc. in South Korea, it aims to allow blind and visually impaired people to access printed information. It also claims to be the 2D Code that has the world's largest storage capacity.\n\n\n\nWeChat Mini Program code\nA circular code with outward-projecting lines.[84]\n\nExample images \n\n\tFirst, second and third generation barcodes\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tGTIN-12 number encoded in UPC-A barcode symbol. First and last digit are always placed outside the symbol to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tEAN-13 (GTIN-13) number encoded in EAN-13 barcode symbol. First digit is always placed outside the symbol, additionally right quiet zone indicator (&gt;) is used to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\"Wikipedia\" encoded in Code 93\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\"*WIKI39*\" encoded in Code 39\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t'Wikipedia\" encoded in Code 128\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tAn example of a stacked barcode. Specifically a \"Codablock\" barcode.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tPDF417 sample\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tLorem ipsum boilerplate text as four segment Data Matrix 2D\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\"This is an example Aztec symbol for Wikipedia\" encoded in Aztec Code\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tText 'EZcode'\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tHigh Capacity Color Barcode of the URL for Wikipedia's article on High Capacity Color Barcode\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\"Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia\" in several languages encoded in DataGlyphs\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tTwo different 2D barcodes used in film: Dolby Digital between the sprocket holes with the \"Double-D\" logo in the middle, and Sony Dynamic Digital Sound in the blue area to the left of the sprocket holes\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tThe QR Code for the Wikipedia URL. \"Quick Response\", the most popular 2D barcode. It is open in that the specification is disclosed and the patent is not exercised.[85]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tMaxiCode example. This encodes the string \"Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia\"\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tShotCode sample\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tdetail of Twibright Optar scan from laser printed paper, carrying 32 kbit\/s Ogg Vorbis digital music (48 seconds per A4 page)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\tA KarTrak railroad Automatic Equipment Identification label on a caboose in Florida\n\t\t\n\nIn popular culture \nIn architecture, a building in Lingang New City by German architects Gerkan, Marg and Partners incorporates a barcode design,[86] as does a shopping mall called Shtrikh-kod (Russian for barcode) in Narodnaya ulitsa (\"People's Street\") in the Nevskiy district of St. Petersburg, Russia.[87]\nIn media, in 2011, the National Film Board of Canada and ARTE France launched a web documentary entitled Barcode.tv, which allows users to view films about everyday objects by scanning the product's barcode with their iPhone camera.[88][89]\nIn professional wrestling, the WWE stable D-Generation X incorporated a barcode into their entrance video, as well as on a T-shirt.[90][91]\nIn the TV series Dark Angel, the protagonist and the other transgenics in the Manticore X-series have barcodes on the back of their necks.\nIn video games, the protagonist of the Hitman video game series has a barcode tattoo on the back of his head; QR codes can also be scanned in a side mission in Watch Dogs.\nThe 2018 videogame Judgment features QR Codes that protagonist Takayuki Yagami can photograph with his phone camera. These are mostly to unlock parts for Yagami's Drone.[92]\n\nIn the films Back to the Future Part II and The Handmaid's Tale, cars in the future are depicted with barcode licence plates.\nIn the Terminator films, Skynet burns barcodes onto the inside surface of the wrists of captive humans (in a similar location to the WW2 concentration camp tattoos) as a unique identifier.\nIn music, Dave Davies of the Kinks released a solo album in 1980, AFL1-3603, which featured a giant barcode on the front cover in place of the musician's head. The album's name was also the barcode number.\nThe April 1978 issue of Mad Magazine featured a giant barcode on the cover, with the blurb \"[Mad] Hopes this issue jams up every computer in the country...for forcing us to deface our covers with this yecchy UPC symbol from now on!\"\nInteractive Textbooks were first published by Harcourt College Publishers to Expand Education Technology with Interactive Textbooks.[93]\n\nDesigned barcodes \nSome brands integrate custom designs into barcodes (while keeping them readable) on their consumer products.\n\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\nHoaxes about barcodes \nThere was minor skepticism from conspiracy theorists, who considered barcodes to be an intrusive surveillance technology, and from some Christians, pioneered by a 1982 book The New Money System 666 by Mary Stewart Relfe, who thought the codes hid the number 666, representing the \"Number of the Beast\".[94] Old Believers, a separation of the Russian Orthodox Church, believe barcodes are the stamp of the Antichrist.[95] Television host Phil Donahue described barcodes as a \"corporate plot against consumers\".[96]\n\nSee also \n\nAutomated identification and data capture (AIDC)\nBarcode printer\nCampus card\nEuropean Article Numbering-Uniform Code Council\nGlobal Trade Item Number\nIdentifier\nInventory control system\nObject hyperlinking\nSemacode\nSPARQCode (QR code)\nList of GS1 country codes\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b US patent 2612994 &#160; \n\n^ \"How Barcodes Work\". 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Palmer, Helmers Publishing, ISBN&#160;0-911261-09-5, 386 pages\nThe Bar Code Manual \u2013 Eugene F. Brighan, Thompson Learning, ISBN&#160;0-03-016173-8\nHandbook of Bar Coding Systems \u2013 Harry E. Burke, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, ISBN&#160;978-0-442-21430-2, 219 pages\nInformation Technology for Retail:Automatic Identification &amp; Data Capture Systems \u2013 Girdhar Joshi, Oxford University Press, ISBN&#160;0-19-569796-0, 416 pages\nLines of Communication \u2013 Craig K. Harmon, Helmers Publishing, ISBN&#160;0-911261-07-9, 425 pages\nPunched Cards to Bar Codes \u2013 Benjamin Nelson, Helmers Publishing, ISBN&#160;0-911261-12-5, 434 pages\nRevolution at the Checkout Counter: The Explosion of the Bar Code \u2013 Stephen A. Brown, Harvard University Press, ISBN&#160;0-674-76720-9\nReading Between The Lines \u2013 Craig K. Harmon and Russ Adams, Helmers Publishing, ISBN&#160;0-911261-00-1, 297 pages\nThe Black and White Solution: Bar Code and the IBM PC \u2013 Russ Adams and Joyce Lane, Helmers Publishing, ISBN&#160;0-911261-01-X, 169 pages\nSourcebook of Automatic Identification and Data Collection \u2013 Russ Adams, Van Nostrand Reinhold, ISBN&#160;0-442-31850-2, 298 pages\nInside Out: The Wonders of Modern Technology \u2013 Carol J. Amato, Smithmark Pub, ISBN&#160;0831746572, 1993\n\nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Barcode .\n\nBarcode at Curlie\nFree Online Barcode Generator.\nvteBarcodesLinear barcodes\nAutomatic Car Identification\nCode 11\nCode 39\nCode 93\nCode 128\nCodabar\nEuropean Article Number\nGS1 DataBar\nITF-14\nInterleaved 2 of 5\nMSI Barcode\nPatch Code\nPharmacode\nPlessey\nTelepen\nUPC\n\n \nUPC-A\n \nMaxiCode\nPost office barcodes\nCPC Binary Barcode\nFacing Identification Mark\nPostBar\nPOSTNET\nRM4SCC\nIntelligent Mail barcode\nPLANET\n2D barcodes (stacked)\nGS1 DataBar\nPDF417\n2D barcodes (matrix)\nAztec Code\nData Matrix (Semacode)\nJAB Code\nMaxiCode\nQR code\nBoxing\nPolar coordinate barcodes\nMaxiCode\nShotCode\nOther\nHigh Capacity Color Barcode (Microsoft Tag)\nTechnological issues\nBarcode reader\nBarcode printer\nOther data tags\nRFID\nBokode\nRelated topics\nSupply Chain Management\nObject hyperlinking\nMatrix\nMobile tagging\nCueCat\n\n Category\n Commons\n\nvtePaper data storage mediaAntiquity\nWriting on papyrus (c. 3000 BCE)\nPaper (105 CE)\nModern\nIndex card (1640s)\nPunched tape (mid-1800s)\nPunched card (1880s)\nEdge-notched card (1904)\nOptical mark recognition (1930s)\nBarcode (1948)\n\nAuthority control databases: National \nGermany \nIsrael \nUnited States \nJapan \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode<\/a>\nCategory: Testing terminologyHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 15 April 2020, at 14:59.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 11,541 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Barcode rootpage-Barcode skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Barcode<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Optical machine-readable representation of data<\/div>\n\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For the taxonomic method, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_barcoding\" title=\"DNA barcoding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dbad5c5642cbbfd8b41110a215db57d9\">DNA barcoding<\/a>. For a code of conduct for barristers, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legal_ethics\" title=\"Legal ethics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bbcf5fea6254beec6f3dc6b011e6afa\">Legal ethics<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:UPC-A-036000291452.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"010df4c364acd542be4cc6142f503f94\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e9\/UPC-A-036000291452.svg\/220px-UPC-A-036000291452.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"189\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Product_Code\" title=\"Universal Product Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5db82c178bc58440cafb52148a1f0acd\">UPC-A<\/a> barcode<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>A <b>barcode<\/b> or <b>bar code<\/b> is a method of representing data in a visual, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine-readable_data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Machine-readable data\" data-key=\"ace160f39cb6133c3b15a2459b31b712\">machine-readable form<\/a>. Initially, barcodes represented data by varying the widths, spacings and sizes of parallel lines. These barcodes, now commonly referred to as linear or one-dimensional (1D), can be scanned by special <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_scanner\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Optical scanner\" data-key=\"3a010ceb834b98eeb4db465f99037f0b\">optical scanners<\/a>, called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_reader\" title=\"Barcode reader\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ed2d845906378d62530ae8d1aead8ec\">barcode readers<\/a>, of which there are several types.\n<\/p><p>Later, two-dimensional (2D) variants were developed, using rectangles, dots, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hexagon\" title=\"Hexagon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"190e55cb16e169444f56cb748af776da\">hexagons<\/a> and other patterns, called <i>2D barcodes<\/i> or <i>matrix codes<\/i>, although they do not use bars as such. Both can be read using purpose-built 2D optical scanners, which exist in a few different forms. Matrix codes can also be read by a digital camera connected to a microcomputer running software that takes a photographic image of the barcode and analyzes the image to deconstruct and decode the code. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_device\" title=\"Mobile device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1814ba94a214212770f308719be5139\">mobile device<\/a> with a built-in camera, such as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smartphone\" title=\"Smartphone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49a2d39877c99c533d1236c163ea0100\">smartphone<\/a>, can function as the latter type of barcode reader using specialized <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">application software<\/a> and is suitable for both 1D and 2D codes.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Barcodes_on_British_Railways_rolling_stock_in_1962_(Modern_Railways_Dec_1962)_000130.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8ec4a1428b818b8f1da00deb063fd9f\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/ae\/Barcodes_on_British_Railways_rolling_stock_in_1962_%28Modern_Railways_Dec_1962%29_000130.jpg\/220px-Barcodes_on_British_Railways_rolling_stock_in_1962_%28Modern_Railways_Dec_1962%29_000130.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"314\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Barcoded rolling stock in the UK, 1962<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The barcode was invented by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Norman_Joseph_Woodland\" title=\"Norman Joseph Woodland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"facbde51fe5daa67c42917f3c46a5798\">Norman Joseph Woodland<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bernard_Silver\" title=\"Bernard Silver\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f409f977da89011a33f6230a03e6441\">Bernard Silver<\/a> and patented in the US in 1952.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-patent_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-patent-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The invention was based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morse_code\" title=\"Morse code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7a0a00c8e68667568ec0ea8d43aea88\">Morse code<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> that was extended to thin and thick bars. However, it took over twenty years before this invention became commercially successful. UK magazine <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modern_Railways\" title=\"Modern Railways\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05422ec391a7d110c12152ed5dbf9cb5\">Modern Railways<\/a><\/i> December 1962 pages 387\u2013389 record how <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/British_Railways\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"British Railways\" data-key=\"1fe25848fda203416611b540791d8670\">British Railways<\/a> had already perfected a barcode-reading system capable of correctly reading rolling stock travelling at 100&#160;mph (160&#160;km\/h) with no mistakes. An early use of one type of barcode in an industrial context was sponsored by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_of_American_Railroads\" title=\"Association of American Railroads\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b0e36380967dedabe218b18221f9701\">Association of American Railroads<\/a> in the late 1960s. Developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GTE\" title=\"GTE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d3e4f762ad19d53601e557b472740c7\">General Telephone and Electronics<\/a> (GTE) and called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KarTrak_ACI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"KarTrak ACI\" data-key=\"bd2caa288fa56be9b30c483c4c84a0ec\">KarTrak ACI<\/a> (Automatic Car Identification), this scheme involved placing colored stripes in various combinations on steel plates which were affixed to the sides of railroad rolling stock. Two plates were used per car, one on each side, with the arrangement of the colored stripes encoding information such as ownership, type of equipment, and identification number.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cranstone_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cranstone-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The plates were read by a trackside scanner located, for instance, at the entrance to a classification yard, while the car was moving past.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Keyes_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Keyes-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> The project was abandoned after about ten years because the system proved unreliable after long-term use.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cranstone_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cranstone-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Barcodes became commercially successful when they were used to automate supermarket <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Point_of_sale\" title=\"Point of sale\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e978e565243cc8deaef8586997eedbd7\">checkout<\/a> systems, a task for which they have become almost universal. The Uniform Grocery Product Code Council had chosen, in 1973, the barcode design developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Laurer\" title=\"George Laurer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76a5483d8849bbf1042f7a416e6a9d96\">George Laurer<\/a>. Laurer's barcode, with vertical bars, printed better than the circular barcode developed by Woodland and Silver.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RobertsNYT_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RobertsNYT-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Their use has spread to many other tasks that are generically referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_identification_and_data_capture\" title=\"Automatic identification and data capture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a34ceda16c2b3cebf6248b1530be1f3\">automatic identification and data capture<\/a> (AIDC). The first successful system using barcodes was in the UK supermarket group <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sainsbury%27s\" title=\"Sainsbury's\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8094f1332ec7b642bceb28051452f2b4\">Sainsbury's<\/a> in 1972 using shelf-mounted barcodes <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> which were developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plessey\" title=\"Plessey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db57ebe26d5c67e51371eaa790ff79cf\">Plessey<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> In June 1974, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marsh_Supermarkets\" title=\"Marsh Supermarkets\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b2c8d7be283f9b97b469b24dc3b7f40c\">Marsh supermarket<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Troy,_Ohio\" title=\"Troy, Ohio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51f6b28e06a0a4c4cf342e80f396dfd3\">Troy, Ohio<\/a> used a scanner made by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PSC_Inc.\" title=\"PSC Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8209f6db950b43460aeade44c69b6544\">Photographic Sciences Corporation<\/a> to scan the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Product_Code\" title=\"Universal Product Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5db82c178bc58440cafb52148a1f0acd\">Universal Product Code<\/a> (UPC) barcode on a pack of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wrigley_Company\" title=\"Wrigley Company\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62aab9b94f4aa1cd0d5e9fc7674c3871\">Wrigley's<\/a> chewing gum.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RobertsNYT_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RobertsNYT-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_code\" title=\"QR code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47108109498cb9cfde2bd82ca0546c8b\">QR codes<\/a>, a specific type of 2D barcode, have recently<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style\/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items\" title=\"Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Dates and numbers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4cfbab771e1d842adb00b68f8cdf8bd\"><span title=\"The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2023)\">when?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> become very popular due to the growth in smartphone ownership.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other systems have made inroads in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_identification_and_data_capture\" title=\"Automatic identification and data capture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a34ceda16c2b3cebf6248b1530be1f3\">AIDC<\/a> market, but the simplicity, universality and low cost of barcodes has limited the role of these other systems, particularly before technologies such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio-frequency_identification\" title=\"Radio-frequency identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142e22fc78bf4acc0c1806ea4d00e395\">radio-frequency identification<\/a> (RFID) became available after 1995.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485\" \/>\n<p>In 1948 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bernard_Silver\" title=\"Bernard Silver\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f409f977da89011a33f6230a03e6441\">Bernard Silver<\/a>, a graduate student at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drexel_Institute_of_Technology\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Drexel Institute of Technology\" data-key=\"2f2a9b443e7a0c6d742ce6e2ea2ad2db\">Drexel Institute of Technology<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philadelphia\" title=\"Philadelphia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef093b85a0ceea23d336cf0dbba2f5eb\">Philadelphia<\/a>, Pennsylvania, US overheard the president of the local food chain, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_Fair\" title=\"Food Fair\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f363d299a2164eae9a4c9f254d4f8fe\">Food Fair<\/a>, asking one of the deans to research a system to automatically read product information during checkout.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Silver told his friend <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Norman_Joseph_Woodland\" title=\"Norman Joseph Woodland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"facbde51fe5daa67c42917f3c46a5798\">Norman Joseph Woodland<\/a> about the request, and they started working on a variety of systems. Their first working system used <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ultraviolet\" title=\"Ultraviolet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c04581600fb0e327a6ea34d912bd0b22\">ultraviolet<\/a> ink, but the ink faded too easily and was expensive.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-story_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-story-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Convinced that the system was workable with further development, Woodland left Drexel, moved into his father's apartment in Florida, and continued working on the system. His next inspiration came from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morse_code\" title=\"Morse code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7a0a00c8e68667568ec0ea8d43aea88\">Morse code<\/a>, and he formed his first barcode from sand on the beach. \"I just extended the dots and dashes downwards and made narrow lines and wide lines out of them.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-story_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-story-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> To read them, he adapted technology from optical soundtracks in movies, using a 500-watt incandescent light bulb shining through the paper onto an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Photomultiplier\" title=\"Photomultiplier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35995b1fe61b7f57e114b2a111aacf4b\">photomultiplier<\/a> tube (from a movie projector) on the far side. He later decided that the system would work better if it were printed as a circle instead of a line, allowing it to be scanned in any direction.\n<\/p><p>On 20 October 1949, Woodland and Silver filed a patent application for \"Classifying Apparatus and Method\", in which they described both the linear and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bullseye_(target)\" title=\"Bullseye (target)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4771d396b9cee5afdb688c12e7488f72\">bull's eye<\/a> printing patterns, as well as the mechanical and electronic systems needed to read the code. The patent was issued on 7 October 1952 as US Patent 2,612,994.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-patent_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-patent-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> In 1951, Woodland moved to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a> and continually tried to interest IBM in developing the system. The company eventually commissioned a report on the idea, which concluded that it was both feasible and interesting, but that processing the resulting information would require equipment that was some time off in the future.\n<\/p><p>IBM offered to buy the patent, but the offer was not accepted. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philco\" title=\"Philco\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70aff64b4d6b00e1e38c3a64508bc5ca\">Philco<\/a> purchased the patent in 1962 and then sold it to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RCA\" title=\"RCA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7165ddcaad9417729508b4ff67708ec\">RCA<\/a> sometime later.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-story_10-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-story-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Collins_at_Sylvania\">Collins at Sylvania<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>During his time as an undergraduate, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Jarrett_Collins\" title=\"David Jarrett Collins\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68e61067dbef175c7c96afe0fd6fc299\">David Jarrett Collins<\/a> worked at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pennsylvania_Railroad\" title=\"Pennsylvania Railroad\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f805f3a7b41c4d6ac2ff876fdbb6d57c\">Pennsylvania Railroad<\/a> and became aware of the need to automatically identify railroad cars. Immediately after receiving his master's degree from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology\" title=\"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6d082af902828b7c6c2395cc18da224\">MIT<\/a> in 1959, he started work at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sylvania_Electric_Products\" title=\"Sylvania Electric Products\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56f221af29ee34d5c082b21b00187862\">GTE Sylvania<\/a> and began addressing the problem. He developed a system called <i>KarTrak<\/i> using blue, white and red reflective stripes attached to the side of the cars, encoding a four-digit company identifier and a six-digit car number.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-story_10-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-story-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Light reflected off the colored stripes was read by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Photomultiplier\" title=\"Photomultiplier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35995b1fe61b7f57e114b2a111aacf4b\">photomultiplier<\/a> vacuum tubes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boston_and_Maine_Railroad\" title=\"Boston and Maine Railroad\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca43b885cea840df15fdc424b5bf8bd9\">Boston and Maine Railroad<\/a> tested the KarTrak system on their gravel cars in 1961. The tests continued until 1967, when the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_of_American_Railroads\" title=\"Association of American Railroads\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b0e36380967dedabe218b18221f9701\">Association of American Railroads<\/a> (AAR) selected it as a standard, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_Car_Identification\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automatic Car Identification\" data-key=\"3b004978b1a0813b65555785b6f84c68\">Automatic Car Identification<\/a>, across the entire North American fleet. The installations began on 10 October 1967. However, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/1970s#Economy\" title=\"1970s\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d128714fd47fad7bf8f3d17a8c9bfb6\">economic downturn<\/a> and rash of bankruptcies in the industry in the early 1970s greatly slowed the rollout, and it was not until 1974 that 95% of the fleet was labeled. To add to its woes, the system was found to be easily fooled by dirt in certain applications, which greatly affected accuracy. The AAR abandoned the system in the late 1970s, and it was not until the mid-1980s that they introduced a similar system, this time based on radio tags.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The railway project had failed, but a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toll_bridge\" title=\"Toll bridge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"229a86ff023082a45f355c3615a1a2b9\">toll bridge<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_Jersey\" title=\"New Jersey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90fdcbb236a7435916a45d27a2b806a0\">New Jersey<\/a> requested a similar system so that it could quickly scan for cars that had purchased a monthly pass. Then the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Postal_Service\" title=\"United States Postal Service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd92023e532a15beec861736b66001a7\">U.S. Post Office<\/a> requested a system to track trucks entering and leaving their facilities. These applications required special <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retroreflector\" title=\"Retroreflector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1146869cd40bbb22f8a57d596f08e364\">retroreflector<\/a> labels. Finally, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Whiskas\" title=\"Whiskas\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d981d4ba2d19a6a198e9ceb325a6cda4\">Kal Kan<\/a> asked the Sylvania team for a simpler (and cheaper) version which they could put on cases of pet food for inventory control.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Computer_Identics_Corporation\">Computer Identics Corporation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 1967, with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Railway\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Railway\" data-key=\"0fa22ad2ffab2b70528be008fa15fcfd\">railway<\/a> system maturing, Collins went to management looking for funding for a project to develop a black-and-white version of the code for other industries. They declined, saying that the railway project was large enough, and they saw no need to branch out so quickly.\n<\/p><p>Collins then quit Sylvania and formed the .<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-story_10-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-story-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> As its first innovations, Computer Identics moved from using incandescent light bulbs in its systems, replacing them with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Helium%E2%80%93neon_laser\" title=\"Helium\u2013neon laser\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a023667be2d3d5f5fd47478f0f096dc5\">helium\u2013neon lasers<\/a>, and incorporated a mirror as well, making it capable of locating a barcode up to a meter (3 feet) in front of the scanner. This made the entire process much simpler and more reliable, and typically enabled these devices to deal with damaged labels, as well, by recognizing and reading the intact portions.\n<\/p><p>Computer Identics Corporation installed one of its first two scanning systems in the spring of 1969 at a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Motors\" title=\"General Motors\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3176f5bb7b98ae45aafeb9d9709311cd\">General Motors<\/a> (Buick) factory in Flint, Michigan.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-story_10-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-story-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> The system was used to identify a dozen types of transmissions moving on an overhead conveyor from production to shipping. The other scanning system was installed at General Trading Company's distribution center in Carlstadt, New Jersey to direct shipments to the proper loading bay.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Universal_Product_Code\">Universal Product Code<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Product_Code\" title=\"Universal Product Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5db82c178bc58440cafb52148a1f0acd\">Universal Product Code<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In 1966, the (NAFC) held a meeting on the idea of automated checkout systems. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RCA\" title=\"RCA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7165ddcaad9417729508b4ff67708ec\">RCA<\/a>, who had purchased the rights to the original Woodland patent, attended the meeting and initiated an internal project to develop a system based on the bullseye code. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kroger\" title=\"Kroger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee9107bc984ad7c1ee464f622c1a85af\">Kroger<\/a> grocery chain volunteered to test it.\n<\/p><p>In the mid-1970s, the NAFC established the Ad-Hoc Committee for U.S. Supermarkets on a Uniform Grocery-Product Code to set guidelines for barcode development. In addition, it created a symbol-selection subcommittee to help standardize the approach. In cooperation with consulting firm, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/McKinsey_%26_Co.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"McKinsey &amp; Co.\" data-key=\"b931db17d8ca8f3c3a1dfd2b1a25c35e\">McKinsey &amp; Co.<\/a>, they developed a standardized 11-digit code for identifying products. The committee then sent out a contract tender to develop a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_system\" title=\"Barcode system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db1954b358dfff7180e8fb3940aafa95\">barcode system<\/a> to print and read the code. The request went to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Singer_Corporation\" title=\"Singer Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccdccc5e6b2a27f4cf75309ef772e0ff\">Singer<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Cash_Register\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"National Cash Register\" data-key=\"feb5a5e34e88184fcfd76ce75d8aaa71\">National Cash Register<\/a> (NCR), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Litton_Industries\" title=\"Litton Industries\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e9f41d32e71c9278b2c791e432bad04\">Litton Industries<\/a>, RCA, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pitney-Bowes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Pitney-Bowes\" data-key=\"1ed0d0bf68362374a9730dde3d910310\">Pitney-Bowes<\/a>, IBM and many others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> A wide variety of barcode approaches was studied, including linear codes, RCA's bullseye concentric circle code, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/starburst\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:starburst\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">starburst<\/a> patterns and others.\n<\/p><p>In the spring of 1971, RCA demonstrated their bullseye code at another industry meeting. IBM executives at the meeting noticed the crowds at the RCA booth and immediately developed their own system. IBM marketing specialist Alec Jablonover remembered that the company still employed Woodland, and he established a new facility in Raleigh-Durham <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Research_Triangle_Park\" title=\"Research Triangle Park\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"706d3eb48eb51748546dafcbeb34b604\">Research Triangle Park<\/a> to lead development.\n<\/p><p>In July 1972, RCA began an 18-month test in a Kroger store in Cincinnati. Barcodes were printed on small pieces of adhesive paper, and attached by hand by store employees when they were adding price tags. The code proved to have a serious problem; the printers would sometimes smear ink, rendering the code unreadable in most orientations. However, a linear code, like the one being developed by Woodland at IBM, was printed in the direction of the stripes, so extra ink would simply make the code \"taller\" while remaining readable. So on 3 April 1973, the IBM UPC was selected as the NAFC standard. IBM had designed five versions of UPC symbology for future industry requirements: UPC A, B, C, D, and E.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nelson_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nelson-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>NCR installed a testbed system at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marsh_Supermarkets\" title=\"Marsh Supermarkets\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b2c8d7be283f9b97b469b24dc3b7f40c\">Marsh's Supermarket<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Troy,_Ohio\" title=\"Troy, Ohio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51f6b28e06a0a4c4cf342e80f396dfd3\">Troy, Ohio<\/a>, near the factory that was producing the equipment. On 26 June 1974, Clyde Dawson pulled a 10-pack of Wrigley's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Juicy_Fruit\" title=\"Juicy Fruit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3fbf5dbae7679aec0a9599ae7d8aa7b\">Juicy Fruit<\/a> gum out of his basket and it was scanned by Sharon Buchanan at 8:01&#160;am. The pack of gum and the receipt are now on display in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smithsonian_Institution\" title=\"Smithsonian Institution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"851562470cdc028c4421a73ed399e624\">Smithsonian Institution<\/a>. It was the first commercial appearance of the UPC.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Varchaver_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Varchaver-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 1971, an IBM team was assembled for an intensive planning session, threshing out, 12 to 18 hours a day, how the technology would be deployed and operate cohesively across the system, and scheduling a roll-out plan. By 1973, the team were meeting with grocery manufacturers to introduce the symbol that would need to be printed on the packaging or labels of all of their products. There were no cost savings for a grocery to use it, unless at least 70% of the grocery's products had the barcode printed on the product by the manufacturer. IBM projected that 75% would be needed in 1975. Yet, although this was achieved, there were still scanning machines in fewer than 200 grocery stores by 1977.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Selmeier_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Selmeier-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Economic studies conducted for the grocery industry committee projected over $40 million in savings to the industry from scanning by the mid-1970s. Those numbers were not achieved in that time-frame and some predicted the demise of barcode scanning. The usefulness of the barcode required the adoption of expensive scanners by a critical mass of retailers while manufacturers simultaneously adopted barcode labels. Neither wanted to move first and results were not promising for the first couple of years, with <i>Business Week<\/i> proclaiming \"The Supermarket Scanner That Failed\" in a 1976 article.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Varchaver_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Varchaver-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On the other hand, experience with barcode scanning in those stores revealed additional benefits. The detailed sales information acquired by the new systems allowed greater responsiveness to customer habits, needs and preferences. This was reflected in the fact that about 5 weeks after installing barcode scanners, sales in grocery stores typically started climbing and eventually leveled off at a 10\u201312% increase in sales that never dropped off. There was also a 1\u20132% decrease in operating cost for those stores, and this enabled them to lower prices and thereby to increase market share. It was shown in the field that the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Return_on_investment\" title=\"Return on investment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5acdd67ab1811e8dafb118769bf24c5\">return on investment<\/a> for a barcode scanner was 41.5%. By 1980, 8,000 stores per year were converting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Selmeier_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Selmeier-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sims_Supermarket\" title=\"Sims Supermarket\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5954b33ebd3afc693ecef48f9d30febc\">Sims Supermarkets<\/a> were the first location in Australia to use barcodes, starting in 1979.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Industrial_adoption\">Industrial adoption<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In 1981, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_Defense\" title=\"United States Department of Defense\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"655b39ec745d1842fbcb4d9760be7f84\">United States Department of Defense<\/a> adopted the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_39\" title=\"Code 39\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f9f60d0c592a60b7a14d143f42e6e6a\">Code 39<\/a> for marking all products sold to the United States military. This system, Logistics Applications of Automated Marking and Reading Symbols (LOGMARS), is still used by DoD and is widely viewed as the catalyst for widespread adoption of barcoding in industrial uses.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Use\">Use<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Snack_vendor_on_the_Shinkansen._2005_(26321781190).jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"68c74bd82708d93531b9e6594d7a9c17\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e7\/Snack_vendor_on_the_Shinkansen._2005_%2826321781190%29.jpg\/220px-Snack_vendor_on_the_Shinkansen._2005_%2826321781190%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"293\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Snack vendor on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shinkansen\" title=\"Shinkansen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f31d5a16bd5a08da9104eacf9304b445\">Shinkansen<\/a> train scans a barcode.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EAN-13-ISBN-13.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe8000422f520ec4e6ca414f89e05ce5\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/28\/EAN-13-ISBN-13.svg\/220px-EAN-13-ISBN-13.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"140\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Article_Number_(EAN)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"International Article Number (EAN)\" data-key=\"6223a8932d8698c2768ce299becc3252\">EAN-13 ISBN barcode<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:LB2-ADULT-L3_Assembled.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"37b015f6b7ed58162b55780d368fea5a\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/a\/ad\/LB2-ADULT-L3_Assembled.jpg\/220px-LB2-ADULT-L3_Assembled.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"95\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Barcode on a patient identification wristband<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Barcodedmail.JPG\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4a3bc346266fb4a8f6e29b00437274c\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/4b\/Barcodedmail.JPG\/220px-Barcodedmail.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Barcoded parcel<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Barcodes are widely used around the world in many contexts. In stores, UPC barcodes are pre-printed on most items other than fresh produce from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grocery_store\" title=\"Grocery store\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23a0b930a1a5050c08707509a58117a9\">grocery store<\/a>. This speeds up processing at check-outs and helps track items and also reduces instances of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shoplifting\" title=\"Shoplifting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff75387e26014106c9b177d1f9283826\">shoplifting<\/a> involving price tag swapping, although shoplifters can now print their own barcodes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> Barcodes that encode a book's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> are also widely pre-printed on books, journals and other printed materials. In addition, retail chain membership cards use barcodes to identify customers, allowing for customized marketing and greater understanding of individual consumer shopping patterns. At the point of sale, shoppers can get product discounts or special marketing offers through the address or e-mail address provided at registration.\n<\/p><p>Barcodes are widely <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_technology_in_healthcare\" title=\"Barcode technology in healthcare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6d7e509fdc6ff598938c72a37c2b36\">used in the healthcare and hospital settings<\/a>, ranging from patient identification (to access patient data, including medical history, drug allergies, etc.) to creating <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SOAP_note\" title=\"SOAP note\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca533bcd8c1ef04ed585091cf4969db\">SOAP Notes<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> with barcodes to medication management. They are also used to facilitate the separation and indexing of documents that have been imaged in batch scanning applications, track the organization of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Species\" title=\"Species\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a79f673499553b4a0095adf91c93bef\">species<\/a> in biology,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> and integrate with in-motion <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Checkweigher\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Checkweigher\" data-key=\"4ba77841d837ba27d63b052b6485568c\">checkweighers<\/a> to identify the item being weighed in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conveyor\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Conveyor\" data-key=\"e00d41c5a46ebad00b5f9ec78d99902c\">conveyor<\/a> line for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_collection\" title=\"Data collection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c480fa3155cedfb5132e5258cdc0aa80\">data collection<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>They can also be used to keep track of objects and people; they are used to keep track of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rental_car\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Rental car\" data-key=\"cacef3231a3343c00889abb6cc310a06\">rental cars<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Checked_baggage\" title=\"Checked baggage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ec51b0cbac08ac04949c96561456d14\">airline luggage<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_waste\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nuclear waste\" data-key=\"1fa8991465e22c12830afad47d48daab\">nuclear waste<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Registered_mail\" title=\"Registered mail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b76afb8c4313e7154ba9552ad46163aa\">registered mail<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Express_mail\" title=\"Express mail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1397396d36c7d25f81d8c0c39047761d\">express mail<\/a> and parcels. Barcoded tickets (which may be printed by the customer on their home printer, or stored on their mobile device) allow the holder to enter sports arenas, cinemas, theatres, fairgrounds, and transportation, and are used to record the arrival and departure of vehicles from rental facilities etc. This can allow proprietors to identify duplicate or fraudulent tickets more easily. Barcodes are widely used in shop floor control applications software where employees can scan work orders and track the time spent on a job.\n<\/p><p>Barcodes are also used in some kinds of non-contact 1D and 2D <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Position_sensor\" title=\"Position sensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b589da2bbac4cc429a9066459bc0c2b7\">position sensors<\/a>. A series of barcodes are used in some kinds of absolute 1D <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_encoder\" title=\"Linear encoder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24a6716f6bde13e81c1ec70ba814125e\">linear encoder<\/a>. The barcodes are packed close enough together that the reader always has one or two barcodes in its field of view. As a kind of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fiducial_marker\" title=\"Fiducial marker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc289fcb4ccb8d36589266bbe67c3381\">fiducial marker<\/a>, the relative position of the barcode in the field of view of the reader gives incremental precise positioning, in some cases with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sub-pixel_resolution\" title=\"Sub-pixel resolution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"900fc93b545917c0b1a29a38aba8c8bc\">sub-pixel resolution<\/a>. The data decoded from the barcode gives the absolute coarse position. An \"address carpet\", used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_paper\" title=\"Digital paper\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"420c59f9dbb82fa2cf407f777ca613b7\">digital paper<\/a>, such as Howell's binary pattern and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anoto\" title=\"Anoto\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58baa264ab07856d457a7499a78e6b17\">Anoto<\/a> dot pattern, is a 2D barcode designed so that a reader, even though only a tiny portion of the complete carpet is in the field of view of the reader, can find its absolute X, Y position and rotation in the carpet.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Matrix codes can embed a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hyperlink\" title=\"Hyperlink\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c2d04e10617831fd46d81d0134233d4\">hyperlink<\/a> to a web page. A mobile device with a built-in camera might be used to read the pattern and browse the linked website, which can help a shopper find the best price for an item in the vicinity. Since 2005, airlines use an IATA-standard 2D barcode on boarding passes (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bar_Coded_Boarding_Pass\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bar Coded Boarding Pass\" data-key=\"3c7d49be10badc21f25d293f92220291\">Bar Coded Boarding Pass (BCBP)<\/a>), and since 2008 2D barcodes sent to mobile phones enable electronic boarding passes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Some applications for barcodes have fallen out of use. In the 1970s and 1980s, software source code was occasionally encoded in a barcode and printed on paper (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cauzin_Softstrip\" title=\"Cauzin Softstrip\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a50cd9fc7abc62d3d7aabb691477c3cc\">Cauzin Softstrip<\/a> and Paperbyte<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> are barcode symbologies specifically designed for this application), and the 1991 <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_Battler\" title=\"Barcode Battler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23bcbb0f1bf738dd259b002d44996806\">Barcode Battler<\/a><\/i> computer game system used any standard barcode to generate combat statistics.\n<\/p><p>Artists have used barcodes in art, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scott_Blake\" title=\"Scott Blake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"335bbd740831975929d3347ee989aebe\">Scott Blake's<\/a> Barcode Jesus, as part of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Post-modernism\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Post-modernism\" data-key=\"aa161b8db2183fe78fad8e8587c5b437\">post-modernism<\/a> movement.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Symbologies\">Symbologies<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The mapping between messages and barcodes is called a <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbology\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Symbology\" data-key=\"274160e12ed4781bc3596c22a60fdb52\">symbology<\/a><\/i>. The specification of a symbology includes the encoding of the message into bars and spaces, any required start and stop markers, the size of the quiet zone required to be before and after the barcode, and the computation of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Checksum\" title=\"Checksum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0062da8a4cedf924c709cab7d64dc84\">checksum<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Linear symbologies can be classified mainly by two properties:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Continuous vs. discrete<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>Characters in discrete symbologies are composed of <i>n<\/i> bars and <i>n<\/i>&#160;\u2212&#160;1 spaces. There is an additional space between characters, but it does not convey information, and may have any width as long as it is not confused with the end of the code.<\/li>\n<li>Characters in continuous symbologies are composed of <i>n<\/i> bars and <i>n<\/i> spaces, and usually abut, with one character ending with a space and the next beginning with a bar, or vice versa. A special end pattern that has bars on both ends is required to end the code.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Two-width vs. many-width<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>A two-width, also called a <b>binary bar code<\/b>, contains bars and spaces of two widths, \"wide\" and \"narrow\". The precise width of the wide bars and spaces is not critical; typically, it is permitted to be anywhere between 2 and 3 times the width of the narrow equivalents.<\/li>\n<li>Some other symbologies use bars of two different heights (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/POSTNET\" title=\"POSTNET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36180c8b398bc2b8b0ba4e4f7abd1afa\">POSTNET<\/a>), or the presence or absence of bars (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CPC_Binary_Barcode\" title=\"CPC Binary Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"620b6456abd625a579a0730c43cd0633\">CPC Binary Barcode<\/a>). These are normally also considered binary bar codes.<\/li>\n<li>Bars and spaces in many-width symbologies are all multiples of a basic width called the <i>module<\/i>; most such codes use four widths of 1, 2, 3 and 4 modules.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Some symbologies use interleaving. The first character is encoded using black bars of varying width. The second character is then encoded by varying the width of the white spaces between these bars. Thus, characters are encoded in pairs over the same section of the barcode. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interleaved_2_of_5\" title=\"Interleaved 2 of 5\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeebb8c5185080619a3c29aa78c8c8ae\">Interleaved 2 of 5<\/a> is an example of this.\n<\/p><p>Stacked symbologies repeat a given linear symbology vertically.\n<\/p><p>The most common among the many 2D symbologies are matrix codes, which feature square or dot-shaped modules arranged on a grid pattern. 2D symbologies also come in circular and other patterns and may employ <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steganography\" title=\"Steganography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9ee2d36b0e33ccd0a769128b0422100\">steganography<\/a>, hiding modules within an image (for example, ).\n<\/p><p>Linear symbologies are optimized for laser scanners, which sweep a light beam across the barcode in a straight line, reading a <i>slice<\/i> of the barcode light-dark patterns. Scanning at an angle makes the modules appear wider, but does not change the width ratios. Stacked symbologies are also optimized for laser scanning, with the laser making multiple passes across the barcode.\n<\/p><p>In the 1990s development of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charge-coupled_device\" title=\"Charge-coupled device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7efee5436b2028e45275594a4e70571\">charge-coupled device<\/a> (CCD) imagers to read barcodes was pioneered by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Welch_Allyn\" title=\"Welch Allyn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc172fd42f74fc73e25bb846731e5a61\">Welch Allyn<\/a>. Imaging does not require moving parts, as a laser scanner does. In 2007, linear imaging had begun to supplant laser scanning as the preferred scan engine for its performance and durability.\n<\/p><p>2D symbologies cannot be read by a laser, as there is typically no sweep pattern that can encompass the entire symbol. They must be scanned by an image-based scanner employing a CCD or other digital camera sensor technology.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Barcode_readers\">Barcode readers<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_reader\" title=\"Barcode reader\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ed2d845906378d62530ae8d1aead8ec\">Barcode reader<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:GTIN_Barcodes_of_coke_bottles_-_what_you_see_and_what_the_barcode_scanner_see_2_IMG_2908_2913_2919.JPG\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"4492813c3d239994950748afeab37c99\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/65\/GTIN_Barcodes_of_coke_bottles_-_what_you_see_and_what_the_barcode_scanner_see_2_IMG_2908_2913_2919.JPG\/220px-GTIN_Barcodes_of_coke_bottles_-_what_you_see_and_what_the_barcode_scanner_see_2_IMG_2908_2913_2919.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"188\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_Trade_Item_Number\" title=\"Global Trade Item Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c449fd1f47ef95fec97a3bbe78324264\">GTIN<\/a> barcodes on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coca-Cola\" title=\"Coca-Cola\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"044fd505d498629db1cc9e0268102b28\">Coca-Cola<\/a> bottles. The images at right show how the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laser\" title=\"Laser\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dea2f5421219017090110890edd72e4\">laser<\/a> of barcode readers \"see\" the images behind a red filter.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The earliest, and still<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style\/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items\" title=\"Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Dates and numbers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4cfbab771e1d842adb00b68f8cdf8bd\"><span title=\"The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2022)\">when?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> the cheapest, barcode scanners are built from a fixed light and a single <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Photosensor\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Photosensor\" data-key=\"5bb39d95f26beede807be0c6dd5deb9f\">photosensor<\/a> that is manually moved across the barcode. Barcode scanners can be classified into three categories based on their connection to the computer. The older type is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RS-232\" title=\"RS-232\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"184dfbcc8c49dcd27e8b092853f851ad\">RS-232<\/a> barcode scanner. This type requires special programming for transferring the input data to the application program. Keyboard interface scanners connect to a computer using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PS\/2_port\" title=\"PS\/2 port\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0cec4546fba2ecd94508b3e750d4b20c\">PS\/2<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AT_keyboard\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AT keyboard\" data-key=\"c4f855f28080a65ddf6fb3f7a5787bdd\">AT keyboard<\/a>\u2013compatible adaptor cable (a \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_reader#Keyboard_wedge_(USB,_PS\/2,_etc)\" title=\"Barcode reader\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c125a425637561a4735cb2aed67ae617\">keyboard wedge<\/a>\"). The barcode's data is sent to the computer as if it had been typed on the keyboard.\n<\/p><p>Like the keyboard interface scanner, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USB\" title=\"USB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a17240fa8e9a3f31e95fb0b748e7da8e\">USB<\/a> scanners do not need custom code for transferring input data to the application program. On PCs running Windows the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_interface_device\" title=\"Human interface device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e377c101d46edc23c2e9f8e398a4f516\">human interface device<\/a> emulates the data merging action of a hardware \"keyboard wedge\", and the scanner automatically behaves like an additional keyboard.\n<\/p><p>Most modern smartphones are able to decode barcode using their built-in camera. Google's mobile <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Android_(operating_system)\" title=\"Android (operating system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4367a4e67ff6009ca76098e827576ad\">Android<\/a> operating system can use their own <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Lens\" title=\"Google Lens\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f78412fd3fef909c8ca2f1e1aaf2cd46\">Google Lens<\/a> application to scan QR codes, or third-party apps like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_Scanner_(application)\" title=\"Barcode Scanner (application)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"329ac6186055069b7bb1b460a2cebfe0\">Barcode Scanner<\/a> to read both one-dimensional barcodes and QR codes. Nokia's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbian\" title=\"Symbian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a39032a8298097864e05afd03e3019e2\">Symbian<\/a> operating system featured a barcode scanner,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> while mbarcode<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> is a QR code reader for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maemo\" title=\"Maemo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbf1ca2911a530e0d6bb8e75629f3c3c\">Maemo<\/a> operating system. In Apple <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IOS_11\" title=\"IOS 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86745512b73bd901376c5adb5468aba9\">iOS 11<\/a>, the native camera app can decode QR codes and can link to URLs, join wireless networks, or perform other operations depending on the QR Code contents.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> Other paid and free apps are available with scanning capabilities for other symbologies or for earlier iOS versions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> With <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BlackBerry\" title=\"BlackBerry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3836670acddf6113f0205955b2628db8\">BlackBerry<\/a> devices, the App World application can natively scan barcodes and load any recognized Web URLs on the device's Web browser. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Windows_Phone_7.5\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Windows Phone 7.5\" data-key=\"6558f46ae9866be6c086679b86ebf19c\">Windows Phone 7.5<\/a> is able to scan barcodes through the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bing_(search_engine)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bing (search engine)\" data-key=\"7cc48a07bf465193a8be19a9688d0ac5\">Bing<\/a> search app. However, these devices are not designed specifically for the capturing of barcodes. As a result, they do not decode nearly as quickly or accurately as a dedicated barcode scanner or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portable_data_terminal\" title=\"Portable data terminal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3210bec340b441f74190ddec18b7633\">portable data terminal<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality_control_and_verification\">Quality control and verification<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>It is common for producers and users of bar codes to have a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_management_system\" title=\"Quality management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d64fd726a87573213d8dce6e9f2fe22f\">quality management system<\/a> which includes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Verification_and_validation\" title=\"Verification and validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed7e27dd6af25849fd870d013597fa9f\">verification and validation<\/a> of bar codes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> Barcode verification examines scanability and the quality of the barcode in comparison to industry standards and specifications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> Barcode verifiers are primarily used by businesses that print and use barcodes. Any trading partner in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain\" title=\"Supply chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e23757d3e834e0b4658459f0fd50db00\">supply chain<\/a> can test barcode quality. It is important to verify a barcode to ensure that any reader in the supply chain can successfully interpret a barcode with a low error rate. Retailers levy large penalties for non-compliant barcodes. These chargebacks can reduce a manufacturer's revenue by 2% to 10%.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A barcode verifier works the way a reader does, but instead of simply decoding a barcode, a verifier performs a series of tests. For linear barcodes these tests are:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Edge contrast (EC)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>The difference between the space reflectance (Rs) and adjoining bar reflectance (Rb). EC=Rs-Rb<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Minimum bar reflectance (Rb)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>The smallest reflectance value in a bar.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Minimum space reflectance (Rs)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>The smallest reflectance value in a space.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Symbol contrast (SC)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>Symbol contrast is the difference in reflectance values of the lightest space (including the quiet zone) and the darkest bar of the symbol. The greater the difference, the higher the grade. The parameter is graded as either A, B, C, D, or F. SC=Rmax-Rmin<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Minimum edge contrast (ECmin)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>The difference between the space reflectance (Rs) and adjoining bar reflectance (Rb). EC=Rs-Rb<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Modulation (MOD)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>The parameter is graded either A, B, C, D, or F. This grade is based on the relationship between minimum edge contrast (ECmin) and symbol contrast (SC). MOD=ECmin\/SC The greater the difference between minimum edge contrast and symbol contrast, the lower the grade. Scanners and verifiers perceive the narrower bars and spaces to have less intensity than wider bars and spaces; the comparison of the lesser intensity of narrow elements to the wide elements is called modulation. This condition is affected by aperture size.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Inter-character gap<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>In discrete barcodes, the space that disconnects the two contiguous characters. When present, inter-character gaps are considered spaces (elements) for purposes of edge determination and reflectance parameter grades.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Defects<\/li>\n<li>Decode<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>Extracting the information which has been encoded in a bar code symbol.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Decodability<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>Can be graded as A, B, C, D, or F. The Decodability grade indicates the amount of error in the width of the most deviant element in the symbol. The less deviation in the symbology, the higher the grade. Decodability is a measure of print accuracy using the symbology reference decode algorithm.<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>2D matrix symbols look at the parameters:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Symbol contrast<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Modulation<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Decode<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_34-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Unused error correction<\/li>\n<li>Fixed (finder) pattern damage<\/li>\n<li>Grid non-uniformity<\/li>\n<li>Axial non-uniformity<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Depending on the parameter, each <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ANSI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ANSI\" data-key=\"9c4a01098b2145ef6236aac9daf871c0\">ANSI<\/a> test is graded from 0.0 to 4.0 (F to A), or given a pass or fail mark. Each grade is determined by analyzing the (SRP), an analog graph of a single scan line across the entire symbol. The lowest of the 8 grades is the scan grade, and the overall ISO symbol grade is the average of the individual scan grades. For most applications a 2.5 (C) is the minimal acceptable symbol grade.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Compared with a reader, a verifier measures a barcode's optical characteristics to international and industry standards. The measurement must be repeatable and consistent. Doing so requires constant conditions such as distance, illumination angle, sensor angle and verifier <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aperture\" title=\"Aperture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fb11d0cf38be8130ce0bf142517c546\">aperture<\/a>. Based on the verification results, the production process can be adjusted to print higher quality barcodes that will scan down the supply chain.\n<\/p><p>Bar code validation may include evaluations after use (and abuse) testing such as sunlight, abrasion, impact, moisture, etc.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Barcode_verifier_standards\">Barcode verifier standards<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Barcode verifier standards are defined by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO), in ISO\/IEC 15426-1 (linear) or ISO\/IEC 15426-2 (2D).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> The current international barcode quality specification is ISO\/IEC 15416 (linear) and ISO\/IEC 15415 (2D).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Standard\" title=\"European Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5ce99cda2b1e4b0781966d9d374ebf1\">European Standard<\/a> EN 1635 has been withdrawn and replaced by ISO\/IEC 15416. The original U.S. barcode quality specification was <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ANSI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ANSI\" data-key=\"9c4a01098b2145ef6236aac9daf871c0\">ANSI<\/a> X3.182. (UPCs used in the US \u2013 ANSI\/UCC5).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> As of 2011 the ISO workgroup JTC1 SC31 was developing a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Direct_part_marking\" title=\"Direct part marking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d19cfc8157ca8fe58941b0ab40292fc4\">Direct Part Marking (DPM)<\/a> quality standard: ISO\/IEC TR 29158.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Benefits\">Benefits<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In point-of-sale management, barcode systems can provide detailed up-to-date information on the business, accelerating decisions and with more confidence. For example:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Fast-selling items can be identified quickly and automatically reordered.<\/li>\n<li>Slow-selling items can be identified, preventing inventory build-up.<\/li>\n<li>The effects of merchandising changes can be monitored, allowing fast-moving, more profitable items to occupy the best space.<\/li>\n<li>Historical data can be used to predict seasonal fluctuations very accurately.<\/li>\n<li>Items may be repriced on the shelf to reflect both sale prices and price increases.<\/li>\n<li>This technology also enables the profiling of individual consumers, typically through a voluntary registration of discount cards. While pitched as a benefit to the consumer, this practice is considered to be potentially dangerous by privacy advocates.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words\" data-key=\"3c3e3e3bd5e8c5c41bbedf61159040c1\"><span title=\"The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2019)\">which?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Besides sales and inventory tracking, barcodes are very useful in logistics and supply chain management.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>When a manufacturer packs a box for shipment, a unique identifying number (UID) can be assigned to the box.<\/li>\n<li>A database can link the UID to relevant information about the box; such as order number, items packed, quantity packed, destination, etc.<\/li>\n<li>The information can be transmitted through a communication system such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_data_interchange\" title=\"Electronic data interchange\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08606d658cb8079277aacc5938326c04\">electronic data interchange<\/a> (EDI) so the retailer has the information about a shipment before it arrives.<\/li>\n<li>Shipments that are sent to a distribution center (DC) are tracked before forwarding. When the shipment reaches its final destination, the UID gets scanned, so the store knows the shipment's source, contents, and cost.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Barcode scanners are relatively low cost and extremely accurate compared to key-entry, with only about 1 substitution error in 15,000 to 36 trillion characters entered.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:Reliable sources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3226d9fbe4bdcfea28d6706f866cbbe\"><span title=\"The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (July 2010)\">unreliable source?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> The exact error rate depends on the type of barcode.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_barcodes\">Types of barcodes<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Linear_barcodes\">Linear barcodes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A first generation, \"one dimensional\" barcode that is made up of lines and spaces of various widths or sizes that create specific patterns.\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Example<\/th>\n<th>Symbology<\/th>\n<th>Continuous or discrete<\/th>\n<th>Bar type<\/th>\n<th>Uses\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Codabar.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5664f3ef4ab0d34044b3c54c55d5e61\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/d\/d1\/Codabar.svg\/128px-Codabar.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"37\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Codabar\" title=\"Codabar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76850c32770b9bc8066598d1005723b3\">Codabar<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Old format used in libraries and blood banks and on airbills (out of date, but still widely used in libraries)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Two-out-of-five_code\" title=\"Two-out-of-five code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68fe2372c702679cea7047cae802522e\">Code 25 \u2013 Non-interleaved 2 of 5<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Industrial\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Barcode2of5example.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"198c27b2092cf56130d3c96d9762fdc8\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/5f\/Barcode2of5example.svg\/128px-Barcode2of5example.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"45\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interleaved_2_of_5\" title=\"Interleaved 2 of 5\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeebb8c5185080619a3c29aa78c8c8ae\">Code 25 \u2013 Interleaved 2 of 5<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Wholesale, libraries International standard ISO\/IEC 16390\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code11_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c461f8ea677aaa61ea4a8d763cdea9c6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/65\/Code11_barcode.png\/128px-Code11_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"64\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_11\" title=\"Code 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ede50e4efde726b7a1cfc15012208ef3\">Code 11<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Telephones (out of date)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code32_01234567.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"07ee355bc96dccb629125dceadea3424\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/5e\/Code32_01234567.png\/128px-Code32_01234567.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"80\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td> or Code 32<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Italian pharmacode \u2013 use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_39\" title=\"Code 39\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f9f60d0c592a60b7a14d143f42e6e6a\">Code 39<\/a> (no international standard available)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code_3_of_9.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"34da50b01f1cdf91277d266c6c341dd1\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0b\/Code_3_of_9.svg\/128px-Code_3_of_9.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"50\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_39\" title=\"Code 39\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f9f60d0c592a60b7a14d143f42e6e6a\">Code 39<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Various \u2013 international standard ISO\/IEC 16388\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code_93_Wikipedia_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0006addf3d1577ce88384e826500f54\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/f\/fe\/Code_93_Wikipedia_barcode.png\/128px-Code_93_Wikipedia_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"86\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_93\" title=\"Code 93\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b87af21dea1e65d105ffb773dabbb87\">Code 93<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Various\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code_128B-2009-06-02.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e7ef7fc635c98ece7a3ce7627d13957\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b5\/Code_128B-2009-06-02.svg\/128px-Code_128B-2009-06-02.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"50\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_128\" title=\"Code 128\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ccec83aa5b75bfee467598f8c2f6cd3\">Code 128<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Various \u2013 International Standard ISO\/IEC 15417\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CPC_Binary_Barcode\" title=\"CPC Binary Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"620b6456abd625a579a0730c43cd0633\">CPC Binary<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Issn_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"503e1bbd95f8586e4e63b9e119ae9d2b\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1f\/Issn_barcode.png\/128px-Issn_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"79\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EAN_2\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"EAN 2\" data-key=\"f7d54c2a16aabdcd8461443b091e1114\">EAN 2<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Addon code (magazines), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved \u2013 not an own symbology \u2013 to be used only with an EAN\/UPC according to ISO\/IEC 15420\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Isbn_add5.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d94b3fb4d0f2c8dcc76f73e02af2563\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/94\/Isbn_add5.png\/128px-Isbn_add5.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"66\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EAN_5\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"EAN 5\" data-key=\"309c8273c8e41ac6b4a410b8ad62b1c7\">EAN 5<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Addon code (books), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved \u2013 not an own symbology \u2013 to be used only with an EAN\/UPC according to ISO\/IEC 15420\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EAN8.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"72d56706c180a94e3df0067ca334d4d6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f1\/EAN8.svg\/128px-EAN8.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"125\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EAN-8\" title=\"EAN-8\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60e40c5d0be3960e98cddf19e32dd5ca\">EAN-8<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EAN-13\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"EAN-13\" data-key=\"9d8832d0fa235a0ea3b7b1635b49feed\">EAN-13<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Worldwide retail, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved \u2013 International Standard ISO\/IEC 15420\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facing_Identification_Mark\" title=\"Facing Identification Mark\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7ac07034b9eb1ed8746db7138a49f42\">Facing Identification Mark<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>USPS business reply mail\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gs1-128_example.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"21d8f62dc8595ead6335392a81edbb21\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c4\/Gs1-128_example.svg\/128px-Gs1-128_example.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"42\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1-128\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GS1-128\" data-key=\"57be968bd42ce72ef753d4328749d784\">GS1-128<\/a> (formerly named UCC\/EAN-128), incorrectly referenced as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EAN_128\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"EAN 128\" data-key=\"f3b07e33eaa2ac71c88df1f814f3c06f\">EAN 128<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UCC_128\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UCC 128\" data-key=\"5d919642bfe96224325ef972425aa2bb\">UCC 128<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Various, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved \u2013 just an application of the Code 128 (ISO\/IEC 15417) using the ANS MH10.8.2 AI Datastructures. It is not a separate symbology.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Databar_14_00075678164125.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e31b4106083d401f666e2a01a1e11a0\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/39\/Databar_14_00075678164125.png\/128px-Databar_14_00075678164125.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"93\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1_DataBar\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GS1 DataBar\" data-key=\"650d47b92af32311f736361619273979\">GS1 DataBar<\/a>, formerly Reduced Space Symbology (RSS)<\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Various, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:ITF-14.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"18d81aceaf3bfc2099b43e347a24aed4\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e5\/ITF-14.svg\/128px-ITF-14.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"40\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITF-14\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ITF-14\" data-key=\"2ee5219860512a406a28b9c8c4b174dd\">ITF-14<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Non-retail packaging levels, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved \u2013 is just an Interleaved 2\/5 Code (ISO\/IEC 16390) with a few additional specifications, according to the GS1 General Specifications\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:ITF-6_barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c6d00533400aed0e7aa7978773f8b8d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/86\/ITF-6_barcode.svg\/128px-ITF-6_barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITF-6\" title=\"ITF-6\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf2db287290ca5af1a04d774cf35de5f\">ITF-6<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interleaved_2_of_5\" title=\"Interleaved 2 of 5\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeebb8c5185080619a3c29aa78c8c8ae\">Interleaved 2 of 5<\/a> barcode to encode an addon to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITF-14\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ITF-14\" data-key=\"2ee5219860512a406a28b9c8c4b174dd\">ITF-14<\/a> and ITF-16 barcodes. The code is used to encode additional data such as items quantity or container weight\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EAN-13-5901234123457.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ca1760d961d4caa41c025a133bb3a57\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a2\/EAN-13-5901234123457.svg\/128px-EAN-13-5901234123457.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"93\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Japan_Article_Number\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Japan Article Number\" data-key=\"7a4d2e86ba98d96d79c85d7fb657da3c\">JAN<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Used in Japan, similar to and compatible with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EAN-13\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"EAN-13\" data-key=\"9d8832d0fa235a0ea3b7b1635b49feed\">EAN-13<\/a> (ISO\/IEC 15420)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Japan_Post_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"5fe435feb2e5374ea5b8808bb2ee9a03\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/5c\/Japan_Post_barcode.png\/128px-Japan_Post_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"9\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Japan_Post\" title=\"Japan Post\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f2d89c89aba0ba2a471fa49716f5bfe\">Japan Post<\/a> barcode<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>Japan Post\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:MSI_Barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"634135b2651aa1cd251c39d07ca1a386\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/25\/MSI_Barcode.svg\/128px-MSI_Barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"62\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MSI_Barcode\" title=\"MSI Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef24bd51d2701ee86d3406b0e9480207\">MSI<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Used for warehouse shelves and inventory\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pharmacode_example.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"32770952666fbba35128899664963d77\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/90\/Pharmacode_example.svg\/128px-Pharmacode_example.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"142\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pharmacode\" title=\"Pharmacode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b954cbb2c2d5f681c754d8b15d345ca\">Pharmacode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Pharmaceutical packaging (no international standard available)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Planet_Barcode_Format.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7528eeb2d0d9698c29ad41a44370d7b\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e2\/Planet_Barcode_Format.png\/128px-Planet_Barcode_Format.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"55\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Postal_Alpha_Numeric_Encoding_Technique\" title=\"Postal Alpha Numeric Encoding Technique\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d57b76ec29075320e742721d5628c80f\">PLANET<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Tall\/short<\/td>\n<td>United States Postal Service (no international standard available)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Plessey_barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"47e149c4cf4a78cdaa62ae9e44ce270f\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/6d\/Plessey_barcode.svg\/128px-Plessey_barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"23\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plessey_Code\" title=\"Plessey Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e83263a5ade93790b4c4317d435c1855\">Plessey<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Catalogs, store shelves, inventory (no international standard available)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Telepen_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed2ca171baea4f9c397cf64816af45f8\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/ed\/Telepen_barcode.png\/128px-Telepen_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"30\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telepen\" title=\"Telepen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a749f3e876dd08ececa447d184519fd\">Telepen<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Two<\/td>\n<td>Libraries (UK)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:UPC_A.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"04f8c10fac4d6b3d52743296e00675fb\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fe\/UPC_A.svg\/128px-UPC_A.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"92\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Product_Code\" title=\"Universal Product Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5db82c178bc58440cafb52148a1f0acd\">Universal Product Code<\/a> (UPC-A and UPC-E)<\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Worldwide retail, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a>-approved \u2013 International Standard ISO\/IEC 15420\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"2D_barcodes\"><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-2D_barcodes\"><\/span> 2D barcodes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>2D barcodes consist of bars, but use both dimensions for encoding.\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Example<\/th>\n<th>Symbology<\/th>\n<th>Continuous or discrete<\/th>\n<th>Bar type<\/th>\n<th>Uses\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Australia_Post_4-state_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d38c5afc55238153afac0a1d0d5d4bd\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c3\/Australia_Post_4-state_barcode.png\/128px-Australia_Post_4-state_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"20\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australia_Post\" title=\"Australia Post\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f3e65fec8c152acbca1b58534875741\">Australia Post<\/a> barcode\n<\/td>\n<td>Discrete\n<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights\n<\/td>\n<td>An Australia Post 4-state barcode as used on a business reply paid envelope and applied by automated sorting machines to other mail when initially processed in fluorescent ink.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code_49_wikipedia.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"08b67a5cc12cfa406b3200623da76ab6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/3d\/Code_49_wikipedia.png\/128px-Code_49_wikipedia.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"79\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_49\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Code 49\" data-key=\"787b5c91e19535f506e8a32ad6b79228\">Code 49<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Continuous<\/td>\n<td>Many<\/td>\n<td>Various\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code_16K_wikipedia.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d4a03a73c00057413d792534c010cef\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/92\/Code_16K_wikipedia.png\/128px-Code_16K_wikipedia.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"157\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>The Code 16K (1988) is a multi-row bar code developed by Ted Williams at Laserlight Systems (USA) in 1992. In the US and France, the code is used in the electronics industry to identify chips and printed circuit boards. Medical applications in the USA are well known. Williams also developed Code 128, and the structure of 16K is based on Code 128. Not coincidentally, 128 squared happened to equal 16,384 or 16K for short. Code 16K resolved an inherent problem with Code 49. Code 49's structure requires a large amount of memory for encoding and decoding tables and algorithms. 16K is a stacked symbology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Dx-film-edge-barcode.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"be5dd94e6f396f94e7765767e136864e\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/79\/Dx-film-edge-barcode.jpg\/128px-Dx-film-edge-barcode.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"102\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DX_encoding#DX_film_edge_barcode\" title=\"DX encoding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3294b4dcbefb46b669bcef13e522e3d\">DX film edge barcode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Neither<\/td>\n<td>Tall\/short<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Color_print_film\" title=\"Color print film\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4dbe7fe68fe0ec4c8808e2971e5285e7\">Color print film<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Intelligent_Mail_Barcode_Wiki22.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"a00356cf432ce7c7be9aa35f31394837\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/68\/Intelligent_Mail_Barcode_Wiki22.png\/128px-Intelligent_Mail_Barcode_Wiki22.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"46\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_Mail_barcode\" title=\"Intelligent Mail barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb7ecd62840ec56d97f2b36035683cf2\">Intelligent Mail barcode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>United States Postal Service, replaces both POSTNET and PLANET symbols (formerly named <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OneCode\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OneCode\" data-key=\"bda68bd887c4d5d83f57953a5ac688d3\">OneCode<\/a>)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Diagram_Of_a_KarTrak_ACI_Plate.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"cae23246ff456d79a1cf008688b4c157\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/af\/Diagram_Of_a_KarTrak_ACI_Plate.svg\/128px-Diagram_Of_a_KarTrak_ACI_Plate.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"268\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KarTrak\" title=\"KarTrak\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"819a7519d40face0f5012d5a4495d9dc\">KarTrak<\/a> ACI<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Coloured bars<\/td>\n<td>Used in North America on railroad rolling equipment\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Canada_Post_d52.01_domestic_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"405ee214788e924eaaa1dc4f860fca78\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/84\/Canada_Post_d52.01_domestic_barcode.png\/128px-Canada_Post_d52.01_domestic_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PostBar\" title=\"PostBar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"358b3f2f51a515cc7d3781b094ca3e7d\">PostBar<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>Canadian Post office\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:POSTNET_BAR.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c51bebf9ba522e8f5eac8c9a2ed42c24\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2d\/POSTNET_BAR.svg\/6px-POSTNET_BAR.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"6\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:POSTNET_1.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9f06d2e3bc571de0f5a56940f4dbf6c\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/47\/POSTNET_1.svg\/30px-POSTNET_1.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"30\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:POSTNET_2.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c130ab15497725c59de0608df06c41d3\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/19\/POSTNET_2.svg\/30px-POSTNET_2.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"30\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:POSTNET_3.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"250c5ab132a60060301046507448a7f6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/3d\/POSTNET_3.svg\/30px-POSTNET_3.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"30\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:POSTNET_BAR.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b4e30f313192f61e5ae42ec34ec97e\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/43\/POSTNET_BAR.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"6\" height=\"14\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/POSTNET\" title=\"POSTNET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36180c8b398bc2b8b0ba4e4f7abd1afa\">POSTNET<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>Tall\/short<\/td>\n<td>United States Postal Service (no international standard available)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Address_with_RM4SCC_barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"0dc258823dccb4cb5dfbe31f98f4212d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fc\/Address_with_RM4SCC_barcode.svg\/128px-Address_with_RM4SCC_barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"88\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RM4SCC\" title=\"RM4SCC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1d8dd3e59a77d5a35a92e538907c62a\">RM4SCC<\/a> \/ KIX<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>Royal Mail \/ <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PostNL\" title=\"PostNL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afedd6e39721850acc4cd778705447b2\">PostNL<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Royal_Mail_mailmark_C_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd2668b47441fb3287f927a22006ea8e\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7b\/Royal_Mail_mailmark_C_barcode.png\/128px-Royal_Mail_mailmark_C_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"13\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>RM Mailmark C<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>Royal Mail\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Royal_Mail_mailmark_L_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fcb442d606711fd4bf70517d4619ae7\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fe\/Royal_Mail_mailmark_L_barcode.png\/128px-Royal_Mail_mailmark_L_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"10\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>RM Mailmark L<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>4 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>Royal Mail\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Spotify_code_barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"64297c132bbac20710ad67a101cb831e\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/21\/Spotify_code_barcode.svg\/128px-Spotify_code_barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"32\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spotify\" title=\"Spotify\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1263cfd7bb4fd7cedf162510283b02e8\">Spotify<\/a> codes<\/td>\n<td>Discrete<\/td>\n<td>23 bar heights<\/td>\n<td>Spotify codes point to artists, songs, podcasts, playlists, and albums. The information is encoded in the height of the bars,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> so as long as the bar heights are maintained, the code can be handwritten and can vary in color.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> Patented under EP3444755.\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Matrix_.282D.29_codes\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Matrix_(2D)_codes\"><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-2D_Codes\"><\/span> Matrix (2D) codes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A <i>matrix code<\/i> or simply a <i>2D code<\/i>, is a two-dimensional way to represent information. It can represent more data per unit area. Apart from dots various other patterns can be used.\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Example<\/th>\n<th>Name<\/th>\n<th>Notes\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:App_Clip_Code_example.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0c8dee56e5fe172fa89f5a0d924347a\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a7\/App_Clip_Code_example.svg\/128px-App_Clip_Code_example.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"157\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>App Clip Code<\/td>\n<td>Apple-proprietary code for launching \"App Clips\", a type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applet\" title=\"Applet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"834a0b6fdad7f29a9f6a254d48783dc5\">applet<\/a>. 5 concentric rings of three colors (light, dark, middle).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ar_code.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"22c22a1d5a31208c62f5dd93d74eac5e\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e0\/Ar_code.png\/128px-Ar_code.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ARToolKit\" title=\"ARToolKit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df0abd469fadfd08e27686b4cf9920da\">AR Code<\/a><\/td>\n<td>A type of marker used for placing content inside <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Augmented_reality\" title=\"Augmented reality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb0ff91c510e81bccbb9ef63158e6d48\">augmented reality<\/a> applications. Some AR Codes can contain QR codes inside, so that AR content can be linked to.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> See also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ARTag\" title=\"ARTag\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a189fd085d0a67a3592777544c9b652c\">ARTag<\/a>.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Azteccodeexample.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c5caad883df7567187c2c1bc4c5cac9\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/20\/Azteccodeexample.svg\/128px-Azteccodeexample.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aztec_Code\" title=\"Aztec Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cfbebcab64563c5b80b645c75fd111c\">Aztec Code<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Designed by Andrew Longacre at Welch Allyn (now Honeywell Scanning and Mobility). Public domain. \u2013 International Standard: ISO\/IEC 24778\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:BCode_barcode_1683.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"a36bdf8cab73f5ce366ce7af45f8fd9f\"><img alt=\"A bCode matrix code encoding the identifier 1683\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/44\/BCode_barcode_1683.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"62\" height=\"62\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/td>\n<td>bCode\n<\/td>\n<td>A matrix designed for the study of insect behavior.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> Encodes an 11 bit identifier and 16 bits of read error detection and error correction information. Predominantly used for marking <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Honey_bee\" title=\"Honey bee\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1bd0efa5c18f78a46d119d39370dc29\">honey bees<\/a>, but can also be applied to other animals.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Frameless\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:BEEtag_1166.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"145f89030df4f38003dc2e11a5129059\"><img alt=\"BEEtag Matrix Code Image\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/09\/BEEtag_1166.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"101\" height=\"103\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>A 25 bit (5x5) code matrix of black and white pixels that is unique to each tag surrounded by a white pixel border and a black pixel border. The 25-bit matrix consists of a 15-bit identity code, and a 10-bit error check.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup> It is designed to be a low-cost, image-based tracking system for the study of animal behavior and locomotion.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>A 2D code with honeycomb structures suitable for mobile tagging and was developed by the Swiss company connvision AG.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bokode\" title=\"Bokode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43861fc72e4dbbf08d68f588ae4cc169\">Bokode<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>A type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_identification_and_data_capture\" title=\"Automatic identification and data capture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a34ceda16c2b3cebf6248b1530be1f3\">data tag<\/a> which holds much more information than a barcode over the same area. They were developed by a team led by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ramesh_Raskar\" title=\"Ramesh Raskar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e76d71eb20c13be79d0ca040d8d527a\">Ramesh Raskar<\/a> at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT_Media_Lab\" title=\"MIT Media Lab\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"732a13705490ff5ebcac01cfac50dde4\">MIT Media Lab<\/a>. The bokode pattern is a tiled series of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Matrix\" title=\"Data Matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f437cb7754dec5b1b7f4f005f7602eb\">Data Matrix<\/a> codes.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Boxing_4kv6_0.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d26d66ee65a118d4a11d16c0f2ef157\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/78\/Boxing_4kv6_0.png\/128px-Boxing_4kv6_0.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"68\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boxing_barcode\" title=\"Boxing barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a2946488ac53cf2f765a1ce6ad0179c\">Boxing<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>A high-capacity 2D code is used on by Piql AS<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cauzin_Softstrip\" title=\"Cauzin Softstrip\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a50cd9fc7abc62d3d7aabb691477c3cc\">Cauzin Softstrip<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>Softstrip code was used in the 1980s to encode software, which could be transferred by special scanners from printed journals into your computer hardware.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Code 1<\/td>\n<td>Public domain. Code 1 is currently used in the health care industry for medicine labels and the recycling industry to encode container content for sorting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Colorzip_Colorcode_example.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"58a064d9159b79e71446a2a9e22f057d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/41\/Colorzip_Colorcode_example.png\/128px-Colorzip_Colorcode_example.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>ColorCode<\/td>\n<td><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> developed colour barcodes that can be read by camera phones from TV screens; mainly used in Korea.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Color_Construct_Code_example.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9f8e84b1d6b29079dc5edfb99fd56cd\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f2\/Color_Construct_Code_example.png\/128px-Color_Construct_Code_example.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"139\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>Color Construct Code<\/td>\n<td> is one of the few code symbologies designed to take advantage of multiple colors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:PhotoTAN_mit_Orientierungsmarkierungen.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fd634e217955d7a3179c47f3ddd0774\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/bd\/PhotoTAN_mit_Orientierungsmarkierungen.svg\/128px-PhotoTAN_mit_Orientierungsmarkierungen.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>Cronto Visual Cryptogram\n<\/td>\n<td>The Cronto Visual Cryptogram (also called photoTAN) is a specialized color barcode, spun out from research at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Cambridge\" title=\"University of Cambridge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"804ee5e182344c3f5f780777b651e1e6\">University of Cambridge<\/a> by Igor Drokov, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steven_Murdoch\" title=\"Steven Murdoch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc064f63a49eb55ca44ea87749f76842\">Steven Murdoch<\/a>, and Elena Punskaya.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cronto_55-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cronto-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup> It is used for transaction signing in e-banking; the barcode contains encrypted transaction data which is then used as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Challenge%E2%80%93response_authentication\" title=\"Challenge\u2013response authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95ef305528eff6bb8963b06d6c34ef6a\">challenge<\/a> to compute a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transaction_authentication_number\" title=\"Transaction authentication number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5af7521943170b531bcc968dc854e33a\">transaction authentication number<\/a> using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_token\" title=\"Security token\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c9d3bbad457f10503b520c6c25215d3\">security token<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CyberCode\" title=\"CyberCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0863297ca0e815d7c213f4c0232dbe02\">CyberCode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>From Sony.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>d-touch<\/td>\n<td>readable when printed on deformable gloves and stretched and distorted<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Dataglyph511140.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7850f1e74a2e6319f8f8143373fd32f\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/92\/Dataglyph511140.png\/128px-Dataglyph511140.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"104\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>From Palo Alto Research Center (also termed Xerox PARC).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>Patented.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup>\nDataGlyphs can be embedded into a half-tone image or background shading pattern in a way that is almost perceptually invisible, similar to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steganography\" title=\"Steganography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9ee2d36b0e33ccd0a769128b0422100\">steganography<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Datamatrix.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6e887e478c9040f757cb59317bb8557\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e8\/Datamatrix.svg\/128px-Datamatrix.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Matrix\" title=\"Data Matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f437cb7754dec5b1b7f4f005f7602eb\">Data Matrix<\/a><\/td>\n<td>From , formerly RVSI Acuity CiMatrix\/Siemens. Public domain. Increasingly used throughout the United States. Single segment Data Matrix is also termed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semacode\" title=\"Semacode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cc98e88e6ca4c9765eeee54bc7d6d4c\">Semacode<\/a>. \u2013 International Standard: ISO\/IEC 16022.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Datastrip_Code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Datastrip Code\" data-key=\"49f4850795a75ae2ba96ab82f1526ecb\">Datastrip Code<\/a><\/td>\n<td>From Datastrip, Inc.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digimarc#Digimarc_code\" title=\"Digimarc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a1b9eb4d9ff80d2f78730a4450d3e2c\">Digimarc code<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>The Digimarc Code is a unique identifier, or code, based on imperceptible patterns that can be applied to marketing materials, including packaging, displays, ads in magazines, circulars, radio and television<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_paper\" title=\"Digital paper\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"420c59f9dbb82fa2cf407f777ca613b7\">digital paper<\/a><\/td>\n<td>patterned paper used in conjunction with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_pen\" title=\"Digital pen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e98bcb3cc0b9dec2aa26c463f1e8e17d\">digital pen<\/a> to create handwritten digital documents. The printed dot pattern uniquely identifies the position coordinates on the paper.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:35mm_film_audio_macro.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"67856b3138127d35657b4686b9b0b37c\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1d\/35mm_film_audio_macro.jpg\/128px-35mm_film_audio_macro.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"93\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dolby_Digital\" title=\"Dolby Digital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67ff79f210c57270b1b6506ef858f2d0\">Dolby Digital<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>Digital sound code for printing on cinematic film between the threading holes\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:DotCode_Wikipedia.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c63f4c45747c96a8d078077325aeab9\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e2\/DotCode_Wikipedia.png\/128px-DotCode_Wikipedia.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"90\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Standardized as AIM Dotcode Rev 3.0. Public domain. Used to track individual cigarette and pharmaceutical packages.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Also known as <i>Philips Dot Code<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> Patented in 1988.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170216045744\/https:\/\/sites.gs1us.org\/mobilescan\/home\" target=\"_blank\">DWCode<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>Introduced by GS1 US and GS1 Germany, the DWCode is a unique, imperceptible data carrier that is repeated across the entire graphics design of a package<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EZcode_Example.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"Example of an EZcode.\" data-key=\"52be247d08f1d3623c20c4178d3720d7\"><img alt=\"Example of an EZcode.\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/90\/EZcode_Example.png\/128px-EZcode_Example.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>EZcode<\/td>\n<td>Designed for decoding by cameraphones;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup> from ScanLife.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Steeman_68-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Steeman-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Han_Xin_2D_Barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"032faeaee6e6961556bfa624252580e7\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/ce\/Han_Xin_2D_Barcode.svg\/128px-Han_Xin_2D_Barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Code designed to encode <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_characters\" title=\"Chinese characters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b5461b097f5cb7860fc960ca35c239a\">Chinese characters<\/a> introduced by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_for_Automatic_Identification_and_Mobility\" title=\"Association for Automatic Identification and Mobility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0a64b975bdc201b342c6d6a814d2009\">Association for Automatic Identification and Mobility<\/a> in 2011.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:High_Capacity_Color_Barcode_Tag.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a506f47986b791e1981065bfb932782\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/dc\/High_Capacity_Color_Barcode_Tag.svg\/128px-High_Capacity_Color_Barcode_Tag.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High_Capacity_Color_Barcode\" title=\"High Capacity Color Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44d15f4372c9ba607510b9007cd3718e\">High Capacity Color Barcode<\/a><\/td>\n<td><b>HCCB<\/b> was developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a>; licensed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Audiovisual_Number_International_Agency\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"International Standard Audiovisual Number International Agency\" data-key=\"5ee5359fea9d26dd228daa877ae3fb2b\">ISAN-IA<\/a>.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>From Robot Design Associates. Uses greyscale or colour.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>From . The standard 2D Code in South Korea. All 3 South Korean mobile carriers put the scanner program of this code into their handsets to access mobile internet, as a default embedded program.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:JAB_code_-_Wikipedia_greetings_with_link.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"70662c47a651c2c9f9143d03e4473bd6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/5a\/JAB_code_-_Wikipedia_greetings_with_link.png\/128px-JAB_code_-_Wikipedia_greetings_with_link.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>\n<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JAB_Code\" title=\"JAB Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2171bffb80ece8b9104d85e254ab03cb\">JAB Code<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td><b>J<\/b>ust <b>A<\/b>nother <b>B<\/b>ar Code is a colored 2D Code. Square or rectangle. License free\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:MaxiCode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e9ae980c539c0a5fefbda97dd080d00\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b4\/MaxiCode.svg\/128px-MaxiCode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"123\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MaxiCode\" title=\"MaxiCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0884c08172ad0ddb2789f225ca65a646\">MaxiCode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Used by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Parcel_Service\" title=\"United Parcel Service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e33fbf8c4075127007bb6ec3bded976\">United Parcel Service<\/a>. Now public domain.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>Designed by NextCode Corporation, specifically to work with mobile phones and mobile services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup> It is implementing an independent error detection technique preventing false decoding, it uses a variable-size error correction polynomial, which depends on the exact size of the code.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_71-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Messenger_code_-_barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e2b9bc39ca1d61268caca8f0e1eb0ba\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/25\/Messenger_code_-_barcode.png\/128px-Messenger_code_-_barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>Messenger Codes<\/td>\n<td>Proprietary ring-shaped code for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook_Messenger\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Facebook Messenger\" data-key=\"7a20006e55b264f58a9f4b4b966581f1\">Facebook Messenger<\/a>. Defunct as of 2019, replaced by standard QR codes.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Micro_QR_Example.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c41057350220202d9230dd6fbfc2f5ec\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/89\/Micro_QR_Example.svg\/128px-Micro_QR_Example.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_code#Micro_QR_code\" title=\"QR code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"959fe124041e5b385dd1dca67cdd8918\">Micro QR code<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Micro QR code is a smaller version of the QR code standard for applications where symbol size is limited.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_Multi-Coloured_Composite\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mobile Multi-Coloured Composite\" data-key=\"390656abad988380edbb8f77a00744d9\">MMCC<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Designed to disseminate high capacity mobile phone content via existing colour print and electronic media, without the need for network connectivity\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:NexCode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"57db4e22c1f42ab4633428ae8072d532\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/ac\/NexCode.png\/128px-NexCode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>NexCode is developed and patented by S5 Systems.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nintendo_e-Reader#Dot_code\" title=\"Nintendo e-Reader\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70f649b7d79c36584ec5a05e56bb9412\">Nintendo Dot code<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Olympus_Corporation\" title=\"Olympus Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73b380bbfcf29198fcd380e1c78a80d3\">Olympus Corporation<\/a> to store songs, images, and mini-games for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_Boy_Advance\" title=\"Game Boy Advance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98a68c071e2f66e2efa7393e3d7585f7\">Game Boy Advance<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pok%C3%A9mon_Trading_Card_Game\" title=\"Pok\u00e9mon Trading Card Game\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c68e47f99608c8f2209fa6bfd5b8c4a\">Pok\u00e9mon trading cards<\/a>.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Better_Sample_PDF417.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e06cf6c06ecaeab347a878eb73d41081\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/07\/Better_Sample_PDF417.png\/128px-Better_Sample_PDF417.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"56\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PDF417\" title=\"PDF417\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7766eaa8f5f73bb764a7ebadb384c8d\">PDF417<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Originated by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbol_Technologies\" title=\"Symbol Technologies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f862e976f68915d914145df1b47a7072\">Symbol Technologies<\/a>. Public domain. \u2013 International standard: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO\" data-key=\"e95523d3dca5a1220c8d242d7653c133\">ISO<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Electrotechnical_Commission\" title=\"International Electrotechnical Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3365d94c8fd167fc59737ebfcb686d3e\">IEC<\/a> 15438\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>Ocode\n<\/td>\n<td>A proprietary matrix code in hexagonal shape.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Qode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"Qode example.\" data-key=\"cc26859335d679ad4493ef8bb4c530b6\"><img alt=\"Qode example.\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e4\/Qode.png\/128px-Qode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"138\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>American proprietary and patented 2D Code from NeoMedia Technologies, Inc.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Steeman_68-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Steeman-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:QR_code_for_mobile_English_Wikipedia.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"32dd7bd804b3eff7c08f337683ee12ee\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d0\/QR_code_for_mobile_English_Wikipedia.svg\/128px-QR_code_for_mobile_English_Wikipedia.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_code\" title=\"QR code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47108109498cb9cfde2bd82ca0546c8b\">QR code<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Initially developed, patented and owned by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denso_Wave\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Denso Wave\" data-key=\"1ea2f3dfe5085e236f6384e9e8374c59\">Denso Wave<\/a> for automotive components management; they have chosen not to exercise their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Patent_right\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Patent right\" data-key=\"68d72157eca46f6960825872626d3375\">patent rights<\/a>. Can encode <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Latin_script\" title=\"Latin script\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f8fcff7b79351ec37491d94b4aa7657\">Latin<\/a> and Japanese Kanji and Kana characters, music, images, URLs, emails. De facto standard for Japanese cell phones. Used with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BlackBerry_Messenger\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"BlackBerry Messenger\" data-key=\"898916870166c7fe8e15a600554f10d3\">BlackBerry Messenger<\/a> to pick up contacts rather than using a PIN code. The most frequently used type of code to scan with smartphones, and one of the most widely used 2D Codes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> Public Domain. \u2013 International Standard: ISO\/IEC 18004\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Screencode<\/td>\n<td>Developed and patented<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hewlett-Packard\" title=\"Hewlett-Packard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3071e67fd131546e44720a6d8dc9510b\">Hewlett-Packard<\/a> Labs. A time-varying 2D pattern using to encode data via brightness fluctuations in an image, for the purpose of high bandwidth data transfer from computer displays to smartphones via smartphone camera input. Inventors and , publicly disclosed at ACM HotMobile 2008.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-76\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Shotcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"9abb1460c626f141b1ef0c189d5e958a\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7d\/Shotcode.png\/128px-Shotcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ShotCode\" title=\"ShotCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"686b1b23e62087e69077760609ca9868\">ShotCode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Circular pattern codes for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Camera_phone\" title=\"Camera phone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43f2734df2ca0420114aaa602eb000da\">camera phones<\/a>. Originally from High Energy Magic Ltd in name Spotcode. Before that most likely termed TRIPCode.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Snapcode_barcode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a56e9a69778208050250873a092a1c6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d6\/Snapcode_barcode.svg\/128px-Snapcode_barcode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"128\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td>Snapcode, also called Boo-R code<\/td>\n<td>Used by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Snapchat\" title=\"Snapchat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b832a26ab875896c1cd20153f134e769\">Snapchat<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spectacles_(product)\" title=\"Spectacles (product)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"640e0e811de60172687ad1dad34529ed\">Spectacles<\/a>, etc. US9111164B1<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>Snowflake Code\n<\/td>\n<td>A proprietary code developed by Electronic Automation Ltd. in 1981. It is possible to encode more than 100 numeric digits in a space of only 5mm x 5mm. User selectable error correction allows up to 40% of the code to be destroyed and still remain readable. The code is used in the pharmaceutical industry and has an advantage that it can be applied to products and materials in a wide variety of ways, including printed labels, ink-jet printing, laser-etching, indenting or hole punching.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page_41-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-81\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SPARQCode-sample.gif\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb661e1282f36e8c2e9caa452b06069a\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/65\/SPARQCode-sample.gif\/128px-SPARQCode-sample.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"128\" height=\"148\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SPARQCode\" title=\"SPARQCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62a08d1b7cfe6a71fd9fc15e669d7395\">SPARQCode<\/a><\/td>\n<td>QR code encoding standard from MSKYNET, Inc.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>This is a combination of the two barcodes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_39\" title=\"Code 39\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f9f60d0c592a60b7a14d143f42e6e6a\">Code 39<\/a> and , forming a 2D pattern. It is also known as Telecommunications Industry Forum (TCIF) Code 39 or TCIF Linked Code 39.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-82\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>Designed for mobile phone scanning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup> Developed by Lark Computer, a Romanian company.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_71-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Developed and patented by VOICEYE, Inc. in South Korea, it aims to allow blind and visually impaired people to access printed information. It also claims to be the 2D Code that has the world's largest storage capacity.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WeChat#WeChat_Mini_Program\" title=\"WeChat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f4ed67a0456288351a8523bc89a042de\">WeChat Mini Program<\/a> code<\/td>\n<td>A circular code with outward-projecting lines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-84\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Example_images\">Example images<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul class=\"gallery mw-gallery-traditional\">\n\t<li class=\"gallerycaption\">First, second and third generation barcodes<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:UPC-A-036000291452.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"GTIN-12 number encoded in UPC-A barcode symbol. First and last digit are always placed outside the symbol to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly\" data-key=\"46403bbf4a50085daaa767e225d3750d\"><img alt=\"GTIN-12 number encoded in UPC-A barcode symbol. First and last digit are always placed outside the symbol to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/5d\/UPC-A-036000291452.png\/120px-UPC-A-036000291452.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"87\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">GTIN-12 number encoded in UPC-A barcode symbol. First and last digit are always placed outside the symbol to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EAN-13-5901234123457.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"EAN-13 (GTIN-13) number encoded in EAN-13 barcode symbol. First digit is always placed outside the symbol, additionally right quiet zone indicator (>) is used to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly\" data-key=\"6ca1760d961d4caa41c025a133bb3a57\"><img alt=\"EAN-13 (GTIN-13) number encoded in EAN-13 barcode symbol. First digit is always placed outside the symbol, additionally right quiet zone indicator (>) is used to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a2\/EAN-13-5901234123457.svg\/120px-EAN-13-5901234123457.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"87\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">EAN-13 (GTIN-13) number encoded in EAN-13 barcode symbol. First digit is always placed outside the symbol, additionally right quiet zone indicator (&gt;) is used to indicate Quiet Zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code93.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"&quot;Wikipedia&quot; encoded in Code 93\" data-key=\"6e9e8c327c98c8e06b6ea79f3f34a7a9\"><img alt=\"&quot;Wikipedia&quot; encoded in Code 93\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/86\/Code93.png\/120px-Code93.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"53\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">\"Wikipedia\" encoded in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_93\" title=\"Code 93\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b87af21dea1e65d105ffb773dabbb87\">Code 93<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Code39.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"&quot;*WIKI39*&quot; encoded in Code 39\" data-key=\"8fd2832c4b55d98f1f0b589504be49c7\"><img alt=\"&quot;*WIKI39*&quot; encoded in Code 39\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/4f\/Code39.png\/120px-Code39.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"51\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">\"*WIKI39*\" encoded in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_39\" title=\"Code 39\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f9f60d0c592a60b7a14d143f42e6e6a\">Code 39<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wikipedia_barcode_128.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"'Wikipedia&quot; encoded in Code 128\" data-key=\"07a6a08e266f24197743b4ab8c2d4647\"><img alt=\"'Wikipedia&quot; encoded in Code 128\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f7\/Wikipedia_barcode_128.svg\/120px-Wikipedia_barcode_128.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"74\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">'Wikipedia\" encoded in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_128\" title=\"Code 128\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ccec83aa5b75bfee467598f8c2f6cd3\">Code 128<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Codablock-F_Example.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"An example of a stacked barcode. Specifically a &quot;Codablock&quot; barcode.\" data-key=\"21be03d55ebdb7013d86d6036a5c7b2f\"><img alt=\"An example of a stacked barcode. Specifically a &quot;Codablock&quot; barcode.\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b9\/Codablock-F_Example.png\/120px-Codablock-F_Example.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"71\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">An example of a <i>stacked barcode<\/i>. Specifically a \"Codablock\" barcode.<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Better_Sample_PDF417.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"PDF417 sample\" data-key=\"e06cf6c06ecaeab347a878eb73d41081\"><img alt=\"PDF417 sample\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/07\/Better_Sample_PDF417.png\/120px-Better_Sample_PDF417.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"52\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PDF417\" title=\"PDF417\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7766eaa8f5f73bb764a7ebadb384c8d\">PDF417<\/a> sample<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Lorem_Ipsum.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"Lorem ipsum boilerplate text as four segment Data Matrix 2D\" data-key=\"37ce29a6eebc8f31a5c0cfc7bb04d149\"><img alt=\"Lorem ipsum boilerplate text as four segment Data Matrix 2D\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b6\/Lorem_Ipsum.png\/120px-Lorem_Ipsum.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lorem_ipsum\" title=\"Lorem ipsum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da7d2f7e2b59e1683d219187904621a2\">Lorem ipsum<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boilerplate_text\" title=\"Boilerplate text\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61816daf9c1a10156e8dd27e11b29dc9\">boilerplate text<\/a> as four segment <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Matrix\" title=\"Data Matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f437cb7754dec5b1b7f4f005f7602eb\">Data Matrix<\/a> 2D<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Azteccodeexample.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"&quot;This is an example Aztec symbol for Wikipedia&quot; encoded in Aztec Code\" data-key=\"2c5caad883df7567187c2c1bc4c5cac9\"><img alt=\"&quot;This is an example Aztec symbol for Wikipedia&quot; encoded in Aztec Code\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/20\/Azteccodeexample.svg\/120px-Azteccodeexample.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">\"This is an example Aztec symbol for Wikipedia\" encoded in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aztec_Code\" title=\"Aztec Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cfbebcab64563c5b80b645c75fd111c\">Aztec Code<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EZcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"Text 'EZcode'\" data-key=\"2d361562d37e888e163a24e86577276d\"><img alt=\"Text 'EZcode'\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/99\/EZcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">Text 'EZcode'<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:High_Capacity_Color_Barcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"High Capacity Color Barcode of the URL for Wikipedia's article on High Capacity Color Barcode\" data-key=\"9db786be1a33ab075cfaf8e2b8b76f9f\"><img alt=\"High Capacity Color Barcode of the URL for Wikipedia's article on High Capacity Color Barcode\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/16\/High_Capacity_Color_Barcode.png\/120px-High_Capacity_Color_Barcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">High Capacity Color Barcode of the URL for Wikipedia's article on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High_Capacity_Color_Barcode\" title=\"High Capacity Color Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44d15f4372c9ba607510b9007cd3718e\">High Capacity Color Barcode<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Dataglyph511140.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"&quot;Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia&quot; in several languages encoded in DataGlyphs\" data-key=\"e7850f1e74a2e6319f8f8143373fd32f\"><img alt=\"&quot;Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia&quot; in several languages encoded in DataGlyphs\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/92\/Dataglyph511140.png\/120px-Dataglyph511140.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"98\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">\"Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia\" in several languages encoded in <\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:35mm_film_audio_macro.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"Two different 2D barcodes used in film: Dolby Digital between the sprocket holes with the &quot;Double-D&quot; logo in the middle, and Sony Dynamic Digital Sound in the blue area to the left of the sprocket holes\" data-key=\"67856b3138127d35657b4686b9b0b37c\"><img alt=\"Two different 2D barcodes used in film: Dolby Digital between the sprocket holes with the &quot;Double-D&quot; logo in the middle, and Sony Dynamic Digital Sound in the blue area to the left of the sprocket holes\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1d\/35mm_film_audio_macro.jpg\/120px-35mm_film_audio_macro.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"87\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">Two different 2D barcodes used in film: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dolby_Digital\" title=\"Dolby Digital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67ff79f210c57270b1b6506ef858f2d0\">Dolby Digital<\/a> between the sprocket holes with the \"Double-D\" logo in the middle, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sony_Dynamic_Digital_Sound\" title=\"Sony Dynamic Digital Sound\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f0c3ceb92bd74c92223875fbeb5699e\">Sony Dynamic Digital Sound<\/a> in the blue area to the left of the sprocket holes<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:WikiQRCode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"The QR Code for the Wikipedia URL. &quot;Quick Response&quot;, the most popular 2D barcode. It is open in that the specification is disclosed and the patent is not exercised.[85]\" data-key=\"42fdbacc9157c70010d86ca05ca1de9e\"><img alt=\"The QR Code for the Wikipedia URL. &quot;Quick Response&quot;, the most popular 2D barcode. It is open in that the specification is disclosed and the patent is not exercised.[85]\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1d\/WikiQRCode.svg\/120px-WikiQRCode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_Code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"QR Code\" data-key=\"fe1e6436e7c024095606b74293cbd082\">QR Code<\/a> for the Wikipedia URL. \"Quick Response\", the most popular 2D barcode. It is open in that the specification is disclosed and the patent is not exercised.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-85\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:MaxiCode.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"MaxiCode example. This encodes the string &quot;Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia&quot;\" data-key=\"5e9ae980c539c0a5fefbda97dd080d00\"><img alt=\"MaxiCode example. This encodes the string &quot;Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia&quot;\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b4\/MaxiCode.svg\/120px-MaxiCode.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"115\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MaxiCode\" title=\"MaxiCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0884c08172ad0ddb2789f225ca65a646\">MaxiCode<\/a> example. This encodes the string \"Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia\"<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Shotcode.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"ShotCode sample\" data-key=\"9abb1460c626f141b1ef0c189d5e958a\"><img alt=\"ShotCode sample\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7d\/Shotcode.png\/120px-Shotcode.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ShotCode\" title=\"ShotCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"686b1b23e62087e69077760609ca9868\">ShotCode<\/a> sample<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Twibright_Optar_Detail_Scanned.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"detail of Twibright Optar scan from laser printed paper, carrying 32 kbit\/s Ogg Vorbis digital music (48 seconds per A4 page)\" data-key=\"f9a51d47c7077a97824e3d82efaee9c8\"><img alt=\"detail of Twibright Optar scan from laser printed paper, carrying 32 kbit\/s Ogg Vorbis digital music (48 seconds per A4 page)\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d9\/Twibright_Optar_Detail_Scanned.png\/120px-Twibright_Optar_Detail_Scanned.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">detail of scan from laser printed paper, carrying 32 kbit\/s Ogg Vorbis digital music (48 seconds per A4 page)<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:KarTrak_code.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" title=\"A KarTrak railroad Automatic Equipment Identification label on a caboose in Florida\" data-key=\"2585784bfe91390fd1db10dbc48e4753\"><img alt=\"A KarTrak railroad Automatic Equipment Identification label on a caboose in Florida\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b3\/KarTrak_code.jpg\/120px-KarTrak_code.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"90\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\">A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KarTrak\" title=\"KarTrak\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"819a7519d40face0f5012d5a4495d9dc\">KarTrak<\/a> railroad <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_Equipment_Identification\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automatic Equipment Identification\" data-key=\"6167dad0df6ce1452f6946262edeb435\">Automatic Equipment Identification<\/a> label on a caboose in Florida<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_popular_culture\">In popular culture<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In architecture, a building in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lingang_New_City\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Lingang New City\" data-key=\"cf2bb97a13b268fd53d71965a9472f29\">Lingang New City<\/a> by German architects <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gerkan,_Marg_and_Partners\" title=\"Gerkan, Marg and Partners\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"639fc3aba5edb9ac17a557199426c36b\">Gerkan, Marg and Partners<\/a> incorporates a barcode design,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-86\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup> as does a shopping mall called <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111026031424\/http:\/\/www.marlen-dress.ru\/img\/schtrih-kod.jpg\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Shtrikh-kod<\/i><\/a> (Russian for <i>barcode<\/i>) in Narodnaya ulitsa (\"People's Street\") in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Administrative_divisions_of_Saint_Petersburg#Nevskiy_District\" title=\"Administrative divisions of Saint Petersburg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b6dd68f5fcf93ac8ee55085ec686d48\">Nevskiy district<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/St._Petersburg\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"St. Petersburg\" data-key=\"e5b32df602771c31d2eb35f830286380\">St. Petersburg<\/a>, Russia.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In media, in 2011, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Film_Board_of_Canada\" title=\"National Film Board of Canada\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbae8fac329dfe9cdf654b20b4184a4f\">National Film Board of Canada<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ARTE_France\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ARTE France\" data-key=\"d7f857eb5e14bd993ffb8d323c319dd6\">ARTE France<\/a> launched a web documentary entitled <i>Barcode.tv<\/i>, which allows users to view films about everyday objects by scanning the product's barcode with their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPhone\" title=\"IPhone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0fbfa769f394b81468b61e051b5eafa7\">iPhone<\/a> camera.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NFB_blog_88-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NFB_blog-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Reelscreen_89-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Reelscreen-89\">[89]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Professional_wrestling\" title=\"Professional wrestling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d81bc55a9455e1b58dd6748495dbe0e5\">professional wrestling<\/a>, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WWE\" title=\"WWE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0661b554deb067a27dcbda81be1e8c65\">WWE<\/a> stable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/D-Generation_X\" title=\"D-Generation X\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa9d57971a38e429009396c51d92c652\">D-Generation X<\/a> incorporated a barcode into their entrance video, as well as on a T-shirt.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-90\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-91\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-91\">[91]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the TV series <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dark_Angel_(2000_TV_series)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dark Angel (2000 TV series)\" data-key=\"e5de6662739cf35dea2edd29a7ef327d\">Dark Angel<\/a><\/i>, the protagonist and the other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transgenics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Transgenics\" data-key=\"a196af49b32b8411e6cda370aa5c693f\">transgenics<\/a> in the Manticore X-series have barcodes on the back of their necks.\n<\/p><p>In video games, the protagonist of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hitman_(franchise)\" title=\"Hitman (franchise)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f5e7f886d8d5380111d6a9b62949b1a\"><i>Hitman<\/i> video game series<\/a> has a barcode tattoo on the back of his head; QR codes can also be scanned in a side mission in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Watch_Dogs_(video_game)\" title=\"Watch Dogs (video game)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bca44001fa50d9b9cd77ec5e4a24840\">Watch Dogs<\/a><\/i>.\n<\/p><p>The 2018 videogame <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Judgment_(video_game)\" title=\"Judgment (video game)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b0e9ad768ada392caed995d51dcb35\">Judgment<\/a><\/i> features <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_Code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"QR Code\" data-key=\"fe1e6436e7c024095606b74293cbd082\">QR Codes<\/a> that protagonist Takayuki Yagami can photograph with his phone camera. These are mostly to unlock parts for Yagami's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UAV\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UAV\" data-key=\"12e2ce1fe700ea63b50d1c768701aac9\">Drone<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-92\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-92\">[92]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>In the films <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Back_to_the_Future_Part_II\" title=\"Back to the Future Part II\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22e7e511b771e1bae6b44b837c6a30bb\">Back to the Future Part II<\/a><\/i> and <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Handmaid%27s_Tale_(film)\" title=\"The Handmaid's Tale (film)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b27136a005ec36997effe28b3ed6cc90\">The Handmaid's Tale<\/a><\/i>, cars in the future are depicted with barcode <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Licence_plate\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Licence plate\" data-key=\"d0379d4db1215391432450e6e64d2aef\">licence plates<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In the <i>Terminator<\/i> films, Skynet burns barcodes onto the inside surface of the wrists of captive humans (in a similar location to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identification_of_inmates_in_German_concentration_camps\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Identification of inmates in German concentration camps\" data-key=\"0660f6e7a0c858e8079b39c8d7896816\">WW2 concentration camp tattoos<\/a>) as a unique identifier.\n<\/p><p>In music, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dave_Davies\" title=\"Dave Davies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce55e4f337988e9c7d5cf1910316ef37\">Dave Davies<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Kinks\" title=\"The Kinks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f67ab694d9f079f84a905862151f350\">the Kinks<\/a> released a solo album in 1980, <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AFL1-3603\" title=\"AFL1-3603\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33227fc146b61b6a33a27060c4930d1a\">AFL1-3603<\/a><\/i>, which featured a giant barcode on the front cover in place of the musician's head. The album's name was also the barcode number.\n<\/p><p>The April 1978 issue of <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mad_Magazine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mad Magazine\" data-key=\"2d224b00a376b15b35ffb2d05994e083\">Mad Magazine<\/a><\/i> featured a giant barcode on the cover, with the blurb \"[Mad] Hopes this issue jams up every computer in the country...for forcing us to deface our covers with this yecchy UPC symbol from now on!\"\n<\/p><p>Interactive Textbooks were first published by <i>Harcourt College Publishers to Expand Education Technology with Interactive Textbooks.<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">[93]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Designed_barcodes\">Designed barcodes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some brands integrate custom designs into barcodes (while keeping them readable) on their consumer products.\n<\/p>\n<ul class=\"gallery mw-gallery-traditional centered\">\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Design_Barcode_Grasvodka_IMG_5574.JPG\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec73321f6532df8a1a1c44bd567204bc\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/42\/Design_Barcode_Grasvodka_IMG_5574.JPG\/116px-Design_Barcode_Grasvodka_IMG_5574.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"116\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Barcode_Tall_Horse1.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"305fd0979de113d0fb6aa756ab1a904f\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/45\/Barcode_Tall_Horse1.jpg\/120px-Barcode_Tall_Horse1.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"102\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:H%C3%BChner-Bouillon_K_Designbarcode_4337185009907_IMG_8716.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"85a6290d1bd960a20e65a3dc83bd4128\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/ad\/H%C3%BChner-Bouillon_K_Designbarcode_4337185009907_IMG_8716.jpg\/115px-H%C3%BChner-Bouillon_K_Designbarcode_4337185009907_IMG_8716.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"115\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sardinendose_K_Barcode_Art_valid_IMG11829.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e2a2986e309dbc9fa9c1e962764a1e4\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/98\/Sardinendose_K_Barcode_Art_valid_IMG11829.jpg\/120px-Sardinendose_K_Barcode_Art_valid_IMG11829.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"78\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\t\t<li class=\"gallerybox\" style=\"width: 155px\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"thumb\" style=\"width: 150px; height: 150px;\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Barcode_peanut.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"53d61cc9648d9e77868baf7a11d11366\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/63\/Barcode_peanut.jpg\/120px-Barcode_peanut.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"120\" height=\"108\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"gallerytext\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hoaxes_about_barcodes\">Hoaxes about barcodes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There was minor skepticism from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conspiracy_theory\" title=\"Conspiracy theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f177ec8b058ebe08167b37d49a33d88d\">conspiracy theorists<\/a>, who considered barcodes to be an intrusive <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surveillance\" title=\"Surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b2e3ae2beab3ec421b301bf765e28f8\">surveillance<\/a> technology, and from some Christians, pioneered by a 1982 book <i>The New Money System 666<\/i> by Mary Stewart Relfe, who thought the codes hid the number <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/666_(number)\" title=\"666 (number)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c74ccbd17df6264dd5298f0126c23698\">666<\/a>, representing the \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Number_of_the_beast\" title=\"Number of the beast\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57055fc0bbdfde86a88da74e1396c0a8\">Number of the Beast<\/a>\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-94\">[94]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Old_Believers\" title=\"Old Believers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b7d84e78a608b1afcbbf5067592f7b2\">Old Believers<\/a>, a separation of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Russian_Orthodox_Church\" title=\"Russian Orthodox Church\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"483cc264eccd11e6ea2a8857466ef24d\">Russian Orthodox Church<\/a>, believe barcodes are the stamp of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antichrist\" title=\"Antichrist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84346b245a643597b21104a9a319f92\">Antichrist<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-95\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-95\">[95]<\/a><\/sup> Television host <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phil_Donahue\" title=\"Phil Donahue\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1f189858cda248441f836d6bda32483\">Phil Donahue<\/a> described barcodes as a \"corporate plot against consumers\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-96\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-96\">[96]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_identification_and_data_capture\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated identification and data capture\" data-key=\"6a095044168dde4006e55605a3f7de37\">Automated identification and data capture<\/a> (AIDC)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode_printer\" title=\"Barcode printer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7f2b81c93aa735f7f7030cbd58ebd10\">Barcode printer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Campus_card\" title=\"Campus card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d29320af2dc49856351f027a277d2120\">Campus card<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Article_Numbering-Uniform_Code_Council\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"European Article Numbering-Uniform Code Council\" data-key=\"390bd02266a91a8ee74dee6a4faacc84\">European Article Numbering-Uniform Code Council<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_Trade_Item_Number\" title=\"Global Trade Item Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c449fd1f47ef95fec97a3bbe78324264\">Global Trade Item Number<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identifier\" title=\"Identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13703cbb128e47888d8a4a075f5e6e19\">Identifier<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_control_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inventory control system\" data-key=\"c100e52ca72ad41779d2ff7340fab909\">Inventory control system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object_hyperlinking\" title=\"Object hyperlinking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"859375ca10778e7bc9425e63878d90cc\">Object hyperlinking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semacode\" title=\"Semacode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cc98e88e6ca4c9765eeee54bc7d6d4c\">Semacode<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SPARQCode\" title=\"SPARQCode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62a08d1b7cfe6a71fd9fc15e669d7395\">SPARQCode<\/a> (QR code)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_GS1_country_codes\" title=\"List of GS1 country codes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24eab7d306b9770e6b6df4039e1bacb5\">List of GS1 country codes<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-patent-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-patent_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-patent_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation patent\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/worldwide.espacenet.com\/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2612994\" target=\"_blank\">US patent 2612994<\/a><\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&amp;rft.number=2612994&amp;rft.cc=US&amp;rft.title=\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190605080136\/https:\/\/www.stuffyoushouldknow.com\/podcasts\/how-barcodes-work.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Barcodes Work\"<\/a>. <i>Stuff You Should Know<\/i>. 4 June 2019. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.stuffyoushouldknow.com\/podcasts\/how-barcodes-work.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 5 June 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 June<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Stuff+You+Should+Know&amp;rft.atitle=How+Barcodes+Work&amp;rft.date=2019-06-04&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stuffyoushouldknow.com%2Fpodcasts%2Fhow-barcodes-work.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cranstone-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cranstone_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cranstone_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCranstone\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Cranstone, Ian. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nakina.net\/other\/aci\/aci.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A guide to ACI (Automatic Car Identification)\/KarTrak\"<\/a>. <i>Canadian Freight Cars A resource page for the Canadian Freight Car Enthusiast<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110827124711\/http:\/\/www.nakina.net\/other\/aci\/aci.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 August 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 May<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Canadian+Freight+Cars+A+resource+page+for+the+Canadian+Freight+Car+Enthusiast&amp;rft.atitle=A+guide+to+ACI+%28Automatic+Car+Identification%29%2FKarTrak&amp;rft.aulast=Cranstone&amp;rft.aufirst=Ian&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nakina.net%2Fother%2Faci%2Faci.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Keyes-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Keyes_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKeyes2003\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Keyes, John (22 August 2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140310153027\/http:\/\/johnkeyes.com\/2003\/08\/kartrak\" target=\"_blank\">\"KarTrak\"<\/a>. <i>John Keyes Boston photoblogger. Images from Boston, New England, and beyond<\/i>. John Keyes. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/johnkeyes.com\/2003\/08\/kartrak\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 10 March 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 May<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=John+Keyes+Boston+photoblogger.+Images+from+Boston%2C+New+England%2C+and+beyond.&amp;rft.atitle=KarTrak&amp;rft.date=2003-08-22&amp;rft.aulast=Keyes&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjohnkeyes.com%2F2003%2F08%2Fkartrak&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RobertsNYT-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-RobertsNYT_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RobertsNYT_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRoberts2019\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Roberts, Sam (11 December 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/12\/11\/technology\/george-laurer-dead.html?searchResultPosition=1\" target=\"_blank\">\"George Laurer, Who Developed the Bar Code, Is Dead at 94\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_York_Times\" title=\"The New York Times\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623c682760636b635e0bd6f2cf164389\">The New York Times<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200622055851\/https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/12\/11\/technology\/george-laurer-dead.html?searchResultPosition=1\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 June 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 December<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=George+Laurer%2C+Who+Developed+the+Bar+Code%2C+Is+Dead+at+94&amp;rft.date=2019-12-11&amp;rft.aulast=Roberts&amp;rft.aufirst=Sam&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F12%2F11%2Ftechnology%2Fgeorge-laurer-dead.html%3FsearchResultPosition%3D1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:1-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrown2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Brown, Derrick (19 January 2023). \"Birth of the Barcode: a talk given to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Conservation_Society\" title=\"Computer Conservation Society\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9da320b96dd44bd0f30eace9f8b25c44\">Computer Conservation Society<\/a>\".<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Birth+of+the+Barcode%3A+a+talk+given+to+the+Computer+Conservation+Society&amp;rft.date=2023-01-19&amp;rft.aulast=Brown&amp;rft.aufirst=Derrick&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFox2011\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Fox, Margalit (15 June 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2011\/06\/16\/business\/16haberman.html?_r=1&hp&gwh=7657EAA31B3069C9E728CC93FD2695E8\" target=\"_blank\">\"Alan Haberman, Who Ushered in the Bar Code, Dies at 81\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_York_Times\" title=\"The New York Times\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623c682760636b635e0bd6f2cf164389\">The New York Times<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170624163459\/http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2011\/06\/16\/business\/16haberman.html?_r=1&hp&gwh=7657EAA31B3069C9E728CC93FD2695E8\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 June 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 February<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Alan+Haberman%2C+Who+Ushered+in+the+Bar+Code%2C+Dies+at+81&amp;rft.date=2011-06-15&amp;rft.aulast=Fox&amp;rft.aufirst=Margalit&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F06%2F16%2Fbusiness%2F16haberman.html%3F_r%3D1%26hp%26gwh%3D7657EAA31B3069C9E728CC93FD2695E8&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFG._F.2017\" class=\"citation news cs1\">G. F. (2 November 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.economist.com\/blogs\/economist-explains\/2017\/11\/economist-explains-0\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why QR codes are on the rise\"<\/a>. <i>The Economist<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180205184837\/https:\/\/www.economist.com\/blogs\/economist-explains\/2017\/11\/economist-explains-0\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 5 February 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 February<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Economist&amp;rft.atitle=Why+QR+codes+are+on+the+rise&amp;rft.date=2017-11-02&amp;rft.au=G.+F.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fblogs%2Feconomist-explains%2F2017%2F11%2Feconomist-explains-0&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFishman2001\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Fishman, Charles (1 August 2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100112043409\/http:\/\/www.americanwaymag.com\/so-woodland-bar-code-bernard-silver-drexel-university\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Killer App \u2013 Bar None\"<\/a>. <i>American Way<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.americanwaymag.com\/so-woodland-bar-code-bernard-silver-drexel-university\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 12 January 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=American+Way&amp;rft.atitle=The+Killer+App+%E2%80%93+Bar+None&amp;rft.date=2001-08-01&amp;rft.aulast=Fishman&amp;rft.aufirst=Charles&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanwaymag.com%2Fso-woodland-bar-code-bernard-silver-drexel-university&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-story-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-story_10-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-story_10-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-story_10-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-story_10-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-story_10-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-story_10-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSeideman1993\" class=\"citation cs2\">Seideman, Tony (Spring 1993), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161016084435\/http:\/\/www.bar-code.com\/upc\/bar_code_history.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"Barcodes Sweep the World\"<\/a>, <i>Wonders of Modern Technology<\/i>, archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bar-code.com\/upc\/bar_code_history.php\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 16 October 2016<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Wonders+of+Modern+Technology&amp;rft.atitle=Barcodes+Sweep+the+World&amp;rft.ssn=spring&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.aulast=Seideman&amp;rft.aufirst=Tony&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bar-code.com%2Fupc%2Fbar_code_history.php&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDunn2015\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Dunn, Peter (20 October 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/601032\/david-collins-sm-59\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"David Collins, SM '59: Making his mark on the world with bar codes\"<\/a>. <i>technologyreview.com<\/i>. MIT. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181110013152\/https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/601032\/david-collins-sm-59\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 November 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 December<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=technologyreview.com&amp;rft.atitle=David+Collins%2C+SM+%2759%3A+Making+his+mark+on+the+world+with+bar+codes&amp;rft.date=2015-10-20&amp;rft.aulast=Dunn&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologyreview.com%2Fs%2F601032%2Fdavid-collins-sm-59%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGraham-White1999\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Graham-White, Sean (August 1999). \"Do You Know Where Your Boxcar Is?\". <i>Trains<\/i>. <b>59<\/b> (8): 48\u201353.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Trains&amp;rft.atitle=Do+You+Know+Where+Your+Boxcar+Is%3F&amp;rft.volume=59&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=48-53&amp;rft.date=1999-08&amp;rft.aulast=Graham-White&amp;rft.aufirst=Sean&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLaurer\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Laurer\" title=\"George Laurer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76a5483d8849bbf1042f7a416e6a9d96\">Laurer, George<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080925105745\/http:\/\/bellsouthpwp.net\/l\/a\/laurergj\/UPC\/upc_work.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Development of the U.P.C. Symbol\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/bellsouthpwp.net\/l\/a\/laurergj\/UPC\/upc_work.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 September 2008.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Development+of+the+U.P.C.+Symbol&amp;rft.aulast=Laurer&amp;rft.aufirst=George&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbellsouthpwp.net%2Fl%2Fa%2Flaurergj%2FUPC%2Fupc_work.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Nelson-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Nelson_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNelson1997\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Nelson, Benjamin (1997). <i>Punched Cards To Bar Codes: A 200-year journey<\/i>. Peterborough, N.H.: Helmers. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780911261127<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Punched+Cards+To+Bar+Codes%3A+A+200-year+journey&amp;rft.place=Peterborough%2C+N.H.&amp;rft.pub=Helmers&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.isbn=9780911261127&amp;rft.aulast=Nelson&amp;rft.aufirst=Benjamin&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Varchaver-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Varchaver_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Varchaver_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVarchaver2004\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Varchaver, Nicholas (31 May 2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/money.cnn.com\/magazines\/fortune\/fortune_archive\/2004\/05\/31\/370719\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Scanning the Globe\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fortune_(magazine)\" title=\"Fortune (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef8ee87f565dde9aafbc2b149d7b70f8\">Fortune<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20061114065720\/https:\/\/money.cnn.com\/magazines\/fortune\/fortune_archive\/2004\/05\/31\/370719\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 November 2006<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 November<\/span> 2006<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Fortune&amp;rft.atitle=Scanning+the+Globe&amp;rft.date=2004-05-31&amp;rft.aulast=Varchaver&amp;rft.aufirst=Nicholas&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmoney.cnn.com%2Fmagazines%2Ffortune%2Ffortune_archive%2F2004%2F05%2F31%2F370719%2Findex.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Selmeier-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Selmeier_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Selmeier_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSelmeier2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Selmeier, Bill (2009). <i>Spreading the Barcode<\/i>. Lulu. pp.&#160;26, 214, 236, 238, 244, 245, 236, 238, 244, 245. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-578-02417-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Spreading+the+Barcode&amp;rft.pages=26%2C+214%2C+236%2C+238%2C+244%2C+245%2C+236%2C+238%2C+244%2C+245&amp;rft.pub=Lulu&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-578-02417-2&amp;rft.aulast=Selmeier&amp;rft.aufirst=Bill&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRawsthorn2010\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Rawsthorn, Alice (23 February 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2010\/02\/28\/t-magazine\/womens-fashion\/28talk-rawsthorn.html?_r=0\" target=\"_blank\">\"Scan Artists\"<\/a>. <i>New York Times<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161118202704\/http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2010\/02\/28\/t-magazine\/womens-fashion\/28talk-rawsthorn.html?_r=0\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 18 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 July<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Scan+Artists&amp;rft.date=2010-02-23&amp;rft.aulast=Rawsthorn&amp;rft.aufirst=Alice&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F02%2F28%2Ft-magazine%2Fwomens-fashion%2F28talk-rawsthorn.html%3F_r%3D0&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fullyloaded.com.au\/news\/logistics\/1407\/world-hails-barcode-on-important-birthday\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"World hails barcode on important birthday\"<\/a>. <i>ATN<\/i>. 1 July 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140723051540\/http:\/\/www.fullyloaded.com.au\/news\/logistics\/1407\/world-hails-barcode-on-important-birthday\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 23 July 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 February<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ATN&amp;rft.atitle=World+hails+barcode+on+important+birthday&amp;rft.date=2014-07-01&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fullyloaded.com.au%2Fnews%2Flogistics%2F1407%2Fworld-hails-barcode-on-important-birthday%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/history.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Short History of Bar Code\"<\/a>. <i>BarCode 1<\/i>. Adams Communications. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100502072956\/http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/history.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 May 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=BarCode+1&amp;rft.atitle=A+Short+History+of+Bar+Code&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adams1.com%2Fhistory.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/iwatchsystems.com\/technical\/2011\/05\/02\/barcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Barcode\"<\/a>. <i>iWatch Systems<\/i>. 2 May 2011. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120109011439\/http:\/\/iwatchsystems.com\/technical\/2011\/05\/02\/barcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 9 January 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=iWatch+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Barcode&amp;rft.date=2011-05-02&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiwatchsystems.com%2Ftechnical%2F2011%2F05%2F02%2Fbarcode%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOberfield\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Oberfield, Craig. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.qnotes.com\/quix\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"QNotes Barcode System\"<\/a>. <i>US Patented #5296688<\/i>. Quick Notes Inc. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121231170857\/http:\/\/qnotes.com\/quix\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 31 December 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(March 2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130603223227\/http:\/\/turing.plymouth.edu\/~wjt\/HCI\/ui2.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Printed Embedded Data Graphical User Interfaces\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_Computer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IEEE Computer\" data-key=\"f03ff32f15cb440e40b1288be5d96b79\">IEEE Computer<\/a><\/i>. Xerox Palo Alto Research Center. <b>34<\/b> (3): 47\u201355. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2F2.910893\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/2.910893<\/a>. 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IATA.org. 21 November 2011. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120104081606\/http:\/\/www1.iata.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 January 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=IATA.org&amp;rft.pub=IATA.org&amp;rft.date=2011-11-21&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iata.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/primepuzzle.com\/waduzitdo\/waduzitdo.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Paperbyte Bar Codes for Waduzitdo\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Byte_(magazine)\" title=\"Byte (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0fe510a0aa400b675c514e3d86b212bc\">Byte magazine<\/a><\/i>. September 1978. p.&#160;172. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170704113826\/http:\/\/primepuzzle.com\/waduzitdo\/waduzitdo.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 July 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 February<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Byte+magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Paperbyte+Bar+Codes+for+Waduzitdo&amp;rft.pages=172&amp;rft.date=1978-09&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprimepuzzle.com%2Fwaduzitdo%2Fwaduzitdo.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110714030851\/http:\/\/europe.nokia.com\/support\/product-support\/nokia-n80\/phone-software\/smartphone\" target=\"_blank\">\"Nokia N80 Support\"<\/a>. <i>Nokia Europe<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/europe.nokia.com\/support\/product-support\/nokia-n80\/phone-software\/smartphone\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 14 July 2011.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Nokia+Europe&amp;rft.atitle=Nokia+N80+Support&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feurope.nokia.com%2Fsupport%2Fproduct-support%2Fnokia-n80%2Fphone-software%2Fsmartphone&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/maemo.org\/packages\/view\/mbarcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"package overview for mbarcode\"<\/a>. Maemo.org. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190407120644\/http:\/\/maemo.org\/packages\/view\/mbarcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 April 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 October<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=How+to+use+QR+codes+in+iOS+11&amp;rft.pub=iMore&amp;rft.date=2017-09-24&amp;rft.aulast=Sargent&amp;rft.aufirst=Mikah&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imore.com%2Fhow-use-qr-codes-ios-11&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iphoneness.com\/iphone-apps\/5-best-barcode-iphone-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"15+ Best Barcode Scanner iPhone Applications\"<\/a>. <i>iPhoneness<\/i>. 3 March 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171002120130\/https:\/\/www.iphoneness.com\/iphone-apps\/5-best-barcode-iphone-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 October 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 October<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=iPhoneness&amp;rft.atitle=15%2B+Best+Barcode+Scanner+iPhone+Applications&amp;rft.date=2017-03-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iphoneness.com%2Fiphone-apps%2F5-best-barcode-iphone-applications%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDavid2018\" class=\"citation cs2\">David, H (28 November 2018), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labelingnews.com\/2018\/11\/barcodes-validation-vs-verification-in-gs1\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Barcodes \u2013 Validation vs Verification in GS1\"<\/a>, <i>Labeling News<\/i>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200607173051\/http:\/\/www.labelingnews.com\/2018\/11\/barcodes-validation-vs-verification-in-gs1\/\" target=\"_blank\">archived<\/a> from the original on 7 June 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 June<\/span> 2020<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Labeling+News&amp;rft.atitle=Barcodes+%E2%80%93+Validation+vs+Verification+in+GS1&amp;rft.date=2018-11-28&amp;rft.aulast=David&amp;rft.aufirst=H&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labelingnews.com%2F2018%2F11%2Fbarcodes-validation-vs-verification-in-gs1%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160910162109\/http:\/\/www.bar-code.com\/verifiers\/LaymansGuidetoANSI.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Layman's Guide to ANSI, CEN, and ISO Barcode Print Quality Documents\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 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Retailer compliance initiatives can lead to efficiency\"<\/a>. <i>Frontline Solutions<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/findarticles.com\/p\/articles\/mi_m0DIS\/is_10_4\/ai_109518393\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 8 July 2012.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Frontline+Solutions&amp;rft.atitle=Retailer+chargebacks%3A+is+there+an+upside%3F+Retailer+compliance+initiatives+can+lead+to+efficiency&amp;rft.date=2003-10&amp;rft.aulast=Zieger&amp;rft.aufirst=Anne&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindarticles.com%2Fp%2Farticles%2Fmi_m0DIS%2Fis_10_4%2Fai_109518393%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:3-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-10\"><sup><i><b>k<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_34-11\"><sup><i><b>l<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCorp\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Corp, Express. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.expresscorp.com\/Barcode-Glossary\" target=\"_blank\">\"Barcode Glossary | Express\"<\/a>. <i>Express Corp<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191211231342\/https:\/\/www.expresscorp.com\/Barcode-Glossary\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 December 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 December<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Express+Corp&amp;rft.atitle=Barcode+Glossary+%7C+Express&amp;rft.aulast=Corp&amp;rft.aufirst=Express&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.expresscorp.com%2FBarcode-Glossary&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBar_Code_Verification_Best_Practice_work_team2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bar Code Verification Best Practice work team (May 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gs1.org\/docs\/barcodes\/GS1_DataMatrix_Introduction_and_technical_overview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"GS1 DataMatrix: An introduction and technical overview of the most advanced GS1 Application Identifiers compliant symbology\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Global Standards 1<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (17): 34\u201336. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110720135555\/http:\/\/www.gs1.org\/docs\/barcodes\/GS1_DataMatrix_Introduction_and_technical_overview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 20 July 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 August<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Global+Standards+1&amp;rft.atitle=GS1+DataMatrix%3A+An+introduction+and+technical+overview+of+the+most+advanced+GS1+Application+Identifiers+compliant+symbology&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=17&amp;rft.pages=34-36&amp;rft.date=2010-05&amp;rft.au=Bar+Code+Verification+Best+Practice+work+team&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gs1.org%2Fdocs%2Fbarcodes%2FGS1_DataMatrix_Introduction_and_technical_overview.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGS1_Bar_Code_Verification_Best_Practice_work_team2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">GS1 Bar Code Verification Best Practice work team (May 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gs1.org\/docs\/barcodes\/GS1_Bar_Code_Verification.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"GS1 Bar Code Verification for Linear Symbols\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Global Standards 1<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (3): 23\u201332. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110927053101\/http:\/\/www.gs1.org\/docs\/barcodes\/GS1_Bar_Code_Verification.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 27 September 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 August<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Global+Standards+1&amp;rft.atitle=GS1+Bar+Code+Verification+for+Linear+Symbols&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=23-32&amp;rft.date=2009-05&amp;rft.au=GS1+Bar+Code+Verification+Best+Practice+work+team&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gs1.org%2Fdocs%2Fbarcodes%2FGS1_Bar_Code_Verification.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c038bc1c366392c430552d4d7ede182e\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGarner2019\" class=\"citation cs2\">Garner, J (2019), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.osti.gov\/servlets\/purl\/1524857\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Results of Data Matrix Barcode Testing for Field Applications<\/i><\/a>, Oak Ridge National Laboratory<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 June<\/span> 2020<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Results+of+Data+Matrix+Barcode+Testing+for+Field+Applications&amp;rft.pub=Oak+Ridge+National+Laboratory&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.aulast=Garner&amp;rft.aufirst=J&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fservlets%2Fpurl%2F1524857&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_technical_committee.html?commid=45332\" target=\"_blank\">\"Technical committees \u2013 JTC 1\/SC 31 \u2013 Automatic identification and data capture techniques\"<\/a>. ISO. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111018171042\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_technical_committee.html?commid=45332\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 18 October 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Technical+committees+%E2%80%93+JTC+1%2FSC+31+%E2%80%93+Automatic+identification+and+data+capture+techniques&amp;rft.pub=ISO&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fiso_technical_committee.html%3Fcommid%3D45332&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-39\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHarmonAdams1989\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Harmon, Craig K.; Adams, Russ (1989). <i>Reading Between The Lines:An Introduction to Bar Code Technology<\/i>. Peterborough, NH: Helmers. p.&#160;13. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-911261-00-1<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Reading+Between+The+Lines%3AAn+Introduction+to+Bar+Code+Technology&amp;rft.place=Peterborough%2C+NH&amp;rft.pages=13&amp;rft.pub=Helmers&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rft.isbn=0-911261-00-1&amp;rft.aulast=Harmon&amp;rft.aufirst=Craig+K.&amp;rft.au=Adams%2C+Russ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/auspost.com.au\/content\/dam\/auspost_corp\/media\/documents\/barcoding-fact-sheet-oct14.pdf%7CAustralia\" target=\"_blank\">Post: Barcoding fact sheet<\/a>, Oct. 2014<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page_41-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-2-Dimensional_Bar_Code_Page_41-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/stack.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"2-Dimensional Bar Code Page\"<\/a>. <i>www.adams1.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110707082929\/http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/stack.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 July 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 January<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.gomaro.ch&amp;rft.atitle=Code+16K+Specs&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gomaro.ch%2Fftproot%2FCode%252016k.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBoone2020\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Boone, Peter (13 November 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/boonepeter.github.io\/posts\/2020-11-10-spotify-codes\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How do Spotify Codes work?\"<\/a>. <i>boonepeter.github.io<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230503163202\/https:\/\/boonepeter.github.io\/posts\/2020-11-10-spotify-codes\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 3 May 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 May<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=boonepeter.github.io&amp;rft.atitle=How+do+Spotify+Codes+work%3F&amp;rft.date=2020-11-13&amp;rft.aulast=Boone&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fboonepeter.github.io%2Fposts%2F2020-11-10-spotify-codes%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-44\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/social.techcrunch.com\/2017\/05\/05\/spotify-codes\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Scan these new QR-style Spotify Codes to instantly play a song\"<\/a>. <i>TechCrunch<\/i>. 5 May 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 August<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=TechCrunch&amp;rft.atitle=Scan+these+new+QR-style+Spotify+Codes+to+instantly+play+a+song&amp;rft.date=2017-05-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsocial.techcrunch.com%2F2017%2F05%2F05%2Fspotify-codes%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/developer.apple.com\/documentation\/app_clips\/creating_app_clip_codes?language=objc\" target=\"_blank\">\"Creating App Clip Codes\"<\/a>. <i>Apple Developer Documentation<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Apple+Developer+Documentation&amp;rft.atitle=Creating+App+Clip+Codes&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeveloper.apple.com%2Fdocumentation%2Fapp_clips%2Fcreating_app_clip_codes%3Flanguage%3Dobjc&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#%7B%22urlQrCode%22%3A%22https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBarcode%22%2C%22hideUiEnabled%22%3Afalse%7D\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"AR Code Generator\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#%7B%22urlQrCode%22%3A%22https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBarcode%22%2C%22hideUiEnabled%22%3Afalse%7D\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 June 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 April<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22AR+Code+Generator%22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjeromeetienne.github.io%2FAR.js%2Fthree.js%2Fexamples%2Farcode.html%23%257B%2522urlQrCode%2522%253A%2522https%253A%252F%252Fen.wikipedia.org%252Fwiki%252FBarcode%2522%252C%2522hideUiEnabled%2522%253Afalse%257D&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGernatRaoMiddendorfDankowicz2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Gernat, Tim; Rao, Vikyath D.; Middendorf, Martin; Dankowicz, Harry; Goldenfeld, Nigel; Robinson, Gene E. (13 February 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5816157\" target=\"_blank\">\"Automated monitoring of behavior reveals bursty interaction patterns and rapid spreading dynamics in honeybee social networks\"<\/a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences<\/i>. <b>115<\/b> (7): 1433\u20131438. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2018PNAS..115.1433G\" target=\"_blank\">2018PNAS..115.1433G<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073%2Fpnas.1713568115\" target=\"_blank\">10.1073\/pnas.1713568115<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0027-8424\" target=\"_blank\">0027-8424<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5816157\" target=\"_blank\">5816157<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29378954\" target=\"_blank\">29378954<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=Automated+monitoring+of+behavior+reveals+bursty+interaction+patterns+and+rapid+spreading+dynamics+in+honeybee+social+networks&amp;rft.volume=115&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=1433-1438&amp;rft.date=2018-02-13&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5816157%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018PNAS..115.1433G&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29378954&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1713568115&amp;rft.issn=0027-8424&amp;rft.aulast=Gernat&amp;rft.aufirst=Tim&amp;rft.au=Rao%2C+Vikyath+D.&amp;rft.au=Middendorf%2C+Martin&amp;rft.au=Dankowicz%2C+Harry&amp;rft.au=Goldenfeld%2C+Nigel&amp;rft.au=Robinson%2C+Gene+E.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5816157&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCombesMountcastleGravishCrall2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Combes, Stacey A.; Mountcastle, Andrew M.; Gravish, Nick; Crall, James D. (2 September 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4558030\" target=\"_blank\">\"BEEtag: A Low-Cost, Image-Based Tracking System for the Study of Animal Behavior and Locomotion\"<\/a>. <i>PLOS ONE<\/i>. <b>10<\/b> (9): e0136487. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2015PLoSO..1036487C\" target=\"_blank\">2015PLoSO..1036487C<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0136487\" target=\"_blank\">10.1371\/journal.pone.0136487<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1932-6203\" target=\"_blank\">1932-6203<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4558030\" target=\"_blank\">4558030<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/26332211\" target=\"_blank\">26332211<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&amp;rft.atitle=BEEtag%3A+A+Low-Cost%2C+Image-Based+Tracking+System+for+the+Study+of+Animal+Behavior+and+Locomotion&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.pages=e0136487&amp;rft.date=2015-09-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4558030%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PLoSO..1036487C&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26332211&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0136487&amp;rft.issn=1932-6203&amp;rft.aulast=Combes&amp;rft.aufirst=Stacey+A.&amp;rft.au=Mountcastle%2C+Andrew+M.&amp;rft.au=Gravish%2C+Nick&amp;rft.au=Crall%2C+James+D.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4558030&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/github.com\/piql\/boxing\" target=\"_blank\">\"GitHub - piql\/Boxing: High capacity 2D barcode format\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GitHub\" title=\"GitHub\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d117079b531cc0208769e0cee3597eb\">GitHub<\/a><\/i>. 4 November 2021. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201221234210\/https:\/\/github.com\/piql\/boxing\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 21 December 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 March<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=GitHub&amp;rft.atitle=GitHub+-+piql%2FBoxing%3A+High+capacity+2D+barcode+format&amp;rft.date=2021-11-04&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2Fpiql%2Fboxing&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAdams2009\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Adams, Russ (15 June 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/stack.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"2-Dimensional Bar Code Page\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110707082929\/http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/stack.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 July 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 June<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=2-Dimensional+Bar+Code+Page&amp;rft.date=2009-06-15&amp;rft.aulast=Adams&amp;rft.aufirst=Russ&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adams1.com%2Fstack.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.colorzip.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Colorzip.com\"<\/a>. Colorzip.com. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141216204205\/http:\/\/colorzip.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 16 December 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Colorzip.com&amp;rft.pub=Colorzip.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorzip.com%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adverlab.blogspot.com\/2006\/01\/barcodes-for-tv-commercials.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Barcodes for TV Commercials\"<\/a>. Adverlab. 31 January 2006. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091208143758\/http:\/\/adverlab.blogspot.com\/2006\/01\/barcodes-for-tv-commercials.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 8 December 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 June<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Barcodes+for+TV+Commercials&amp;rft.pub=Adverlab&amp;rft.date=2006-01-31&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadverlab.blogspot.com%2F2006%2F01%2Fbarcodes-for-tv-commercials.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-53\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120829213507\/http:\/\/www.colourcodetech.com\/about.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"About\"<\/a>. Colour Code Technologies. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.colourcodetech.com\/about.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 29 August 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=About&amp;rft.pub=Colour+Code+Technologies&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colourcodetech.com%2Fabout.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-54\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.today\/20130221173001\/http:\/\/www.colorccode.net\/?q=faq\" target=\"_blank\">\"Frequently Asked Questions\"<\/a>. ColorCCode. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.colorccode.net\/?q=faq\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 21 February 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions&amp;rft.pub=ColorCCode&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorccode.net%2F%3Fq%3Dfaq&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-cronto-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-cronto_55-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cam.ac.uk\/research\/news\/new-system-to-combat-online-banking-fraud\" target=\"_blank\">\"New system to combat online banking fraud\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Cambridge\" title=\"University of Cambridge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"804ee5e182344c3f5f780777b651e1e6\">University of Cambridge<\/a>. 18 April 2013. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726141647\/https:\/\/www.cam.ac.uk\/research\/news\/new-system-to-combat-online-banking-fraud\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 January<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=New+system+to+combat+online+banking+fraud&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&amp;rft.date=2013-04-18&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cam.ac.uk%2Fresearch%2Fnews%2Fnew-system-to-combat-online-banking-fraud&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onespan.com\/products\/transaction-signing\/cronto\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Cronto Visual Transaction Signing<\/i><\/a>, OneSpan, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191206163141\/https:\/\/www.onespan.com\/products\/transaction-signing\/cronto\" target=\"_blank\">archived<\/a> from the original on 6 December 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 December<\/span> 2019<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Cronto+Visual+Transaction+Signing&amp;rft.pub=OneSpan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.onespan.com%2Fproducts%2Ftransaction-signing%2Fcronto&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080302032843\/http:\/\/web.media.mit.edu\/~enrico\/research\/research.php?projectTitle=d-touch\" target=\"_blank\"><i>d-touch topological fiducial recognition<\/i><\/a>, MIT, archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.media.mit.edu\/~enrico\/research\/research.php?projectTitle=d-touch\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2 March 2008<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=d-touch+topological+fiducial+recognition&amp;rft.pub=MIT&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.media.mit.edu%2F~enrico%2Fresearch%2Fresearch.php%3FprojectTitle%3Dd-touch&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-58\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080621191310\/http:\/\/web.media.mit.edu\/~enrico\/research\/research.php?projectTitle=Sleight%20of%20Hands\" target=\"_blank\"><i>d-touch markers are applied to deformable gloves<\/i><\/a>, MIT, archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.media.mit.edu\/~enrico\/research\/research.php?projectTitle=Sleight%20of%20Hands\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 21 June 2008<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=d-touch+markers+are+applied+to+deformable+gloves&amp;rft.pub=MIT&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.media.mit.edu%2F~enrico%2Fresearch%2Fresearch.php%3FprojectTitle%3DSleight%2520of%2520Hands&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-59\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.xerox.com\/Static_HTML\/xsis\/dataglph.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Xerox.com<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090607214025\/http:\/\/www.xerox.com\/Static_HTML\/xsis\/dataglph.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 7 June 2009 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> for details.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.microglyphs.com\/english\/html\/dataglyphs.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"DataGlyphs: Embedding Digital Data\"<\/a>. Microglyphs. 3 May 2006. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140226211404\/http:\/\/www.microglyphs.com\/english\/html\/dataglyphs.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 February 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 March<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=DataGlyphs%3A+Embedding+Digital+Data&amp;rft.pub=Microglyphs&amp;rft.date=2006-05-03&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.microglyphs.com%2Fenglish%2Fhtml%2Fdataglyphs.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-61\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tauzero.com\/Rob_Tow\/DataGlyph.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"DataGlyph\" Embedded Digital Data\"<\/a>. Tauzero. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131122020922\/http:\/\/www.tauzero.com\/Rob_Tow\/DataGlyph.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 November 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 March<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22DataGlyph%22+Embedded+Digital+Data&amp;rft.pub=Tauzero&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tauzero.com%2FRob_Tow%2FDataGlyph.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.xerox.com\/Static_HTML\/xsis\/dataglph.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"DataGlyphs\"<\/a>. Xerox. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121123144057\/http:\/\/www.xerox.com\/Static_HTML\/xsis\/dataglph.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 23 November 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 March<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=DataGlyphs&amp;rft.pub=Xerox&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.xerox.com%2FStatic_HTML%2Fxsis%2Fdataglph.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-63\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161122153422\/https:\/\/www.digimarc.com\/docs\/default-source\/solution-briefs\/barcodebrief.pdf?sfvrsn=4\" target=\"_blank\">\"Better Barcodes, Better Business\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.digimarc.com\/docs\/default-source\/solution-briefs\/barcodebrief.pdf?sfvrsn=4\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 22 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Better+Barcodes%2C+Better+Business&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digimarc.com%2Fdocs%2Fdefault-source%2Fsolution-briefs%2Fbarcodebrief.pdf%3Fsfvrsn%3D4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-64\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.barcode.ro\/tutorials\/barcodes\/dotcode-a.html\" target=\"_blank\">Dot Code A<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170509032225\/http:\/\/www.barcode.ro\/tutorials\/barcodes\/dotcode-a.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 9 May 2017 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> at barcode.ro<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-65\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-65\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/patents\/US4745269.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Dot Code A Patent\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160310120100\/http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/patents\/US4745269.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 10 March 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 September<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Dot+Code+A+Patent&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adams1.com%2Fpatents%2FUS4745269.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-66\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation pressrelease cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.prnewswire.com\/news-releases\/gs1-germany-and-digimarc-announce-collaboration-to-bring-dwcode-to-the-german-market-300331518.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"GS1 Germany and Digimarc Announce Collaboration to Bring DWCode to the German Market\"<\/a> (Press release).<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=GS1+Germany+and+Digimarc+Announce+Collaboration+to+Bring+DWCode+to+the+German+Market&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.prnewswire.com%2Fnews-releases%2Fgs1-germany-and-digimarc-announce-collaboration-to-bring-dwcode-to-the-german-market-300331518.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-67\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-67\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scanbuy.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Scanbuy\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080820014344\/http:\/\/www.scanbuy.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 20 August 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Scanbuy&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scanbuy.com%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Steeman-68\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Steeman_68-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Steeman_68-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSteeman\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Steeman, Jeroen. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140109233243\/http:\/\/blog.qr4.nl\/Online-QR-Code_Decoder.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Online QR Code Decoder\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.qr4.nl\/Online-QR-Code_Decoder.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 9 January 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 January<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Online+QR+Code+Decoder&amp;rft.aulast=Steeman&amp;rft.aufirst=Jeroen&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.qr4.nl%2FOnline-QR-Code_Decoder.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-69\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-69\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081103113810\/http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/pub\/russadam\/stack.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"BarCode-1 2-Dimensional Bar Code Page\"<\/a>. Adams. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.adams1.com\/pub\/russadam\/stack.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 3 November 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 June<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=BarCode-1+2-Dimensional+Bar+Code+Page&amp;rft.pub=Adams&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adams1.com%2Fpub%2Frussadam%2Fstack.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-70\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-70\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/grs.weebly.com\/2d-barcodes.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Global Research Solutions \u2013 2D Barcodes\"<\/a>. <i>grs.weebly.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190113003934\/https:\/\/grs.weebly.com\/2d-barcodes.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 January 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 January<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=grs.weebly.com&amp;rft.atitle=Global+Research+Solutions+%E2%80%93+2D+Barcodes&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgrs.weebly.com%2F2d-barcodes.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-71\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_71-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_71-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKatoTanChai2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kato, Hiroko; Tan, Keng T.; Chai, Douglas (8 April 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=gHhPiMwiUX8C&q=trillcode&pg=PA73\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Barcodes for Mobile Devices<\/i><\/a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781139487511<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Barcodes+for+Mobile+Devices&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2010-04-08&amp;rft.isbn=9781139487511&amp;rft.aulast=Kato&amp;rft.aufirst=Hiroko&amp;rft.au=Tan%2C+Keng+T.&amp;rft.au=Chai%2C+Douglas&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgHhPiMwiUX8C%26q%3Dtrillcode%26pg%3DPA73&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-72\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-72\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ocode.fr\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ocode - Authentifiez vos produits par le marquage d'un code unique\"<\/a>. <i>www.ocode.fr<\/i> (in French)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 November<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.ocode.fr&amp;rft.atitle=Ocode+-+Authentifiez+vos+produits+par+le+marquage+d%27un+code+unique&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ocode.fr%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-73\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChenYuXuWang2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Chen, Rongjun; Yu, Yongxing; Xu, Xiansheng; Wang, Leijun; Zhao, Huimin; Tan, Hong-Zhou (11 December 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6960674\" target=\"_blank\">\"Adaptive Binarization of QR Code Images for Fast Automatic Sorting in Warehouse Systems\"<\/a>. <i>Sensors<\/i>. <b>19<\/b> (24): 5466. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2019Senso..19.5466C\" target=\"_blank\">2019Senso..19.5466C<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Fs19245466\" target=\"_blank\">10.3390\/s19245466<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6960674\" target=\"_blank\">6960674<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31835866\" target=\"_blank\">31835866<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Sensors&amp;rft.atitle=Adaptive+Binarization+of+QR+Code+Images+for+Fast+Automatic+Sorting+in+Warehouse+Systems&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=24&amp;rft.pages=5466&amp;rft.date=2019-12-11&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6960674%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31835866&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fs19245466&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019Senso..19.5466C&amp;rft.aulast=Chen&amp;rft.aufirst=Rongjun&amp;rft.au=Yu%2C+Yongxing&amp;rft.au=Xu%2C+Xiansheng&amp;rft.au=Wang%2C+Leijun&amp;rft.au=Zhao%2C+Huimin&amp;rft.au=Tan%2C+Hong-Zhou&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6960674&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-74\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/patents.justia.com\/patent\/9270846\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"US Patent 9270846: Content encoded luminosity modulation\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181202070442\/https:\/\/patents.justia.com\/patent\/9270846\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 December 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 December<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22US+Patent+9270846%3A+Content+encoded+luminosity+modulation%22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.justia.com%2Fpatent%2F9270846&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-75\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/patents.justia.com\/patent\/8180163\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"US Patent 8180163: Encoder and decoder and methods of encoding and decoding sequence information with inserted monitor flags\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181202070452\/https:\/\/patents.justia.com\/patent\/8180163\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 December 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 December<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22US+Patent+8180163%3A+Encoder+and+decoder+and+methods+of+encoding+and+decoding+sequence+information+with+inserted+monitor+flags%22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.justia.com%2Fpatent%2F8180163&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-76\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/personal.ee.surrey.ac.uk\/Personal\/J.Collomosse\/pubs\/Collomosse-HOTm-2008.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"Screen Codes: Visual Hyperlinks for Displays\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191211051343\/http:\/\/personal.ee.surrey.ac.uk\/Personal\/J.Collomosse\/pubs\/Collomosse-HOTm-2008.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 11 December 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 December<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22Screen+Codes%3A+Visual+Hyperlinks+for+Displays%22&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersonal.ee.surrey.ac.uk%2FPersonal%2FJ.Collomosse%2Fpubs%2FCollomosse-HOTm-2008.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-77\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2015\/7\/1\/8861131\/snapchat-update-2015-tap-to-play-story\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"Snapchat is changing the way you watch snaps and add friends\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210127025916\/https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2015\/7\/1\/8861131\/snapchat-update-2015-tap-to-play-story\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 January 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 August<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22Snapchat+is+changing+the+way+you+watch+snaps+and+add+friends%22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2015%2F7%2F1%2F8861131%2Fsnapchat-update-2015-tap-to-play-story&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2015\/01\/28\/snaptags\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"Snapchat Lets You Add People Via QR Snaptags Thanks To Secret Scan.me Acquisition\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170224132115\/https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2015\/01\/28\/snaptags\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 February 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 February<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22Snapchat+Lets+You+Add+People+Via+QR+Snaptags+Thanks+To+Secret+Scan.me+Acquisition%22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechcrunch.com%2F2015%2F01%2F28%2Fsnaptags%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2015\/05\/04\/snapcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"How Snapchat Made QR Codes Cool Again\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160914064250\/https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2015\/05\/04\/snapcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 September 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 February<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22How+Snapchat+Made+QR+Codes+Cool+Again%22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechcrunch.com%2F2015%2F05%2F04%2Fsnapcode%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562\" \/><span class=\"citation patent\" id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChanGB1998\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/worldwide.espacenet.com\/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5825015\" target=\"_blank\">US 5825015<\/a>, Chan, John Paul &amp; GB, \"Machine readable binary codes\", issued 20 October 1998<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&amp;rft.number=5825015&amp;rft.cc=US&amp;rft.title=Machine+readable+binary+codes&amp;rft.inventor=Chan&amp;rft.date=20 October 1998\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-81\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pdfpiw.uspto.gov\/.piw?Docid=05825015&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO2%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsearch-bool.html%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526co1%3DAND%2526d%3DPTXT%2526s1%3D5825015.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F5825015%2526RS%3DPN%2F5825015&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page\" target=\"_blank\">\"US Patent 5825015\"<\/a>. <i>pdfpiw.uspto.gov<\/i>. 20 October 1998. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190113062829\/http:\/\/pdfpiw.uspto.gov\/.piw?Docid=05825015&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO2%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsearch-bool.html%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526co1%3DAND%2526d%3DPTXT%2526s1%3D5825015.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F5825015%2526RS%3DPN%2F5825015&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 January 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 January<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=pdfpiw.uspto.gov&amp;rft.atitle=US+Patent+5825015&amp;rft.date=1998-10-20&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdfpiw.uspto.gov%2F.piw%3FDocid%3D05825015%26homeurl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fpatft.uspto.gov%252Fnetacgi%252Fnph-Parser%253FSect1%253DPTO2%252526Sect2%253DHITOFF%252526p%253D1%252526u%253D%2525252Fnetahtml%2525252FPTO%2525252Fsearch-bool.html%252526r%253D1%252526f%253DG%252526l%253D50%252526co1%253DAND%252526d%253DPTXT%252526s1%253D5825015.PN.%252526OS%253DPN%252F5825015%252526RS%253DPN%252F5825015%26PageNum%3D%26Rtype%3D%26SectionNum%3D%26idkey%3DNONE%26Input%3DView%2Bfirst%2Bpage&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-82\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/tritonstore.com.au\/what-are-tlc39-barcodes\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Understanding TLC-39 Barcodes: All You Need to Know\"<\/a>. 9 August 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 November<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+TLC-39+Barcodes%3A+All+You+Need+to+Know&amp;rft.date=2023-08-09&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftritonstore.com.au%2Fwhat-are-tlc39-barcodes%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-83\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726140825\/https:\/\/www.barcoding.com\/blog\/trillcode-barcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Trillcode Barcode\"<\/a>. <i>Barcoding, Inc<\/i>. 17 February 2009. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.barcoding.com\/blog\/trillcode-barcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 January<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Barcoding%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.atitle=Trillcode+Barcode&amp;rft.date=2009-02-17&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.barcoding.com%2Fblog%2Ftrillcode-barcode%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-84\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/developers.weixin.qq.com\/miniprogram\/en\/dev\/framework\/open-ability\/qr-code.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Getting Mini Program Code\"<\/a>. <i>Weixin public doc<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Weixin+public+doc&amp;rft.atitle=Getting+Mini+Program+Code&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdevelopers.weixin.qq.com%2Fminiprogram%2Fen%2Fdev%2Fframework%2Fopen-ability%2Fqr-code.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-85\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.denso-wave.com\/qrcode\/qrstandard-e.html\" target=\"_blank\">(\u682a)\u30c7\u30f3\u30bd\u30fc\u30a6\u30a7\u30fc\u30d6<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120607102221\/http:\/\/www.denso-wave.com\/qrcode\/qrstandard-e.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 7 June 2012 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, denso-wave.com <span class=\"languageicon\">(in Japanese)<\/span> Copyright<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-86\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gmp.de\/en\/projects\/549\/barcode-halls-standard-facades-for-manufacturing-buildings\" target=\"_blank\">\"Barcode Halls, Standard Facades for Manufacturing Buildings - Projects - gmp Architekten\"<\/a>. <i>www.gmp.de<\/i>. 2009. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20231216013407\/https:\/\/www.gmp.de\/en\/projects\/549\/barcode-halls-standard-facades-for-manufacturing-buildings\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 16 December 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.gmp.de&amp;rft.atitle=Barcode+Halls%2C+Standard+Facades+for+Manufacturing+Buildings+-+Projects+-+gmp+Architekten&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gmp.de%2Fen%2Fprojects%2F549%2Fbarcode-halls-standard-facades-for-manufacturing-buildings&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-87\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/peterburg2.ru\/restplaces\/2530.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"image\"<\/a>. Peterburg2.ru. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111110051507\/http:\/\/peterburg2.ru\/restplaces\/2530.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 November 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=image&amp;rft.pub=Peterburg2.ru&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeterburg2.ru%2Frestplaces%2F2530.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NFB_blog-88\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NFB_blog_88-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLavigne2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Lavigne, Anne-Marie (5 October 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.nfb.ca\/2011\/10\/05\/introducing-barcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introducing Barcode.tv, a new interactive doc about the objects that surround us\"<\/a>. <i>NFB Blog<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Film_Board_of_Canada\" title=\"National Film Board of Canada\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbae8fac329dfe9cdf654b20b4184a4f\">National Film Board of Canada<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111011174058\/http:\/\/blog.nfb.ca\/2011\/10\/05\/introducing-barcode\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 October 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 October<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=NFB+Blog&amp;rft.atitle=Introducing+Barcode.tv%2C+a+new+interactive+doc+about+the+objects+that+surround+us&amp;rft.date=2011-10-05&amp;rft.aulast=Lavigne&amp;rft.aufirst=Anne-Marie&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.nfb.ca%2F2011%2F10%2F05%2Fintroducing-barcode%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Reelscreen-89\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Reelscreen_89-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAnderson2011\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Anderson, Kelly (6 October 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/realscreen.com\/2011\/10\/06\/nfb-and-arte-france-launch-bar-code\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"NFB, ARTE France launch 'Bar Code'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <i>Reelscreen<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111010041947\/http:\/\/realscreen.com\/2011\/10\/06\/nfb-and-arte-france-launch-bar-code\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 October 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 October<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Reelscreen&amp;rft.atitle=NFB%2C+ARTE+France+launch+%27Bar+Code%27&amp;rft.date=2011-10-06&amp;rft.aulast=Anderson&amp;rft.aufirst=Kelly&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frealscreen.com%2F2011%2F10%2F06%2Fnfb-and-arte-france-launch-bar-code%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-90\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-90\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/www.attitudetees.com\/items\/dxbarcode.html\" target=\"_blank\">[1]<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150316205717\/http:\/\/www.attitudetees.com\/items\/dxbarcode.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 16 March 2015 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-91\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-91\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=BkvplmOtmX4\" target=\"_blank\">\"Dx theme song 2009\u20132010\"<\/a>. YouTube. 19 December 2009. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ghostarchive.org\/varchive\/youtube\/20211211\/BkvplmOtmX4\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 December 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 March<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Dx+theme+song+2009%E2%80%932010&amp;rft.pub=YouTube&amp;rft.date=2009-12-19&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DBkvplmOtmX4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-92\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-92\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDiego_Agruello2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Diego Agruello (27 June 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.eurogamer.net\/articles\/2019-06-26-judgment-qr-codes-drone-parts-6032\" target=\"_blank\">\"Judgment QR code locations to upgrade Drone Parts explained \u2022 Eurogamer.net\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eurogamer\" title=\"Eurogamer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d6812ff66d366f95cec7d63db53bb3d\">Eurogamer<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190828223321\/https:\/\/www.eurogamer.net\/articles\/2019-06-26-judgment-qr-codes-drone-parts-6032\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 28 August 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 August<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Eurogamer&amp;rft.atitle=Judgment+QR+code+locations+to+upgrade+Drone+Parts+explained+%E2%80%A2+Eurogamer.net&amp;rft.date=2019-06-27&amp;rft.au=Diego+Agruello&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurogamer.net%2Farticles%2F2019-06-26-judgment-qr-codes-drone-parts-6032&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-93\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-93\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cuecat.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"CueCat History\"<\/a>. <i>CueCat History<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191112235022\/https:\/\/cuecat.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 12 November 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 November<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=CueCat+History&amp;rft.atitle=CueCat+History&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcuecat.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-94\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-94\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.av1611.org\/666\/barcode.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"What about barcodes and 666: The Mark of the Beast?\"<\/a>. Av1611.org. 1999. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131127041006\/http:\/\/www.av1611.org\/666\/barcode.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 November 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 March<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=What+about+barcodes+and+666%3A+The+Mark+of+the+Beast%3F&amp;rft.pub=Av1611.org&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.av1611.org%2F666%2Fbarcode.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-95\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-95\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSerafino2018\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Serafino, Jay (26 July 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mentalfloss.com\/article\/551659\/karp-lykov-russian-family-secluded-from-civilization-40-years\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Russian Family That Cut Itself Off From Civilization for More Than 40 Years\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mental_Floss\" title=\"Mental Floss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32f217bc46d1e756e446f64db74247df\">Mental Floss<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200507041702\/https:\/\/www.mentalfloss.com\/article\/551659\/karp-lykov-russian-family-secluded-from-civilization-40-years\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 May 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 May<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Russian+Family+That+Cut+Itself+Off+From+Civilization+for+More+Than+40+Years&amp;rft.pub=Mental+Floss&amp;rft.date=2018-07-26&amp;rft.aulast=Serafino&amp;rft.aufirst=Jay&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mentalfloss.com%2Farticle%2F551659%2Fkarp-lykov-russian-family-secluded-from-civilization-40-years&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-96\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-96\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBishop2004\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Bishop, Tricia (5 July 2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20040823004929\/http:\/\/www.sfgate.com\/cgi-bin\/article.cgi?file=%2Fchronicle%2Farchive%2F2004%2F07%2F05%2FBUG6Q7G4AJ1.DTL&type=business\" target=\"_blank\">\"UPC bar code has been in use 30 years\"<\/a>. SFgate.com. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sfgate.com\/cgi-bin\/article.cgi?file=\/chronicle\/archive\/2004\/07\/05\/BUG6Q7G4AJ1.DTL&type=business\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 23 August 2004<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 December<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=UPC+bar+code+has+been+in+use+30+years&amp;rft.pub=SFgate.com&amp;rft.date=2004-07-05&amp;rft.aulast=Bishop&amp;rft.aufirst=Tricia&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Farticle.cgi%3Ffile%3D%2Fchronicle%2Farchive%2F2004%2F07%2F05%2FBUG6Q7G4AJ1.DTL%26type%3Dbusiness&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABarcode\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"refbegin\" style=\"\">\n<ul><li><i>Automating Management Information Systems: Barcode Engineering and Implementation<\/i> \u2013 Harry E. Burke, Thomson Learning, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-442-20712-3<\/li>\n<li><i>Automating Management Information Systems: Principles of Barcode Applications<\/i> \u2013 Harry E. Burke, Thomson Learning, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-442-20667-4<\/li>\n<li><i>The Bar Code Book<\/i> \u2013 Roger C. Palmer, Helmers Publishing, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-911261-09-5, 386 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>The Bar Code Manual<\/i> \u2013 Eugene F. Brighan, Thompson Learning, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-03-016173-8<\/li>\n<li><i>Handbook of Bar Coding Systems<\/i> \u2013 Harry E. Burke, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-442-21430-2, 219 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>Information Technology for Retail:Automatic Identification &amp; Data Capture Systems<\/i> \u2013 Girdhar Joshi, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_University_Press\" title=\"Oxford University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d18ae98bb880a41214eeea3e78f31ffe\">Oxford University Press<\/a>, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-19-569796-0, 416 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>Lines of Communication<\/i> \u2013 Craig K. Harmon, Helmers Publishing, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-911261-07-9, 425 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>Punched Cards to Bar Codes<\/i> \u2013 Benjamin Nelson, Helmers Publishing, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-911261-12-5, 434 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>Revolution at the Checkout Counter: The Explosion of the Bar Code<\/i> \u2013 Stephen A. Brown, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harvard_University_Press\" title=\"Harvard University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c2bafa6e75012683f00beee29a660ca\">Harvard University Press<\/a>, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-674-76720-9<\/li>\n<li><i>Reading Between The Lines<\/i> \u2013 Craig K. Harmon and Russ Adams, Helmers Publishing, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-911261-00-1, 297 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>The Black and White Solution: Bar Code and the IBM PC<\/i> \u2013 Russ Adams and Joyce Lane, Helmers Publishing, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-911261-01-X, 169 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>Sourcebook of Automatic Identification and Data Collection<\/i> \u2013 Russ Adams, Van Nostrand Reinhold, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-442-31850-2, 298 pages<\/li>\n<li><i>Inside Out: The Wonders of Modern Technology<\/i> \u2013 Carol J. Amato, Smithmark Pub, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0831746572, 1993<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/curlie.org\/Computers\/Data_Formats\/Barcodes\/\" target=\"_blank\">Barcode<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curlie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Curlie\" data-key=\"f2bf78e9dbc70f166d4b3bd9f21cf9f3\">Curlie<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/barcode.wiki\/\" target=\"_blank\">Free Online Barcode Generator<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw\u2010web.codfw.main\u201069dcdff757\u2010sdbxs\nCached time: 20240109230505\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 1.206 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.451 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 10254\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 218850\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 8474\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 15\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 331626\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.679\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 17147838\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 1191.316 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>51.85% 617.731 1 Template:Reflist\n23.71% 282.485 60 Template:Cite_web\n 7.74% 92.193 1 Template:In_lang\n 6.81% 81.100 2 Template:Navbox\n 6.76% 80.528 1 Template:Barcodes\n 5.17% 61.621 8 Template:Fix\n 4.65% 55.446 13 Template:ISBN\n 4.04% 48.106 1 Template:Short_description\n 4.02% 47.889 9 Template:Cite_journal\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:60600-0!canonical and timestamp 20240109230504 and revision id 1194625249. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode\" data-key=\"d1852a2c48f6042c16ca0c8a87abed56\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110112613\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.206 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.534 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 311674\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 444.056 1 wikipedia:Barcode\n100.00% 444.056 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:76-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110112612 and revision id 39024. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_images":[],"e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_timestamp":1704907014,"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_type":"article","0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_title":"Artificial intelligence","0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence","0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_plaintext":"\n\nArtificial intelligenceFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchIntelligence of machines or software\n\"AI\" redirects here. For other uses, see AI (disambiguation), Artificial intelligence (disambiguation), and Intelligent agent.\n\n \n\nPart of a series onArtificial intelligence\nMajor goals\nArtificial general intelligence\nPlanning\nComputer vision\nGeneral game playing\nKnowledge reasoning\nMachine learning\nNatural language processing\nRobotics\nAI safety\n\nApproaches\nSymbolic\nDeep learning\nBayesian networks\nEvolutionary algorithms\nSituated approach\nHybrid intelligent systems\nSystems integration\n\nApplications\nProjects\nDeepfake\nMachine translation\nArt\nHealthcare\nMental health\nGovernment\nMusic\nIndustry\nEarth sciences\nBioinformatics\nPhysics\n\nPhilosophy\nChinese room\nFriendly AI\nControl problem\/Takeover\nEthics\nExistential risk\nTuring test\nRegulation\n\nHistory\nTimeline\nProgress\nAI winter\nAI boom\n\nTechnology\nProgramming languages\n\nGlossary\nGlossary\nvte\nArtificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines or software, as opposed to the intelligence of humans or animals. It is a field of study in computer science that develops and studies intelligent machines. Such machines may be called AIs.\nAI technology is widely used throughout industry, government, and science. Some high-profile applications are: advanced web search engines (e.g., Google Search), recommendation systems (used by YouTube, Amazon, and Netflix), understanding human speech (such as Google Assistant, Siri, and Alexa), self-driving cars (e.g., Waymo), generative and creative tools (ChatGPT and AI art), and superhuman play and analysis in strategy games (such as chess and Go).[1]\nAlan Turing was the first person to conduct substantial research in the field that he called Machine Intelligence.[2] Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956.[3] The field went through multiple cycles of optimism[4][5] followed by disappointment and loss of funding.[6][7] Funding and interest vastly increased after 2012 when deep learning surpassed all previous AI techniques,[8] and after 2017 with the transformer architecture.[9] This led to the AI spring of the 2020s, with companies, universities, and laboratories overwhelmingly based in the United States pioneering significant advances in artificial intelligence.[10]\nThe various sub-fields of AI research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular tools. The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception, and support for robotics.[a] General intelligence (the ability to complete any task performable by a human) is among the field's long-term goals.[11]\nTo solve these problems, AI researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of problem-solving techniques, including search and mathematical optimization, formal logic, artificial neural networks, and methods based on statistics, operations research, and economics.[b] AI also draws upon psychology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience and other fields.[12]\n\n\n\nGoals \nThe general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken into sub-problems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention and cover the scope of AI research.[a]\n\n Reasoning, problem-solving \nEarly researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions.[13] By the late 1980s and 1990s, methods were developed for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and economics.[14]\nMany of these algorithms are insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experience a \"combinatorial explosion\": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger.[15] Even humans rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research could model. They solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments.[16] Accurate and efficient reasoning is an unsolved problem.\n\nKnowledge representation \nAn ontology represents knowledge as a set of concepts within a domain and the relationships between those concepts.\n\nKnowledge representation and knowledge engineering[17] allow AI programs to answer questions intelligently and make deductions about real-world facts. Formal knowledge representations are used in content-based indexing and retrieval,[18] scene interpretation,[19] clinical decision support,[20] knowledge discovery (mining \"interesting\" and actionable inferences from large databases),[21] and other areas.[22]\nA knowledge base is a body of knowledge represented in a form that can be used by a program. An ontology is the set of objects, relations, concepts, and properties used by a particular domain of knowledge.[23] Knowledge bases need to represent things such as: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects;[24] situations, events, states and time;[25] causes and effects;[26] knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know);[27] default reasoning (things that humans assume are true until they are told differently and will remain true even when other facts are changing);[28] and many other aspects and domains of knowledge.\nAmong the most difficult problems in knowledge representation are: the breadth of commonsense knowledge (the set of atomic facts that the average person knows is enormous);[29] and the sub-symbolic form of most commonsense knowledge (much of what people know is not represented as \"facts\" or \"statements\" that they could express verbally).[16] There is also the difficulty of knowledge acquisition, the problem of obtaining knowledge for AI applications.[c]\n\nPlanning and decision making \nAn \"agent\" is anything that perceives and takes actions in the world. A rational agent has goals or preferences and takes actions to make them happen.[d][32] In automated planning, the agent has a specific goal.[33] In automated decision making, the agent has preferences \u2013 there are some situations it would prefer to be in, and some situations it is trying to avoid. The decision making agent assigns a number to each situation (called the \"utility\") that measures how much the agent prefers it. For each possible action, it can calculate the \"expected utility\": the utility of all possible outcomes of the action, weighted by the probability that the outcome will occur. It can then choose the action with the maximum expected utility.[34]\nIn classical planning, the agent knows exactly what the effect of any action will be.[35] In most real-world problems, however, the agent may not be certain about the situation they are in (it is \"unknown\" or \"unobservable\") and it may not know for certain what will happen after each possible action (it is not \"deterministic\"). It must choose an action by making a probabilistic guess and then reassess the situation to see if the action worked.[36]\nIn some problems, the agent's preferences may be uncertain, especially if there are other agents or humans involved. These can be learned (e.g., with inverse reinforcement learning) or the agent can seek information to improve its preferences.[37] Information value theory can be used to weigh the value of exploratory or experimental actions.[38] The space of possible future actions and situations is typically intractably large, so the agents must take actions and evaluate situations while being uncertain what the outcome will be.\nA Markov decision process has a transition model that describes the probability that a particular action will change the state in a particular way, and a reward function that supplies the utility of each state and the cost of each action. A policy associates a decision with each possible state. The policy could be calculated (e.g. by iteration), be heuristic, or it can be learned.[39]\nGame theory describes rational behavior of multiple interacting agents, and is used in AI programs that make decisions that involve other agents.[40]\n\nLearning \nMachine learning is the study of programs that can improve their performance on a given task automatically.[41] It has been a part of AI from the beginning.[e]\nThere are several kinds of machine learning. Unsupervised learning analyzes a stream of data and finds patterns and makes predictions without any other guidance.[44] Supervised learning requires a human to label the input data first, and comes in two main varieties: classification (where the program must learn to predict what category the input belongs in) and regression (where the program must deduce a numeric function based on numeric input).[45]\nIn reinforcement learning the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. The agent learns to choose responses that are classified as \"good\".[46] Transfer learning is when the knowledge gained from one problem is applied to a new problem.[47] Deep learning is a type of machine learning that runs inputs through biologically inspired artificial neural networks for all of these types of learning.[48]\nComputational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.[49]\n\n\nNatural language processing \nNatural language processing (NLP)[50] allows programs to read, write and communicate in human languages such as English. Specific problems include speech recognition, speech synthesis, machine translation, information extraction, information retrieval and question answering.[51]\nEarly work, based on Noam Chomsky's generative grammar and semantic networks, had difficulty with word-sense disambiguation[f] unless restricted to small domains called \"micro-worlds\" (due to the common sense knowledge problem[29]). Margaret Masterman believed that it was meaning, and not grammar that was the key to understanding languages, and that thesauri and not dictionaries should be the basis of computational language structure.\nModern deep learning techniques for NLP include word embedding (representing words, typically as vectors encoding their meaning),[52] transformers (a deep learning architecture using an attention mechanism),[53] and others.[54] In 2019, generative pre-trained transformer (or \"GPT\") language models began to generate coherent text,[55][56] and by 2023 these models were able to get human-level scores on the bar exam, SAT test, GRE test, and many other real-world applications.[57]\n\nPerception \nMachine perception is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, wireless signals, active lidar, sonar, radar, and tactile sensors) to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision is the ability to analyze visual input.[58]\nThe field includes speech recognition,[59] image classification,[60] facial recognition, object recognition,[61] and robotic perception.[62]\n\nSocial intelligence \nKismet, a robot head which was made in the 1990s; a machine that can recognize and simulate emotions.[63]\n\nAffective computing is an interdisciplinary umbrella that comprises systems that recognize, interpret, process or simulate human feeling, emotion and mood.[64] For example, some virtual assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human\u2013computer interaction.\nHowever, this tends to give na\u00efve users an unrealistic conception of the intelligence of existing computer agents.[65] Moderate successes related to affective computing include textual sentiment analysis and, more recently, multimodal sentiment analysis, wherein AI classifies the affects displayed by a videotaped subject.[66]\n\nGeneral intelligence \nA machine with artificial general intelligence should be able to solve a wide variety of problems with breadth and versatility similar to human intelligence.[11]\n\nTechniques \nAI research uses a wide variety of techniques to accomplish the goals above.[b]\n\nSearch and optimization \nAI can solve many problems by intelligently searching through many possible solutions.[67] There are two very different kinds of search used in AI: state space search and local search.\n\nState space search \nState space search searches through a tree of possible states to try to find a goal state.[68] For example, planning algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find a path to a target goal, a process called means-ends analysis.[69]\nSimple exhaustive searches[70] are rarely sufficient for most real-world problems: the search space (the number of places to search) quickly grows to astronomical numbers. The result is a search that is too slow or never completes.[15] \"Heuristics\" or \"rules of thumb\" can help to prioritize choices that are more likely to reach a goal.[71]\nAdversarial search is used for game-playing programs, such as chess or Go. It searches through a tree of possible moves and counter-moves, looking for a winning position.[72]\n\nLocal search \nIllustration of gradient descent for 3 different starting points. Two parameters (represented by the plan coordinates) are adjusted in order to minimize the loss function (the height).\n\nLocal search uses mathematical optimization to find a numeric solution to a problem. It begins with some form of a guess and then refines the guess incrementally until no more refinements can be made. These algorithms can be visualized as blind hill climbing: we begin the search at a random point on the landscape, and then, by jumps or steps, we keep moving our guess uphill, until we reach the top. This process is called stochastic gradient descent.[73]\nEvolutionary computation uses a form of optimization search. For example, they may begin with a population of organisms (the guesses) and then allow them to mutate and recombine, selecting only the fittest to survive each generation (refining the guesses).[74]\nDistributed search processes can coordinate via swarm intelligence algorithms. Two popular swarm algorithms used in search are particle swarm optimization (inspired by bird flocking) and ant colony optimization (inspired by ant trails).[75]\nNeural networks and statistical classifiers (discussed below), also use a form of local search, where the \"landscape\" to be searched is formed by learning.\n\nLogic \nFormal Logic is used for reasoning and knowledge representation.[76]\nFormal logic comes in two main forms: propositional logic (which operates on statements that are true or false and uses logical connectives such as \"and\", \"or\", \"not\" and \"implies\")[77]\nand predicate logic (which also operates on objects, predicates and relations and uses quantifiers such as \"Every X is a Y\" and \"There are some Xs that are Ys\").[78]\nLogical inference (or deduction) is the process of proving a new statement (conclusion) from other statements that are already known to be true (the premises).[79]\nA logical knowledge base also handles queries and assertions as a special case of inference.[80]\nAn inference rule describes what is a valid step in a proof. The most general inference rule is resolution.[81]\nInference can be reduced to performing a search to find a path that leads from premises to conclusions, where each step is the application of an inference rule.[82]\nInference performed this way is intractable except for short proofs in restricted domains. No efficient, powerful and general method has been discovered.\n\nFuzzy logic assigns a \"degree of truth\" between 0 and 1. It can therefore handle propositions that are vague and partially true.[83]\nNon-monotonic logics are designed to handle default reasoning.[28]\nOther specialized versions of logic have been developed to describe many complex domains (see knowledge representation above).\n\n\nProbabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning \nA simple Bayesian network, with the associated conditional probability tables.\n\nMany problems in AI (including in reasoning, planning, learning, perception, and robotics) require the agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information. AI researchers have devised a number of tools to solve these problems using methods from probability theory and economics.[84]\nBayesian networks[85]\nare a very general tool that can be used for many problems, including reasoning (using the Bayesian inference algorithm),[g][87] learning (using the expectation-maximization algorithm),[h][89] planning (using decision networks)[90]\nand perception (using dynamic Bayesian networks).[91]\n\nProbabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction, smoothing and finding explanations for streams of data, helping perception systems to analyze processes that occur over time (e.g., hidden Markov models or Kalman filters).[91]\n\nPrecise mathematical tools have been developed that analyze how an agent can make choices and plan, using decision theory, decision analysis,[92] and information value theory.[93] These tools include models such as Markov decision processes,[94] dynamic decision networks,[91] game theory and mechanism design.[95]Expectation-maximization clustering of Old Faithful eruption data starts from a random guess but then successfully converges on an accurate clustering of the two physically distinct modes of eruption.\nClassifiers and statistical learning methods \nThe simplest AI applications can be divided into two types: classifiers (e.g. \"if shiny then diamond\"), on one hand, and controllers (e.g. \"if diamond then pick up\"), on the other hand. Classifiers[96]\nare functions that use pattern matching to determine the closest match. They can be fine-tuned based on chosen examples using supervised learning. Each pattern (also called an \"observation\") is labeled with a certain predefined class. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set. When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on previous experience.[45]\nThere are many kinds of classifiers in use. The decision tree is the simplest and most widely used symbolic machine learning algorithm.[97] K-nearest neighbor algorithm was the most widely used analogical AI until the mid-1990s, and Kernel methods such as the support vector machine (SVM) displaced k-nearest neighbor in the 1990s.[98]\nThe naive Bayes classifier is reportedly the \"most widely used learner\"[99] at Google, due in part to its scalability.[100]\nNeural networks are also used as classifiers.[101]\n\n\nArtificial neural networks \nA neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain.\n\nAn Artificial neural network is based on a collection of nodes also known as artificial neurons, which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. It is trained to recognise patterns, once trained it can recognise those patterns in fresh data. There is an input, at least one hidden layer of nodes and an output. Each node applies a function and once the weight crosses it\u2019s specified threshold, the data is transmitted to the next layer. A network is typically called a deep neural network if it has at least 2 hidden layers.[101]\nLearning algorithms for neural networks use local search to choose the weights that will get the right output for each input during training. The most common training technique is the backpropagation algorithm.[102]\nNeural networks learn to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs and find patterns in data. In theory, a neural network can learn any function.[103]\n\nIn feedforward neural networks the signal passes in only one direction.[104]\nRecurrent neural networks feed the output signal back into the input, which allows short-term memories of previous input events. Long short term memory is the most successful network architecture for recurrent networks.[105]\nPerceptrons[106]\nuse only a single layer of neurons, deep learning[107] uses multiple layers.\nConvolutional neural networks strengthen the connection between neurons that are \"close\" to each other \u2013 this is especially important in image processing, where a local set of neurons must identify an \"edge\" before the network can identify an object.[108]\n\n\n\nDeep learning \n\n\nDeep learning[107]\nuses several layers of neurons between the network's inputs and outputs. The multiple layers can progressively extract higher-level features from the raw input. For example, in image processing, lower layers may identify edges, while higher layers may identify the concepts relevant to a human such as digits or letters or faces.[109]\nDeep learning has drastically improved the performance of programs in many important subfields of artificial intelligence, including computer vision, speech recognition, natural language processing, image classification[110]\nand others. The reason that deep learning performs so well in so many applications is not known as of 2023.[111]\nThe sudden success of deep learning in 2012\u20132015 did not occur because of some new discovery or theoretical breakthrough (deep neural networks and backpropagation had been described by many people, as far back as the 1950s)[i]\nbut because of two factors: the incredible increase in computer power (including the hundred-fold increase in speed by switching to GPUs) and the availability of vast amounts of training data, especially the giant curated datasets used for benchmark testing, such as ImageNet.[j]\n\n\nGPT \nGenerative pre-trained transformers (GPT) are large language models that are based on the semantic relationships between words in sentences (natural language processing). Text-based GPT models are pre-trained on a large corpus of text which can be from the internet. The pre-training consists in predicting the next token (a token being usually a word, subword, or punctuation). Throughout this pre-training, GPT models accumulate knowledge about the world, and can then generate human-like text by repeatedly predicting the next token. Typically, a subsequent training phase makes the model more truthful, useful and harmless, usually with a technique called reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF). Current GPT models are still prone to generating falsehoods called \"hallucinations\", although this can be reduced with RLHF and quality data. They are used in chatbots which allow you to ask a question or request a task in simple text.[120][121]\nCurrent models and services include: Bard, ChatGPT, Claude, Copilot and LLaMA.[122] Multimodal GPT models can process different types of data (modalities) such as images, videos, sound and text.[123]\n\nSpecialized hardware and software \nMain articles: Programming languages for artificial intelligence and Hardware for artificial intelligence\nIn the late 2010s, graphics processing units (GPUs) that were increasingly designed with AI-specific enhancements and used with specialized TensorFlow software, had replaced previously used central processing unit (CPUs) as the dominant means for large-scale (commercial and academic) machine learning models' training.[124]\nHistorically, specialized languages, such as Lisp, Prolog, Python and others, had been used.\n\nApplications \nMain article: Applications of artificial intelligenceAI and machine learning technology is used in most of the essential applications of the 2020s, including: search engines (such as Google Search), targeting online advertisements, recommendation systems (offered by Netflix, YouTube or Amazon), driving internet traffic, targeted advertising (AdSense, Facebook), virtual assistants (such as Siri or Alexa), autonomous vehicles (including drones, ADAS and self-driving cars), automatic language translation (Microsoft Translator, Google Translate), facial recognition (Apple's Face ID or Microsoft's DeepFace and Google's FaceNet) and image labeling (used by Facebook, Apple's iPhoto and TikTok).\nHealth and Medicine \nMain article: Artificial intelligence in healthcare\nThe application of AI in medicine and medical research has the potential to increase patient care and quality of life.[125] Through the lens of the Hippocratic Oath, medical professionals are ethically compelled to use AI, if applications can more accurately diagnose and treat patients.\nFor medical research, AI is an important tool for processing and integrating Big Data. This is particularly important for organoid and tissue engineering development which use microscopy imaging as a key technique in fabrication.[126] \nIt has been suggested that AI can overcome discrepancies in funding allocated to different fields of research, such as cardiovascular research which typically receives a disproportionately less funding that areas such as cancer research, relative to the morbidity and mortality of these diseases.[126] New AI tools can deepen our understanding of biomedically relevant pathways. For example, AlphaFold 2 (2021) demonstrated the ability to approximate, in hours rather than months, the 3D structure of a protein.[127]\n\n\nGames \n This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2024 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nMain article: Game artificial intelligence\nGame playing programs have been used since the 1950s to demonstrate and test AI's most advanced techniques. Deep Blue became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning world chess champion, Garry Kasparov, on 11 May 1997. In 2011, in a Jeopardy! quiz show exhibition match, IBM's question answering system, Watson, defeated the two greatest Jeopardy! champions, Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings, by a significant margin. In March 2016, AlphaGo won 4 out of 5 games of Go in a match with Go champion Lee Sedol, becoming the first computer Go-playing system to beat a professional Go player without handicaps. Then it defeated Ke Jie in 2017, who at the time continuously held the world No. 1 ranking for two years. Other programs handle imperfect-information games; such as for poker at a superhuman level, Pluribus and Cepheus. DeepMind in the 2010s developed a \"generalized artificial intelligence\" that could learn many diverse Atari games on its own. In 2021 an AI agent competed in a Playstation Gran Turismo competition, winning against four of the world\u2019s best Gran Turismo drivers using deep reinforcement learning.[128]\n\nMilitary \n This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2024 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nMain article: Military artificial intelligence\nVarious countries are deploying AI military applications. The main applications enhance command and control, communications, sensors, integration and interoperability. Research is targeting intelligence collection and analysis, logistics, cyber operations, information operations, and semiautonomous and autonomous vehicles. AI technologies enable coordination of sensors and effectors, threat detection and identification, marking of enemy positions, target acquisition, coordination and deconfliction of distributed Joint Fires between networked combat vehicles involving manned and unmanned teams. AI was incorporated into military operations in Iraq and Syria.\n\nGenerative AI \n This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2024 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nMain article: Generative artificial intelligence\nVincent van Gogh in watercolour created by generative AI software\n\nIn the early 2020s, generative AI gained widespread prominence. ChatGPT, based on GPT-3, and other large language models, were tried by 14% of Americans adults. The increasing realism and ease-of-use of AI-based text-to-image generators such as Midjourney, DALL-E, and Stable Diffusion sparked a trend of viral AI-generated photos. Widespread attention was gained by a fake photo of Pope Francis wearing a white puffer coat, the fictional arrest of Donald Trump, and a hoax of an attack on the Pentagon, as well as the usage in professional creative arts.\n\nIndustry Specific Tasks \n This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2024 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nThere are also thousands of successful AI applications used to solve specific problems for specific industries or institutions. In a 2017 survey, one in five companies reported they had incorporated \"AI\" in some offerings or processes. A few examples are energy storage, medical diagnosis, military logistics, applications that predict the result of judicial decisions, foreign policy, or supply chain management.\nIn agriculture, AI has helped farmers identify areas that need irrigation, fertilization, pesticide treatments or increasing yield. Agronomists use AI to conduct research and development. AI has been used to predict the ripening time for crops such as tomatoes, monitor soil moisture, operate agricultural robots, conduct predictive analytics, classify livestock pig call emotions, automate greenhouses, detect diseases and pests, and save water.\nArtificial intelligence is used in astronomy to analyze increasing amounts of available data and applications, mainly for \"classification, regression, clustering, forecasting, generation, discovery, and the development of new scientific insights\" for example for discovering exoplanets, forecasting solar activity, and distinguishing between signals and instrumental effects in gravitational wave astronomy. It could also be used for activities in space such as space exploration, including analysis of data from space missions, real-time science decisions of spacecraft, space debris avoidance, and more autonomous operation.\n\nEthics \nAI, like any powerful technology, has potential benefits and potential risks. AI may be able to advance science and find solutions for serious problems: Demis Hassabis of Deep Mind hopes to \"solve intelligence, and then use that to solve everything else\".[129] However, as the use of AI has become widespread, several unintended consequences and risks have been identified.[130]\nAnyone looking to use machine learning as part of real-world, in-production systems needs to factor ethics into their AI training processes and strive to avoid bias. This is especially true when using AI algorithms that are inherently unexplainable in deep learning.[131]\n\nRisks and harm \nPrivacy and copyright \nFurther information: Information privacy and Artificial intelligence and copyright\nMachine learning algorithms require large amounts of data. The techniques used to acquire this data have raised concerns about privacy, surveillance and copyright.\nTechnology companies collect a wide range of data from their users, including online activity, geolocation data, video and audio.[132]\nFor example, in order to build speech recognition algorithms, Amazon have recorded millions of private conversations and allowed temps to listen to and transcribe some of them.[133]\nOpinions about this widespread surveillance range from those who see it as a necessary evil to those for whom it is clearly unethical and a violation of the right to privacy.[134]\n\nAI developers argue that this is the only way to deliver valuable applications. and have developed several techniques that attempt to preserve privacy while still obtaining the data, such as data aggregation, de-identification and differential privacy.[135] Since 2016, some privacy experts, such as Cynthia Dwork, began to view privacy in terms of fairness. Brian Christian wrote that experts have pivoted \"from the question of 'what they know' to the question of 'what they're doing with it'.\".[136] \nGenerative AI is often trained on unlicensed copyrighted works, including in domains such as images or computer code; the output is then used under a rationale of \"fair use\". Also website owners who do not wish to have their copyrighted content be AI indexed or \u2018scraped\u2019 can add code to their site, as you would, if you did not want your website to be indexed by a search engine which is currently available to certain services such as OpenAI. Experts disagree about how well, and under what circumstances, this rationale will hold up in courts of law; relevant factors may include \"the purpose and character of the use of the copyrighted work\" and \"the effect upon the potential market for the copyrighted work\".[137] In 2023, leading authors (including John Grisham and Jonathan Franzen) sued AI companies for using their work to train generative AI.[138][139]\n\nMisinformation \nSee also: YouTube \u00a7&#160;Moderation and offensive content\nYouTube, Facebook and others use recommender systems to guide users to more content. These AI programs were given the goal of maximizing user engagement (that is, the only goal was to keep people watching). The AI learned that users tended to choose misinformation, conspiracy theories, and extreme partisan content, and, to keep them watching, the AI recommended more of it. Users also tended to watch more content on the same subject, so the AI led people into filter bubbles where they received multiple versions of the same misinformation.[140] This convinced many users that the misinformation was true, and ultimately undermined trust in institutions, the media and the government.[141] The AI program had correctly learned to maximize its goal, but the result was harmful to society. After the U.S. election in 2016, major technology companies took steps to mitigate the problem.\nIn 2022, generative AI began to create images, audio, video and text that are indistinguishable from real photographs, recordings, films or human writing. It is possible for bad actors to use this technology to create massive amounts of misinformation or propaganda.[142] AI pioneer Geoffrey Hinton expressed concern about AI enabling \"authoritarian leaders to manipulate their electorates\" on a large scale, among other risks.[143]\n\nAlgorithmic bias and fairness \nMain articles: Algorithmic bias and Fairness (machine learning)\nMachine learning applications will be biased if they learn from biased data.[144]\nThe developers may not be aware that the bias exists.[145]\nBias can be introduced by the way training data is selected and by the way a model is deployed.[146][144] If a biased algorithm is used to make decisions that can seriously harm people (as it can in medicine, finance, recruitment, housing or policing) then the algorithm may cause discrimination.[147]\nFairness in machine learning is the study of how to prevent the harm caused by algorithmic bias. It has become serious area of academic study within AI. Researchers have discovered it is not always possible to define \"fairness\" in a way that satisfies all stakeholders.[148]\nOn June 28, 2015, Google Photos's new image labeling feature mistakenly identified Jacky Alcine and a friend as \"gorillas\" because they were black. The system was trained on a dataset that contained very few images of black people,[149] a problem called \"sample size disparity\".[150] Google \"fixed\" this problem by preventing the system from labelling anything as a \"gorilla\". Eight years later, in 2023, Google Photos still could not identify a gorilla, and neither could similar products from Apple, Facebook, Microsoft and Amazon.[151]\nCOMPAS is a commercial program widely used by U.S. courts to assess the likelihood of a defendant becoming a recidivist.\nIn 2016, Julia Angwin at ProPublica discovered that COMPAS exhibited racial bias, despite the fact that the program was not told the races of the defendants. Although the error rate for both whites and blacks was calibrated equal at exactly 61%, the errors for each race were different\u2014the system consistently overestimated the chance that a black person would re-offend and would underestimate the chance that a white person would not re-offend.[152] In 2017, several researchers[k] showed that it was mathematically impossible for COMPAS to accommodate all possible measures of fairness when the base rates of re-offense were different for whites and blacks in the data.[154]\n\nA program can make biased decisions even if the data does not explicitly mention a problematic feature (such as \"race\" or \"gender\"). The feature will correlate with other features (like \"address\", \"shopping history\" or \"first name\"), and the program will make the same decisions based on these features as it would on \"race\" or \"gender\".[155]\nMoritz Hardt said \"the most robust fact in this research area is that fairness through blindness doesn't work.\"[156]\n\nCriticism of COMPAS highlighted a deeper problem with the misuse of AI. Machine learning models are designed to make \"predictions\" that are only valid if we assume that the future will resemble the past. If they are trained on data that includes the results of racist decisions in the past, machine learning models must predict that racist decisions will be made in the future. Unfortunately, if an application then uses these predictions as recommendations, some of these \"recommendations\" will likely be racist.[157] Thus, machine learning is not well suited to help make decisions in areas where there is hope that the future will be better than the past. It is necessarily descriptive and not proscriptive.[l]\nBias and unfairness may go undetected because the developers are overwhelmingly white and male: among AI engineers, about 4% are black and 20% are women.[150]\nAt its 2022 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (ACM FAccT 2022) the Association for Computing Machinery, in Seoul, South Korea, presented and published findings recommending that until AI and robotics systems are demonstrated to be free of bias mistakes, they are unsafe and the use of self-learning neural networks trained on vast, unregulated sources of flawed internet data should be curtailed.[159]\n\nLack of transparency \nSee also: Explainable AI, Algorithmic transparency, and Right to explanation\nLidar testing vehicle for autonomous driving\n\nMany AI systems are so complex that their designers cannot explain how they reach their decisions.[160] Particularly with deep neural networks, in which there are a large amount of non-linear relationships between inputs and outputs. But some popular explainability techniques exist.[161]\nThere have been many cases where a machine learning program passed rigorous tests, but nevertheless learned something different than what the programmers intended. For example, a system that could identify skin diseases better than medical professionals was found to actually have a strong tendency to classify images with a ruler as \"cancerous\", because pictures of malignancies typically include a ruler to show the scale.[162] Another machine learning system designed to help effectively allocate medical resources was found to classify patients with asthma as being at \"low risk\" of dying from pneumonia. Having asthma is actually a severe risk factor, but since the patients having asthma would usually get much more medical care, they were relatively unlikely to die according to the training data. The correlation between asthma and low risk of dying from pneumonia was real, but misleading.[163]\nPeople who have been harmed by an algorithm's decision have a right to an explanation. Doctors, for example, are required to clearly and completely explain the reasoning behind any decision they make.[clarification needed ][164] Early drafts of the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation in 2016 included an explicit statement that this right exists.[m] Industry experts noted that this is an unsolved problem with no solution in sight. Regulators argued that nevertheless the harm is real: if the problem has no solution, the tools should not be used.[165]\nDARPA established the XAI (\"Explainable Artificial Intelligence\") program in 2014 to try and solve these problems.[166]\nThere are several potential solutions to the transparency problem. SHAP helps visualise the contribution of each feature to the output.[167] LIME can locally approximate a model with a simpler, interpretable model.[168] Multitask learning provides a large number of outputs in addition to the target classification. These other outputs can help developers deduce what the network has learned.[169] Deconvolution, DeepDream and other generative methods can allow developers to see what different layers of a deep network have learned and produce output that can suggest what the network is learning.[170]\n\n Conflict, surveillance and weaponized AI \nMain articles: Lethal autonomous weapon, Artificial intelligence arms race, and AI safety\nA lethal autonomous weapon is a machine that locates, selects and engages human targets without human supervision.[n] By 2015, over fifty countries were reported to be researching battlefield robots.[172] These weapons are considered especially dangerous for several reasons: if they kill an innocent person it is not clear who should be held accountable, it is unlikely they will reliably choose targets, and, if produced at scale, they are potentially weapons of mass destruction.[173] In 2014, 30 nations (including China) supported a ban on autonomous weapons under the United Nations' Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, however the United States and others disagreed.[174]\nAI provides a number of tools that are particularly useful for authoritarian governments: smart spyware, face recognition and voice recognition allow widespread surveillance; such surveillance allows machine learning to classify potential enemies of the state and can prevent them from hiding; recommendation systems can precisely target propaganda and misinformation for maximum effect; deepfakes and generative AI aid in producing misinformation; advanced AI can make authoritarian centralized decision making more competitive with liberal and decentralized systems such as markets.[175]\nAI facial recognition systems are used for mass surveillance, notably in China.[176][177] In 2019, Bengaluru, India deployed AI-managed traffic signals. This system uses cameras to monitor traffic density and adjust signal timing based on the interval needed to clear traffic.[178] Terrorists, criminals and rogue states can use weaponized AI such as advanced digital warfare and lethal autonomous weapons. Machine-learning AI is also able to design tens of thousands of toxic molecules in a matter of hours.[179]\n\nTechnological unemployment \nMain articles: Workplace impact of artificial intelligence and Technological unemployment\nFrom the early days of the development of artificial intelligence there have been arguments, for example those put forward by Joseph Weizenbaum, about whether tasks that can be done by computers actually should be done by them, given the difference between computers and humans, and between quantitative calculation and qualitative, value-based judgement.[180]\nEconomists have frequently highlighted the risks of redundancies from AI, and speculated about unemployment if there is no adequate social policy for full employment.[181]\nIn the past, technology has tended to increase rather than reduce total employment, but economists acknowledge that \"we're in uncharted territory\" with AI.[182] A survey of economists showed disagreement about whether the increasing use of robots and AI will cause a substantial increase in long-term unemployment, but they generally agree that it could be a net benefit if productivity gains are redistributed.[183] Risk estimates vary; for example, in the 2010s, Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey estimated 47% of U.S. jobs are at \"high risk\" of potential automation, while an OECD report classified only 9% of U.S. jobs as \"high risk\".[o][185] The methodology of speculating about future employment levels has been criticised as lacking evidential foundation, and for implying that technology, rather than social policy, creates unemployment, as opposed to redundancies.[181]\nUnlike previous waves of automation, many middle-class jobs may be eliminated by artificial intelligence; The Economist stated in 2015 that \"the worry that AI could do to white-collar jobs what steam power did to blue-collar ones during the Industrial Revolution\" is \"worth taking seriously\".[186] Jobs at extreme risk range from paralegals to fast food cooks, while job demand is likely to increase for care-related professions ranging from personal healthcare to the clergy.[187]\nIn April 2023, it was reported that 70% of the jobs for Chinese video game illlustrators had been eliminated by generative artificial intelligence.[188][189]\n\nExistential risk \nMain article: Existential risk from artificial general intelligence\nIt has been argued AI will become so powerful that humanity may irreversibly lose control of it. This could, as physicist Stephen Hawking stated, \"spell the end of the human race\".[190] This scenario has been common in science fiction, when a computer or robot suddenly develops a human-like \"self-awareness\" (or \"sentience\" or \"consciousness\") and becomes a malevolent character.[p] These sci-fi scenarios are misleading in several ways.\nFirst, AI does not require human-like \"sentience\" to be an existential risk. Modern AI programs are given specific goals and use learning and intelligence to achieve them. Philosopher Nick Bostrom argued that if one gives almost any goal to a sufficiently powerful AI, it may choose to destroy humanity to achieve it (he used the example of a paperclip factory manager).[192] Stuart Russell gives the example of household robot that tries to find a way to kill its owner to prevent it from being unplugged, reasoning that \"you can't fetch the coffee if you're dead.\"[193] In order to be safe for humanity, a superintelligence would have to be genuinely aligned with humanity's morality and values so that it is \"fundamentally on our side\".[194]\nSecond, Yuval Noah Harari argues that AI does not require a robot body or physical control to pose an existential risk. The essential parts of civilization are not physical. Things like ideologies, law, government, money and the economy are made of language; they exist because there are stories that billions of people believe. The current prevalence of misinformation suggests that an AI could use language to convince people to believe anything, even to take actions that are destructive.[195]\nThe opinions amongst experts and industry insiders are mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superintelligent AI.[196] Personalities such as Stephen Hawking, Bill Gates, and Elon Musk have expressed concern about existential risk from AI.[197]\nIn the early 2010s, experts argued that the risks are too distant in the future to warrant research or that humans will be valuable from the perspective of a superintelligent machine.[198] However, after 2016, the study of current and future risks and possible solutions became a serious area of research.[199]\nAI pioneers including Fei-Fei Li, Geoffrey Hinton, Yoshua Bengio, Cynthia Breazeal, Rana el Kaliouby, Demis Hassabis, Joy Buolamwini, and Sam Altman have expressed concerns about the risks of AI. In 2023, many leading AI experts issued the joint statement that \"Mitigating the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority alongside other societal-scale risks such as pandemics and nuclear war\".[200]\nOther researchers, however, spoke in favor of a less dystopian view. AI pioneer Juergen Schmidhuber did not sign the joint statement, emphasising that in 95% of all cases, AI research is about making \"human lives longer and healthier and easier.\"[201] While the tools that are now being used to improve lives can also be used by bad actors, \"they can also be used against the bad actors.\"[202][203] Andrew Ng also argued that \"it\u2019s a mistake to fall for the doomsday hype on AI\u2014and that regulators who do will only benefit vested interests.\"[204] Yann LeCun \"scoffs at his peers\u2019 dystopian scenarios of supercharged misinformation and even, eventually, human extinction.\"[205]\n\nLimiting AI \nPossible options for limiting AI include: using Embedded Ethics or Constitutional AI where companies or governments can add a policy, restricting high levels of compute power in training, restricting the ability to rewrite its own code base, restrict certain AI techniques but not in the training phase, open-source (transparency) vs proprietary (could be more restricted), backup model with redundancy, restricting security, privacy and copyright, restricting or controlling the memory, real-time monitoring, risk analysis, emergency shut-off, rigorous simulation and testing, model certification, assess known vulnerabilities, restrict the training material, restrict access to the internet, issue terms of use.\n\nEthical machines and alignment \nMain articles: Machine ethics, AI safety, Friendly artificial intelligence, Artificial moral agents, and Human Compatible\nFriendly AI are machines that have been designed from the beginning to minimize risks and to make choices that benefit humans. Eliezer Yudkowsky, who coined the term, argues that developing friendly AI should be a higher research priority: it may require a large investment and it must be completed before AI becomes an existential risk.[206]\nMachines with intelligence have the potential to use their intelligence to make ethical decisions. The field of machine ethics provides machines with ethical principles and procedures for resolving ethical dilemmas.[207]\nThe field of machine ethics is also called computational morality,[207]\nand was founded at an AAAI symposium in 2005.[208]\n\nOther approaches include Wendell Wallach's \"artificial moral agents\"[209]\nand Stuart J. Russell's three principles for developing provably beneficial machines.[210]\n\n\nFrameworks \nArtificial Intelligence projects can have their ethical permissibility tested while designing, developing, and implementing an AI system. An AI framework such as the Care and Act Framework containing the SUM values \u2013 developed by the Alan Turing Institute tests projects in four main areas:[211][212]\n\nRESPECT the dignity of individual people\nCONNECT with other people sincerely, openly and inclusively\nCARE for the wellbeing of everyone\nPROTECT social values, justice and the public interest\nOther developments in ethical frameworks include those decided upon during the Asilomar Conference, the Montreal Declaration for Responsible AI, and the IEEE's Ethics of Autonomous Systems initiative, among others;[213] however, these principles do not go without their criticisms, especially regards to the people chosen contributes to these frameworks.[214]\nPromotion of the wellbeing of the people and communities that these technologies affect requires consideration of the social and ethical implications at all stages of AI system design, development and implementation, and collaboration between job roles such as data scientists, product managers, data engineers, domain experts, and delivery managers.[215]\n\nRegulation \nMain articles: Regulation of artificial intelligence, Regulation of algorithms, and AI safety\nThe first global AI Safety Summit was held in 2023 with a declaration calling for international co-operation\n\nThe regulation of artificial intelligence is the development of public sector policies and laws for promoting and regulating artificial intelligence (AI); it is therefore related to the broader regulation of algorithms.[216]\nThe regulatory and policy landscape for AI is an emerging issue in jurisdictions globally.[217] According to AI Index at Stanford, the annual number of AI-related laws passed in the 127 survey countries jumped from one passed in 2016 to 37 passed in 2022 alone.[218][219]\nBetween 2016 and 2020, more than 30 countries adopted dedicated strategies for AI.[220]\nMost EU member states had released national AI strategies, as had Canada, China, India, Japan, Mauritius, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, US and Vietnam. Others were in the process of elaborating their own AI strategy, including Bangladesh, Malaysia and Tunisia.[220]\nThe Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence was launched in June 2020, stating a need for AI to be developed in accordance with human rights and democratic values, to ensure public confidence and trust in the technology.[220] Henry Kissinger, Eric Schmidt, and Daniel Huttenlocher published a joint statement in November 2021 calling for a government commission to regulate AI.[221]\nIn 2023, OpenAI leaders published recommendations for the governance of superintelligence, which they believe may happen in less than 10 years.[222] In 2023, the United Nations also launched an advisory body to provide recommendations on AI governance; the body comprises technology company executives, governments officials and academics.[223]\nIn a 2022 Ipsos survey, attitudes towards AI varied greatly by country; 78% of Chinese citizens, but only 35% of Americans, agreed that \"products and services using AI have more benefits than drawbacks\".[218] A 2023 Reuters\/Ipsos poll found that 61% of Americans agree, and 22% disagree, that AI poses risks to humanity.[224]\nIn a 2023 Fox News poll, 35% of Americans thought it \"very important\", and an additional 41% thought it \"somewhat important\", for the federal government to regulate AI, versus 13% responding \"not very important\" and 8% responding \"not at all important\".[225][226]\n\nIn November 2023, the first global AI Safety Summit was held in Bletchley Park in the UK to discuss the near and far term risks of AI and the possibility of mandatory and voluntary regulatory frameworks.[227] 28 countries including the United States, China, and the European Union issued a declaration at the start of the summit, calling for international co-operation to manage the challenges and risks of artificial intelligence.[228][229]\n\nHistory \nMain article: History of artificial intelligence\nFor a chronological guide, see Timeline of artificial intelligence.\nThe study of mechanical or \"formal\" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity. The study of logic led directly to Alan Turing's theory of computation, which suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as \"0\" and \"1\", could simulate both mathematical deduction and formal reasoning, which is known as the Church\u2013Turing thesis.[230] This, along with concurrent discoveries in cybernetics and information theory, led researchers to consider the possibility of building an \"electronic brain\".[q][232]\nAlan Turing was thinking about machine intelligence at least as early as 1941, when he circulated a paper on machine intelligence which could be the earliest paper in the field of AI \u2013 though it is now lost.[2] The first available paper generally recognized as \"AI\" was McCullouch and Pitts design for Turing-complete \"artificial neurons\" in 1943 \u2013 the first mathematical model of a neural network.[233] The paper was influenced by Turing's earlier paper 'On Computable Numbers' from 1936 using similar two-state boolean 'neurons', but was the first to apply it to neuronal function.[2]\nThe term 'Machine Intelligence' was used by Alan Turing during his life which was later often referred to as 'Artificial Intelligence' after his death in 1954. In 1950 Turing published the best known of his papers 'Computing Machinery and Intelligence', the paper introduced his concept of what is now known as the Turing test to the general public. Then followed three radio broadcasts on AI by Turing, the lectures: 'Intelligent Machinery, A Heretical Theory\u2019, \u2018Can Digital Computers Think\u2019? and the panel discussion \u2018Can Automatic Calculating Machines be Said to Think\u2019. By 1956 computer intelligence had been actively pursued for more than a decade in Britain; the earliest AI programmes were written there in 1951\u20131952.[2]\nIn 1951, using a Ferranti Mark 1 computer of the University of Manchester, checkers and chess programs were wrote where you could play against the computer.[234] The field of American AI research was founded at a workshop at Dartmouth College in 1956.[r][3] The attendees became the leaders of AI research in the 1960s.[s] They and their students produced programs that the press described as \"astonishing\":[t] computers were learning checkers strategies, solving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English.[u][4] Artificial Intelligence laboratories were set up at a number of British and US Universities in the latter 1950s and early 1960s.[2]\nThey had, however, underestimated the difficulty of the problem.[v] Both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill[239] and ongoing pressure from the U.S. Congress to fund more productive projects. Minsky's and Papert's book Perceptrons was understood as proving that artificial neural networks would never be useful for solving real-world tasks, thus discrediting the approach altogether.[240] The \"AI winter\", a period when obtaining funding for AI projects was difficult, followed.[6]\nIn the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems,[241] a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of human experts. By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's fifth generation computer project inspired the U.S. and British governments to restore funding for academic research.[5] However, beginning with the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer-lasting winter began.[7]\nMany researchers began to doubt that the current practices would be able to imitate all the processes of human cognition, especially perception, robotics, learning and pattern recognition.[242] A number of researchers began to look into \"sub-symbolic\" approaches.[243] Robotics researchers, such as Rodney Brooks, rejected \"representation\" in general and focussed directly on engineering machines that move and survive.[w] Judea Pearl, Lofti Zadeh and others developed methods that handled incomplete and uncertain information by making reasonable guesses rather than precise logic.[84][248] But the most important development was the revival of \"connectionism\", including neural network research, by Geoffrey Hinton and others.[249] In 1990, Yann LeCun successfully showed that convolutional neural networks can recognize handwritten digits, the first of many successful applications of neural networks.[250]\nAI gradually restored its reputation in the late 1990s and early 21st century by exploiting formal mathematical methods and by finding specific solutions to specific problems. This \"narrow\" and \"formal\" focus allowed researchers to produce verifiable results and collaborate with other fields (such as statistics, economics and mathematics).[251]\nBy 2000, solutions developed by AI researchers were being widely used, although in the 1990s they were rarely described as \"artificial intelligence\".[252]\n\nSeveral academic researchers became concerned that AI was no longer pursuing the original goal of creating versatile, fully intelligent machines. Beginning around 2002, they founded the subfield of artificial general intelligence (or \"AGI\"), which had several well-funded institutions by the 2010s.[11]\nDeep learning began to dominate industry benchmarks in 2012 and was adopted throughout the field.[8]\nFor many specific tasks, other methods were abandoned.[x]\nDeep learning's success was based on both hardware improvements (faster computers,[254] graphics processing units, cloud computing[255])\nand access to large amounts of data[256] (including curated datasets,[255] such as ImageNet).\n\nDeep learning's success led to an enormous increase in interest and funding in AI.[y]\nThe amount of machine learning research (measured by total publications) increased by 50% in the years 2015\u20132019,[220]\nand WIPO reported that AI was the most prolific emerging technology in terms of the number of patent applications and granted patents.[257]\nAccording to 'AI Impacts', about $50 billion annually was invested in \"AI\" around 2022 in the US alone and about 20% of new US Computer Science PhD graduates have specialized in \"AI\";[258]\nabout 800,000 \"AI\"-related US job openings existed in 2022.[259] The large majority of the advances have occurred within the United States, with its companies, universities, and research labs leading artificial intelligence research.[10]\n\nIn 2016, issues of fairness and the misuse of technology were catapulted into center stage at machine learning conferences, publications vastly increased, funding became available, and many researchers re-focussed their careers on these issues. The alignment problem became a serious field of academic study.[199]\n\nPhilosophy \nMain article: Philosophy of artificial intelligence\nDefining artificial intelligence \nMain articles: Turing test, Intelligent agent, Dartmouth workshop, and Synthetic intelligence\nAlan Turing wrote in 1950 \"I propose to consider the question 'can machines think'?\"[260] He advised changing the question from whether a machine \"thinks\", to \"whether or not it is possible for machinery to show intelligent behaviour\".[260] He devised the Turing test, which measures the ability of a machine to simulate human conversation.[261] Since we can only observe the behavior of the machine, it does not matter if it is \"actually\" thinking or literally has a \"mind\". Turing notes that we can not determine these things about other people[z] but \"it is usual to have a polite convention that everyone thinks\"[262]\nRussell and Norvig agree with Turing that AI must be defined in terms of \"acting\" and not \"thinking\".[263] However, they are critical that the test compares machines to people. \"Aeronautical engineering texts,\" they wrote, \"do not define the goal of their field as making 'machines that fly so exactly like pigeons that they can fool other pigeons.' \"[264] AI founder John McCarthy agreed, writing that \"Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence\".[265]\nMcCarthy defines intelligence as \"the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world.\"[266] Another AI founder, Marvin Minsky similarly defines it as \"the ability to solve hard problems\".[267] These definitions view intelligence in terms of well-defined problems with well-defined solutions, where both the difficulty of the problem and the performance of the program are direct measures of the \"intelligence\" of the machine\u2014and no other philosophical discussion is required, or may not even be possible.\nAnother definition has been adopted by Google,[268] a major practitioner in the field of AI. This definition stipulates the ability of systems to synthesize information as the manifestation of intelligence, similar to the way it is defined in biological intelligence.\n\nEvaluating approaches to AI \nNo established unifying theory or paradigm has guided AI research for most of its history.[aa] The unprecedented success of statistical machine learning in the 2010s eclipsed all other approaches (so much so that some sources, especially in the business world, use the term \"artificial intelligence\" to mean \"machine learning with neural networks\"). This approach is mostly sub-symbolic, soft and narrow (see below). Critics argue that these questions may have to be revisited by future generations of AI researchers.\n\nSymbolic AI and its limits \nSymbolic AI (or \"GOFAI\")[270] simulated the high-level conscious reasoning that people use when they solve puzzles, express legal reasoning and do mathematics. They were highly successful at \"intelligent\" tasks such as algebra or IQ tests. In the 1960s, Newell and Simon proposed the physical symbol systems hypothesis: \"A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action.\"[271]\nHowever, the symbolic approach failed on many tasks that humans solve easily, such as learning, recognizing an object or commonsense reasoning. Moravec's paradox is the discovery that high-level \"intelligent\" tasks were easy for AI, but low level \"instinctive\" tasks were extremely difficult.[272] Philosopher Hubert Dreyfus had argued since the 1960s that human expertise depends on unconscious instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation, and on having a \"feel\" for the situation, rather than explicit symbolic knowledge.[273] Although his arguments had been ridiculed and ignored when they were first presented, eventually, AI research came to agree with him.[ab][16]\nThe issue is not resolved: sub-symbolic reasoning can make many of the same inscrutable mistakes that human intuition does, such as algorithmic bias. Critics such as Noam Chomsky argue continuing research into symbolic AI will still be necessary to attain general intelligence,[275][276] in part because sub-symbolic AI is a move away from explainable AI: it can be difficult or impossible to understand why a modern statistical AI program made a particular decision. The emerging field of neuro-symbolic artificial intelligence attempts to bridge the two approaches.\n\nNeat vs. scruffy \nMain article: Neats and scruffies\n\"Neats\" hope that intelligent behavior is described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic, optimization, or neural networks). \"Scruffies\" expect that it necessarily requires solving a large number of unrelated problems. Neats defend their programs with theoretical rigor, scruffies rely mainly on incremental testing to see if they work. This issue was actively discussed in the 1970s and 1980s,[277] but eventually was seen as irrelevant. Modern AI has elements of both.\n\nSoft vs. hard computing \nMain article: Soft computing\nFinding a provably correct or optimal solution is intractable for many important problems.[15] Soft computing is a set of techniques, including genetic algorithms, fuzzy logic and neural networks, that are tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth and approximation. Soft computing was introduced in the late 1980s and most successful AI programs in the 21st century are examples of soft computing with neural networks.\n\nNarrow vs. general AI \nMain article: Artificial general intelligence\nAI researchers are divided as to whether to pursue the goals of artificial general intelligence and superintelligence directly or to solve as many specific problems as possible (narrow AI) in hopes these solutions will lead indirectly to the field's long-term goals.[278][279] General intelligence is difficult to define and difficult to measure, and modern AI has had more verifiable successes by focusing on specific problems with specific solutions. The experimental sub-field of artificial general intelligence studies this area exclusively.\n\n Machine consciousness, sentience and mind \nMain articles: Philosophy of artificial intelligence and Artificial consciousness\nThe philosophy of mind does not know whether a machine can have a mind, consciousness and mental states, in the same sense that human beings do. This issue considers the internal experiences of the machine, rather than its external behavior. Mainstream AI research considers this issue irrelevant because it does not affect the goals of the field: to build machines that can solve problems using intelligence. Russell and Norvig add that \"[t]he additional project of making a machine conscious in exactly the way humans are is not one that we are equipped to take on.\"[280] However, the question has become central to the philosophy of mind. It is also typically the central question at issue in artificial intelligence in fiction.\n\nConsciousness \nMain articles: Hard problem of consciousness and Theory of mind\nDavid Chalmers identified two problems in understanding the mind, which he named the \"hard\" and \"easy\" problems of consciousness.[281] The easy problem is understanding how the brain processes signals, makes plans and controls behavior. The hard problem is explaining how this feels or why it should feel like anything at all, assuming we are right in thinking that it truly does feel like something (Dennett's consciousness illusionism says this is an illusion). Human information processing is easy to explain, however, human subjective experience is difficult to explain. For example, it is easy to imagine a color-blind person who has learned to identify which objects in their field of view are red, but it is not clear what would be required for the person to know what red looks like.[282]\n\nComputationalism and functionalism \nMain articles: Computational theory of mind, Functionalism (philosophy of mind), and Chinese room\nComputationalism is the position in the philosophy of mind that the human mind is an information processing system and that thinking is a form of computing. Computationalism argues that the relationship between mind and body is similar or identical to the relationship between software and hardware and thus may be a solution to the mind\u2013body problem. This philosophical position was inspired by the work of AI researchers and cognitive scientists in the 1960s and was originally proposed by philosophers Jerry Fodor and Hilary Putnam.[283]\nPhilosopher John Searle characterized this position as \"strong AI\": \"The appropriately programmed computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human beings have minds.\"[ac] Searle counters this assertion with his Chinese room argument, which attempts to show that, even if a machine perfectly simulates human behavior, there is still no reason to suppose it also has a mind.[287]\n\nRobot rights \nMain article: Robot rights\nIf a machine has a mind and subjective experience, then it may also have sentience (the ability to feel), and if so it could also suffer; it has been argued that this could entitle it to certain rights.[288] Any hypothetical robot rights would lie on a spectrum with animal rights and human rights.[289] This issue has been considered in fiction for centuries,[290] and is now being considered by, for example, California's Institute for the Future; however, critics argue that the discussion is premature.[291]\n\nFuture \nSuperintelligence and the singularity \nA superintelligence is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human mind.[279]\nIf research into artificial general intelligence produced sufficiently intelligent software, it might be able to reprogram and improve itself. The improved software would be even better at improving itself, leading to what I. J. Good called an \"intelligence explosion\" and Vernor Vinge called a \"singularity\".[292]\nHowever, technologies cannot improve exponentially indefinitely, and typically follow an S-shaped curve, slowing when they reach the physical limits of what the technology can do.[293]\n\nTranshumanism \nRobot designer Hans Moravec, cyberneticist Kevin Warwick, and inventor Ray Kurzweil have predicted that humans and machines will merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful than either. This idea, called transhumanism, has roots in Aldous Huxley and Robert Ettinger.[294]\nEdward Fredkin argues that \"artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution\", an idea first proposed by Samuel Butler's \"Darwin among the Machines\" as far back as 1863, and expanded upon by George Dyson in his book of the same name in 1998.[295]\n\nIn fiction \nMain article: Artificial intelligence in fiction\nThe word \"robot\" itself was coined by Karel \u010capek in his 1921 play R.U.R., the title standing for \"Rossum's Universal Robots\".\n\nThought-capable artificial beings have appeared as storytelling devices since antiquity,[296] and have been a persistent theme in science fiction.[297]\nA common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters. This includes such works as Arthur C. Clarke's and Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (both 1968), with HAL 9000, the murderous computer in charge of the Discovery One spaceship, as well as The Terminator (1984) and The Matrix (1999). In contrast, the rare loyal robots such as Gort from The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and Bishop from Aliens (1986) are less prominent in popular culture.[298]\nIsaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many books and stories, most notably the \"Multivac\" series about a super-intelligent computer of the same name. Asimov's laws are often brought up during lay discussions of machine ethics;[299] while almost all artificial intelligence researchers are familiar with Asimov's laws through popular culture, they generally consider the laws useless for many reasons, one of which is their ambiguity.[300]\nSeveral works use AI to force us to confront the fundamental question of what makes us human, showing us artificial beings that have the ability to feel, and thus to suffer. This appears in Karel \u010capek's R.U.R., the films A.I. Artificial Intelligence and Ex Machina, as well as the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, by Philip K. Dick. Dick considers the idea that our understanding of human subjectivity is altered by technology created with artificial intelligence.[301]\n\nSee also \nAI effect\nArtificial intelligence detection software&#160;\u2013 Software to detect AI-generated contentPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nArtificial intelligence in healthcare&#160;\u2013 Overview of the use of artificial intelligence in healthcare\nBehavior selection algorithm&#160;\u2013 Algorithm that selects actions for intelligent agents\nBusiness process automation&#160;\u2013 Technology-enabled automation of complex business processes\nCase-based reasoning&#160;\u2013 Process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past problems\nEmergent algorithm&#160;\u2013 Algorithm exhibiting emergent behavior\nFemale gendering of AI technologies\nGlossary of artificial intelligence&#160;\u2013 List of definitions of terms and concepts commonly used in the study of artificial intelligence\nRobotic process automation&#160;\u2013 Form of business process automation technology\nWeak artificial intelligence&#160;\u2013 Form of artificial intelligence\nWetware computer&#160;\u2013 Computer composed of organic material\nIntelligence amplification&#160;\u2013 Use of information technology to augment human intelligence\nExplanatory notes \n\n\n^ a b This list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004), Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998) and Nilsson (1998) \n\n^ a b This list of tools is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004), Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998) and Nilsson (1998) \n\n^ It is among the reasons that expert systems proved to be inefficient for capturing knowledge.[30][31] \n\n^ \n\"Rational agent\" is general term used in economics, philosophy and theoretical artificial intelligence. It can refer to anything that directs its behavior to accomplish goals, such as a person, an animal, a corporation, a nation, or, in the case of AI, a computer program. \n\n^ Alan Turing discussed the centrality of learning as early as 1950, in his classic paper \"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\".[42] In 1956, at the original Dartmouth AI summer conference, Ray Solomonoff wrote a report on unsupervised probabilistic machine learning: \"An Inductive Inference Machine\".[43] \n\n^ See AI winter \u00a7&#160;Machine translation and the ALPAC report of 1966 \n\n^ \nCompared with symbolic logic, formal Bayesian inference is computationally expensive. For inference to be tractable, most observations must be conditionally independent of one another. AdSense uses a Bayesian network with over 300&#160;million edges to learn which ads to serve.[86] \n\n^ Expectation-maximization, one of the most popular algorithms in machine learning, allows clustering in the presence of unknown latent variables.[88] \n\n^ \nSome form of deep neural networks (without a specific learning algorithm) were described by:\nAlan Turing (1948);[112]\nFrank Rosenblatt(1957);[112]\nKarl Steinbuch and Roger David Joseph (1961).[113]\nDeep or recurrent networks that learned (or used gradient descent) were developed by:\nErnst Ising and Wilhelm Lenz (1925);[114]\nOliver Selfridge (1959);[113]\nAlexey Ivakhnenko and Valentin Lapa (1965);[114]\nKaoru Nakano (1977);[115]\nShun-Ichi Amari (1972);[115]\nJohn Joseph Hopfield (1982).[115]\nBackpropagation was independently discovered by:\nHenry J. Kelley (1960);[112]\nArthur E. Bryson (1962);[112]\nStuart Dreyfus (1962);[112]\nArthur E. Bryson and Yu-Chi Ho (1969);[112]\nSeppo Linnainmaa (1970);[116]\nPaul Werbos (1974).[112]\nIn fact, backpropagation and gradient descent are straight forward applications of Gottfried Leibniz' chain rule in calculus (1676),[117] and is essentially identical (for one layer) to the method of least squares, developed independently by Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1795) and Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805).[118] There are probably many others, yet to be discovered by historians of science. \n\n^ Geoffrey Hinton said, of his work on neural networks in the 1990s, \"our labeled datasets were thousands of times too small. [And] our computers were millions of times too slow\"[119] \n\n^ Including Jon Kleinberg (Cornell), Sendhil Mullainathan (University of Chicago), Cynthia Chouldechova (Carnegie Mellon) and Sam Corbett-Davis (Stanford)[153] \n\n^ Moritz Hardt (a director at the Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems) argues that machine learning \"is fundamentally the wrong tool for a lot of domains, where you're trying to design interventions and mechanisms that change the world.\"[158] \n\n^ When the law was passed in 2018, it still contained a form of this provision. \n\n^ This is the United Nations' definition, and includes things like land mines as well.[171] \n\n^ See table 4; 9% is both the OECD average and the US average.[184] \n\n^ Sometimes called a \"robopocalypse\".[191] \n\n^ \"Electronic brain\" was the term used by the press around this time.[231] \n\n^ \nDaniel Crevier wrote, \"the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the new science.\"[235] Russell and Norvig called the conference \"the inception of artificial intelligence.\"[233] \n\n^ \nRussell and Norvig wrote \"for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these people and their students.\"[236] \n\n^ \nRussell and Norvig wrote \"it was astonishing whenever a computer did anything kind of smartish\".[237] \n\n^ \nThe programs described are Arthur Samuel's checkers program for the IBM 701, Daniel Bobrow's STUDENT, Newell and Simon's Logic Theorist and Terry Winograd's SHRDLU. \n\n^ Russell and Norvig write: \"in almost all cases, these early systems failed on more difficult problems\"[238] \n\n^ \nEmbodied approaches to AI[244] were championed by Hans Moravec[245] and Rodney Brooks[246] and went by many names: Nouvelle AI.[246] Developmental robotics,[247] \n\n^ Matteo Wong wrote in The Atlantic: \"Whereas for decades, computer-science fields such as natural-language processing, computer vision, and robotics used extremely different methods, now they all use a programming method called \"deep learning.\" As a result, their code and approaches have become more similar, and their models are easier to integrate into one another.\"[253] \n\n^ Jack Clark wrote in Bloomberg: \"After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster than ever,\" and noted that the number of software projects that use machine learning at Google increased from a \"sporadic usage\" in 2012 to more than 2,700 projects in 2015.[255] \n\n^ See Problem of other minds \n\n^ Nils Nilsson wrote in 1983: \"Simply put, there is wide disagreement in the field about what AI is all about.\"[269] \n\n^ \nDaniel Crevier wrote that \"time has proven the accuracy and perceptiveness of some of Dreyfus's comments. Had he formulated them less aggressively, constructive actions they suggested might have been taken much earlier.\"[274] \n\n^ \nSearle presented this definition of \"Strong AI\" in 1999.[284] Searle's original formulation was \"The appropriately programmed computer really is a mind, in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states.\"[285] Strong AI is defined similarly by Russell and Norvig: \"Stong AI \u2013 the assertion that machines that do so are actually thinking (as opposed to simulating thinking).\"[286] \n\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ Google (2016). \n\n^ a b c d e Copeland, J., ed. (2004). The Essential Turing: the ideas that gave birth to the computer age. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press. ISBN&#160;0-19-825079-7. \n\n^ a b \nDartmouth workshop:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;18)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;111\u2013136)\nNRC (1999, pp.&#160;200\u2013201)\nThe proposal:\n\nMcCarthy et al. (1955)\n \n^ a b \nSuccessful programs the 1960s:\n\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;243\u2013252)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;52\u2013107)\nMoravec (1988, p.&#160;9)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;19\u201321)\n \n^ a b \nFunding initiatives in the early 1980s: Fifth Generation Project (Japan), Alvey (UK), Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (US), Strategic Computing Initiative (US):\n\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;426\u2013441)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;161\u2013162, 197\u2013203, 211, 240)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;23)\nNRC (1999, pp.&#160;210\u2013211)\nNewquist (1994, pp.&#160;235\u2013248)\n \n^ a b \nFirst AI Winter, Lighthill report, Mansfield Amendment\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;115\u2013117)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;21\u201322)\nNRC (1999, pp.&#160;212\u2013213)\nHowe (1994)\nNewquist (1994, pp.&#160;189\u2013201)\n \n^ a b \nSecond AI Winter:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;24)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;430\u2013435)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;209\u2013210)\nNRC (1999, pp.&#160;214\u2013216)\nNewquist (1994, pp.&#160;301\u2013318)\n \n^ a b \nDeep learning revolution, AlexNet:\nGoldman (2022)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;26)\nMcKinsey (2018)\n \n^ Toews (2023). \n\n^ a b Frank (2023). \n\n^ a b c \nArtificial general intelligence:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;32\u201333, 1020\u20131021)\nProposal for the modern version:\n\nPennachin &amp; Goertzel (2007)\nWarnings of overspecialization in AI from leading researchers:\n\nNilsson (1995)\nMcCarthy (2007)\nBeal &amp; Winston (2009)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a71.2). \n\n^ \nProblem solving, puzzle solving, game playing and deduction:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 3\u20135)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 6) (constraint satisfaction)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, chpt. 2, 3, 7, 9)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, chpt. 3, 4, 6, 8)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 7\u201312)\n \n^ \nUncertain reasoning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 12\u201318)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;345\u2013395)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;333\u2013381)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 7\u201312)\n \n^ a b c \nIntractability and efficiency and the combinatorial explosion:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;21)\n \n^ a b c \nPsychological evidence of the prevalence sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge:\nKahneman (2011)\nDreyfus &amp; Dreyfus (1986)\nWason &amp; Shapiro (1966)\nKahneman, Slovic &amp; Tversky (1982)\n \n^ \nKnowledge representation and knowledge engineering:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 10)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;23\u201346, 69\u201381, 169\u2013233, 235\u2013277, 281\u2013298, 319\u2013345)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;227\u2013243),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 17.1\u201317.4, 18)\n \n^ Smoliar &amp; Zhang (1994). \n\n^ Neumann &amp; M\u00f6ller (2008). \n\n^ Kuperman, Reichley &amp; Bailey (2006). \n\n^ McGarry (2005). \n\n^ Bertini, Del Bimbo &amp; Torniai (2006). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), pp.&#160;272. \n\n^ \nRepresenting categories and relations: Semantic networks, description logics, inheritance (including frames and scripts):\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a710.2 &amp; 10.5),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;174\u2013177),\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;248\u2013258),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 18.3)\n \n^ Representing events and time:Situation calculus, event calculus, fluent calculus (including solving the frame problem):\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a710.3),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;281\u2013298),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 18.2)\n \n^ \nCausal calculus:\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;335\u2013337)\n \n^ \nRepresenting knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, modal logics:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a710.4),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;275\u2013277)\n \n^ a b \nDefault reasoning, Frame problem, default logic, non-monotonic logics, circumscription, closed world assumption, abduction:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a710.6)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;248\u2013256, 323\u2013335)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;335\u2013363)\nNilsson (1998, ~18.3.3)\n(Poole et al. places abduction under \"default reasoning\". Luger et al. places this under \"uncertain reasoning\").\n\n \n^ a b \nBreadth of commonsense knowledge:\nLenat &amp; Guha (1989, Introduction)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;113\u2013114),\nMoravec (1988, p.&#160;13),\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;241, 385, 982) (qualification problem)\n \n^ Newquist (1994), p.&#160;296. \n\n^ Crevier (1993), pp.&#160;204\u2013208. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;528. \n\n^ \nAutomated planning:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 11).\n \n^ \nAutomated decision making, Decision theory:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 16\u201318).\n \n^ \nClassical planning:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Section 11.2).\n \n^ \nSensorless or \"conformant\" planning, contingent planning, replanning (a.k.a online planning):\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Section 11.5).\n \n^ \nUncertain preferences:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Section 16.7)\nInverse reinforcement learning:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Section 22.6)\n \n^ \nInformation value theory:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Section 16.6).\n \n^ \nMarkov decision process:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 17).\n \n^ \nGame theory and multi-agent decision theory:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 18).\n \n^ \nLearning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 19\u201322)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;397\u2013438)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;385\u2013542)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 3.3, 10.3, 17.5, 20)\n \n^ Turing (1950). \n\n^ Solomonoff (1956). \n\n^ \nUnsupervised learning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;653) (definition)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;738\u2013740) (cluster analysis)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;846\u2013860) (word embedding)\n \n^ a b \nSupervised learning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a719.2) (Definition)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 19\u201320) (Techniques)\n \n^ \nReinforcement learning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 22)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;442\u2013449)\n \n^ \nTransfer learning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;281)\nThe Economist (2016)\n \n^ \"Artificial Intelligence (AI): What Is AI and How Does It Work? | Built In\". builtin.com. Retrieved 30 October 2023 . \n\n^ \nComputational learning theory:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;672\u2013674)\nJordan &amp; Mitchell (2015)\n \n^ \nNatural language processing (NLP):\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 23\u201324)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;91\u2013104)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;591\u2013632)\n \n^ \nSubproblems of NLP:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;849\u2013850)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;856\u2013858. \n\n^ Dickson (2022). \n\n^ Modern statistical and deep learning approaches to NLP:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 24)\nCambria &amp; White (2014)\n \n^ Vincent (2019). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;875\u2013878. \n\n^ Bushwick (2023). \n\n^ \nComputer vision:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 25)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 6)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), pp.&#160;849\u2013850. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), pp.&#160;895\u2013899. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), pp.&#160;899\u2013901. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), pp.&#160;931\u2013938. \n\n^ MIT AIL (2014). \n\n^ \nAffective computing:\nThro (1993)\nEdelson (1991)\nTao &amp; Tan (2005)\nScassellati (2002)\n \n^ Waddell (2018). \n\n^ Poria et al. (2017). \n\n^ \nSearch algorithms:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 3\u20135)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;113\u2013163)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;79\u2013164, 193\u2013219)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 7\u201312)\n \n^ \nState space search:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 3)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), \u00a711.2. \n\n^ Uninformed searches (breadth first search, depth-first search and general state space search):\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a73.4)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;113\u2013132)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;79\u2013121)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 8)\n \n^ \nHeuristic or informed searches (e.g., greedy best first and A*):\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, s\u00a73.5)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;132\u2013147)\nPoole &amp; Mackworth (2017, \u00a73.6)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;133\u2013150)\n \n^ \nAdversarial search:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 5)\n \n^ \nLocal or \"optimization\" search:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 4)\n \n^ \nEvolutionary computation:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a74.1.2)\n \n^ Merkle &amp; Middendorf (2013). \n\n^ \nLogic:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 6\u20139)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;35\u201377)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 13\u201316)\n \n^ \nPropositional logic:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 6)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;45\u201350)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 13)\n \n^ \nFirst-order logic and features such as equality:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 7)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;268\u2013275),\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;50\u201362),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 15)\n \n^ \nLogical inference:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 10)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), \u00a78.3.1. \n\n^ \nResolution and unification:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a77.5.2, \u00a79.2, \u00a79.5)\n \n^ Forward chaining, backward chaining, Horn clauses, and logical deduction as search:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a79.3, \u00a79.4)\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;~46\u201352)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;62\u201373)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 4.2, 7.2)\n \n^ \nFuzzy logic:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;214, 255, 459)\nScientific American (1999)\n \n^ a b \nStochastic methods for uncertain reasoning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 12\u201318 and 20),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;345\u2013395),\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;165\u2013191, 333\u2013381),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 19)\n \n^ \nBayesian networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a712.5\u201312.6, \u00a713.4\u201313.5, \u00a714.3\u201314.5, \u00a716.5, \u00a720.2 -20.3),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;361\u2013381),\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;~182\u2013190, \u2248363\u2013379),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 19.3\u20134)\n \n^ Domingos (2015), chapter 6. \n\n^ \nBayesian inference algorithm:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a713.3\u201313.5),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;361\u2013381),\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;~363\u2013379),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 19.4 &amp; 7)\n \n^ Domingos (2015), p.&#160;210. \n\n^ \nBayesian learning and the expectation-maximization algorithm:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 20),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;424\u2013433),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 20)\nDomingos (2015, p.&#160;210)\n \n^ Bayesian decision theory and Bayesian decision networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a716.5)\n \n^ a b c \nStochastic temporal models:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 14)\nHidden Markov model:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a714.3)\nKalman filters:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a714.4)\nDynamic Bayesian networks:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a714.5)\n \n^ \ndecision theory and decision analysis:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 16\u201318),\nPoole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998, pp.&#160;381\u2013394)\n \n^ \nInformation value theory:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a716.6)\n \n^ Markov decision processes and dynamic decision networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 17)\n \n^ Game theory and mechanism design:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 18)\n \n^ \nStatistical learning methods and classifiers:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, chpt. 20),\n \n^ \nDecision trees:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a719.3)\nDomingos (2015, p.&#160;88)\n \n^ \nNon-parameteric learning models such as K-nearest neighbor and support vector machines:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a719.7)\nDomingos (2015, p.&#160;187) (k-nearest neighbor)\nDomingos (2015, p.&#160;88) (kernel methods)\n \n^ Domingos (2015), p.&#160;152. \n\n^ \nNaive Bayes classifier:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a712.6)\nDomingos (2015, p.&#160;152)\n \n^ a b \nNeural networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 21),\nDomingos (2015, Chapter 4)\n \n^ \nGradient calculation in computational graphs, backpropagation, automatic differentiation:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a721.2),\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;467\u2013474),\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 3.3)\n \n^ \nUniversal approximation theorem:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;752)\nThe theorem:\n\nCybenko (1988)\nHornik, Stinchcombe &amp; White (1989)\n \n^ \nFeedforward neural networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a721.1)\n \n^ \nRecurrent neural networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a721.6)\n \n^ \nPerceptrons:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;21, 22, 683, 22)\n \n^ a b \nDeep learning:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, Chpt. 21)\nGoodfellow, Bengio &amp; Courville (2016)\nHinton et al. (2016)\nSchmidhuber (2015)\n \n^ \nConvolutional neural networks:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, \u00a721.3)\n \n^ Deng &amp; Yu (2014), pp.&#160;199\u2013200. \n\n^ Ciresan, Meier &amp; Schmidhuber (2012). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;751. \n\n^ a b c d e f g Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;785. \n\n^ a b Schmidhuber (2022), \u00a75. \n\n^ a b Schmidhuber (2022), \u00a76. \n\n^ a b c Schmidhuber (2022), \u00a77. \n\n^ Schmidhuber (2022), \u00a78. \n\n^ Schmidhuber (2022), \u00a72. \n\n^ Schmidhuber (2022), \u00a73. \n\n^ Quoted in Christian (2020, p.&#160;22) \n\n^ Smith (2023). \n\n^ \"Explained: Generative AI\". 9 November 2023. \n\n^ \"AI Writing and Content Creation Tools\". MIT Sloan Teaching &amp; Learning Technologies. Retrieved 25 December 2023 . \n\n^ Marmouyet (2023). \n\n^ Kobielus (2019). \n\n^ Davenport, T; Kalakota, R (June 2019). \"The potential for artificial intelligence in healthcare\". Future Healthc J. 6 (2): 94\u201398. doi:10.7861\/futurehosp.6-2-94. PMC&#160;6616181 . PMID&#160;31363513. \n\n^ a b Bax, Monique; Thorpe, Jordan; Romanov, Valentin (December 2023). \"The future of personalized cardiovascular medicine demands 3D and 4D printing, stem cells, and artificial intelligence\". Frontiers in Sensors. 4. doi:10.3389\/fsens.2023.1294721 . ISSN&#160;2673-5067. \n\n^ Jumper, J; Evans, R; Pritzel, A (2021). \"Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold\". Nature. 596 (7873): 583\u2013589. Bibcode:2021Natur.596..583J. doi:10.1038\/s41586-021-03819-2. PMC&#160;8371605 . PMID&#160;34265844. \n\n^ Wurman, P.R.; Barrett, S.; Kawamoto, K. (2022). \"Outracing champion Gran Turismo drivers with deep reinforcement learning\". Nature 602. 602: 223\u2013228. doi:10.1038\/s41586-021-04357-7. \n\n^ Simonite (2016). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;987. \n\n^ Laskowski (2023). \n\n^ GAO (2022). \n\n^ Valinsky (2019). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;991. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;991\u2013992. \n\n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;63. \n\n^ Vincent (2022). \n\n^ Reisner (2023). \n\n^ Alter &amp; Harris (2023). \n\n^ Nicas (2018). \n\n^ \"Trust and Distrust in America\". 22 July 2019. \n\n^ Williams (2023). \n\n^ Taylor &amp; Hern (2023). \n\n^ a b Rose (2023). \n\n^ CNA (2019). \n\n^ Goffrey (2008), p.&#160;17. \n\n^ Berdahl et al. (2023); Goffrey (2008, p.&#160;17); Rose (2023); Russell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;995) \n\n^ \nAlgorithmic bias and Fairness (machine learning):\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, section 27.3.3)\nChristian (2020, Fairness)\n \n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;25. \n\n^ a b Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;995. \n\n^ Grant &amp; Hill (2023). \n\n^ Larson &amp; Angwin (2016). \n\n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;67\u201370. \n\n^ Christian (2020, pp.&#160;67\u201370); Russell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;993\u2013994) \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;995); Lipartito (2011, p.&#160;36); Goodman &amp; Flaxman (2017, p.&#160;6); Christian (2020, pp.&#160;39\u201340, 65) \n\n^ Quoted in Christian (2020, p.&#160;65). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;994); Christian (2020, pp.&#160;40, 80\u201381) \n\n^ Quoted in Christian (2020, p.&#160;80) \n\n^ Dockrill (2022). \n\n^ Sample (2017). \n\n^ \"Black Box AI\". 16 June 2023. \n\n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;110. \n\n^ Christian (2020), pp.&#160;88\u201391. \n\n^ Christian (2020, p.&#160;83); Russell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;997) \n\n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;91. \n\n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;83. \n\n^ Verma (2021). \n\n^ Rothman (2020). \n\n^ Christian (2020), p.&#160;105-108. \n\n^ Christian (2020), pp.&#160;108\u2013112. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;989. \n\n^ Robitzski (2018); Sainato (2015) \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;987-990. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;988. \n\n^ Harari (2018). \n\n^ Buckley, Chris; Mozur, Paul (22 May 2019). \"How China Uses High-Tech Surveillance to Subdue Minorities\". The New York Times. \n\n^ \"Security lapse exposed a Chinese smart city surveillance system\". 3 May 2019. Archived from the original on 7 March 2021. Retrieved 14 September 2020 . \n\n^ \"AI traffic signals to be installed in Bengaluru soon\". NextBigWhat. 24 September 2019. Retrieved 1 October 2019 . \n\n^ Urbina et al. (2022). \n\n^ Tarnoff, Ben (4 August 2023). \"Lessons from Eliza\". The Guardian Weekly. pp.&#160;34\u20139. \n\n^ a b E McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2022) 51(3) Industrial Law Journal 511\u2013559 Archived 27 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Ford &amp; Colvin (2015);McGaughey (2022) \n\n^ IGM Chicago (2017). \n\n^ Arntz, Gregory &amp; Zierahn (2016), p.&#160;33. \n\n^ Lohr (2017); Frey &amp; Osborne (2017); Arntz, Gregory &amp; Zierahn (2016, p.&#160;33) \n\n^ Morgenstern (2015). \n\n^ Mahdawi (2017); Thompson (2014) \n\n^ Zhou, Viola (11 April 2023). \"AI is already taking video game illustrators' jobs in China\". Rest of World. Retrieved 17 August 2023 . \n\n^ Carter, Justin (11 April 2023). \"China's game art industry reportedly decimated by growing AI use\". Game Developer. Retrieved 17 August 2023 . \n\n^ Cellan-Jones (2014). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig 2021, p.&#160;1001. \n\n^ Bostrom (2014). \n\n^ Russell (2019). \n\n^ Bostrom (2014); M\u00fcller &amp; Bostrom (2014); Bostrom (2015). \n\n^ Harari (2023). \n\n^ M\u00fcller &amp; Bostrom (2014). \n\n^ \nLeaders' concerns about the existential risks of AI around 2015:\nRawlinson (2015)\nHolley (2015)\nGibbs (2014)\nSainato (2015)\n \n^ \nArguments that AI is not an imminent risk:\nBrooks (2014)\nGeist (2015)\nMadrigal (2015)\nLee (2014)\n \n^ a b Christian (2020), pp.&#160;67, 73. \n\n^ Valance (2023). \n\n^ Taylor, Josh (7 May 2023). \"Rise of artificial intelligence is inevitable but should not be feared, 'father of AI' says\". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 May 2023 . \n\n^ Colton, Emma (7 May 2023). \" 'Father of AI' says tech fears misplaced: 'You cannot stop it' \". Fox News. Retrieved 26 May 2023 . \n\n^ Jones, Hessie (23 May 2023). \"Juergen Schmidhuber, Renowned 'Father Of Modern AI,' Says His Life's Work Won't Lead To Dystopia\". Forbes. Retrieved 26 May 2023 . \n\n^ McMorrow, Ryan (19 December 2023). \"Andrew Ng: 'Do we think the world is better off with more or less intelligence?' \". Financial Times. Retrieved 30 December 2023 . \n\n^ Levy, Steven (22 December 2023). \"How Not to Be Stupid About AI, With Yann LeCun\". Wired. Retrieved 30 December 2023 . \n\n^ Yudkowsky (2008). \n\n^ a b Anderson &amp; Anderson (2011). \n\n^ AAAI (2014). \n\n^ Wallach (2010). \n\n^ Russell (2019), p.&#160;173. \n\n^ Alan Turing Institute (2019). \"Understanding artificial intelligence ethics and safety\" (PDF) . \n\n^ Alan Turing Institute (2023). \"AI Ethics and Governance in Practice\" (PDF) . \n\n^ Floridi, Luciano; Cowls, Josh (23 June 2019). \"A Unified Framework of Five Principles for AI in Society\". Harvard Data Science Review. 1 (1). doi:10.1162\/99608f92.8cd550d1 . S2CID&#160;198775713. \n\n^ Buruk, Banu; Ekmekci, Perihan Elif; Arda, Berna (1 September 2020). \"A critical perspective on guidelines for responsible and trustworthy artificial intelligence\". Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy. 23 (3): 387\u2013399. doi:10.1007\/s11019-020-09948-1. ISSN&#160;1572-8633. PMID&#160;32236794. S2CID&#160;214766800. \n\n^ Kamila, Manoj Kumar; Jasrotia, Sahil Singh (1 January 2023). \"Ethical issues in the development of artificial intelligence: recognizing the risks\". International Journal of Ethics and Systems. ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print). doi:10.1108\/IJOES-05-2023-0107. ISSN&#160;2514-9369. S2CID&#160;259614124. \n\n^ \nRegulation of AI to mitigate risks:\nBerryhill et al. (2019)\nBarfield &amp; Pagallo (2018)\nIphofen &amp; Kritikos (2019)\nWirtz, Weyerer &amp; Geyer (2018)\nBuiten (2019)\n \n^ Law Library of Congress (U.S.). Global Legal Research Directorate (2019). \n\n^ a b Vincent (2023). \n\n^ Stanford University (2023). \n\n^ a b c d UNESCO (2021). \n\n^ Kissinger (2021). \n\n^ Altman, Brockman &amp; Sutskever (2023). \n\n^ VOA News (25 October 2023). \"UN Announces Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence\". \n\n^ Edwards (2023). \n\n^ Kasperowicz (2023). \n\n^ Fox News (2023). \n\n^ Milmo, Dan (3 November 2023). \"Hope or Horror? The great AI debate dividing its pioneers\". The Guardian Weekly. pp.&#160;10\u201312. \n\n^ \"The Bletchley Declaration by Countries Attending the AI Safety Summit, 1-2 November 2023\". GOV.UK. 1 November 2023. Archived from the original on 1 November 2023. Retrieved 2 November 2023 . \n\n^ \"Countries agree to safe and responsible development of frontier AI in landmark Bletchley Declaration\". GOV.UK (Press release). Archived from the original on 1 November 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2023 . \n\n^ Berlinski (2000). \n\n^ \"Google books ngram\". \n\n^ \nAI's immediate precursors:\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;51\u2013107)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;27\u201332)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;8\u201317)\nMoravec (1988, p.&#160;3)\n \n^ a b Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;17. \n\n^ See \"A Brief History of Computing\" at AlanTuring.net. \n\n^ Crevier (1993), pp.&#160;47\u201349. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2003), p.&#160;17. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2003), p.&#160;18. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;21. \n\n^ Lighthill (1973). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;22. \n\n^ \nExpert systems:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;23, 292)\nLuger &amp; Stubblefield (2004, pp.&#160;227\u2013331)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 17.4)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;327\u2013335, 434\u2013435)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;145\u201362, 197\u2013203)\nNewquist (1994, pp.&#160;155\u2013183)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;24. \n\n^ Nilsson (1998), p.&#160;7. \n\n^ McCorduck (2004), pp.&#160;454\u2013462. \n\n^ Moravec (1988). \n\n^ a b Brooks (1990). \n\n^ \nDevelopmental robotics:\nWeng et al. (2001)\nLungarella et al. (2003)\nAsada et al. (2009)\nOudeyer (2010)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;25. \n\n^ \nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;214\u2013215)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;24, 26)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;26. \n\n^ \nFormal and narrow methods adopted in the 1990s:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;24\u201326)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;486\u2013487)\n \n^ \nAI widely used in the late 1990s:\nKurzweil (2005, p.&#160;265)\nNRC (1999, pp.&#160;216\u2013222)\nNewquist (1994, pp.&#160;189\u2013201)\n \n^ Wong (2023). \n\n^ \nMoore's Law and AI:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;14, 27)\n \n^ a b c Clark (2015b). \n\n^ \nBig data:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;26)\n \n^ \"Intellectual Property and Frontier Technologies\". WIPO. Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2022 . \n\n^ DiFeliciantonio (2023). \n\n^ Goswami (2023). \n\n^ a b Turing (1950), p.&#160;1. \n\n^ \nTuring's original publication of the Turing test in \"Computing machinery and intelligence\":\nTuring (1950)\nHistorical influence and philosophical implications:\n\nHaugeland (1985, pp.&#160;6\u20139)\nCrevier (1993, p.&#160;24)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;70\u201371)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;2 and 984)\n \n^ Turing (1950), Under \"The Argument from Consciousness\". \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), chpt. 2. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;3. \n\n^ Maker (2006). \n\n^ McCarthy (1999). \n\n^ Minsky (1986). \n\n^ \"What Is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?\". Google Cloud Platform. Archived from the original on 31 July 2023. Retrieved 16 October 2023 . \n\n^ Nilsson (1983), p.&#160;10. \n\n^ Haugeland (1985), pp.&#160;112\u2013117. \n\n^ \nPhysical symbol system hypothesis:\nNewell &amp; Simon (1976, p.&#160;116)\nHistorical significance:\n\nMcCorduck (2004, p.&#160;153)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;19)\n \n^ \nMoravec's paradox:\nMoravec (1988, pp.&#160;15\u201316)\nMinsky (1986, p.&#160;29)\nPinker (2007, pp.&#160;190\u201391)\n \n^ \nDreyfus' critique of AI:\nDreyfus (1972)\nDreyfus &amp; Dreyfus (1986)\nHistorical significance and philosophical implications:\n\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;120\u2013132)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;211\u2013239)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;981\u2013982)\nFearn (2007, Chpt. 3)\n \n^ Crevier (1993), p.&#160;125. \n\n^ Langley (2011). \n\n^ Katz (2012). \n\n^ \nNeats vs. scruffies, the historic debate:\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;421\u2013424, 486\u2013489)\nCrevier (1993, p.&#160;168)\nNilsson (1983, pp.&#160;10\u201311)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;24)\nA classic example of the \"scruffy\" approach to intelligence:\n\nMinsky (1986)\nA modern example of neat AI and its aspirations in the 21st century:\n\nDomingos (2015)\n \n^ Pennachin &amp; Goertzel (2007). \n\n^ a b Roberts (2016). \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;986. \n\n^ Chalmers (1995). \n\n^ Dennett (1991). \n\n^ Horst (2005). \n\n^ Searle (1999). \n\n^ Searle (1980), p.&#160;1. \n\n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;9817. \n\n^ \nSearle's Chinese room argument:\nSearle (1980). Searle's original presentation of the thought experiment.\nSearle (1999).\nDiscussion:\n\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;985)\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;443\u2013445)\nCrevier (1993, pp.&#160;269\u2013271)\n \n^ \nRobot rights:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;1000\u20131001)\nBBC (2006)\nMaschafilm (2010) (the film Plug &amp; Pray)\n \n^ Evans (2015). \n\n^ McCorduck (2004), pp.&#160;19\u201325. \n\n^ Henderson (2007). \n\n^ \nThe Intelligence explosion and technological singularity:\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, pp.&#160;1004\u20131005)\nOmohundro (2008)\nKurzweil (2005)\nI. J. Good's \"intelligence explosion\"\n\nGood (1965)\nVernor Vinge's \"singularity\"\n\nVinge (1993)\n \n^ Russell &amp; Norvig (2021), p.&#160;1005. \n\n^ \nTranshumanism:\nMoravec (1988)\nKurzweil (2005)\nRussell &amp; Norvig (2021, p.&#160;1005)\n \n^ \nAI as evolution:\nEdward Fredkin is quoted in McCorduck (2004, p.&#160;401)\nButler (1863)\nDyson (1998)\n \n^ \nAI in myth:\nMcCorduck (2004, pp.&#160;4\u20135)\n \n^ McCorduck (2004), pp.&#160;340\u2013400. \n\n^ Buttazzo (2001). \n\n^ Anderson (2008). \n\n^ McCauley (2007). \n\n^ Galvan (1997). \n\n\nAI textbooks \nThe two most widely used textbooks in 2023. (See the Open Syllabus).\n\nRussell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter. (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th&#160;ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN&#160;978-0134610993. LCCN&#160;20190474. \nRich, Elaine; Knight, Kevin; Nair, Shivashankar B (2010). Artificial Intelligence (3rd&#160;ed.). New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill India. ISBN&#160;978-0070087705. \nThese were the four of the most widely used AI textbooks in 2008:\n\n\nLuger, George; Stubblefield, William (2004). Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving (5th&#160;ed.). Benjamin\/Cummings. ISBN&#160;978-0-8053-4780-7. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2019 . \nNilsson, Nils (1998). Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis . Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN&#160;978-1-55860-467-4. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019 . \nRussell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd&#160;ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN&#160;0-13-790395-2 .\nPoole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998). Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN&#160;978-0-19-510270-3. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020 . \nLater editions.\n\nPoole, David; Mackworth, Alan (2017). Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents (2nd&#160;ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN&#160;978-1-107-19539-4. Archived from the original on 7 December 2017. Retrieved 6 December 2017 . \n\nHistory of AI \n\nCrevier, Daniel (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY: BasicBooks. ISBN&#160;0-465-02997-3. .\nMcCorduck, Pamela (2004), Machines Who Think (2nd&#160;ed.), Natick, MA: A. K. Peters, Ltd., ISBN&#160;1-56881-205-1 .\nNewquist, H. P. (1994). The Brain Makers: Genius, Ego, And Greed In The Quest For Machines That Think. New York: Macmillan\/SAMS. ISBN&#160;978-0-672-30412-5. \n\nOther sources \n\nAI &amp; ML in Fusion\nAI &amp; ML in Fusion, video lecture Archived 2 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine\n\"AlphaGo \u2013 Google DeepMind\". Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. \nAlter, Alexandra; Harris, Elizabeth A. (20 September 2023), \"Franzen, Grisham and Other Prominent Authors Sue OpenAI\", The New York Times \nAltman, Sam; Brockman, Greg; Sutskever, Ilya (22 May 2023). \"Governance of Superintelligence\". openai.com. Archived from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved 27 May 2023 . \nAnderson, Susan Leigh (2008). \"Asimov's \"three laws of robotics\" and machine metaethics\". AI &amp; Society. 22 (4): 477\u2013493. doi:10.1007\/s00146-007-0094-5. S2CID&#160;1809459. \nAnderson, Michael; Anderson, Susan Leigh (2011). Machine Ethics. Cambridge University Press. \nArntz, Melanie; Gregory, Terry; Zierahn, Ulrich (2016), \"The risk of automation for jobs in OECD countries: A comparative analysis\", OECD Social, Employment, and Migration Working Papers 189 \nAsada, M.; Hosoda, K.; Kuniyoshi, Y.; Ishiguro, H.; Inui, T.; Yoshikawa, Y.; Ogino, M.; Yoshida, C. (2009). \"Cognitive developmental robotics: a survey\". IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development. 1 (1): 12\u201334. doi:10.1109\/tamd.2009.2021702. S2CID&#160;10168773. \n\"Ask the AI experts: What's driving today's progress in AI?\". McKinsey &amp; Company. Archived from the original on 13 April 2018. Retrieved 13 April 2018 . \nBarfield, Woodrow; Pagallo, Ugo (2018). Research handbook on the law of artificial intelligence. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN&#160;978-1-78643-904-8. OCLC&#160;1039480085. \nBeal, J.; Winston, Patrick (2009), \"The New Frontier of Human-Level Artificial Intelligence\", IEEE Intelligent Systems, 24: 21\u201324, doi:10.1109\/MIS.2009.75, hdl:1721.1\/52357 , S2CID&#160;32437713 \nBerdahl, Carl Thomas; Baker, Lawrence; Mann, Sean; Osoba, Osonde; Girosi, Federico (7 February 2023). \"Strategies to Improve the Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Health Equity: Scoping Review\". JMIR AI. 2: e42936. doi:10.2196\/42936 . ISSN&#160;2817-1705. S2CID&#160;256681439. 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George Dyson, historian of computing, writes (in what might be called \"Dyson's Law\") that \"Any system simple enough to be understandable will not be complicated enough to behave intelligently, while any system complicated enough to behave intelligently will be too complicated to understand.\" (p.&#160;197.) Computer scientist Alex Pentland writes: \"Current AI machine-learning algorithms are, at their core, dead simple stupid. They work, but they work by brute force.\" (p.&#160;198.)\nDomingos, Pedro, \"Our Digital Doubles: AI will serve our species, not control it\", Scientific American, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp.&#160;88\u201393. \"AIs are like autistic savants and will remain so for the foreseeable future.... AIs lack common sense and can easily make errors that a human never would... They are also liable to take our instructions too literally, giving us precisely what we asked for instead of what we actually wanted.\" (p.&#160;93.)\nGertner, Jon. 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Artificial intelligences \u2013 disembodied, strangers to blood, sweat, and tears \u2013 have no occasion for that.\" (p. 30.)\nHughes-Castleberry, Kenna, \"A Murder Mystery Puzzle: The literary puzzle Cain's Jawbone, which has stumped humans for decades, reveals the limitations of natural-language-processing algorithms\", Scientific American, vol. 329, no. 4 (November 2023), pp.&#160;81\u201382. \"This murder mystery competition has revealed that although NLP (natural-language processing) models are capable of incredible feats, their abilities are very much limited by the amount of context they receive. This [...] could cause [difficulties] for researchers who hope to use them to do things such as analyze ancient languages. In some cases, there are few historical records on long-gone civilizations to serve as training data for such a purpose.\" (p.&#160;82.)\nImmerwahr, Daniel, \"Your Lying Eyes: People now use A.I. to generate fake videos indistinguishable from real ones. 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Our brain is so good at comprehending language that we do not usually notice.\" A prominent example is the \"pronoun disambiguation problem\" (\"PDP\"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence\u2014such as \"he\", \"she\" or \"it\"\u2014refers.\nMarcus, Gary, \"Artificial Confidence: Even the newest, buzziest systems of artificial general intelligence are stymmied by the same old problems\", Scientific American, vol. 327, no. 4 (October 2022), pp.&#160;42\u201345.\nMitchell, Melanie (2019). Artificial intelligence: a guide for thinking humans. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN&#160;9780374257835. \nMnih, Volodymyr; Kavukcuoglu, Koray; Silver, David; et&#160;al. (26 February 2015). \"Human-level control through deep reinforcement learning\". Nature. 518 (7540): 529\u2013533. Bibcode:2015Natur.518..529M. doi:10.1038\/nature14236. PMID&#160;25719670. S2CID&#160;205242740. Archived from the original on 19 June 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023 . Introduced DQN, which produced human-level performance on some Atari games.\nPress, Eyal, \"In Front of Their Faces: Does facial-recognition technology lead police to ignore contradictory evidence?\", The New Yorker, 20 November 2023, pp.&#160;20\u201326.\nRoivainen, Eka, \"AI's IQ: ChatGPT aced a [standard intelligence] test but showed that intelligence cannot be measured by IQ alone\", Scientific American, vol. 329, no. 1 (July\/August 2023), p.&#160;7. \"Despite its high IQ, ChatGPT fails at tasks that require real humanlike reasoning or an understanding of the physical and social world.... ChatGPT seemed unable to reason logically and tried to rely on its vast database of... facts derived from online texts.\"\nSerenko, Alexander; Michael Dohan (2011). \"Comparing the expert survey and citation impact journal ranking methods: Example from the field of Artificial Intelligence\" (PDF) . Journal of Informetrics. 5 (4): 629\u201349. doi:10.1016\/j.joi.2011.06.002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2013 . \nSilver, David; Huang, Aja; Maddison, Chris J.; et&#160;al. (28 January 2016). \"Mastering the game of Go with deep neural networks and tree search\". Nature. 529 (7587): 484\u2013489. Bibcode:2016Natur.529..484S. doi:10.1038\/nature16961. PMID&#160;26819042. S2CID&#160;515925. Archived from the original on 18 June 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023 . \nWhite Paper: On Artificial Intelligence \u2013 A European approach to excellence and trust (PDF) . Brussels: European Commission. 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2020 . \n\nExternal links \n\n\nArtificial intelligence at Wikipedia's sister projects \n\n Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata \n\n\"Artificial Intelligence\". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. \nThomason, Richmond. \"Logic and Artificial Intelligence\". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. \nArtificial Intelligence. BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Agar, Alison Adam &amp; Igor Aleksander (In Our Time, 8 December 2005).\nTheranostics and AI\u2014The Next Advance in Cancer Precision Medicine.\nArticles related to Artificial intelligence\nvteJohn McCarthy\nArtificial intelligence\nCircumscription\nDartmouth workshop\nFrame problem\nGarbage collection\nLisp\nALGOL 60\nMcCarthy Formalism\nMcCarthy 91 function\nSituation calculus\nSpace fountain\n\nvtePhilosophy of mindPhilosophers\nAnscombe\nAustin\nAquinas\nBain\nBergson\nBlock\nBrentano\nBroad\nBurge\nChalmers\nChurchland\nDennett\nDharmakirti\nDavidson\nDescartes\nGoldman\nHeidegger\nHusserl\nFeyerabend\nFodor\nJames\nKierkegaard\nLeibniz\nLewis\nMcDowell\nMerleau-Ponty\nMinsky\nMoore\nNagel\nParfit\nPutnam\nPopper\nRorty\nRyle\nSearle\nSpinoza\nTuring\nVasubandhu\nWittgenstein\nZhuangzi\nmore...\nTheories\nBehaviorism\nBiological naturalism\nDualism\nEliminative materialism\nEmergent materialism\nEpiphenomenalism\nFunctionalism\nIdealism\nInteractionism\nMaterialism\nMonism\nNa\u00efve realism\nNeurophenomenology\nNeutral monism\nNew mysterianism\nNondualism\nOccasionalism\nParallelism\nPhenomenalism\nPhenomenology\nPhysicalism\nType physicalism\nProperty dualism\nRepresentational\nSolipsism\nSubstance dualism\nConcepts\nAbstract object\nArtificial intelligence\nChinese room\nCreativity\nCognition\nCognitive closure\nConcept\nConsciousness\nHard problem of consciousness\nHypostatic abstraction\nIdea\nIdentity\nIntelligence\nIntentionality\nIntrospection\nIntuition\nLanguage of thought\nMental event\nMental image\nMental process\nMental property\nMental representation\nMind\nMind\u2013body problem\nPain\nProblem of other minds\nPropositional attitude\nQualia\nTabula rasa\nUnderstanding\nZombie\nRelated\nMetaphysics\nPhilosophy of artificial intelligence&#160;\/ information&#160;\/ perception&#160;\/ self\n\nCategory\nPhilosophers category\nProject\nTask Force\n\nvtePhilosophy of scienceConcepts\nAnalysis\nAnalytic\u2013synthetic distinction\nA priori and a posteriori\nCausality\nCommensurability\nConsilience\nConstruct\nCreative synthesis\nDemarcation problem\nEmpirical evidence\nExplanatory power\nFact\nFalsifiability\nFeminist method\nFunctional contextualism\nIgnoramus et ignorabimus\nInductive reasoning\nIntertheoretic reduction\nInquiry\nNature\nObjectivity\nObservation\nParadigm\nProblem of induction\nScientific evidence\nEvidence-based practice\nScientific law\nScientific method\nScientific pluralism\nScientific Revolution\nScientific theory\nTestability\nTheory choice\nTheory-ladenness\nUnderdetermination\nUnity of science\nmore...\nTheories\nCoherentism\nConfirmation holism\nConstructive empiricism\nConstructive realism\nConstructivist epistemology\nContextualism\nConventionalism\nDeductive-nomological model\nEpistemological anarchism\nEvolutionism\nFallibilism\nFoundationalism\nHypothetico-deductive model\nInductionism\nInstrumentalism\nModel-dependent realism\nNaturalism\nPhysicalism\nPositivism&#160;\/ Reductionism&#160;\/ Determinism\nPragmatism\nRationalism&#160;\/ Empiricism\nReceived view&#160;\/ Semantic view of theories\nScientific essentialism\nScientific formalism\nScientific realism&#160;\/ Anti-realism\nScientific skepticism\nScientism\nStructuralism\nUniformitarianism\nVitalism\nPhilosophy of...\nBiology\nChemistry\nPhysics\nSpace and time\nSocial science\nArchaeology\nEconomics\u200e\nGeography\nHistory\nLinguistics\nPsychology\nRelated topics\nCriticism of science\nDescriptive science\nEpistemology\nFaith and rationality\nHard and soft science\nHistory and philosophy of science\nNormative science\nPseudoscience\nRelationship between religion and science\nRhetoric of science\nScience studies\nSociology of scientific ignorance\nSociology of scientific knowledge\nPhilosophers of sciencePrecursors\nRoger Bacon\nFrancis Bacon\nGalileo Galilei\nIsaac Newton\n\nAuguste Comte\nHenri Poincar\u00e9\nPierre Duhem\nRudolf Steiner\nKarl Pearson\nCharles Sanders Peirce\nWilhelm Windelband\nAlfred North Whitehead\nBertrand Russell\nOtto Neurath\nC. 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representation and reasoning\nComputer vision\nAutomated planning and scheduling\nSearch methodology\nControl method\nPhilosophy of artificial intelligence\nDistributed artificial intelligence\nMachine learning\nSupervised learning\nUnsupervised learning\nReinforcement learning\nMulti-task learning\nCross-validation\nGraphics\nAnimation\nRendering\nPhotograph manipulation\nGraphics processing unit\nMixed reality\nVirtual reality\nImage compression\nSolid modeling\nApplied computing\nQuantum Computing\nE-commerce\nEnterprise software\nComputational mathematics\nComputational physics\nComputational chemistry\nComputational biology\nComputational social science\nComputational engineering\nComputational healthcare\nDigital art\nElectronic publishing\nCyberwarfare\nElectronic voting\nVideo games\nWord processing\nOperations research\nEducational technology\nDocument management\n\n Category\n Outline\n WikiProject\n Commons\n\nvteEmerging technologiesFieldsInformation 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For other uses, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-redirect mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"AI (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"ee240fd3345b120f2ceeb4bef73e437e\">AI (disambiguation)<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial intelligence (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"6a79ecad026b8e92c791b4d5c25df30c\">Artificial intelligence (disambiguation)<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_agent\" title=\"Intelligent agent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2ded3658bd39dc370a7970df42c985e\">Intelligent agent<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n \n<\/p>\n<table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a series on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Outline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c37a26aa0fabe57fce6dc9d3efc57f0\">Artificial intelligence<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><figure class=\"mw-halign-center\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3af2ed3786d80b830eea607a8344e75\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7a\/Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\/100px-Anatomy-1751201_1280.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"100\" height=\"85\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a class=\"mw-selflink-fragment\" href=\"#Goals\">Major goals<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">Artificial general intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">Planning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_game_playing\" title=\"General game playing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b659f2ed91c7a28bca494393765fd1\">General game playing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning\" title=\"Knowledge representation and reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f39a572a7265863b802980dc3015f78\">Knowledge reasoning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">Machine learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">Robotics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_safety\" title=\"AI safety\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb7e6c3b6e6290bdd2aab3d5c2210b1c\">AI safety<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Approaches<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolic_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Symbolic artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90f04195cac03010b9702e7b8db7ad93\">Symbolic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian networks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_algorithm\" title=\"Evolutionary algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2be5565f46780928629b4705cf141f08\">Evolutionary algorithms<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Situated_approach_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Situated approach (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d371530e69c0c92a2f6c8ddfec6102dc\">Situated approach<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hybrid_intelligent_system\" title=\"Hybrid intelligent system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"134de857fb48c47e99864f5b0a8a0887\">Hybrid intelligent systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_systems_integration\" title=\"Artificial intelligence systems integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03e8fe4cbdde2b0dfe6d6cf013a21d2c\">Systems integration<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applications_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Applications of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d70560409a044fef08a6f24b39d11d72\">Applications<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_artificial_intelligence_projects\" title=\"List of artificial intelligence projects\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b22c368db35a66355e3bbe9abefb0276\">Projects<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deepfake\" title=\"Deepfake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7165f1f34948befd7dc51d4f1941b98f\">Deepfake<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">Machine translation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_art\" title=\"Artificial intelligence art\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7a322db732edd374428a32ee9b588e4\">Art<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in healthcare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a83c45f6d758fe57b1fe4cb086a660dd\">Healthcare<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_mental_health\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in mental health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de7daf7fdd8ae3f7b3c22b6c78b505aa\">Mental health<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_government\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in government\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9448e3d83145520174134747105bd90e\">Government<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Music_and_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Music and artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"716b81931e24b5bb1fe02b1e4e6942ea\">Music<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_industry\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in industry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36d21770ca3861059b0f98b63319134e\">Industry<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_earth_sciences\" title=\"Machine learning in earth sciences\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c36894eb9ff1755893995191a5ab3b70\">Earth sciences<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_bioinformatics\" title=\"Machine learning in bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5ec4af63e9b8dc58cfeea658e348087\">Bioinformatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning_in_physics\" title=\"Machine learning in physics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb87665b89561b156f33e004c9e9e3e4\">Physics<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Philosophy of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72fe09222fe7606d43e990764f3076b4\">Philosophy<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_room\" title=\"Chinese room\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40e4f68def9042fbadc20dbe8654fdca\">Chinese room<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Friendly_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Friendly artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d558aa453b40936ba47deaaf4ac9a5b\">Friendly AI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_control_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI control problem\" data-key=\"3a4b505ea3c272cedd95e33aec03d295\">Control problem<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_takeover\" title=\"AI takeover\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd96aa0bbc21e9e558b5130997c9dd87\">Takeover<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Ethics of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"608ca5c55237a263936a26d2500d09a6\">Ethics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Existential risk from artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2417fff2c86867851343cad51bd9bfb9\">Existential risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_test\" title=\"Turing test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f309ecb31df135db989e843377fb9d\">Turing test<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulation_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Regulation of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bbabae0e8e2c822aa2ced8fec6ac219\">Regulation<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"History of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb00251245fc858edc9c12e32694439\">History<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Timeline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e9d017e0ebfd460857b2be655c57964\">Timeline<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Progress_in_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Progress in artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d8510838c2ea7a333c8e1efa7a70fea\">Progress<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_winter\" title=\"AI winter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0128870650338adbb7c06bbe1dadc305\">AI winter<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_boom\" title=\"AI boom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb752fa087789f1afcf9c7b8c3e70e85\">AI boom<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Technology<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_programming_languages_for_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"List of programming languages for artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3911d7eb588c4af3da6d6e2d106be4b\">Programming languages<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"text-align:center\">Glossary<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Glossary of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"441c02aab14ebdf235a3e39d66538693\">Glossary<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><b>Artificial intelligence<\/b> (<b>AI<\/b>) is the intelligence of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine\" title=\"Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"82c1c83750cde10b09ea0b2a4c17a134\">machines<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a>, as opposed to the intelligence of humans or animals. It is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Field_of_study\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Field of study\" data-key=\"fd2881a45ec3a3bba2c8ca2cd6206810\">field of study<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a> that develops and studies intelligent machines. Such machines may be called AIs.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applications_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Applications of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d70560409a044fef08a6f24b39d11d72\">AI technology<\/a> is widely used throughout industry, government, and science. Some high-profile applications are: advanced <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_search_engine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web search engine\" data-key=\"dba49baed4bcefee8f46c77c8ad4f862\">web search engines<\/a> (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Search\" title=\"Google Search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb1a9fb8c521a933a4b422333cf19a4f\">Google Search<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recommender_system\" title=\"Recommender system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd8c39f11ec163e4c363222f532670c0\">recommendation systems<\/a> (used by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/YouTube\" title=\"YouTube\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab357cb21b6055014a8cc10ab0698ffd\">YouTube<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_(company)\" title=\"Amazon (company)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e455f7175d97dce9e9eaba70599f449e\">Amazon<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Netflix\" title=\"Netflix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"159d2de18846270b7627fe92c6a3a64f\">Netflix<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural-language_understanding\" title=\"Natural-language understanding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc275c68d99ba7b2527d92dccdd80b8a\">understanding human speech<\/a> (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Assistant\" title=\"Google Assistant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e255e0ea7f2fe6eb031cc6c446e1044a\">Google Assistant<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siri\" title=\"Siri\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4992c7151554c6a2f8f7236549c6f6e\">Siri<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_Alexa\" title=\"Amazon Alexa\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43c866ea723bf82b3eec25a4ce0062ce\">Alexa<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-driving_car\" title=\"Self-driving car\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e20b1b76d62a424b64286c7648a2b960\">self-driving cars<\/a> (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waymo\" title=\"Waymo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4af69ed1b043a3023638327de1f0c08c\">Waymo<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Generative artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"651fc063313a0289e8537109ec96d2fc\">generative<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_creativity\" title=\"Computational creativity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe898d050ba0ee71f0ff55201e618591\">creative<\/a> tools (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ChatGPT\" title=\"ChatGPT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"205da2acb6bbb6260cafb3040cba93fe\">ChatGPT<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_art\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI art\" data-key=\"08d2756e2d6963f02f2aa660cfa3fdef\">AI art<\/a>), and superhuman play and analysis in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strategy_game\" title=\"Strategy game\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4a5c15abd39e47d75e11a8987191359\">strategy games<\/a> (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chess\" title=\"Chess\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1cdd58472d9417fa0229c7cf45b7a20\">chess<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Go_(game)\" title=\"Go (game)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b8c8e702d802b3b6f071b42e8741c6e\">Go<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoogle2016_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoogle2016-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Alan Turing was the first person to conduct substantial research in the field that he called Machine Intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-turing_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-turing-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dartmouth_workshop_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dartmouth_workshop-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The field went through multiple cycles of optimism<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_the_60s_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_the_60s-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_the_80s_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_the_80s-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> followed by disappointment and loss of funding.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-First_AI_winter_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-First_AI_winter-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Second_AI_winter_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Second_AI_winter-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Funding and interest vastly increased after 2012 when <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">deep learning<\/a> surpassed all previous AI techniques,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Deep_learning_revolution_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Deep_learning_revolution-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> and after 2017 with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transformer_(machine_learning_model)\" title=\"Transformer (machine learning model)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b03043859b7f60436170330be1fdecf1\">transformer<\/a> architecture.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToews2023_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToews2023-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> This led to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_spring\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI spring\" data-key=\"ce1f82cf97da2a6695ab3e275cfbb842\">AI spring<\/a> of the 2020s, with companies, universities, and laboratories overwhelmingly based in the United States pioneering significant advances in artificial intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrank2023_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank2023-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The various sub-fields of AI research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular tools. The traditional goals of AI research include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_reasoning\" title=\"Automated reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de14c9c0d69a0cb33e3fcbd45499d1f\">reasoning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">knowledge representation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">planning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">learning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">natural language processing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">perception<\/a>, and support for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">robotics<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Problems_of_AI_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Problems_of_AI-11\">[a]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">General intelligence<\/a> (the ability to complete any task performable by a human) is among the field's long-term goals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AGI_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AGI-12\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>To solve these problems, AI researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of problem-solving techniques, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/State_space_search\" title=\"State space search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"416f44b7d5908ce41a1f0e6367790d1a\">search<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">mathematical optimization<\/a>, formal logic, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural networks<\/a>, and methods based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">operations research<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economics\" title=\"Economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6a490a031e67e7a7ea4fca8dc646e1c\">economics<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tools_of_AI_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tools_of_AI-13\">[b]<\/a><\/sup> AI also draws upon <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychology\" title=\"Psychology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a99444d2a275a5cbb5bb5400a4e9030a\">psychology<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linguistics\" title=\"Linguistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc033b9e6f4c07c7265d390670edd9f9\">linguistics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy\" title=\"Philosophy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14ccd0db1fd666754f9f2f851d3a55f7\">philosophy<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuroscience\" title=\"Neuroscience\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444cbd0b0bfec2ad88df9337f1a2a161\">neuroscience<\/a> and other fields.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_influences_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_influences-14\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Goals\">Goals<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken into sub-problems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention and cover the scope of AI research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Problems_of_AI_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Problems_of_AI-11\">[a]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Reasoning.2C_problem-solving\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reasoning,_problem-solving\">Reasoning, problem-solving<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Early researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> By the late 1980s and 1990s, methods were developed for dealing with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uncertainty\" title=\"Uncertainty\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3d5a6283c54c37cec2755ceee446628\">uncertain<\/a> or incomplete information, employing concepts from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability\" title=\"Probability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44ea3f63d04643beddabc48ace7e9515\">probability<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economics\" title=\"Economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6a490a031e67e7a7ea4fca8dc646e1c\">economics<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many of these algorithms are insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experience a \"combinatorial explosion\": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Intractability_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Intractability-17\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> Even humans rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research could model. They solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning-18\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Accurate and efficient reasoning is an unsolved problem.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Knowledge_representation\">Knowledge representation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:General_Formal_Ontology.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"603e73f3ca046d9c994afbc0c94d0a48\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e8\/General_Formal_Ontology.svg\/260px-General_Formal_Ontology.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"260\" height=\"260\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>An ontology represents knowledge as a set of concepts within a domain and the relationships between those concepts.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">Knowledge representation<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_engineering\" title=\"Knowledge engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7267aab1197163e1afb413bc0c1d979b\">knowledge engineering<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> allow AI programs to answer questions intelligently and make deductions about real-world facts. Formal knowledge representations are used in content-based indexing and retrieval,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmoliarZhang1994_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmoliarZhang1994-20\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> scene interpretation,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeumannM\u00f6ller2008_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeumannM\u00f6ller2008-21\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> clinical decision support,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKupermanReichleyBailey2006_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKupermanReichleyBailey2006-22\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> knowledge discovery (mining \"interesting\" and actionable inferences from large databases),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGarry2005_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGarry2005-23\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> and other areas.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertiniDel_BimboTorniai2006_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertiniDel_BimboTorniai2006-24\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_base\" title=\"Knowledge base\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dae3d5f45726413ec5e9e2654dec91e8\">knowledge base<\/a> is a body of knowledge represented in a form that can be used by a program. An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(information_science)\" title=\"Ontology (information science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6cd018caae9a0c95e80b08c71758343\">ontology<\/a> is the set of objects, relations, concepts, and properties used by a particular domain of knowledge.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021272_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021272-25\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> Knowledge bases need to represent things such as: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_categories_and_relations_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_categories_and_relations-26\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> situations, events, states and time;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_time_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_time-27\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> causes and effects;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_causation_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_causation-28\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_knowledge_about_knowledge_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_knowledge_about_knowledge-29\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Default_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Default reasoning\" data-key=\"9a7e44d10e86a591ef9568c20e32790d\">default reasoning<\/a> (things that humans assume are true until they are told differently and will remain true even when other facts are changing);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic-30\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> and many other aspects and domains of knowledge.\n<\/p><p>Among the most difficult problems in knowledge representation are: the breadth of commonsense knowledge (the set of atomic facts that the average person knows is enormous);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge-31\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> and the sub-symbolic form of most commonsense knowledge (much of what people know is not represented as \"facts\" or \"statements\" that they could express verbally).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning-18\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> There is also the difficulty of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_acquisition\" title=\"Knowledge acquisition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c169d495d82bb1055f0a654e4798285b\">knowledge acquisition<\/a>, the problem of obtaining knowledge for AI applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[c]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Planning_and_decision_making\">Planning and decision making<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An \"agent\" is anything that perceives and takes actions in the world. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rational_agent\" title=\"Rational agent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5d568560877e3df5aff4749b55d79b0\">rational agent<\/a> has goals or preferences and takes actions to make them happen.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[d]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021528_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021528-36\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">automated planning<\/a>, the agent has a specific goal.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated decision making\" data-key=\"479c93b186ba68209cc54b136b59728b\">automated decision making<\/a>, the agent has preferences \u2013 there are some situations it would prefer to be in, and some situations it is trying to avoid. The decision making agent assigns a number to each situation (called the \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Utility_(economics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Utility (economics)\" data-key=\"ff285b4d03c88b36dbf3b40a7508b686\">utility<\/a>\") that measures how much the agent prefers it. For each possible action, it can calculate the \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expected_utility\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expected utility\" data-key=\"0a53c9c78a6c543a903387bb09164f20\">expected utility<\/a>\": the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Utility\" title=\"Utility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"317210b0c67c2128db183f39aa610e39\">utility<\/a> of all possible outcomes of the action, weighted by the probability that the outcome will occur. It can then choose the action with the maximum expected utility.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling#classical_planning\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b9431a2d8569e4406daa97a4849014e\">classical planning<\/a>, the agent knows exactly what the effect of any action will be.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> In most real-world problems, however, the agent may not be certain about the situation they are in (it is \"unknown\" or \"unobservable\") and it may not know for certain what will happen after each possible action (it is not \"deterministic\"). It must choose an action by making a probabilistic guess and then reassess the situation to see if the action worked.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In some problems, the agent's preferences may be uncertain, especially if there are other agents or humans involved. These can be learned (e.g., with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inverse_reinforcement_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inverse reinforcement learning\" data-key=\"44882403715644d66bc206337033a943\">inverse reinforcement learning<\/a>) or the agent can seek information to improve its preferences.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_value_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information value theory\" data-key=\"cd8cd239f4545d574b1750d05f39a008\">Information value theory<\/a> can be used to weigh the value of exploratory or experimental actions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> The space of possible future actions and situations is typically <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intractable_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intractable problem\" data-key=\"e75be0352f0cf0a91c55e657c1872fbc\">intractably<\/a> large, so the agents must take actions and evaluate situations while being uncertain what the outcome will be.\n<\/p><p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markov_decision_process\" title=\"Markov decision process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a165b52a9ae8569c3987f865361587a4\">Markov decision process<\/a> has a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Finite-state_machine\" title=\"Finite-state machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40f94d27502cc7e9bbddfff6affffa67\">transition model<\/a> that describes the probability that a particular action will change the state in a particular way, and a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reward_function\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Reward function\" data-key=\"bc28aa695da6c2094cd00efd8a5741a4\">reward function<\/a> that supplies the utility of each state and the cost of each action. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning#Policy\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc1e361ed29cbd50ee06e6cdb7ec347e\">policy<\/a> associates a decision with each possible state. The policy could be calculated (e.g. by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Policy_iteration\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Policy iteration\" data-key=\"6615a996510420be8490ddac5d626f13\">iteration<\/a>), be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristic\" title=\"Heuristic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43bdbf6d64573ad3685511cbc07502fd\">heuristic<\/a>, or it can be learned.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_theory\" title=\"Game theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5498b159fb87dc60c8ad0a722348a50a\">Game theory<\/a> describes rational behavior of multiple interacting agents, and is used in AI programs that make decisions that involve other agents.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Learning\">Learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">Machine learning<\/a> is the study of programs that can improve their performance on a given task automatically.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-machine_learning_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-machine_learning-45\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> It has been a part of AI from the beginning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[e]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There are several kinds of machine learning. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">Unsupervised learning<\/a> analyzes a stream of data and finds patterns and makes predictions without any other guidance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">Supervised learning<\/a> requires a human to label the input data first, and comes in two main varieties: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">classification<\/a> (where the program must learn to predict what category the input belongs in) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">regression<\/a> (where the program must deduce a numeric function based on numeric input).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Supervised_learning_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Supervised_learning-50\">[45]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">reinforcement learning<\/a> the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. The agent learns to choose responses that are classified as \"good\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transfer_learning\" title=\"Transfer learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fcc29c127bd186329e75098901899d9\">Transfer learning<\/a> is when the knowledge gained from one problem is applied to a new problem.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a> is a type of machine learning that runs inputs through biologically inspired <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial neural networks\" data-key=\"1adb6b70723b983652f5a8281e957425\">artificial neural networks<\/a> for all of these types of learning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_learning_theory\" title=\"Computational learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cc562e86774b252f65ad147577243ae\">Computational learning theory<\/a> can assess learners by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_complexity\" title=\"Computational complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2e2b22ca011c443bf80419d65389c36\">computational complexity<\/a>, by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sample_complexity\" title=\"Sample complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e3965cb1c9e441aa428bd4a5bbad4ae\">sample complexity<\/a> (how much data is required), or by other notions of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optimization_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Optimization theory\" data-key=\"feb96367d966b48425b47d48285cd29b\">optimization<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[49]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Natural_language_processing\">Natural language processing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a> (NLP)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> allows programs to read, write and communicate in human languages such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/English_(language)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"English (language)\" data-key=\"62dc48a2568ac8c9d37a9b8f473a366b\">English<\/a>. Specific problems include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_synthesis\" title=\"Speech synthesis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1243a9c02f4577829aa1c8828755549e\">speech synthesis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">machine translation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_extraction\" title=\"Information extraction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d8bd74625d817b2052a2a36d5529463\">information extraction<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">information retrieval<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Question_answering\" title=\"Question answering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b154537fa092a2a4ab66739e9a0e1d3\">question answering<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[51]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Early work, based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Noam_Chomsky\" title=\"Noam Chomsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3203fd57f938e3ef1ef1ec821e7b67cd\">Noam Chomsky<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_grammar\" title=\"Generative grammar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55d55e27b1477f269111ee85fb939364\">generative grammar<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_network\" title=\"Semantic network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64a11922fbc4867fa40750caf3480c27\">semantic networks<\/a>, had difficulty with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Word-sense_disambiguation\" title=\"Word-sense disambiguation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81d5aa19cc0d5f6db4fd9d9887a808c1\">word-sense disambiguation<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[f]<\/a><\/sup> unless restricted to small domains called \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blocks_world\" title=\"Blocks world\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f273703cf7067792c8cd47da7a2fef3d\">micro-worlds<\/a>\" (due to the common sense knowledge problem<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge_31-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge-31\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Margaret_Masterman\" title=\"Margaret Masterman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c377c569da5f6424bd4d4ff7bcc1ad0d\">Margaret Masterman<\/a> believed that it was meaning, and not grammar that was the key to understanding languages, and that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thesauri\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Thesauri\" data-key=\"b090c7f94201c310e5afb62bd6abab4f\">thesauri<\/a> and not dictionaries should be the basis of computational language structure.\n<\/p><p>Modern <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">deep learning<\/a> techniques for NLP include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Word_embedding\" title=\"Word embedding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2af58b92b11d0550e304e03202c56dae\">word embedding<\/a> (representing words, typically as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vector_space\" title=\"Vector space\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a878f83a9babe03af3b46b6d1cb39d2\">vectors<\/a> encoding their meaning),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021856\u2013858_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021856\u2013858-58\">[52]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transformer_(machine_learning_model)\" title=\"Transformer (machine learning model)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b03043859b7f60436170330be1fdecf1\">transformers<\/a> (a deep learning architecture using an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attention_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Attention (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f75cf54ebd91127409e0f853b8ec104a\">attention<\/a> mechanism),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickson2022_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickson2022-59\">[53]<\/a><\/sup> and others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[54]<\/a><\/sup> In 2019, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_pre-trained_transformer\" title=\"Generative pre-trained transformer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21320f84003e9a22957b206278edfddd\">generative pre-trained transformer<\/a> (or \"GPT\") language models began to generate coherent text,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVincent2019_61-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVincent2019-61\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021875\u2013878_62-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021875\u2013878-62\">[56]<\/a><\/sup> and by 2023 these models were able to get human-level scores on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bar_exam\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bar exam\" data-key=\"4811b9b68dc2c6ac9a42a638341ea82a\">bar exam<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scholastic_aptitude_test\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Scholastic aptitude test\" data-key=\"f1baaf6a28adb1912ae5f8679bd56fb4\">SAT<\/a> test, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graduate_Record_Examinations\" title=\"Graduate Record Examinations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d86339bf03b1332da336c975e4f30d78\">GRE<\/a> test, and many other real-world applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBushwick2023_63-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBushwick2023-63\">[57]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Perception\">Perception<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">Machine perception<\/a> is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, wireless signals, active <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lidar\" title=\"Lidar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4844b5d4c9d113609acb81c9a6421e8c\">lidar<\/a>, sonar, radar, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tactile_sensor\" title=\"Tactile sensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a326234e1c4db0d9725579debcb206d7\">tactile sensors<\/a>) to deduce aspects of the world. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a> is the ability to analyze visual input.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The field includes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021849\u2013850_65-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021849\u2013850-65\">[59]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Image_classification\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Image classification\" data-key=\"26307c6f3b411a1d3d7c4a732aa855e9\">image classification<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021895\u2013899_66-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021895\u2013899-66\">[60]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facial_recognition_system\" title=\"Facial recognition system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a48e820a5eeac01f60fa6d31bf41aac2\">facial recognition<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object_recognition\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Object recognition\" data-key=\"e0f4220ac83074b756845927988d527f\">object recognition<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021899\u2013901_67-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021899\u2013901-67\">[61]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotic_sensing\" title=\"Robotic sensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0121b955cfc3a92c90bdb3c193c00f62\">robotic perception<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021931\u2013938_68-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021931\u2013938-68\">[62]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Social_intelligence\">Social intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Kismet-IMG_6007-gradient.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"545b6e499ef294046621165371acdc25\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/27\/Kismet-IMG_6007-gradient.jpg\/220px-Kismet-IMG_6007-gradient.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kismet_(robot)\" title=\"Kismet (robot)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d2a32f554b9b31d0efba66c5432a1a9\">Kismet<\/a>, a robot head which was made in the 1990s; a machine that can recognize and simulate emotions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMIT_AIL2014_69-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMIT_AIL2014-69\">[63]<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affective_computing\" title=\"Affective computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2d2895ad8508fe3d7e92180ab59a670\">Affective computing<\/a> is an interdisciplinary umbrella that comprises systems that recognize, interpret, process or simulate human <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affect_(psychology)\" title=\"Affect (psychology)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"842f01ba2d297d93717bbe8625ef8432\">feeling, emotion and mood<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> For example, some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_assistant\" title=\"Virtual assistant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5cc0ede2ebe08f413668ba2dcd667b17\">virtual assistants<\/a> are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction\" title=\"Human\u2013computer interaction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f223dba7ff4b64f99540c3cb7b28b58\">human\u2013computer interaction<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>However, this tends to give na\u00efve users an unrealistic conception of the intelligence of existing computer agents.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaddell2018_71-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaddell2018-71\">[65]<\/a><\/sup> Moderate successes related to affective computing include textual <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sentiment_analysis\" title=\"Sentiment analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65a8d6b4bb74d78435b7c0e113f93692\">sentiment analysis<\/a> and, more recently, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multimodal_sentiment_analysis\" title=\"Multimodal sentiment analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73eaf397c9899977f927bb020354844e\">multimodal sentiment analysis<\/a>, wherein AI classifies the affects displayed by a videotaped subject.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoriaCambriaBajpaiHussain2017_72-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoriaCambriaBajpaiHussain2017-72\">[66]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General_intelligence\">General intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A machine with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">artificial general intelligence<\/a> should be able to solve a wide variety of problems with breadth and versatility similar to human intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AGI_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AGI-12\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Techniques\">Techniques<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>AI research uses a wide variety of techniques to accomplish the goals above.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tools_of_AI_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tools_of_AI-13\">[b]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Search_and_optimization\">Search and optimization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>AI can solve many problems by intelligently searching through many possible solutions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[67]<\/a><\/sup> There are two very different kinds of search used in AI: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/State_space_search\" title=\"State space search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"416f44b7d5908ce41a1f0e6367790d1a\">state space search<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_search_(optimization)\" title=\"Local search (optimization)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cab8b40fc21fbe49622f9597f8273a7\">local search<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"State_space_search\">State space search<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/State_space_search\" title=\"State space search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"416f44b7d5908ce41a1f0e6367790d1a\">State space search<\/a> searches through a tree of possible states to try to find a goal state.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-State_space_search_74-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-State_space_search-74\">[68]<\/a><\/sup> For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">planning<\/a> algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find a path to a target goal, a process called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Means-ends_analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Means-ends analysis\" data-key=\"cc71a2723ced39f409b832baa01c3ecd\">means-ends analysis<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021\u00a711.2_75-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021\u00a711.2-75\">[69]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brute_force_search\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Brute force search\" data-key=\"50838d97b07962fd778b9b50ed275d97\">Simple exhaustive searches<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Uninformed_search_76-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Uninformed_search-76\">[70]<\/a><\/sup> are rarely sufficient for most real-world problems: the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_algorithm\" title=\"Search algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8e2192ba143c7f57418b352fefb05f1\">search space<\/a> (the number of places to search) quickly grows to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Astronomically_large\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Astronomically large\" data-key=\"5ea16871a57c704d2e88fce8df53e548\">astronomical numbers<\/a>. The result is a search that is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computation_time\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computation time\" data-key=\"9ec53af6b0415c650f4f1ba3b5039e82\">too slow<\/a> or never completes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Intractability_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Intractability-17\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Heuristics\" data-key=\"47c18358ee6012fc43393af184cc4ccc\">Heuristics<\/a>\" or \"rules of thumb\" can help to prioritize choices that are more likely to reach a goal.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Informed_search_77-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Informed_search-77\">[71]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adversarial_search\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Adversarial search\" data-key=\"ba1389c9fa8d56c9e078a47bff84c538\">Adversarial search<\/a> is used for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Game AI\" data-key=\"8973687e63103577e4d70d54ddb43aff\">game-playing<\/a> programs, such as chess or Go. It searches through a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_tree\" title=\"Game tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ac5bff22b78f0515c6474de8a3ff7f7\">tree<\/a> of possible moves and counter-moves, looking for a winning position.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[72]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Local_search\">Local search<\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gradient_descent.gif\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"f58b9b5631583ae6cd8c5e0a72c26c98\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a3\/Gradient_descent.gif\/220px-Gradient_descent.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"178\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Illustration of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gradient_descent\" title=\"Gradient descent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"854eb1e6a6185271e439c38b497c869a\">gradient descent<\/a> for 3 different starting points. Two parameters (represented by the plan coordinates) are adjusted in order to minimize the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loss_function\" title=\"Loss function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"125dea4dead6fff733011b9c4725ddfc\">loss function<\/a> (the height).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_search_(optimization)\" title=\"Local search (optimization)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cab8b40fc21fbe49622f9597f8273a7\">Local search<\/a> uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">mathematical optimization<\/a> to find a numeric solution to a problem. It begins with some form of a guess and then refines the guess incrementally until no more refinements can be made. These algorithms can be visualized as blind <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hill_climbing\" title=\"Hill climbing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10499a35ce754ab13c94d320c98f5df4\">hill climbing<\/a>: we begin the search at a random point on the landscape, and then, by jumps or steps, we keep moving our guess uphill, until we reach the top. This process is called stochastic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gradient_descent\" title=\"Gradient descent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"854eb1e6a6185271e439c38b497c869a\">gradient descent<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Local_search_79-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Local_search-79\">[73]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_computation\" title=\"Evolutionary computation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b60cad0a27f9a67815f7da22a51b185\">Evolutionary computation<\/a> uses a form of optimization search. For example, they may begin with a population of organisms (the guesses) and then allow them to mutate and recombine, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_selection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial selection\" data-key=\"a01e2cdc0618f14f4877a49e8a4c5646\">selecting<\/a> only the fittest to survive each generation (refining the guesses).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[74]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Distributed search processes can coordinate via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swarm_intelligence\" title=\"Swarm intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f37742882c10162325fa45a9fbebf82e\">swarm intelligence<\/a> algorithms. Two popular swarm algorithms used in search are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particle_swarm_optimization\" title=\"Particle swarm optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05cc276e91b836bf00bb6f20e8f451f7\">particle swarm optimization<\/a> (inspired by bird <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flocking_(behavior)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Flocking (behavior)\" data-key=\"28e0464373293052e74ba73af67e5f0b\">flocking<\/a>) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ant_colony_optimization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ant colony optimization\" data-key=\"767cabe648af62541f20aa5011f4f033\">ant colony optimization<\/a> (inspired by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ant_trail\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ant trail\" data-key=\"e9bfdd0e52c1687ecaf9a7ec670f6a83\">ant trails<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerkleMiddendorf2013_81-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerkleMiddendorf2013-81\">[75]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neural networks\" data-key=\"9020876aa19c541d6113c18b09f7a5bb\">Neural networks<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">statistical classifiers<\/a> (discussed below), also use a form of local search, where the \"landscape\" to be searched is formed by learning.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Logic\">Logic<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Formal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic\" title=\"Logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1765a5c4c6dcb7becba1cf644fe3897\">Logic<\/a> is used for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automatic reasoning\" data-key=\"87cfabd7428ff2095a8695dd59860b98\">reasoning<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">knowledge representation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Logic_82-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Logic-82\">[76]<\/a><\/sup>\nFormal logic comes in two main forms: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Propositional_logic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Propositional logic\" data-key=\"c9369aad6f2772123d846a70baa93ee5\">propositional logic<\/a> (which operates on statements that are true or false and uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_connective\" title=\"Logical connective\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e271610900bf00083b69fb0ba2f6357d\">logical connectives<\/a> such as \"and\", \"or\", \"not\" and \"implies\")<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Propositional_logic_83-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Propositional_logic-83\">[77]<\/a><\/sup>\nand <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predicate_logic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Predicate logic\" data-key=\"cbb3800aa12f254ace7b177087c244fe\">predicate logic<\/a> (which also operates on objects, predicates and relations and uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantifier_(logic)\" title=\"Quantifier (logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6d9de6880ad9f42fafa5e7566e9bec8\">quantifiers<\/a> such as \"<i>Every<\/i> <i>X<\/i> is a <i>Y<\/i>\" and \"There are <i>some<\/i> <i>X<\/i>s that are <i>Y<\/i>s\").<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Predicate_logic_84-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Predicate_logic-84\">[78]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Logical <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inference\" title=\"Inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a83751a82d1ce852f34d85b5ebb0eba\">inference<\/a> (or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deductive_reasoning\" title=\"Deductive reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2d658529d6b83bb9287b21b3d54d0f2\">deduction<\/a>) is the process of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_proof\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Logical proof\" data-key=\"1c3438348a07cc4bac433bea39b06414\">proving<\/a> a new statement (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_consequence\" title=\"Logical consequence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eee8632d58670cb1e707d1ede1db7e73\">conclusion<\/a>) from other statements that are already known to be true (the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Premise\" title=\"Premise\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97e7e0b8fa720a9888afc31e8fde1b14\">premises<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Inference_85-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Inference-85\">[79]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A logical <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_base\" title=\"Knowledge base\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dae3d5f45726413ec5e9e2654dec91e8\">knowledge base<\/a> also handles queries and assertions as a special case of inference.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021\u00a78.3.1_86-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021\u00a78.3.1-86\">[80]<\/a><\/sup>\nAn <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inference_rule\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inference rule\" data-key=\"625a14083c2fe3bd996a4f2efaaec4fe\">inference rule<\/a> describes what is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Validity_(logic)\" title=\"Validity (logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f33e43c0d1793dc25914f467790c48cb\">valid<\/a> step in a proof. The most general inference rule is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resolution_(logic)\" title=\"Resolution (logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0134dc87bf60dfb80a3f5ce91765df7d\">resolution<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Resolution_87-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Resolution-87\">[81]<\/a><\/sup>\nInference can be reduced to performing a search to find a path that leads from premises to conclusions, where each step is the application of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inference_rule\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inference rule\" data-key=\"625a14083c2fe3bd996a4f2efaaec4fe\">inference rule<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Logic_as_search_88-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Logic_as_search-88\">[82]<\/a><\/sup>\nInference performed this way is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intractable_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intractable problem\" data-key=\"e75be0352f0cf0a91c55e657c1872fbc\">intractable<\/a> except for short proofs in restricted domains. No efficient, powerful and general method has been discovered.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\" title=\"Fuzzy logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b5089e9114f91c54ad40c5615094874\">Fuzzy logic<\/a> assigns a \"degree of truth\" between 0 and 1. It can therefore handle propositions that are vague and partially true.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fuzzy_logic_89-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fuzzy_logic-89\">[83]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-monotonic_logic\" title=\"Non-monotonic logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c13bba29e69b618970cbd7fe0b603ec\">Non-monotonic logics<\/a> are designed to handle <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Default_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Default reasoning\" data-key=\"9a7e44d10e86a591ef9568c20e32790d\">default reasoning<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic_30-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic-30\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\nOther specialized versions of logic have been developed to describe many complex domains (see <a href=\"#Knowledge_representation\">knowledge representation<\/a> above).\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Probabilistic_methods_for_uncertain_reasoning\">Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SimpleBayesNet.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6d9ed5121e2b4c1f6732c2e24e8bc49\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0e\/SimpleBayesNet.svg\/380px-SimpleBayesNet.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"380\" height=\"215\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A simple <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian network<\/a>, with the associated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conditional_probability_table\" title=\"Conditional probability table\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1308a1ca7bb12b43748df7859f578cf\">conditional probability tables<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Many problems in AI (including in reasoning, planning, learning, perception, and robotics) require the agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information. AI researchers have devised a number of tools to solve these problems using methods from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability\" title=\"Probability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44ea3f63d04643beddabc48ace7e9515\">probability<\/a> theory and economics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Uncertain_reasoning_90-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Uncertain_reasoning-90\">[84]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian networks<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bayesian_networks_91-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bayesian_networks-91\">[85]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>are a very general tool that can be used for many problems, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_reasoning\" title=\"Automated reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de14c9c0d69a0cb33e3fcbd45499d1f\">reasoning<\/a> (using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_inference\" title=\"Bayesian inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26d0e9d790d16771f099137b199877f7\">Bayesian inference<\/a> algorithm),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">[g]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bayesian_inference_94-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bayesian_inference-94\">[87]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">learning<\/a> (using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expectation-maximization_algorithm\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expectation-maximization algorithm\" data-key=\"30bd70c5e82d98624d02ec9cb807855d\">expectation-maximization algorithm<\/a>),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-96\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-96\">[h]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bayesian_learning_97-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bayesian_learning-97\">[89]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">planning<\/a> (using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision network\" data-key=\"ec62f139d48f4a0547a651f78040aaf3\">decision networks<\/a>)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bayesian_decision_networks_98-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bayesian_decision_networks-98\">[90]<\/a><\/sup>\nand <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">perception<\/a> (using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_Bayesian_network\" title=\"Dynamic Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c77f6b75feb8e5df8f5bea6a137d340c\">dynamic Bayesian networks<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Stochastic_temporal_models_99-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Stochastic_temporal_models-99\">[91]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>Probabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction, smoothing and finding explanations for streams of data, helping <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">perception<\/a> systems to analyze processes that occur over time (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hidden_Markov_model\" title=\"Hidden Markov model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2584878cd5e770c2f74616bed61710\">hidden Markov models<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kalman_filter\" title=\"Kalman filter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9ff163ecb988890e9319920b2455342\">Kalman filters<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Stochastic_temporal_models_99-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Stochastic_temporal_models-99\">[91]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>\nPrecise mathematical tools have been developed that analyze how an agent can make choices and plan, using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_theory\" title=\"Decision theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"137e9a51ae7bf68325846793519501ea\">decision theory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_analysis\" title=\"Decision analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c11ec4cc4375ffe34b09e6bcb177863\">decision analysis<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Decisions_theory_and_analysis_100-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Decisions_theory_and_analysis-100\">[92]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_value_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information value theory\" data-key=\"cd8cd239f4545d574b1750d05f39a008\">information value theory<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Information_value_theory_101-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Information_value_theory-101\">[93]<\/a><\/sup> These tools include models such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markov_decision_process\" title=\"Markov decision process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a165b52a9ae8569c3987f865361587a4\">Markov decision processes<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Markov_decision_process_102-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Markov_decision_process-102\">[94]<\/a><\/sup> dynamic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision network\" data-key=\"ec62f139d48f4a0547a651f78040aaf3\">decision networks<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Stochastic_temporal_models_99-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Stochastic_temporal_models-99\">[91]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_theory\" title=\"Game theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5498b159fb87dc60c8ad0a722348a50a\">game theory<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mechanism_design\" title=\"Mechanism design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e592c085fda248bc8c378cadc4d0488\">mechanism design<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Game_theory_and_mechanism_design_103-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Game_theory_and_mechanism_design-103\">[95]<\/a><\/sup><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EM_Clustering_of_Old_Faithful_data.gif\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"06f8a17cb69a48467d28e4ff17b84e65\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/69\/EM_Clustering_of_Old_Faithful_data.gif\/260px-EM_Clustering_of_Old_Faithful_data.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"260\" height=\"223\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expectation-maximization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expectation-maximization\" data-key=\"0d4049af3eb036c84bc73a59be8adccc\">Expectation-maximization<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">clustering<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Old_Faithful\" title=\"Old Faithful\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21515769cade13ba4df39f273ac51d17\">Old Faithful<\/a> eruption data starts from a random guess but then successfully converges on an accurate clustering of the two physically distinct modes of eruption.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Classifiers_and_statistical_learning_methods\">Classifiers and statistical learning methods<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The simplest AI applications can be divided into two types: classifiers (e.g. \"if shiny then diamond\"), on one hand, and controllers (e.g. \"if diamond then pick up\"), on the other hand. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classifier_(mathematics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Classifier (mathematics)\" data-key=\"eb8bf8d2fe7b65d50bff7a5773990770\">Classifiers<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Statistical_classifiers_104-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Statistical_classifiers-104\">[96]<\/a><\/sup>\nare functions that use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pattern_matching\" title=\"Pattern matching\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c88c3fbb27731161ec363e2502f11193\">pattern matching<\/a> to determine the closest match. They can be fine-tuned based on chosen examples using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">supervised learning<\/a>. Each pattern (also called an \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_variate\" title=\"Random variate\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d53e67f58401570f17970c77e347a2ae\">observation<\/a>\") is labeled with a certain predefined class. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_set\" title=\"Data set\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f2b812adb2c51444a28891f374584d4\">data set<\/a>. When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on previous experience.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Supervised_learning_50-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Supervised_learning-50\">[45]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There are many kinds of classifiers in use. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_tree\" title=\"Decision tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e8d0b5084951f9afa32e59b5a237e30\">decision tree<\/a> is the simplest and most widely used symbolic machine learning algorithm.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-105\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-105\">[97]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K-nearest_neighbor\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"K-nearest neighbor\" data-key=\"362b2ee4896ee32c20f2b7bf7ddeb8e1\">K-nearest neighbor<\/a> algorithm was the most widely used analogical AI until the mid-1990s, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel_methods\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Kernel methods\" data-key=\"e36240e0920bc76e8148b738a016de5d\">Kernel methods<\/a> such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support_vector_machine\" title=\"Support vector machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01aa5bcb5f310503db0370be4d7dde0c\">support vector machine<\/a> (SVM) displaced k-nearest neighbor in the 1990s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-106\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-106\">[98]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Naive_Bayes_classifier\" title=\"Naive Bayes classifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18dd737ec81f328d3d6681e1620445c7\">naive Bayes classifier<\/a> is reportedly the \"most widely used learner\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015152_107-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015152-107\">[99]<\/a><\/sup> at Google, due in part to its scalability.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-108\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-108\">[100]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">Neural networks<\/a> are also used as classifiers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Neural_networks_109-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Neural_networks-109\">[101]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Artificial_neural_networks\">Artificial neural networks<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Artificial_neural_network.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"793584a50fdecc62ff220ea9e9a16cac\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e4\/Artificial_neural_network.svg\/220px-Artificial_neural_network.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"196\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuron\" title=\"Neuron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05a82b92028de241144df7d8e40c0874\">neurons<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_brain\" title=\"Human brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff33b42bebe76bd7734491bdb8768fa1\">human brain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">Artificial neural network<\/a> is based on a collection of nodes also known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neurons\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial neurons\" data-key=\"e7a7843624b41a104033fa266d6ab555\">artificial neurons<\/a>, which loosely model the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neurons\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neurons\" data-key=\"a7fa55e0708c294c62c2e008adc2a510\">neurons<\/a> in a biological brain. It is trained to recognise patterns, once trained it can recognise those patterns in fresh data. There is an input, at least one hidden layer of nodes and an output. Each node applies a function and once the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weighting\" title=\"Weighting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a10095f4b4bda27ea5f6dc840041b24c\">weight<\/a> crosses it\u2019s specified threshold, the data is transmitted to the next layer. A network is typically called a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">deep neural network<\/a> if it has at least 2 hidden layers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Neural_networks_109-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Neural_networks-109\">[101]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Learning algorithms for neural networks use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_search_(optimization)\" title=\"Local search (optimization)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cab8b40fc21fbe49622f9597f8273a7\">local search<\/a> to choose the weights that will get the right output for each input during training. The most common training technique is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backpropagation\" title=\"Backpropagation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7681d69c3acc425256855e31afdd0bf4\">backpropagation<\/a> algorithm.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Backpropagation_110-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Backpropagation-110\">[102]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Neural networks learn to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pattern_recognition\" title=\"Pattern recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a507cb5f9432073674e1795cfa5dbd97\">find patterns<\/a> in data. In theory, a neural network can learn any function.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-111\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-111\">[103]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feedforward_neural_network\" title=\"Feedforward neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcbc04f3ee4edcf5215ba9705be493de\">feedforward neural networks<\/a> the signal passes in only one direction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-112\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-112\">[104]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recurrent_neural_network\" title=\"Recurrent neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9947826e865b6f1481a9350c2d215826\">Recurrent neural networks<\/a> feed the output signal back into the input, which allows short-term memories of previous input events. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Long_short_term_memory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Long short term memory\" data-key=\"369015f6af1dfafb646f4921d11d327e\">Long short term memory<\/a> is the most successful network architecture for recurrent networks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-113\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-113\">[105]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perceptron\" title=\"Perceptron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04a4d1565003f718e5659ee6ae90061f\">Perceptrons<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-114\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-114\">[106]<\/a><\/sup>\nuse only a single layer of neurons, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">deep learning<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Deep_learning_115-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Deep_learning-115\">[107]<\/a><\/sup> uses multiple layers.\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Convolutional_neural_network\" title=\"Convolutional neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d66c11cdf5b17fc49358ff9fb8e68dc\">Convolutional neural networks<\/a> strengthen the connection between neurons that are \"close\" to each other \u2013 this is especially important in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Image_processing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Image processing\" data-key=\"ac00e46a5dfc2d9c357f0a8eaae10668\">image processing<\/a>, where a local set of neurons must <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edge_detection\" title=\"Edge detection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4a56f830b8a3e334ee30ba757bd7f1d\">identify an \"edge\"<\/a> before the network can identify an object.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-116\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-116\">[108]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Deep_learning\">Deep learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:AI_hierarchy.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"09fe05ad0888c5f1016b9cb0634b3b82\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1b\/AI_hierarchy.svg\/170px-AI_hierarchy.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"170\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Deep_learning_115-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Deep_learning-115\">[107]<\/a><\/sup>\nuses several layers of neurons between the network's inputs and outputs. The multiple layers can progressively extract higher-level features from the raw input. For example, in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Image_processing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Image processing\" data-key=\"ac00e46a5dfc2d9c357f0a8eaae10668\">image processing<\/a>, lower layers may identify edges, while higher layers may identify the concepts relevant to a human such as digits or letters or faces.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDengYu2014199\u2013200_117-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDengYu2014199\u2013200-117\">[109]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Deep learning has drastically improved the performance of programs in many important subfields of artificial intelligence, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">computer vision<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">natural language processing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Image_classification\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Image classification\" data-key=\"26307c6f3b411a1d3d7c4a732aa855e9\">image classification<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTECiresanMeierSchmidhuber2012_118-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTECiresanMeierSchmidhuber2012-118\">[110]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>and others. The reason that deep learning performs so well in so many applications is not known as of 2023.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021751_119-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021751-119\">[111]<\/a><\/sup>\nThe sudden success of deep learning in 2012\u20132015 did not occur because of some new discovery or theoretical breakthrough (deep neural networks and backpropagation had been described by many people, as far back as the 1950s)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-127\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-127\">[i]<\/a><\/sup>\nbut because of two factors: the incredible increase in computer power (including the hundred-fold increase in speed by switching to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphics_processing_units\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Graphics processing units\" data-key=\"e54e61d10f2d894e39ee71fe988b1dd5\">GPUs<\/a>) and the availability of vast amounts of training data, especially the giant <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_datasets_for_machine-learning_research\" title=\"List of datasets for machine-learning research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9429ca0cecce3817e6ad4b4da64a0438\">curated datasets<\/a> used for benchmark testing, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ImageNet\" title=\"ImageNet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6ef34d3a403a1bb39f3df1efafaf6c0\">ImageNet<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-129\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-129\">[j]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"GPT\">GPT<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_pre-trained_transformer\" title=\"Generative pre-trained transformer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21320f84003e9a22957b206278edfddd\">Generative pre-trained transformers<\/a> (GPT) are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Large_language_model\" title=\"Large language model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bd2447b28e43c8c06b665882b498979\">large language models<\/a> that are based on the semantic relationships between words in sentences (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">natural language processing<\/a>). Text-based GPT models are pre-trained on a large corpus of text which can be from the internet. The pre-training consists in predicting the next <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lexical_analysis\" title=\"Lexical analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72915c6d3c9d3fa8e61f14a2e8b3278b\">token<\/a> (a token being usually a word, subword, or punctuation). Throughout this pre-training, GPT models accumulate knowledge about the world, and can then generate human-like text by repeatedly predicting the next token. Typically, a subsequent training phase makes the model more truthful, useful and harmless, usually with a technique called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning_from_human_feedback\" title=\"Reinforcement learning from human feedback\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d9184416bfb60776abc2dab9cd7b732\">reinforcement learning from human feedback<\/a> (RLHF). Current GPT models are still prone to generating falsehoods called \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hallucination_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Hallucination (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ed12b9e98d2f930c5649fd99a7c8f6f\">hallucinations<\/a>\", although this can be reduced with RLHF and quality data. They are used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chatbot\" title=\"Chatbot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c17657a30241a7e24a12eb6a70fd475\">chatbots<\/a> which allow you to ask a question or request a task in simple text.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2023_130-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2023-130\">[120]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-131\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-131\">[121]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Current models and services include: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bard_(chatbot)\" title=\"Bard (chatbot)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd95cd72974f50660115d1f7580766c9\">Bard<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ChatGPT\" title=\"ChatGPT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"205da2acb6bbb6260cafb3040cba93fe\">ChatGPT<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anthropic#Claude\" title=\"Anthropic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc042aafa6bc48bba6b2af90b32e2cb2\">Claude<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Copilot\" title=\"Microsoft Copilot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1611bac27a2728ac211b579bc54cabc1\">Copilot<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LLaMA\" title=\"LLaMA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08b4600fff5590bf07e4e3e46a562f06\">LLaMA<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-132\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-132\">[122]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multimodal_learning\" title=\"Multimodal learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1549eb9b9fceb1a0d6f149d0b5eb465\">Multimodal<\/a> GPT models can process different types of data (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modality_(human%E2%80%93computer_interaction)\" title=\"Modality (human\u2013computer interaction)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edbd4b6629041d003f3c38f4f8089db7\">modalities<\/a>) such as images, videos, sound and text.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarmouyet2023_133-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarmouyet2023-133\">[123]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Specialized_hardware_and_software\">Specialized hardware and software<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programming_languages_for_artificial_intelligence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Programming languages for artificial intelligence\" data-key=\"6f6831309c23dce90c525380960fc593\">Programming languages for artificial intelligence<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hardware_for_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Hardware for artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"313f3c85a2f5b35eb13f026fa69aa5aa\">Hardware for artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In the late 2010s, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphics_processing_unit\" title=\"Graphics processing unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c851cd540a55a87fe6ca9ce8dee6257a\">graphics processing units<\/a> (GPUs) that were increasingly designed with AI-specific enhancements and used with specialized <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TensorFlow\" title=\"TensorFlow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68adf147371b6522b59dbf636fd0c4c6\">TensorFlow<\/a> software, had replaced previously used <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Central_processing_unit\" title=\"Central processing unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff175b7e455c4ae2a5ee0c4d09618f06\">central processing unit<\/a> (CPUs) as the dominant means for large-scale (commercial and academic) <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a> models' training.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKobielus2019_134-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKobielus2019-134\">[124]<\/a><\/sup>\nHistorically, specialized languages, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lisp_(programming_language)\" title=\"Lisp (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623327db13954254f2260d60173ae748\">Lisp<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prolog\" title=\"Prolog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa2833d010677a23881b973b47826430\">Prolog<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Python_(programming_language)\" title=\"Python (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f46180939245bdafa4d5be32df12a34\">Python<\/a> and others, had been used.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applications_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Applications of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d70560409a044fef08a6f24b39d11d72\">Applications of artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div><p>AI and machine learning technology is used in most of the essential applications of the 2020s, including: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_engines\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Search engines\" data-key=\"3a2bcd029c77c401e1f23457fa8cc80a\">search engines<\/a> (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Search\" title=\"Google Search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb1a9fb8c521a933a4b422333cf19a4f\">Google Search<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Targeted_advertising\" title=\"Targeted advertising\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21987920a3e15bafd1272a864549edf9\">targeting online advertisements<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recommender_system\" title=\"Recommender system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd8c39f11ec163e4c363222f532670c0\">recommendation systems<\/a> (offered by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Netflix\" title=\"Netflix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"159d2de18846270b7627fe92c6a3a64f\">Netflix<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/YouTube\" title=\"YouTube\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab357cb21b6055014a8cc10ab0698ffd\">YouTube<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_(company)\" title=\"Amazon (company)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e455f7175d97dce9e9eaba70599f449e\">Amazon<\/a>), driving <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_traffic\" title=\"Internet traffic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02c700f314188795c9537c097c4caee8\">internet traffic<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marketing_and_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Marketing and artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78afdfa178f882aae53d7bf6df59d1b7\">targeted advertising<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AdSense\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AdSense\" data-key=\"f28ccc7c94d374cd84ceb1da3d392a9d\">AdSense<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook\" title=\"Facebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"452f745387ec551ed04005e53e079973\">Facebook<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_assistant\" title=\"Virtual assistant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5cc0ede2ebe08f413668ba2dcd667b17\">virtual assistants<\/a> (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siri\" title=\"Siri\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4992c7151554c6a2f8f7236549c6f6e\">Siri<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_Alexa\" title=\"Amazon Alexa\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43c866ea723bf82b3eec25a4ce0062ce\">Alexa<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autonomous_vehicles\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Autonomous vehicles\" data-key=\"2a6f4f87897ee230ae316ab2630da404\">autonomous vehicles<\/a> (including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle\" title=\"Unmanned aerial vehicle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41a4e7c5b9ee75018635018effc8f619\">drones<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_driver-assistance_system\" title=\"Advanced driver-assistance system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b37b19bd1e56034f664f44d9ee76f6a\">ADAS<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-driving_cars\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Self-driving cars\" data-key=\"ebf308c77fdaadf930f1bc430894ca2c\">self-driving cars<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">automatic language translation<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Translator\" title=\"Microsoft Translator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"727a2814721906449fc84f9e4278ab09\">Microsoft Translator<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Translate\" title=\"Google Translate\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce05bfdb795889465b96f5c0f14a9bea\">Google Translate<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facial_recognition_system\" title=\"Facial recognition system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a48e820a5eeac01f60fa6d31bf41aac2\">facial recognition<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apple_Computer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Apple Computer\" data-key=\"98646881fe25eb942cf8cbd7fd0aed6f\">Apple<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Face_ID\" title=\"Face ID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c32b8c1b02903455268d37f82817abb4\">Face ID<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DeepFace\" title=\"DeepFace\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3e919e031ceb3a6d09d0020ca717388\">DeepFace<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google\" title=\"Google\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b915ee8daf11a90fecc2d0bd0513feb\">Google<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FaceNet\" title=\"FaceNet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ddeba9a57a218b882789853d05e2850\">FaceNet<\/a>) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_image_annotation\" title=\"Automatic image annotation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aed8b19a6349dc943a2f331a0cc69367\">image labeling<\/a> (used by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook\" title=\"Facebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"452f745387ec551ed04005e53e079973\">Facebook<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apple_Computer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Apple Computer\" data-key=\"98646881fe25eb942cf8cbd7fd0aed6f\">Apple<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPhoto\" title=\"IPhoto\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a18eeba51e53be733e22bafcc9db1cbd\">iPhoto<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TikTok\" title=\"TikTok\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3285d4a26a81f46d57b9b79622679810\">TikTok<\/a>).\n<\/p><h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Health_and_Medicine\">Health and Medicine<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in healthcare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a83c45f6d758fe57b1fe4cb086a660dd\">Artificial intelligence in healthcare<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The application of AI in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medicine\" title=\"Medicine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8d3879056042c3d54c50f2d9acbc253\">medicine<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_research\" title=\"Medical research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1967c1ecf0fd12482bd77d5645b3a94\">medical research<\/a> has the potential to increase patient care and quality of life.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-135\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-135\">[125]<\/a><\/sup> Through the lens of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hippocratic_Oath\" title=\"Hippocratic Oath\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e64cf0127457fd3e582d7a7c3c8d9595\">Hippocratic Oath<\/a>, medical professionals are ethically compelled to use AI, if applications can more accurately diagnose and treat patients.\n<\/p><p>For medical research, AI is an important tool for processing and integrating <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_Data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Big Data\" data-key=\"90828494693d39dff35579b42feff965\">Big Data<\/a>. This is particularly important for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organoid\" title=\"Organoid\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8728a98d94bb147e782d35772bc32570\">organoid<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tissue_engineering\" title=\"Tissue engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7be73b484531509cd5585ca4b35e229\">tissue engineering<\/a> development which use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microscopy\" title=\"Microscopy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96fc37be5d8d10de00f9aef1d9878b0c\">microscopy<\/a> imaging as a key technique in fabrication.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-The_future_of_personalized_cardiova_136-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-The_future_of_personalized_cardiova-136\">[126]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>It has been suggested that AI can overcome discrepancies in funding allocated to different fields of research, such as which typically receives a disproportionately less funding that areas such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cancer_research\" title=\"Cancer research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a65ba9080dca70bc08d1665639a38b7\">cancer research<\/a>, relative to the morbidity and mortality of these diseases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-The_future_of_personalized_cardiova_136-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-The_future_of_personalized_cardiova-136\">[126]<\/a><\/sup> New AI tools can deepen our understanding of biomedically relevant pathways. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AlphaFold_2\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AlphaFold 2\" data-key=\"d68b9c2c209e7a20e2b51b70258d1386\">AlphaFold 2<\/a> (2021) demonstrated the ability to approximate, in hours rather than months, the 3D structure of a protein.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-137\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-137\">[127]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Games\">Games<\/span><\/h3>\n\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_artificial_intelligence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Game artificial intelligence\" data-key=\"ef86ee5687de96ad6c6e2ccc3cc390fc\">Game artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Game AI\" data-key=\"8973687e63103577e4d70d54ddb43aff\">Game playing<\/a> programs have been used since the 1950s to demonstrate and test AI's most advanced techniques. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_Deep_Blue\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IBM Deep Blue\" data-key=\"48f39f03d497eef38fe705c348610de4\">Deep Blue<\/a> became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning world chess champion, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Garry_Kasparov\" title=\"Garry Kasparov\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f40354ae6ed0eb13e885c2dfda3d7ae\">Garry Kasparov<\/a>, on 11 May 1997. In 2011, in a <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jeopardy!\" title=\"Jeopardy!\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8db143d9f2e3bd66c690249f8ba93bb2\">Jeopardy!<\/a><\/i> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quiz_show\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Quiz show\" data-key=\"b3be418de5adc6f1abd7247e827917d7\">quiz show<\/a> exhibition match, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Question_answering_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Question answering system\" data-key=\"b390c34cf9b1d330926dbbde37578704\">question answering system<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Watson_(artificial_intelligence_software)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Watson (artificial intelligence software)\" data-key=\"33c9873272f193516b83af00525637e8\">Watson<\/a>, defeated the two greatest <i>Jeopardy!<\/i> champions, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brad_Rutter\" title=\"Brad Rutter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72a380302c403d41165b8403ef09b696\">Brad Rutter<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ken_Jennings\" title=\"Ken Jennings\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e26b4725ec23826e317b9cf0c8c4c91\">Ken Jennings<\/a>, by a significant margin. In March 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AlphaGo\" title=\"AlphaGo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"066c88e46c521e4b574ffef8cbfd1dbf\">AlphaGo<\/a> won 4 out of 5 games of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Go_(game)\" title=\"Go (game)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b8c8e702d802b3b6f071b42e8741c6e\">Go<\/a> in a match with Go champion <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lee_Sedol\" title=\"Lee Sedol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc3b9a6cfe2cb22dfca86de4e6408b0a\">Lee Sedol<\/a>, becoming the first <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Go\" title=\"Computer Go\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"231730de7f7d4eb35a10d620c72fcde9\">computer Go<\/a>-playing system to beat a professional Go player without <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Go_handicaps\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Go handicaps\" data-key=\"e10585deaba40c4b44b77a1af0f24d97\">handicaps<\/a>. Then it <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AlphaGo_versus_Ke_Jie\" title=\"AlphaGo versus Ke Jie\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e614e5f82f2736371a837394383d5434\">defeated Ke Jie in 2017<\/a>, who at the time continuously held the world No. 1 ranking for two years. Other programs handle <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Imperfect_information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Imperfect information\" data-key=\"73ce8e5da819b8d3af4b6a429ae9a97a\">imperfect-information<\/a> games; such as for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Poker\" title=\"Poker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9f723ee8dd6d1c898d74656d0f770f0\">poker<\/a> at a superhuman level, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pluribus_(poker_bot)\" title=\"Pluribus (poker bot)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5dee08cb592bca423a4469ded04f547d\">Pluribus<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cepheus_(poker_bot)\" title=\"Cepheus (poker bot)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d897cd1dab8972f1acc62be1b1ccd9ce\">Cepheus<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DeepMind\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"DeepMind\" data-key=\"07f295d7424e66bcbf0d068db4b12869\">DeepMind<\/a> in the 2010s developed a \"generalized artificial intelligence\" that could learn many diverse <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atari_2600\" title=\"Atari 2600\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51dc37661cf8dbe3471f77d1dbf32b36\">Atari<\/a> games on its own. In 2021 an AI agent competed in a Playstation Gran Turismo competition, winning against four of the world\u2019s best Gran Turismo drivers using deep reinforcement learning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-138\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-138\">[128]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Military\">Military<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485\" \/>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military_artificial_intelligence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Military artificial intelligence\" data-key=\"a884ae966ba9a20d6ccc428d8d874f44\">Military artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Various countries are deploying AI military applications. The main applications enhance <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Command_and_control\" title=\"Command and control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c7b1c936e3e61d240a58a1699b21415\">command and control<\/a>, communications, sensors, integration and interoperability. Research is targeting intelligence collection and analysis, logistics, cyber operations, information operations, and semiautonomous and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vehicular_automation\" title=\"Vehicular automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55c707e23dc8649f977436d82ee47965\">autonomous vehicles<\/a>. AI technologies enable coordination of sensors and effectors, threat detection and identification, marking of enemy positions, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Target_acquisition\" title=\"Target acquisition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86970a41e5cfdb839dde4567f824d04c\">target acquisition<\/a>, coordination and deconfliction of distributed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forward_observers_in_the_U.S._military\" title=\"Forward observers in the U.S. military\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd5fb1cb856adc05fcc9e13604067aad\">Joint Fires<\/a> between networked combat vehicles involving manned and unmanned teams. AI was incorporated into military operations in Iraq and Syria.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Generative_AI\">Generative AI<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485\" \/>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Generative artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"651fc063313a0289e8537109ec96d2fc\">Generative artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_in_watercolour.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea72e150251dfef301bfe6a669fbb83a\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/ff\/Vincent_van_Gogh_in_watercolour.png\/220px-Vincent_van_Gogh_in_watercolour.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Vincent van Gogh in watercolour created by generative AI software<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>In the early 2020s, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Generative AI\" data-key=\"8e788623824e0fdac6fc2ccc0b534bf9\">generative AI<\/a> gained widespread prominence. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ChatGPT\" title=\"ChatGPT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"205da2acb6bbb6260cafb3040cba93fe\">ChatGPT<\/a>, based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GPT-3\" title=\"GPT-3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f54b558ee5dd3769ea6694b456d4eb63\">GPT-3<\/a>, and other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Large_language_model\" title=\"Large language model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bd2447b28e43c8c06b665882b498979\">large language models<\/a>, were tried by 14% of Americans adults. The increasing realism and ease-of-use of AI-based <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text-to-image_model\" title=\"Text-to-image model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61cddc7b8d4f5cfb81a4cf2461cd256a\">text-to-image<\/a> generators such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Midjourney\" title=\"Midjourney\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb4bad5b84d3c510db3b8a4c48cf5902\">Midjourney<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DALL-E\" title=\"DALL-E\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5bd66893bd4c652967d362e9b4784fe\">DALL-E<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stable_Diffusion\" title=\"Stable Diffusion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46c443392eea50b9d721d1cfed443c83\">Stable Diffusion<\/a> sparked a trend of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Viral_phenomenon\" title=\"Viral phenomenon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"881ff4a9731fec2421ea418f65ee3583\">viral<\/a> AI-generated photos. Widespread attention was gained by a fake photo of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pope_Francis\" title=\"Pope Francis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c5b2b5f4b9b391c4545da1d25918d0e\">Pope Francis<\/a> wearing a white puffer coat, the fictional arrest of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Donald_Trump\" title=\"Donald Trump\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77314d924359efffcbe83c64c373d08a\">Donald Trump<\/a>, and a hoax of an attack on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Pentagon\" title=\"The Pentagon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f79a0cb034a0e3ab8392550ddfa12cb4\">Pentagon<\/a>, as well as the usage in professional creative arts.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Industry_Specific_Tasks\">Industry Specific Tasks<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485\" \/>\n<p>There are also thousands of successful AI applications used to solve specific problems for specific industries or institutions. In a 2017 survey, one in five companies reported they had incorporated \"AI\" in some offerings or processes. A few examples are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Energy_storage\" title=\"Energy storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81873d4af663ed14ff1145d73b314c28\">energy storage<\/a>, medical diagnosis, military logistics, applications that predict the result of judicial decisions, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Foreign_policy\" title=\"Foreign policy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd32aaa654741a0a3ac60190958c1173\">foreign policy<\/a>, or supply chain management.\n<\/p><p>In agriculture, AI has helped farmers identify areas that need irrigation, fertilization, pesticide treatments or increasing yield. Agronomists use AI to conduct research and development. AI has been used to predict the ripening time for crops such as tomatoes, monitor soil moisture, operate agricultural robots, conduct predictive analytics, classify livestock pig call emotions, automate greenhouses, detect diseases and pests, and save water.\n<\/p><p>Artificial intelligence is used in astronomy to analyze increasing amounts of available data and applications, mainly for \"classification, regression, clustering, forecasting, generation, discovery, and the development of new scientific insights\" for example for discovering exoplanets, forecasting solar activity, and distinguishing between signals and instrumental effects in gravitational wave astronomy. It could also be used for activities in space such as space exploration, including analysis of data from space missions, real-time science decisions of spacecraft, space debris avoidance, and more autonomous operation.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ethics\">Ethics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>AI, like any powerful technology, has potential benefits and potential risks. AI may be able to advance science and find solutions for serious problems: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Demis_Hassabis\" title=\"Demis Hassabis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb3358c17c4e948824202e846713ac98\">Demis Hassabis<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DeepMind\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"DeepMind\" data-key=\"07f295d7424e66bcbf0d068db4b12869\">Deep Mind<\/a> hopes to \"solve intelligence, and then use that to solve everything else\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimonite2016_139-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimonite2016-139\">[129]<\/a><\/sup> However, as the use of AI has become widespread, several unintended consequences and risks have been identified.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021987_140-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021987-140\">[130]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Anyone looking to use machine learning as part of real-world, in-production systems needs to factor ethics into their AI training processes and strive to avoid bias. This is especially true when using AI algorithms that are inherently unexplainable in deep learning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaskowski2023_141-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaskowski2023-141\">[131]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Risks_and_harm\">Risks and harm<\/span><\/h3>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Privacy_and_copyright\">Privacy and copyright<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_privacy\" title=\"Information privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dbb3588f4b4f0d68b7d7359daea67bb\">Information privacy<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_and_copyright\" title=\"Artificial intelligence and copyright\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"617e4133c02a329aae47386d059ee9d2\">Artificial intelligence and copyright<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Machine learning algorithms require large amounts of data. The techniques used to acquire this data have raised concerns about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">privacy<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surveillance\" title=\"Surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b2e3ae2beab3ec421b301bf765e28f8\">surveillance<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copyright\" title=\"Copyright\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ef460b28868f59cbfee46fb1e18f034\">copyright<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Technology companies collect a wide range of data from their users, including online activity, geolocation data, video and audio.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGAO2022_142-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGAO2022-142\">[132]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>For example, in order to build <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a> algorithms, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_(company)\" title=\"Amazon (company)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e455f7175d97dce9e9eaba70599f449e\">Amazon<\/a> have recorded millions of private conversations and allowed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Temporary_worker\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Temporary worker\" data-key=\"5005845f4ddc56c6552ae3e58e7401e0\">temps<\/a> to listen to and transcribe some of them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEValinsky2019_143-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEValinsky2019-143\">[133]<\/a><\/sup>\nOpinions about this widespread <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surveillance\" title=\"Surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b2e3ae2beab3ec421b301bf765e28f8\">surveillance<\/a> range from those who see it as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Necessary_evil\" title=\"Necessary evil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a8714235bbb3f63fe3db46351b90b1d\">necessary evil<\/a> to those for whom it is clearly <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unethical\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Unethical\" data-key=\"814522c7fd9a4dd66ca0a297776e659c\">unethical<\/a> and a violation of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Right_to_privacy\" title=\"Right to privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a2838fa3ea101040654b6dbd0a1b5c56\">right to privacy<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021991_144-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021991-144\">[134]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>AI developers argue that this is the only way to deliver valuable applications. and have developed several techniques that attempt to preserve privacy while still obtaining the data, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_aggregation\" title=\"Data aggregation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eacc0bc0277ccb89d736b77c15dd409f\">data aggregation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/De-identification\" title=\"De-identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e47789ac152b2bc4da191537b5992193\">de-identification<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Differential_privacy\" title=\"Differential privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93b125a98b7b4a1d56ff140b713317bf\">differential privacy<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021991\u2013992_145-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021991\u2013992-145\">[135]<\/a><\/sup> Since 2016, some privacy experts, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cynthia_Dwork\" title=\"Cynthia Dwork\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f45ea24ce173fb9e624eb628a55ccb7c\">Cynthia Dwork<\/a>, began to view privacy in terms of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fairness_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Fairness (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c4297acb6d19a768bdd031d21cf24c0\">fairness<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brian_Christian\" title=\"Brian Christian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b7aebe632527d14f616d04435d25223\">Brian Christian<\/a> wrote that experts have pivoted \"from the question of 'what they know' to the question of 'what they're doing with it'.\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202063_146-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202063-146\">[136]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Generative AI is often trained on unlicensed copyrighted works, including in domains such as images or computer code; the output is then used under a rationale of \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fair_use\" title=\"Fair use\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81755a5a6ab114aae0653c1067615aa0\">fair use<\/a>\". Also website owners who do not wish to have their copyrighted content be AI indexed or \u2018scraped\u2019 can add code to their site, as you would, if you did not want your website to be indexed by a search engine which is currently available to certain services such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenAI\" title=\"OpenAI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4980df9317894d76a3309b4bed8d51e4\">OpenAI<\/a>. Experts disagree about how well, and under what circumstances, this rationale will hold up in courts of law; relevant factors may include \"the purpose and character of the use of the copyrighted work\" and \"the effect upon the potential market for the copyrighted work\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVincent2022_147-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVincent2022-147\">[137]<\/a><\/sup> In 2023, leading authors (including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Grisham\" title=\"John Grisham\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a763cbc4d5706f98b143c1bad1f55b6\">John Grisham<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jonathan_Franzen\" title=\"Jonathan Franzen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69457afc415c4df161169abe76146f4\">Jonathan Franzen<\/a>) sued AI companies for using their work to train generative AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner2023_148-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner2023-148\">[138]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlterHarris2023_149-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlterHarris2023-149\">[139]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Misinformation\">Misinformation<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/YouTube#Moderation_and_offensive_content\" title=\"YouTube\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b775a08aaabf55a0503af072fa48ff36\">YouTube \u00a7&#160;Moderation and offensive content<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/YouTube\" title=\"YouTube\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab357cb21b6055014a8cc10ab0698ffd\">YouTube<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook\" title=\"Facebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"452f745387ec551ed04005e53e079973\">Facebook<\/a> and others use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recommender_system\" title=\"Recommender system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd8c39f11ec163e4c363222f532670c0\">recommender systems<\/a> to guide users to more content. These AI programs were given the goal of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">maximizing<\/a> user engagement (that is, the only goal was to keep people watching). The AI learned that users tended to choose <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Misinformation\" title=\"Misinformation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"337752149469e1714bfb0de4aaf4a157\">misinformation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conspiracy_theory\" title=\"Conspiracy theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f177ec8b058ebe08167b37d49a33d88d\">conspiracy theories<\/a>, and extreme <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Partisan_(politics)\" title=\"Partisan (politics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98f1884a69a4839a6d0e7019d78f8a4d\">partisan<\/a> content, and, to keep them watching, the AI recommended more of it. Users also tended to watch more content on the same subject, so the AI led people into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Filter_bubbles\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Filter bubbles\" data-key=\"40c7f83e243f642e54863d48ee0a38ef\">filter bubbles<\/a> where they received multiple versions of the same misinformation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicas2018_150-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicas2018-150\">[140]<\/a><\/sup> This convinced many users that the misinformation was true, and ultimately undermined trust in institutions, the media and the government.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-151\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-151\">[141]<\/a><\/sup> The AI program had correctly learned to maximize its goal, but the result was harmful to society. After the U.S. election in 2016, major technology companies took steps to mitigate the problem.\n<\/p><p>In 2022, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Generative AI\" data-key=\"8e788623824e0fdac6fc2ccc0b534bf9\">generative AI<\/a> began to create images, audio, video and text that are indistinguishable from real photographs, recordings, films or human writing. It is possible for bad actors to use this technology to create massive amounts of misinformation or propaganda.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2023_152-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2023-152\">[142]<\/a><\/sup> AI pioneer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geoffrey_Hinton\" title=\"Geoffrey Hinton\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"893998bb70c7e5ace243c60bbabbe955\">Geoffrey Hinton<\/a> expressed concern about AI enabling \"authoritarian leaders to manipulate their electorates\" on a large scale, among other risks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorHern2023_153-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorHern2023-153\">[143]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Algorithmic_bias_and_fairness\">Algorithmic bias and fairness<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithmic_bias\" title=\"Algorithmic bias\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03a3ae18f9e582251dac4193d8945a43\">Algorithmic bias<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fairness_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Fairness (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c4297acb6d19a768bdd031d21cf24c0\">Fairness (machine learning)<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Machine learning applications will be biased if they learn from biased data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2023_154-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2023-154\">[144]<\/a><\/sup>\nThe developers may not be aware that the bias exists.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTECNA2019_155-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTECNA2019-155\">[145]<\/a><\/sup>\nBias can be introduced by the way <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Training_data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Training data\" data-key=\"0db8c5b44d4ec00e41c269cc5a0b73b8\">training data<\/a> is selected and by the way a model is deployed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoffrey200817_156-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoffrey200817-156\">[146]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2023_154-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2023-154\">[144]<\/a><\/sup> If a biased algorithm is used to make decisions that can seriously <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harm\" title=\"Harm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50300a7b302619b372a77880076cdaa4\">harm<\/a> people (as it can in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_equity\" title=\"Health equity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43a26981f52198f7749ee61b05525f55\">medicine<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Credit_rating\" title=\"Credit rating\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e3be260e07f005c57226be21d2e4b62\">finance<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recruitment\" title=\"Recruitment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebd41b624fe7236d3061987e3a08ea96\">recruitment<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_housing\" title=\"Public housing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8193104217529636387738695810b2b\">housing<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Policing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Policing\" data-key=\"bcabbfc04c2d8b211417fa7e63a7416f\">policing<\/a>) then the algorithm may cause <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discrimination\" title=\"Discrimination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"647580c158ad5d1a4e9588914b378980\">discrimination<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-157\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-157\">[147]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fairness_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Fairness (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c4297acb6d19a768bdd031d21cf24c0\">Fairness<\/a> in machine learning is the study of how to prevent the harm caused by algorithmic bias. It has become serious area of academic study within AI. Researchers have discovered it is not always possible to define \"fairness\" in a way that satisfies all stakeholders.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-158\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-158\">[148]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On June 28, 2015, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Photos\" title=\"Google Photos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a16dde3652b9c100fc72f0dd8c53103\">Google Photos<\/a>'s new image labeling feature mistakenly identified Jacky Alcine and a friend as \"gorillas\" because they were black. The system was trained on a dataset that contained very few images of black people,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202025_159-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202025-159\">[149]<\/a><\/sup> a problem called \"sample size disparity\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021995_160-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021995-160\">[150]<\/a><\/sup> Google \"fixed\" this problem by preventing the system from labelling <i>anything<\/i> as a \"gorilla\". Eight years later, in 2023, Google Photos still could not identify a gorilla, and neither could similar products from Apple, Facebook, Microsoft and Amazon.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrantHill2023_161-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrantHill2023-161\">[151]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/COMPAS_(software)\" title=\"COMPAS (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc4524e593d7168c20c162d686c9febc\">COMPAS<\/a> is a commercial program widely used by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/U.S._court\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"U.S. court\" data-key=\"af5f68125c0461b7ccbee34779272691\">U.S. courts<\/a> to assess the likelihood of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defendant\" title=\"Defendant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bb44b30480f8f01d02fc5aa8e35a29c\">defendant<\/a> becoming a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recidivist\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Recidivist\" data-key=\"6797570d4edade80e0b85d55f9e551cf\">recidivist<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Julia_Angwin\" title=\"Julia Angwin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8259607ca1b54ae4a89ffe7510e798b4\">Julia Angwin<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ProPublica\" title=\"ProPublica\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68bdaf85b437ea30d7bcf3eb48115b53\">ProPublica<\/a> discovered that COMPAS exhibited racial bias, despite the fact that the program was not told the races of the defendants. Although the error rate for both whites and blacks was calibrated equal at exactly 61%, the errors for each race were different\u2014the system consistently overestimated the chance that a black person would re-offend and would underestimate the chance that a white person would not re-offend.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonAngwin2016_162-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonAngwin2016-162\">[152]<\/a><\/sup> In 2017, several researchers<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-164\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-164\">[k]<\/a><\/sup> showed that it was mathematically impossible for COMPAS to accommodate all possible measures of fairness when the base rates of re-offense were different for whites and blacks in the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-165\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-165\">[154]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>A program can make biased decisions even if the data does not explicitly mention a problematic feature (such as \"race\" or \"gender\"). The feature will correlate with other features (like \"address\", \"shopping history\" or \"first name\"), and the program will make the same decisions based on these features as it would on \"race\" or \"gender\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-166\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-166\">[155]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Moritz Hardt said \"the most robust fact in this research area is that fairness through blindness doesn't work.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-167\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-167\">[156]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>Criticism of COMPAS highlighted a deeper problem with the misuse of AI. Machine learning models are designed to make \"predictions\" that are only valid if we assume that the future will resemble the past. If they are trained on data that includes the results of racist decisions in the past, machine learning models must predict that racist decisions will be made in the future. Unfortunately, if an application then uses these predictions as <i>recommendations<\/i>, some of these \"recommendations\" will likely be racist.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-168\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-168\">[157]<\/a><\/sup> Thus, machine learning is not well suited to help make decisions in areas where there is hope that the future will be <i>better<\/i> than the past. It is necessarily descriptive and not proscriptive.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-170\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-170\">[l]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Bias and unfairness may go undetected because the developers are overwhelmingly white and male: among AI engineers, about 4% are black and 20% are women.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021995_160-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021995-160\">[150]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>At its 2022 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (ACM FAccT 2022) the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_for_Computing_Machinery\" title=\"Association for Computing Machinery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d44eae5903ccb21b4fe3765a37220bb0\">Association for Computing Machinery<\/a>, in Seoul, South Korea, presented and published findings recommending that until AI and robotics systems are demonstrated to be free of bias mistakes, they are unsafe and the use of self-learning neural networks trained on vast, unregulated sources of flawed internet data should be curtailed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDockrill2022_171-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDockrill2022-171\">[159]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Lack_of_transparency\">Lack of transparency<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Explainable_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Explainable AI\" data-key=\"90b8c6802d5bc97a989d854c1f62d773\">Explainable AI<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithmic_transparency\" title=\"Algorithmic transparency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae203c60f659ace92cee58893001beba\">Algorithmic transparency<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Right_to_explanation\" title=\"Right to explanation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0152abb15acb6fb6b9643ffca8abf637\">Right to explanation<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:HiPhi_Z,_IAA_Summit_2023,_Munich_(P1120237).jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"db91f44a34ecd03d6acba0278511b64f\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/05\/HiPhi_Z%2C_IAA_Summit_2023%2C_Munich_%28P1120237%29.jpg\/260px-HiPhi_Z%2C_IAA_Summit_2023%2C_Munich_%28P1120237%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"260\" height=\"173\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lidar\" title=\"Lidar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4844b5d4c9d113609acb81c9a6421e8c\">Lidar<\/a> testing vehicle for autonomous driving<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Many AI systems are so complex that their designers cannot explain how they reach their decisions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESample2017_172-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESample2017-172\">[160]<\/a><\/sup> Particularly with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Deep neural networks\" data-key=\"250b57c6d25100b2c7ea6422f79814d6\">deep neural networks<\/a>, in which there are a large amount of non-<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Linear\" data-key=\"2069b817ef5fdfca13ea2b052a82a339\">linear<\/a> relationships between inputs and outputs. But some popular explainability techniques exist.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-173\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-173\">[161]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There have been many cases where a machine learning program passed rigorous tests, but nevertheless learned something different than what the programmers intended. For example, a system that could identify skin diseases better than medical professionals was found to actually have a strong tendency to classify images with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ruler\" title=\"Ruler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3bed331bd451e3c88b7d111f59b6563\">ruler<\/a> as \"cancerous\", because pictures of malignancies typically include a ruler to show the scale.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian2020110_174-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian2020110-174\">[162]<\/a><\/sup> Another machine learning system designed to help effectively allocate medical resources was found to classify patients with asthma as being at \"low risk\" of dying from pneumonia. Having asthma is actually a severe risk factor, but since the patients having asthma would usually get much more medical care, they were relatively unlikely to die according to the training data. The correlation between asthma and low risk of dying from pneumonia was real, but misleading.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202088\u201391_175-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202088\u201391-175\">[163]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>People who have been harmed by an algorithm's decision have a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Right_to_explanation\" title=\"Right to explanation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0152abb15acb6fb6b9643ffca8abf637\">right to an explanation<\/a>. Doctors, for example, are required to clearly and completely explain the reasoning behind any decision they make.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Please_clarify\" title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42f809a0943a5d548f1a80f2e4a0f0bf\"><span title=\"Everywhere in the world? If not so, precise in which countries or according to which law. (also, not sure the reference Christian 2020 p. 83 contains the given information) (November 2023)\">clarification needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-176\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-176\">[164]<\/a><\/sup> Early drafts of the European Union's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Data_Protection_Regulation\" title=\"General Data Protection Regulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20785e45cbe1c33b7aead05d3a22887e\">General Data Protection Regulation<\/a> in 2016 included an explicit statement that this right exists.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-177\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-177\">[m]<\/a><\/sup> Industry experts noted that this is an unsolved problem with no solution in sight. Regulators argued that nevertheless the harm is real: if the problem has no solution, the tools should not be used.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202091_178-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202091-178\">[165]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DARPA\" title=\"DARPA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148faa7594a6bd3ddcbe5ba80b48e974\">DARPA<\/a> established the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Explainable_Artificial_Intelligence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Explainable Artificial Intelligence\" data-key=\"4fad4523164f66a58e8dcf4fbdef33f9\">XAI<\/a> (\"Explainable Artificial Intelligence\") program in 2014 to try and solve these problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202083_179-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202083-179\">[166]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There are several potential solutions to the transparency problem. SHAP helps visualise the contribution of each feature to the output.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVerma2021_180-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerma2021-180\">[167]<\/a><\/sup> LIME can locally approximate a model with a simpler, interpretable model.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERothman2020_181-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothman2020-181\">[168]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multitask_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Multitask learning\" data-key=\"66cd7311250eb46d92d4ab96dd9c51c4\">Multitask learning<\/a> provides a large number of outputs in addition to the target classification. These other outputs can help developers deduce what the network has learned.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian2020105-108_182-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian2020105-108-182\">[169]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deconvolution\" title=\"Deconvolution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b53ebd44c72472aa73370ea123b70fbe\">Deconvolution<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DeepDream\" title=\"DeepDream\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bc4e7813e83bab30b5c645d37ca6e78\">DeepDream<\/a> and other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Generative AI\" data-key=\"8e788623824e0fdac6fc2ccc0b534bf9\">generative<\/a> methods can allow developers to see what different layers of a deep network have learned and produce output that can suggest what the network is learning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian2020108\u2013112_183-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian2020108\u2013112-183\">[170]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Conflict.2C_surveillance_and_weaponized_AI\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Conflict,_surveillance_and_weaponized_AI\">Conflict, surveillance and weaponized AI<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lethal_autonomous_weapon\" title=\"Lethal autonomous weapon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae7b2a314d9703fad85566fba355ca29\">Lethal autonomous weapon<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_arms_race\" title=\"Artificial intelligence arms race\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68e25256b70ca83356f730c25eeebb12\">Artificial intelligence arms race<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_safety\" title=\"AI safety\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb7e6c3b6e6290bdd2aab3d5c2210b1c\">AI safety<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lethal_autonomous_weapon\" title=\"Lethal autonomous weapon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae7b2a314d9703fad85566fba355ca29\">lethal autonomous weapon<\/a> is a machine that locates, selects and engages human targets without human supervision.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-185\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-185\">[n]<\/a><\/sup> By 2015, over fifty countries were reported to be researching battlefield robots.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-186\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-186\">[172]<\/a><\/sup> These weapons are considered especially dangerous for several reasons: if they <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Murder\" title=\"Murder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f66035b75e9c277ca2c2d5b9b4eddf7\">kill an innocent person<\/a> it is not clear who should be held <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accountability\" title=\"Accountability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32e90c49a14538a5a0f8ee6e43aa7b7e\">accountable<\/a>, it is unlikely they will reliably choose targets, and, if produced at scale, they are potentially <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weapons_of_mass_destruction\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Weapons of mass destruction\" data-key=\"411789cfa0c9f20eb302416afd1509e2\">weapons of mass destruction<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021987-990_187-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021987-990-187\">[173]<\/a><\/sup> In 2014, 30 nations (including China) supported a ban on autonomous weapons under the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Nations\" title=\"United Nations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58df5ccf06f9a41ee69f940e1168a8ac\">United Nations<\/a>' <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Convention_on_Certain_Conventional_Weapons\" title=\"Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b64441693220143beb79b513dd9dd6d0\">Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons<\/a>, however the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States\" title=\"United States\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f44266ab2da9382e3764bac08cfb4076\">United States<\/a> and others disagreed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021988_188-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021988-188\">[174]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>AI provides a number of tools that are particularly useful for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authoritarian\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Authoritarian\" data-key=\"a0a223c04716e7116aefbf7f375658fd\">authoritarian<\/a> governments: smart <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spyware\" title=\"Spyware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35cbf77d8b2af97b4856b34e7f0202dd\">spyware<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facial_recognition_system\" title=\"Facial recognition system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a48e820a5eeac01f60fa6d31bf41aac2\">face recognition<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speaker_recognition\" title=\"Speaker recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49a5cd75e4e5ece8e506ae2f09e75f11\">voice recognition<\/a> allow widespread <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surveillance\" title=\"Surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b2e3ae2beab3ec421b301bf765e28f8\">surveillance<\/a>; such surveillance allows <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classifier_(machine_learning)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Classifier (machine learning)\" data-key=\"8cad68f4f3be8fee770d32f3e754ee7c\">classify<\/a> potential enemies of the state and can prevent them from hiding; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recommender_system\" title=\"Recommender system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd8c39f11ec163e4c363222f532670c0\">recommendation systems<\/a> can precisely target <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Propaganda\" title=\"Propaganda\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d6a7c48ef05ef3cba11667e782d67fc\">propaganda<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Misinformation\" title=\"Misinformation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"337752149469e1714bfb0de4aaf4a157\">misinformation<\/a> for maximum effect; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deepfakes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Deepfakes\" data-key=\"fb64ac82be3f347a928785495c133f25\">deepfakes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generative_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Generative AI\" data-key=\"8e788623824e0fdac6fc2ccc0b534bf9\">generative AI<\/a> aid in producing misinformation; advanced AI can make authoritarian <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technocracy\" title=\"Technocracy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"363c2cf078d1fcd55a4260a4eccb0d5c\">centralized decision making<\/a> more competitive with liberal and decentralized systems such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Market_(economics)\" title=\"Market (economics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"501a043317fb33607eeba630630c59f4\">markets<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarari2018_189-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarari2018-189\">[175]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>AI <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facial_recognition_system\" title=\"Facial recognition system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a48e820a5eeac01f60fa6d31bf41aac2\">facial recognition systems<\/a> are used for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_surveillance\" title=\"Mass surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"061b28bcb7c5d34d04d8c26d44ca3916\">mass surveillance<\/a>, notably in China.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-190\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-190\">[176]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-191\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-191\">[177]<\/a><\/sup> In 2019, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bangalore\" title=\"Bangalore\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5184034f98db6faefc6c679165c66d8\">Bengaluru, India<\/a> deployed AI-managed traffic signals. This system uses cameras to monitor traffic density and adjust signal timing based on the interval needed to clear traffic.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-192\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-192\">[178]<\/a><\/sup> Terrorists, criminals and rogue states can use weaponized AI such as advanced <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_warfare\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital warfare\" data-key=\"485ea7d20c5f504e1408bd607c32a038\">digital warfare<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lethal_autonomous_weapon\" title=\"Lethal autonomous weapon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae7b2a314d9703fad85566fba355ca29\">lethal autonomous weapons<\/a>. Machine-learning AI is also able to design tens of thousands of toxic molecules in a matter of hours.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrbinaLentzosInvernizziEkins2022_193-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrbinaLentzosInvernizziEkins2022-193\">[179]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technological_unemployment\">Technological unemployment<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workplace_impact_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Workplace impact of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be7b12e8d5b04acf21f732ae3ad73500\">Workplace impact of artificial intelligence<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technological_unemployment\" title=\"Technological unemployment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c34b377ab93f12b7d520a565d1eefd7b\">Technological unemployment<\/a><\/div>\n<p>From the early days of the development of artificial intelligence there have been arguments, for example those put forward by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseph_Weizenbaum\" title=\"Joseph Weizenbaum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72e93fb709be93ac931fb371bb1319c4\">Joseph Weizenbaum<\/a>, about whether tasks that can be done by computers actually should be done by them, given the difference between computers and humans, and between quantitative calculation and qualitative, value-based judgement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-194\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-194\">[180]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Economists have frequently highlighted the risks of redundancies from AI, and speculated about unemployment if there is no adequate social policy for full employment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-auto1_195-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-auto1-195\">[181]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the past, technology has tended to increase rather than reduce total employment, but economists acknowledge that \"we're in uncharted territory\" with AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-196\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-196\">[182]<\/a><\/sup> A survey of economists showed disagreement about whether the increasing use of robots and AI will cause a substantial increase in long-term <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unemployment\" title=\"Unemployment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a99ac0913e54497fd6fe5b6e4e0c699c\">unemployment<\/a>, but they generally agree that it could be a net benefit if <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Productivity\" title=\"Productivity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d66f92b8b03a77df02918fc6232c3110\">productivity<\/a> gains are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth\" title=\"Redistribution of income and wealth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b6151fec5e49239c74b9b9ed3ced191\">redistributed<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIGM_Chicago2017_197-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIGM_Chicago2017-197\">[183]<\/a><\/sup> Risk estimates vary; for example, in the 2010s, Michael Osborne and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carl_Benedikt_Frey\" title=\"Carl Benedikt Frey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc288dc515c6ecf0702ab68af5f9a03b\">Carl Benedikt Frey<\/a> estimated 47% of U.S. jobs are at \"high risk\" of potential automation, while an OECD report classified only 9% of U.S. jobs as \"high risk\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-199\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-199\">[o]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-200\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-200\">[185]<\/a><\/sup> The methodology of speculating about future employment levels has been criticised as lacking evidential foundation, and for implying that technology, rather than social policy, creates unemployment, as opposed to redundancies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-auto1_195-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-auto1-195\">[181]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Unlike previous waves of automation, many middle-class jobs may be eliminated by artificial intelligence; <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Economist\" title=\"The Economist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4158a46c0e55d5660f61e619889b8a1d\">The Economist<\/a><\/i> stated in 2015 that \"the worry that AI could do to white-collar jobs what steam power did to blue-collar ones during the Industrial Revolution\" is \"worth taking seriously\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgenstern2015_201-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgenstern2015-201\">[186]<\/a><\/sup> Jobs at extreme risk range from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paralegal\" title=\"Paralegal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a4664168c671f6a94057114ae50a182\">paralegals<\/a> to fast food cooks, while job demand is likely to increase for care-related professions ranging from personal healthcare to the clergy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-202\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-202\">[187]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In April 2023, it was reported that 70% of the jobs for Chinese video game illlustrators had been eliminated by generative artificial intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-203\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-203\">[188]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-204\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-204\">[189]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Existential_risk\">Existential risk<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Existential risk from artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2417fff2c86867851343cad51bd9bfb9\">Existential risk from artificial general intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p>It has been argued AI will become so powerful that humanity may irreversibly lose control of it. This could, as physicist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stephen_Hawking\" title=\"Stephen Hawking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69b33fec7c42fdee67d9bd45dbd04d38\">Stephen Hawking<\/a> stated, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_catastrophic_risk\" title=\"Global catastrophic risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ee5b9ef3812086f707de9713dec1a0c\">spell the end of the human race<\/a>\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTECellan-Jones2014_205-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTECellan-Jones2014-205\">[190]<\/a><\/sup> This scenario has been common in science fiction, when a computer or robot suddenly develops a human-like \"self-awareness\" (or \"sentience\" or \"consciousness\") and becomes a malevolent character.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-207\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-207\">[p]<\/a><\/sup> These sci-fi scenarios are misleading in several ways.\n<\/p><p>First, AI does not require human-like \"sentience\" to be an existential risk. Modern AI programs are given specific goals and use learning and intelligence to achieve them. Philosopher <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nick_Bostrom\" title=\"Nick Bostrom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c3c8bc124e1204cfb4d1594e89c8a93\">Nick Bostrom<\/a> argued that if one gives <i>almost any<\/i> goal to a sufficiently powerful AI, it may choose to destroy humanity to achieve it (he used the example of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instrumental_convergence#Paperclip_maximizer\" title=\"Instrumental convergence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f325a08f937618eabd1742f27095480f\">paperclip factory manager<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom2014_208-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBostrom2014-208\">[192]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Stuart Russell<\/a> gives the example of household robot that tries to find a way to kill its owner to prevent it from being unplugged, reasoning that \"you can't fetch the coffee if you're dead.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2019_209-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2019-209\">[193]<\/a><\/sup> In order to be safe for humanity, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superintelligence\" title=\"Superintelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b118c2443168f3f5a961bada59001ecc\">superintelligence<\/a> would have to be genuinely <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_alignment\" title=\"AI alignment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d34b9215502db1b32937bf054279872\">aligned<\/a> with humanity's morality and values so that it is \"fundamentally on our side\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-210\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-210\">[194]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Second, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yuval_Noah_Harari\" title=\"Yuval Noah Harari\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"510a3dab42f7131325ffacdd11617082\">Yuval Noah Harari<\/a> argues that AI does not require a robot body or physical control to pose an existential risk. The essential parts of civilization are not physical. Things like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ideology\" title=\"Ideology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da934ad23571a570b3d5d9f8b583334a\">ideologies<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Law\" title=\"Law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a4bcab6b03bbfbf75baac123e1b8a0b\">law<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Government\" title=\"Government\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7e638d4b2b8da9f52dab28018527662\">government<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Money\" title=\"Money\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0f8e21ebb892880670d1a699e0cea49\">money<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economy\" title=\"Economy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba11adde57dc895afef06dd45083c143\">economy<\/a> are made of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language\" title=\"Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdf16c504014c1d7fbeffec5c351c774\">language<\/a>; they exist because there are stories that billions of people believe. The current prevalence of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Misinformation\" title=\"Misinformation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"337752149469e1714bfb0de4aaf4a157\">misinformation<\/a> suggests that an AI could use language to convince people to believe anything, even to take actions that are destructive.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarari2023_211-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarari2023-211\">[195]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The opinions amongst experts and industry insiders are mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superintelligent AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEM\u00fcllerBostrom2014_212-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEM\u00fcllerBostrom2014-212\">[196]<\/a><\/sup> Personalities such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stephen_Hawking\" title=\"Stephen Hawking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69b33fec7c42fdee67d9bd45dbd04d38\">Stephen Hawking<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bill_Gates\" title=\"Bill Gates\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe87275749a4271121f08444b65287cc\">Bill Gates<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Elon_Musk\" title=\"Elon Musk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1eab8dd1ffa92906f7fc839862871ca5\">Elon Musk<\/a> have expressed concern about existential risk from AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-213\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-213\">[197]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the early 2010s, experts argued that the risks are too distant in the future to warrant research or that humans will be valuable from the perspective of a superintelligent machine.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-214\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-214\">[198]<\/a><\/sup> However, after 2016, the study of current and future risks and possible solutions became a serious area of research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202067,_73_215-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202067,_73-215\">[199]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>AI pioneers including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fei-Fei_Li\" title=\"Fei-Fei Li\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c80fa97875a7fa6ea11ad0fdb799e402\">Fei-Fei Li<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geoffrey_Hinton\" title=\"Geoffrey Hinton\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"893998bb70c7e5ace243c60bbabbe955\">Geoffrey Hinton<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yoshua_Bengio\" title=\"Yoshua Bengio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1978e5ef9abce6b81faebc85fba71ab3\">Yoshua Bengio<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cynthia_Breazeal\" title=\"Cynthia Breazeal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5d2933090fac2e5062acd0476ee100e\">Cynthia Breazeal<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rana_el_Kaliouby\" title=\"Rana el Kaliouby\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72dd61e9854e3e32f2cc9329e659b90a\">Rana el Kaliouby<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Demis_Hassabis\" title=\"Demis Hassabis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb3358c17c4e948824202e846713ac98\">Demis Hassabis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joy_Buolamwini\" title=\"Joy Buolamwini\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"171db2774b35b8e515088b03d9d96fe2\">Joy Buolamwini<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sam_Altman\" title=\"Sam Altman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efa7410287b4a2baa13e204858f58868\">Sam Altman<\/a> have expressed concerns about the risks of AI. In 2023, many leading AI experts issued the joint statement that \"Mitigating the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority alongside other societal-scale risks such as pandemics and nuclear war\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEValance2023_216-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEValance2023-216\">[200]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other researchers, however, spoke in favor of a less dystopian view. AI pioneer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Juergen_Schmidhuber\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Juergen Schmidhuber\" data-key=\"f4e93b5a674e65df7d4ce6ebee59f17e\">Juergen Schmidhuber<\/a> did not sign the joint statement, emphasising that in 95% of all cases, AI research is about making \"human lives longer and healthier and easier.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-guardian2023_217-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-guardian2023-217\">[201]<\/a><\/sup> While the tools that are now being used to improve lives can also be used by bad actors, \"they can also be used against the bad actors.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-foxnews2023_218-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-foxnews2023-218\">[202]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-forbes2023_219-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-forbes2023-219\">[203]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Andrew_Ng\" title=\"Andrew Ng\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f35ee396a84c8894bca277d2088d00a\">Andrew Ng<\/a> also argued that \"it\u2019s a mistake to fall for the doomsday hype on AI\u2014and that regulators who do will only benefit vested interests.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-andrewng2023_220-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-andrewng2023-220\">[204]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yann_LeCun\" title=\"Yann LeCun\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f32025c044e12aee9d1b5241836d3763\">Yann LeCun<\/a> \"scoffs at his peers\u2019 dystopian scenarios of supercharged misinformation and even, eventually, human extinction.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lecun2023_221-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lecun2023-221\">[205]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Limiting_AI\">Limiting AI<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Possible options for limiting AI include: using Embedded Ethics or Constitutional AI where companies or governments can add a policy, restricting high levels of compute power in training, restricting the ability to rewrite its own code base, restrict certain AI techniques but not in the training phase, open-source (transparency) vs proprietary (could be more restricted), backup model with redundancy, restricting security, privacy and copyright, restricting or controlling the memory, real-time monitoring, risk analysis, emergency shut-off, rigorous simulation and testing, model certification, assess known vulnerabilities, restrict the training material, restrict access to the internet, issue terms of use.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ethical_machines_and_alignment\">Ethical machines and alignment<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_ethics\" title=\"Machine ethics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3a0c55ae3309465a1780ba9c3038f57\">Machine ethics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_safety\" title=\"AI safety\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb7e6c3b6e6290bdd2aab3d5c2210b1c\">AI safety<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Friendly_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Friendly artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d558aa453b40936ba47deaaf4ac9a5b\">Friendly artificial intelligence<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_moral_agents\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial moral agents\" data-key=\"27d8a2b02dc968eeecdbf7e9f137cdb3\">Artificial moral agents<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_Compatible\" title=\"Human Compatible\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4b58e0c033ae18489393035c6360746\">Human Compatible<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Friendly AI are machines that have been designed from the beginning to minimize risks and to make choices that benefit humans. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eliezer_Yudkowsky\" title=\"Eliezer Yudkowsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d8804ac07c476dee3bc7c638770c119\">Eliezer Yudkowsky<\/a>, who coined the term, argues that developing friendly AI should be a higher research priority: it may require a large investment and it must be completed before AI becomes an existential risk.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYudkowsky2008_222-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYudkowsky2008-222\">[206]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Machines with intelligence have the potential to use their intelligence to make ethical decisions. The field of machine ethics provides machines with ethical principles and procedures for resolving ethical dilemmas.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonAnderson2011_223-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonAnderson2011-223\">[207]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The field of machine ethics is also called computational morality,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonAnderson2011_223-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonAnderson2011-223\">[207]<\/a><\/sup>\nand was founded at an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AAAI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AAAI\" data-key=\"9b2449f847bb33e7fbc46d0c2435e5ae\">AAAI<\/a> symposium in 2005.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAAAI2014_224-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAAAI2014-224\">[208]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>Other approaches include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wendell_Wallach\" title=\"Wendell Wallach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71d344aad68ccaa2674fc8ec37486f01\">Wendell Wallach<\/a>'s \"artificial moral agents\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWallach2010_225-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWallach2010-225\">[209]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Stuart J. Russell<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_Compatible#Russell's_three_principles\" title=\"Human Compatible\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5a1d92a09aef6e534df43f4f8511e5b\">three principles<\/a> for developing provably beneficial machines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2019173_226-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2019173-226\">[210]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Frameworks\">Frameworks<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Artificial Intelligence projects can have their ethical permissibility tested while designing, developing, and implementing an AI system. An AI framework such as the Care and Act Framework containing the SUM values \u2013 developed by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Turing_Institute\" title=\"Alan Turing Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6971d863c3accee4a9bf50b193014c6\">Alan Turing Institute<\/a> tests projects in four main areas:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-227\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-227\">[211]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-228\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-228\">[212]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>RESPECT the dignity of individual people<\/li>\n<li>CONNECT with other people sincerely, openly and inclusively<\/li>\n<li>CARE for the wellbeing of everyone<\/li>\n<li>PROTECT social values, justice and the public interest<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Other developments in ethical frameworks include those decided upon during the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Asilomar_Conference_on_Beneficial_AI\" title=\"Asilomar Conference on Beneficial AI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"022d6a95338737e3c971cf16bd5129e5\">Asilomar Conference<\/a>, the Montreal Declaration for Responsible AI, and the IEEE's Ethics of Autonomous Systems initiative, among others;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-229\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-229\">[213]<\/a><\/sup> however, these principles do not go without their criticisms, especially regards to the people chosen contributes to these frameworks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-230\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-230\">[214]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Promotion of the wellbeing of the people and communities that these technologies affect requires consideration of the social and ethical implications at all stages of AI system design, development and implementation, and collaboration between job roles such as data scientists, product managers, data engineers, domain experts, and delivery managers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-231\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-231\">[215]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regulation\">Regulation<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulation_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Regulation of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bbabae0e8e2c822aa2ced8fec6ac219\">Regulation of artificial intelligence<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulation_of_algorithms\" title=\"Regulation of algorithms\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d0474ef522b91558ff819aa2099be6f\">Regulation of algorithms<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_safety\" title=\"AI safety\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb7e6c3b6e6290bdd2aab3d5c2210b1c\">AI safety<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Vice_President_Harris_at_the_group_photo_of_the_2023_AI_Safety_Summit.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"dadee28c445d149340fa02e776bd76c7\"><img alt=\"AI Safety Summit\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/36\/Vice_President_Harris_at_the_group_photo_of_the_2023_AI_Safety_Summit.jpg\/260px-Vice_President_Harris_at_the_group_photo_of_the_2023_AI_Safety_Summit.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"260\" height=\"174\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>The first global <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_Safety_Summit\" title=\"AI Safety Summit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad1efad2f4cf6cf86d49e18fb84a4934\">AI Safety Summit<\/a> was held in 2023 with a declaration calling for international co-operation<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The regulation of artificial intelligence is the development of public sector policies and laws for promoting and regulating artificial intelligence (AI); it is therefore related to the broader regulation of algorithms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-232\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-232\">[216]<\/a><\/sup>\nThe regulatory and policy landscape for AI is an emerging issue in jurisdictions globally.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaw_Library_of_Congress_(U.S.)._Global_Legal_Research_Directorate2019_233-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaw_Library_of_Congress_(U.S.)._Global_Legal_Research_Directorate2019-233\">[217]<\/a><\/sup> According to AI Index at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stanford\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Stanford\" data-key=\"b1459cc003991839f0603024a8d7b73c\">Stanford<\/a>, the annual number of AI-related laws passed in the 127 survey countries jumped from one passed in 2016 to 37 passed in 2022 alone.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVincent2023_234-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVincent2023-234\">[218]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStanford_University2023_235-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanford_University2023-235\">[219]<\/a><\/sup>\nBetween 2016 and 2020, more than 30 countries adopted dedicated strategies for AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2021_236-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2021-236\">[220]<\/a><\/sup>\nMost EU member states had released national AI strategies, as had Canada, China, India, Japan, Mauritius, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, US and Vietnam. Others were in the process of elaborating their own AI strategy, including Bangladesh, Malaysia and Tunisia.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2021_236-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2021-236\">[220]<\/a><\/sup>\nThe <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_Partnership_on_Artificial_Intelligence\" title=\"Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ad466f9c71c6b643ad520a79d92f7f8\">Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence<\/a> was launched in June 2020, stating a need for AI to be developed in accordance with human rights and democratic values, to ensure public confidence and trust in the technology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2021_236-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2021-236\">[220]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Henry_Kissinger\" title=\"Henry Kissinger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9483856d57cac05d478da81e69abf742\">Henry Kissinger<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eric_Schmidt\" title=\"Eric Schmidt\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6206493228344060087beb70f418b765\">Eric Schmidt<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_P._Huttenlocher\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Daniel P. Huttenlocher\" data-key=\"e90148ec02e37a118a5ffd70e2759b6c\">Daniel Huttenlocher<\/a> published a joint statement in November 2021 calling for a government commission to regulate AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKissinger2021_237-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKissinger2021-237\">[221]<\/a><\/sup>\nIn 2023, OpenAI leaders published recommendations for the governance of superintelligence, which they believe may happen in less than 10 years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAltmanBrockmanSutskever2023_238-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAltmanBrockmanSutskever2023-238\">[222]<\/a><\/sup> In 2023, the United Nations also launched an advisory body to provide recommendations on AI governance; the body comprises technology company executives, governments officials and academics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-239\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-239\">[223]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In a 2022 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ipsos\" title=\"Ipsos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"905116be0a6453a95272b36e04c90adc\">Ipsos<\/a> survey, attitudes towards AI varied greatly by country; 78% of Chinese citizens, but only 35% of Americans, agreed that \"products and services using AI have more benefits than drawbacks\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVincent2023_234-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVincent2023-234\">[218]<\/a><\/sup> A 2023 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reuters\" title=\"Reuters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfab9b4b45961798a138decde5fe8cf8\">Reuters<\/a>\/Ipsos poll found that 61% of Americans agree, and 22% disagree, that AI poses risks to humanity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2023_240-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2023-240\">[224]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In a 2023 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fox_News\" title=\"Fox News\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d84b2159ff87b82e80a6ed86d9ad7c70\">Fox News<\/a> poll, 35% of Americans thought it \"very important\", and an additional 41% thought it \"somewhat important\", for the federal government to regulate AI, versus 13% responding \"not very important\" and 8% responding \"not at all important\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasperowicz2023_241-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKasperowicz2023-241\">[225]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox_News2023_242-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox_News2023-242\">[226]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>In November 2023, the first global <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2023_AI_Safety_Summit\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"2023 AI Safety Summit\" data-key=\"7149a4d7ea5ff31261ae961377ed70ed\">AI Safety Summit<\/a> was held in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bletchley_Park\" title=\"Bletchley Park\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"871022a35d255fafd3f855038f64514b\">Bletchley Park<\/a> in the UK to discuss the near and far term risks of AI and the possibility of mandatory and voluntary regulatory frameworks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-243\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-243\">[227]<\/a><\/sup> 28 countries including the United States, China, and the European Union issued a declaration at the start of the summit, calling for international co-operation to manage the challenges and risks of artificial intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2023-11-01-bletchley-declaration-full_244-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2023-11-01-bletchley-declaration-full-244\">[228]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-245\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-245\">[229]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"History of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb00251245fc858edc9c12e32694439\">History of artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For a chronological guide, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Timeline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e9d017e0ebfd460857b2be655c57964\">Timeline of artificial intelligence<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p>The study of mechanical or \"formal\" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity. The study of logic led directly to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Turing\" title=\"Alan Turing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48468f77ba0cf295402108f0dd72c040\">Alan Turing<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_computation\" title=\"Theory of computation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f233b42525db491607859f94be056359\">theory of computation<\/a>, which suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as \"0\" and \"1\", could simulate both mathematical deduction and formal reasoning, which is known as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Church%E2%80%93Turing_thesis\" title=\"Church\u2013Turing thesis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfd853d4a0f4b8dfe7e9506cad278e33\">Church\u2013Turing thesis<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlinski2000_246-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlinski2000-246\">[230]<\/a><\/sup> This, along with concurrent discoveries in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cybernetics\" title=\"Cybernetics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fd690a7488aff64dd69ac9128dd7a50\">cybernetics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_theory\" title=\"Information theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37a5a861361287193f336544da55e690\">information theory<\/a>, led researchers to consider the possibility of building an \"electronic brain\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-248\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-248\">[q]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-249\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-249\">[232]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Alan Turing was thinking about machine intelligence at least as early as 1941, when he circulated a paper on machine intelligence which could be the earliest paper in the field of AI \u2013 though it is now lost.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-turing_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-turing-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> The first available paper generally recognized as \"AI\" was <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warren_McCullouch\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Warren McCullouch\" data-key=\"19abfa1b7d2da23db9a6c2e11c9fb29b\">McCullouch<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Walter_Pitts\" title=\"Walter Pitts\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79ea2ec505dd09126d2b191748c40bf3\">Pitts<\/a> design for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing-complete\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Turing-complete\" data-key=\"b0d5436cd52d52da31af01a00f1d88c5\">Turing-complete<\/a> \"artificial neurons\" in 1943 \u2013 the first mathematical model of a neural network.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202117_250-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202117-250\">[233]<\/a><\/sup> The paper was influenced by Turing's earlier paper '<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing%27s_proof\" title=\"Turing's proof\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acced7aa12e48dff1fcab0cb3d79242f\">On Computable Numbers<\/a>' from 1936 using similar two-state boolean 'neurons', but was the first to apply it to neuronal function.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-turing_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-turing-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The term 'Machine Intelligence' was used by Alan Turing during his life which was later often referred to as 'Artificial Intelligence' after his death in 1954. In 1950 Turing published the best known of his papers '<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing_Machinery_and_Intelligence\" title=\"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22cb407e5fe68247851a69a0646c3f7e\">Computing Machinery and Intelligence<\/a>', the paper introduced his concept of what is now known as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_test\" title=\"Turing test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f309ecb31df135db989e843377fb9d\">Turing test<\/a> to the general public. Then followed three radio broadcasts on AI by Turing, the lectures: 'Intelligent Machinery, A Heretical Theory\u2019, \u2018Can Digital Computers Think\u2019? and the panel discussion \u2018Can Automatic Calculating Machines be Said to Think\u2019. By 1956 computer intelligence had been actively pursued for more than a decade in Britain; the earliest AI programmes were written there in 1951\u20131952.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-turing_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-turing-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 1951, using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ferranti_Mark_1\" title=\"Ferranti Mark 1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"401eca20c2e0752c75cf738937ce230f\">Ferranti Mark 1<\/a> computer of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Manchester\" title=\"University of Manchester\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"347de1b1ff635045cc57c95e36a56f6e\">University of Manchester<\/a>, checkers and chess programs were wrote where you could play against the computer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-251\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-251\">[234]<\/a><\/sup> The field of American AI research was founded at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dartmouth_workshop\" title=\"Dartmouth workshop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c9c16aef7f504ef818e0ea59764de30\">a workshop<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dartmouth_College\" title=\"Dartmouth College\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37124aa914875aa433c9863ad4ffb648\">Dartmouth College<\/a> in 1956.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-253\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-253\">[r]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dartmouth_workshop_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dartmouth_workshop-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The attendees became the leaders of AI research in the 1960s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-255\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-255\">[s]<\/a><\/sup> They and their students produced programs that the press described as \"astonishing\":<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-257\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-257\">[t]<\/a><\/sup> computers were learning <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Draughts\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Draughts\" data-key=\"be06208ea1a6c27ec45686433a181b5e\">checkers<\/a> strategies, solving word problems in algebra, proving <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theorem\" title=\"Theorem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"111e325849607c4d5abbfe92ca96bc1c\">logical theorems<\/a> and speaking English.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-258\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-258\">[u]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_the_60s_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_the_60s-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> Artificial Intelligence laboratories were set up at a number of British and US Universities in the latter 1950s and early 1960s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-turing_2-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-turing-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>They had, however, underestimated the difficulty of the problem.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-260\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-260\">[v]<\/a><\/sup> Both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in response to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lighthill_report\" title=\"Lighthill report\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36a1a6b47ed38abd3c468d76c7bf8aa0\">criticism<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sir_James_Lighthill\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sir James Lighthill\" data-key=\"cad558224507fb55b895dd2063837408\">Sir James Lighthill<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTELighthill1973_261-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTELighthill1973-261\">[239]<\/a><\/sup> and ongoing pressure from the U.S. Congress to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mansfield_Amendment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mansfield Amendment\" data-key=\"8e7fd7e41fb96382a622c2461b2c3651\">fund more productive projects<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marvin_Minsky\" title=\"Marvin Minsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5677de93e5b6dc185b95ffc880ffe34\">Minsky<\/a>'s and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seymour_Papert\" title=\"Seymour Papert\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e05adfa2eae95cc6fa0b042c6e2f68b3\">Papert<\/a>'s book <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perceptron\" title=\"Perceptron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04a4d1565003f718e5659ee6ae90061f\">Perceptrons<\/a><\/i> was understood as proving that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial neural networks\" data-key=\"1adb6b70723b983652f5a8281e957425\">artificial neural networks<\/a> would never be useful for solving real-world tasks, thus discrediting the approach altogether.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202122_262-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202122-262\">[240]<\/a><\/sup> The \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_winter\" title=\"AI winter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0128870650338adbb7c06bbe1dadc305\">AI winter<\/a>\", a period when obtaining funding for AI projects was difficult, followed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-First_AI_winter_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-First_AI_winter-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_system\" title=\"Expert system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6a738b57cf1f26d8d60f3adb61e3384\">expert systems<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-263\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-263\">[241]<\/a><\/sup> a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of human experts. By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fifth_generation_computer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fifth generation computer\" data-key=\"8ea405d757211784a6c7443121029019\">fifth generation computer<\/a> project inspired the U.S. and British governments to restore funding for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Academic_research\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Academic research\" data-key=\"3358c648d73b87752065ddcc59d97db4\">academic research<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_the_80s_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_the_80s-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> However, beginning with the collapse of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lisp_Machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Lisp Machine\" data-key=\"59102d5bcf7d67c0846935d5b91e0647\">Lisp Machine<\/a> market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer-lasting winter began.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Second_AI_winter_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Second_AI_winter-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many researchers began to doubt that the current practices would be able to imitate all the processes of human cognition, especially <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">perception<\/a>, robotics, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">learning<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pattern_recognition\" title=\"Pattern recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a507cb5f9432073674e1795cfa5dbd97\">pattern recognition<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202124_264-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202124-264\">[242]<\/a><\/sup> A number of researchers began to look into \"sub-symbolic\" approaches.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTENilsson19987_265-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTENilsson19987-265\">[243]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">Robotics<\/a> researchers, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rodney_Brooks\" title=\"Rodney Brooks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8193c538969269197c051496ce56e39\">Rodney Brooks<\/a>, rejected \"representation\" in general and focussed directly on engineering machines that move and survive.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-270\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-270\">[w]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Judea_Pearl\" title=\"Judea Pearl\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7915d7ae2b9d20f97a3c962205f1db3b\">Judea Pearl<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lofti_Zadeh\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Lofti Zadeh\" data-key=\"9aa91a7a97ca31636c0a346735898783\">Lofti Zadeh<\/a> and others developed methods that handled incomplete and uncertain information by making reasonable guesses rather than precise logic.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Uncertain_reasoning_90-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Uncertain_reasoning-90\">[84]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202125_271-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202125-271\">[248]<\/a><\/sup> But the most important development was the revival of \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Connectionism\" title=\"Connectionism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b94d106a53858fb714ed83605033a37\">connectionism<\/a>\", including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">neural network<\/a> research, by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geoffrey_Hinton\" title=\"Geoffrey Hinton\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"893998bb70c7e5ace243c60bbabbe955\">Geoffrey Hinton<\/a> and others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-272\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-272\">[249]<\/a><\/sup> In 1990, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yann_LeCun\" title=\"Yann LeCun\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f32025c044e12aee9d1b5241836d3763\">Yann LeCun<\/a> successfully showed that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Convolutional_neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Convolutional neural networks\" data-key=\"6d0e638aea3a0244190acd3ee51b1d95\">convolutional neural networks<\/a> can recognize handwritten digits, the first of many successful applications of neural networks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202126_273-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202126-273\">[250]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>AI gradually restored its reputation in the late 1990s and early 21st century by exploiting formal mathematical methods and by finding specific solutions to specific problems. This \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Narrow_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Narrow AI\" data-key=\"b947eced980ede15b9abeafc9d68bba1\">narrow<\/a>\" and \"formal\" focus allowed researchers to produce verifiable results and collaborate with other fields (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economics\" title=\"Economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6a490a031e67e7a7ea4fca8dc646e1c\">economics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">mathematics<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_1990s_274-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_1990s-274\">[251]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By 2000, solutions developed by AI researchers were being widely used, although in the 1990s they were rarely described as \"artificial intelligence\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_widely_used_1990s_275-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_widely_used_1990s-275\">[252]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>Several academic researchers became concerned that AI was no longer pursuing the original goal of creating versatile, fully intelligent machines. Beginning around 2002, they founded the subfield of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">artificial general intelligence<\/a> (or \"AGI\"), which had several well-funded institutions by the 2010s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AGI_12-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AGI-12\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a> began to dominate industry benchmarks in 2012 and was adopted throughout the field.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Deep_learning_revolution_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Deep_learning_revolution-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>For many specific tasks, other methods were abandoned.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-277\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-277\">[x]<\/a><\/sup>\nDeep learning's success was based on both hardware improvements (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moore%27s_law\" title=\"Moore's law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4c4bc7df1af8c3b73b34c4fa6964c76\">faster computers<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Moore's_Law_278-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Moore's_Law-278\">[254]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphics_processing_unit\" title=\"Graphics processing unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c851cd540a55a87fe6ca9ce8dee6257a\">graphics processing units<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">cloud computing<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2015b_279-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2015b-279\">[255]<\/a><\/sup>)\nand access to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">large amounts of data<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Big_data_280-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Big_data-280\">[256]<\/a><\/sup> (including curated datasets,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2015b_279-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2015b-279\">[255]<\/a><\/sup> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ImageNet\" title=\"ImageNet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6ef34d3a403a1bb39f3df1efafaf6c0\">ImageNet<\/a>).\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>Deep learning's success led to an enormous increase in interest and funding in AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-281\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-281\">[y]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The amount of machine learning research (measured by total publications) increased by 50% in the years 2015\u20132019,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2021_236-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2021-236\">[220]<\/a><\/sup>\nand <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WIPO\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"WIPO\" data-key=\"47ec808c0675c1961e281b5fda1e027c\">WIPO<\/a> reported that AI was the most prolific <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emerging_technologies\" title=\"Emerging technologies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8f2401d7d7a28fa805c5d684db9f8df\">emerging technology<\/a> in terms of the number of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Patent\" title=\"Patent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f28f784350c1f6183170a699bb0fa0f9\">patent<\/a> applications and granted patents.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-282\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-282\">[257]<\/a><\/sup>\nAccording to 'AI Impacts', about $50 billion annually was invested in \"AI\" around 2022 in the US alone and about 20% of new US Computer Science PhD graduates have specialized in \"AI\";<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiFeliciantonio2023_283-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiFeliciantonio2023-283\">[258]<\/a><\/sup>\nabout 800,000 \"AI\"-related US job openings existed in 2022.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoswami2023_284-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoswami2023-284\">[259]<\/a><\/sup> The large majority of the advances have occurred within the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States\" title=\"United States\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f44266ab2da9382e3764bac08cfb4076\">United States<\/a>, with its companies, universities, and research labs leading artificial intelligence research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrank2023_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank2023-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>In 2016, issues of fairness and the misuse of technology were catapulted into center stage at machine learning conferences, publications vastly increased, funding became available, and many researchers re-focussed their careers on these issues. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_alignment\" title=\"AI alignment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d34b9215502db1b32937bf054279872\">alignment problem<\/a> became a serious field of academic study.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202067,_73_215-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202067,_73-215\">[199]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Philosophy\">Philosophy<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Philosophy of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72fe09222fe7606d43e990764f3076b4\">Philosophy of artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Defining_artificial_intelligence\">Defining artificial intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_test\" title=\"Turing test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f309ecb31df135db989e843377fb9d\">Turing test<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_agent\" title=\"Intelligent agent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2ded3658bd39dc370a7970df42c985e\">Intelligent agent<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dartmouth_workshop\" title=\"Dartmouth workshop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c9c16aef7f504ef818e0ea59764de30\">Dartmouth workshop<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synthetic_intelligence\" title=\"Synthetic intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76f77c49597597201a85412b7368223f\">Synthetic intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Turing\" title=\"Alan Turing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48468f77ba0cf295402108f0dd72c040\">Alan Turing<\/a> wrote in 1950 \"I propose to consider the question 'can machines think'?\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuring19501_285-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuring19501-285\">[260]<\/a><\/sup> He advised changing the question from whether a machine \"thinks\", to \"whether or not it is possible for machinery to show intelligent behaviour\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuring19501_285-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuring19501-285\">[260]<\/a><\/sup> He devised the Turing test, which measures the ability of a machine to simulate human conversation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turing_test_286-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turing_test-286\">[261]<\/a><\/sup> Since we can only observe the behavior of the machine, it does not matter if it is \"actually\" thinking or literally has a \"mind\". Turing notes that we can not determine these things about other people<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-287\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-287\">[z]<\/a><\/sup> but \"it is usual to have a polite convention that everyone thinks\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuring1950Under_&quot;The_Argument_from_Consciousness&quot;_288-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuring1950Under_&quot;The_Argument_from_Consciousness&quot;-288\">[262]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig<\/a> agree with Turing that AI must be defined in terms of \"acting\" and not \"thinking\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021chpt._2_289-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021chpt._2-289\">[263]<\/a><\/sup> However, they are critical that the test compares machines to <i>people<\/i>. \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aeronautics\" title=\"Aeronautics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b443c26498efd595c03eb4dd2d0a1696\">Aeronautical engineering<\/a> texts,\" they wrote, \"do not define the goal of their field as making 'machines that fly so exactly like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pigeon\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Pigeon\" data-key=\"c8a76e864b8bd8ae05861b55202d3a53\">pigeons<\/a> that they can fool other pigeons.<span style=\"padding-right:.15em;\">'<\/span>\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20213_290-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20213-290\">[264]<\/a><\/sup> AI founder <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"John McCarthy (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"498a2d3b08b0a194821bc61ed3b973fe\">John McCarthy<\/a> agreed, writing that \"Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaker2006_291-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaker2006-291\">[265]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>McCarthy defines intelligence as \"the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarthy1999_292-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarthy1999-292\">[266]<\/a><\/sup> Another AI founder, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marvin_Minsky\" title=\"Marvin Minsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5677de93e5b6dc185b95ffc880ffe34\">Marvin Minsky<\/a> similarly defines it as \"the ability to solve hard problems\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinsky1986_293-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinsky1986-293\">[267]<\/a><\/sup> These definitions view intelligence in terms of well-defined problems with well-defined solutions, where both the difficulty of the problem and the performance of the program are direct measures of the \"intelligence\" of the machine\u2014and no other philosophical discussion is required, or may not even be possible.\n<\/p><p>Another definition has been adopted by Google,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-294\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-294\">[268]<\/a><\/sup> a major practitioner in the field of AI. This definition stipulates the ability of systems to synthesize information as the manifestation of intelligence, similar to the way it is defined in biological intelligence.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Evaluating_approaches_to_AI\">Evaluating approaches to AI<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>No established unifying theory or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paradigm\" title=\"Paradigm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ec5fc768447bc5cea2599c1dd36b032\">paradigm<\/a> has guided AI research for most of its history.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-296\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-296\">[aa]<\/a><\/sup> The unprecedented success of statistical machine learning in the 2010s eclipsed all other approaches (so much so that some sources, especially in the business world, use the term \"artificial intelligence\" to mean \"machine learning with neural networks\"). This approach is mostly <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sub-symbolic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sub-symbolic\" data-key=\"1e0c287858a63ff8f919ec321660f143\">sub-symbolic<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soft_computing\" title=\"Soft computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98a6d07429cb4bc4cfd5ec5ae05714f0\">soft<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">narrow<\/a> (see below). Critics argue that these questions may have to be revisited by future generations of AI researchers.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Symbolic_AI_and_its_limits\">Symbolic AI and its limits<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Symbolic AI (or \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GOFAI\" title=\"GOFAI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3490f09eb761a8d411e5590ee9b0d6da\">GOFAI<\/a>\")<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaugeland1985112\u2013117_297-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaugeland1985112\u2013117-297\">[270]<\/a><\/sup> simulated the high-level conscious reasoning that people use when they solve puzzles, express legal reasoning and do mathematics. They were highly successful at \"intelligent\" tasks such as algebra or IQ tests. In the 1960s, Newell and Simon proposed the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_symbol_systems_hypothesis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Physical symbol systems hypothesis\" data-key=\"733c03cef623b724ea33207a310dcadc\">physical symbol systems hypothesis<\/a>: \"A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Physical_symbol_system_hypothesis_298-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Physical_symbol_system_hypothesis-298\">[271]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, the symbolic approach failed on many tasks that humans solve easily, such as learning, recognizing an object or commonsense reasoning. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moravec%27s_paradox\" title=\"Moravec's paradox\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76a808942c6d7fe91ec4f8263c9888b7\">Moravec's paradox<\/a> is the discovery that high-level \"intelligent\" tasks were easy for AI, but low level \"instinctive\" tasks were extremely difficult.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-299\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-299\">[272]<\/a><\/sup> Philosopher <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hubert_Dreyfus\" title=\"Hubert Dreyfus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7b4ff8e951542af50a558d4a1d6abc5\">Hubert Dreyfus<\/a> had <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dreyfus%27_critique_of_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dreyfus' critique of AI\" data-key=\"da10b2855245e37a0180fce639e95b67\">argued<\/a> since the 1960s that human expertise depends on unconscious instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation, and on having a \"feel\" for the situation, rather than explicit symbolic knowledge.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dreyfus'_critique_300-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dreyfus'_critique-300\">[273]<\/a><\/sup> Although his arguments had been ridiculed and ignored when they were first presented, eventually, AI research came to agree with him.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-302\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-302\">[ab]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning_18-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning-18\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The issue is not resolved: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sub-symbolic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sub-symbolic\" data-key=\"1e0c287858a63ff8f919ec321660f143\">sub-symbolic<\/a> reasoning can make many of the same inscrutable mistakes that human intuition does, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithmic_bias\" title=\"Algorithmic bias\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03a3ae18f9e582251dac4193d8945a43\">algorithmic bias<\/a>. Critics such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Noam_Chomsky\" title=\"Noam Chomsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3203fd57f938e3ef1ef1ec821e7b67cd\">Noam Chomsky<\/a> argue continuing research into symbolic AI will still be necessary to attain general intelligence,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangley2011_303-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangley2011-303\">[275]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatz2012_304-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatz2012-304\">[276]<\/a><\/sup> in part because sub-symbolic AI is a move away from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Explainable_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Explainable AI\" data-key=\"90b8c6802d5bc97a989d854c1f62d773\">explainable AI<\/a>: it can be difficult or impossible to understand why a modern statistical AI program made a particular decision. The emerging field of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuro-symbolic_AI\" title=\"Neuro-symbolic AI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21508b4d85509ab55a5f5d1a505ba119\">neuro-symbolic artificial intelligence<\/a> attempts to bridge the two approaches.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Neat_vs._scruffy\">Neat vs. scruffy<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neats_and_scruffies\" title=\"Neats and scruffies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb270bddfd319cb600a2d9cd2196de05\">Neats and scruffies<\/a><\/div>\n<p>\"Neats\" hope that intelligent behavior is described using simple, elegant principles (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic\" title=\"Logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1765a5c4c6dcb7becba1cf644fe3897\">logic<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optimization_(mathematics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Optimization (mathematics)\" data-key=\"a0e43b9012530963008233e16e4d4533\">optimization<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neural networks\" data-key=\"9020876aa19c541d6113c18b09f7a5bb\">neural networks<\/a>). \"Scruffies\" expect that it necessarily requires solving a large number of unrelated problems. Neats defend their programs with theoretical rigor, scruffies rely mainly on incremental testing to see if they work. This issue was actively discussed in the 1970s and 1980s,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Neats_vs._scruffies_305-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Neats_vs._scruffies-305\">[277]<\/a><\/sup> but eventually was seen as irrelevant. Modern AI has elements of both.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soft_vs._hard_computing\">Soft vs. hard computing<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soft_computing\" title=\"Soft computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98a6d07429cb4bc4cfd5ec5ae05714f0\">Soft computing<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Finding a provably correct or optimal solution is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intractability_(complexity)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intractability (complexity)\" data-key=\"9bdf06b1c571a6bd0452dd56dd9e1801\">intractable<\/a> for many important problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Intractability_17-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Intractability-17\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> Soft computing is a set of techniques, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_algorithms\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Genetic algorithms\" data-key=\"fc5ef0931d55987c180aeb657a1640aa\">genetic algorithms<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\" title=\"Fuzzy logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b5089e9114f91c54ad40c5615094874\">fuzzy logic<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neural networks\" data-key=\"9020876aa19c541d6113c18b09f7a5bb\">neural networks<\/a>, that are tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth and approximation. Soft computing was introduced in the late 1980s and most successful AI programs in the 21st century are examples of soft computing with neural networks.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Narrow_vs._general_AI\">Narrow vs. general AI<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">Artificial general intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p>AI researchers are divided as to whether to pursue the goals of artificial general intelligence and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superintelligence\" title=\"Superintelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b118c2443168f3f5a961bada59001ecc\">superintelligence<\/a> directly or to solve as many specific problems as possible (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weak_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Weak artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6e88a61f6be1cc4ab344378623415d1\">narrow AI<\/a>) in hopes these solutions will lead indirectly to the field's long-term goals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPennachinGoertzel2007_306-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPennachinGoertzel2007-306\">[278]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts2016_307-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2016-307\">[279]<\/a><\/sup> General intelligence is difficult to define and difficult to measure, and modern AI has had more verifiable successes by focusing on specific problems with specific solutions. The experimental sub-field of artificial general intelligence studies this area exclusively.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Machine_consciousness.2C_sentience_and_mind\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Machine_consciousness,_sentience_and_mind\">Machine consciousness, sentience and mind<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Philosophy of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72fe09222fe7606d43e990764f3076b4\">Philosophy of artificial intelligence<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_consciousness\" title=\"Artificial consciousness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1abb86be8a5d28c37fa1a5c9f30c527\">Artificial consciousness<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_mind\" title=\"Philosophy of mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b4e71d5c57fcf6363812fa60dee7da\">philosophy of mind<\/a> does not know whether a machine can have a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mind\" title=\"Mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e57825f08aece0c29adc836a1c58c45\">mind<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consciousness\" title=\"Consciousness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2eed83cfa284bea87c6aa280ee361ee6\">consciousness<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_mind\" title=\"Philosophy of mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b4e71d5c57fcf6363812fa60dee7da\">mental states<\/a>, in the same sense that human beings do. This issue considers the internal experiences of the machine, rather than its external behavior. Mainstream AI research considers this issue irrelevant because it does not affect the goals of the field: to build machines that can solve problems using intelligence. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig<\/a> add that \"[t]he additional project of making a machine conscious in exactly the way humans are is not one that we are equipped to take on.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021986_308-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021986-308\">[280]<\/a><\/sup> However, the question has become central to the philosophy of mind. It is also typically the central question at issue in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_fiction\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in fiction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e53c1a93997cdae05907136f7e760e8d\">artificial intelligence in fiction<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Consciousness\">Consciousness<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_problem_of_consciousness\" title=\"Hard problem of consciousness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65b5ddeaf78597cd962829a8ee29aae4\">Hard problem of consciousness<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_mind\" title=\"Theory of mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51176008e2fecf6c136bd53bf5ecf2d3\">Theory of mind<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Chalmers\" title=\"David Chalmers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec4a71fe936ef9233c3333ca26d35e22\">David Chalmers<\/a> identified two problems in understanding the mind, which he named the \"hard\" and \"easy\" problems of consciousness.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChalmers1995_309-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChalmers1995-309\">[281]<\/a><\/sup> The easy problem is understanding how the brain processes signals, makes plans and controls behavior. The hard problem is explaining how this <i>feels<\/i> or why it should feel like anything at all, assuming we are right in thinking that it truly does feel like something (Dennett's consciousness illusionism says this is an illusion). Human <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_processing_(psychology)\" title=\"Information processing (psychology)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"291ad58f5b019a0aadd352a5c70765f2\">information processing<\/a> is easy to explain, however, human <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subjective_experience\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Subjective experience\" data-key=\"f7abfa43c0ce729f250e4cf74be9eebd\">subjective experience<\/a> is difficult to explain. For example, it is easy to imagine a color-blind person who has learned to identify which objects in their field of view are red, but it is not clear what would be required for the person to <i>know what red looks like<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDennett1991_310-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennett1991-310\">[282]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Computationalism_and_functionalism\">Computationalism and functionalism<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_theory_of_mind\" title=\"Computational theory of mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c78269febe7044b2af248ce5719540e6\">Computational theory of mind<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)\" title=\"Functionalism (philosophy of mind)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8575c5b699db1aa695dafbbc970b5daa\">Functionalism (philosophy of mind)<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_room\" title=\"Chinese room\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40e4f68def9042fbadc20dbe8654fdca\">Chinese room<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Computationalism is the position in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_mind\" title=\"Philosophy of mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b4e71d5c57fcf6363812fa60dee7da\">philosophy of mind<\/a> that the human mind is an information processing system and that thinking is a form of computing. Computationalism argues that the relationship between mind and body is similar or identical to the relationship between software and hardware and thus may be a solution to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem\" title=\"Mind\u2013body problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c24c355c37c3d478fc8597a25f513c8\">mind\u2013body problem<\/a>. This philosophical position was inspired by the work of AI researchers and cognitive scientists in the 1960s and was originally proposed by philosophers <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerry_Fodor\" title=\"Jerry Fodor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c83b56fe5ece316c18b5952cee322198\">Jerry Fodor<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hilary_Putnam\" title=\"Hilary Putnam\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4aad0bdd5cb05bd5d83a757dafddf1e3\">Hilary Putnam<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorst2005_311-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorst2005-311\">[283]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Philosopher <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Searle\" title=\"John Searle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8a0c5f2845bfc0d1b015937657a9b1f\">John Searle<\/a> characterized this position as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strong_AI_hypothesis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Strong AI hypothesis\" data-key=\"c81d64881909cab62ae4da95d7f7ad1a\">strong AI<\/a>\": \"The appropriately programmed computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human beings have minds.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Searle's_strong_AI_315-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Searle's_strong_AI-315\">[ac]<\/a><\/sup> Searle counters this assertion with his Chinese room argument, which attempts to show that, even if a machine perfectly simulates human behavior, there is still no reason to suppose it also has a mind.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Chinese_room_316-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Chinese_room-316\">[287]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Robot_rights\">Robot rights<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robot_rights\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Robot rights\" data-key=\"3d9e387e8ec555912cdbfcc557d3d762\">Robot rights<\/a><\/div>\n<p>If a machine has a mind and subjective experience, then it may also have <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sentience\" title=\"Sentience\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0cc015b39f4a0fbbe13615e5400bd8d\">sentience<\/a> (the ability to feel), and if so it could also <i>suffer<\/i>; it has been argued that this could entitle it to certain rights.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-317\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-317\">[288]<\/a><\/sup> Any hypothetical robot rights would lie on a spectrum with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Animal_rights\" title=\"Animal rights\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9bbf6b71ac12e3ce3aa9964c9162d7b\">animal rights<\/a> and human rights.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2015_318-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2015-318\">[289]<\/a><\/sup> This issue has been considered in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_fiction\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in fiction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e53c1a93997cdae05907136f7e760e8d\">fiction<\/a> for centuries,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck200419\u201325_319-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck200419\u201325-319\">[290]<\/a><\/sup> and is now being considered by, for example, California's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Institute_for_the_Future\" title=\"Institute for the Future\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5dd3a4d778e0f6737037d7d20545376c\">Institute for the Future<\/a>; however, critics argue that the discussion is premature.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenderson2007_320-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenderson2007-320\">[291]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Future\">Future<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Superintelligence_and_the_singularity\">Superintelligence and the singularity<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superintelligence\" title=\"Superintelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b118c2443168f3f5a961bada59001ecc\">superintelligence<\/a> is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human mind.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts2016_307-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2016-307\">[279]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>If research into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">artificial general intelligence<\/a> produced sufficiently intelligent software, it might be able to reprogram and improve itself. The improved software would be even better at improving itself, leading to what <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I._J._Good\" title=\"I. J. Good\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f254b138042de64c79205242dce9ec4\">I. J. Good<\/a> called an \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligence_explosion\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intelligence explosion\" data-key=\"b16c3047e73e428a36c3c41a53b98c72\">intelligence explosion<\/a>\" and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vernor_Vinge\" title=\"Vernor Vinge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b1b61f79e9e3f719f8b2ce721dcac0f\">Vernor Vinge<\/a> called a \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technological_singularity\" title=\"Technological singularity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4787174dcb8c7955e9a9622daf8da71c\">singularity<\/a>\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Singularity_321-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Singularity-321\">[292]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, technologies cannot improve exponentially indefinitely, and typically follow an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S-shaped_curve\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S-shaped curve\" data-key=\"2ced6ba5e6c0e0ab03f7b353a145b0b4\">S-shaped curve<\/a>, slowing when they reach the physical limits of what the technology can do.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20211005_322-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20211005-322\">[293]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Transhumanism\">Transhumanism<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Robot designer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Moravec\" title=\"Hans Moravec\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"251f9e14d86954130e9f7e16aa21c877\">Hans Moravec<\/a>, cyberneticist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kevin_Warwick\" title=\"Kevin Warwick\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e61c73793aff0e8ec32cd8caf6a1b8b4\">Kevin Warwick<\/a>, and inventor <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Kurzweil\" title=\"Ray Kurzweil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bfcf52303d37aac624912e3fdddd296\">Ray Kurzweil<\/a> have predicted that humans and machines will merge in the future into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyborg\" title=\"Cyborg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68ff73406b62517d73d3a4c986fe66f6\">cyborgs<\/a> that are more capable and powerful than either. This idea, called transhumanism, has roots in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aldous_Huxley\" title=\"Aldous Huxley\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cafe77e64bb15ab5aa9f0f761a48e16c\">Aldous Huxley<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert_Ettinger\" title=\"Robert Ettinger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d39c58f72283601b0ec16d183d22a603\">Robert Ettinger<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-323\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-323\">[294]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Fredkin\" title=\"Edward Fredkin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c048410d673ea47508c13c8f98f7015\">Edward Fredkin<\/a> argues that \"artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution\", an idea first proposed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Samuel_Butler_(novelist)\" title=\"Samuel Butler (novelist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e10417b2af600ca52e522c57713009b3\">Samuel Butler<\/a>'s \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Darwin_among_the_Machines\" title=\"Darwin among the Machines\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4af6c95574f12f2123aeca288af889d6\">Darwin among the Machines<\/a>\" as far back as 1863, and expanded upon by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Dyson_(science_historian)\" title=\"George Dyson (science historian)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24ab0a81cf8f365c1303a86a89652fce\">George Dyson<\/a> in his book of the same name in 1998.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-324\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-324\">[295]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_fiction\">In fiction<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_fiction\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in fiction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e53c1a93997cdae05907136f7e760e8d\">Artificial intelligence in fiction<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Capek_play.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8b15c7991901ddad3ba2b94d89276fb\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/87\/Capek_play.jpg\/260px-Capek_play.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"260\" height=\"145\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>The word \"robot\" itself was coined by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Karel_%C4%8Capek\" title=\"Karel \u010capek\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89fef944a9385a283c305b8268dc66bc\">Karel \u010capek<\/a> in his 1921 play <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/R.U.R.\" title=\"R.U.R.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c4517be68c67ada2e989427daf3e78c\">R.U.R.<\/a><\/i>, the title standing for \"Rossum's Universal Robots\".<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Thought-capable artificial beings have appeared as storytelling devices since antiquity,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_myth_325-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_myth-325\">[296]<\/a><\/sup> and have been a persistent theme in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science_fiction\" title=\"Science fiction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51452459b09530b7a8be48be26da616c\">science fiction<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck2004340\u2013400_326-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck2004340\u2013400-326\">[297]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A common <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trope_(literature)\" title=\"Trope (literature)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db06d77c02a2af8fe293ead8a489f5f4\">trope<\/a> in these works began with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mary_Shelley\" title=\"Mary Shelley\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff812e247d7e306c3890daeeaf17337f\">Mary Shelley<\/a>'s <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frankenstein\" title=\"Frankenstein\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"262d14f4d3e4779a1ebe81a00c22815b\">Frankenstein<\/a><\/i>, where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters. This includes such works as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(novel)\" title=\"2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98e52636349b35b1da532b044d52b0e7\">Arthur C. Clarke's<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(film)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"2001: A Space Odyssey (film)\" data-key=\"c3e91b17705c4d71cf0b56e536ccbb50\">Stanley Kubrick's<\/a> <i>2001: A Space Odyssey<\/i> (both 1968), with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HAL_9000\" title=\"HAL 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb1dedab35abc25b6ac10d8a69ba7ce3\">HAL 9000<\/a>, the murderous computer in charge of the <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discovery_One\" title=\"Discovery One\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"597a4b65f878d60c7d79304a1640397f\">Discovery One<\/a><\/i> spaceship, as well as <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Terminator\" title=\"The Terminator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a50163c8a08b71dae35198ba26876b3\">The Terminator<\/a><\/i> (1984) and <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Matrix\" title=\"The Matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42aae0d7f0a4f9ed00e741a42a0000ea\">The Matrix<\/a><\/i> (1999). In contrast, the rare loyal robots such as Gort from <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Day_the_Earth_Stood_Still\" title=\"The Day the Earth Stood Still\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c8b3d1ca2b90498e39913f0746f3bbc\">The Day the Earth Stood Still<\/a><\/i> (1951) and Bishop from <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aliens_(film)\" title=\"Aliens (film)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"486f4fe66384374f9c8d73b55592d888\">Aliens<\/a><\/i> (1986) are less prominent in popular culture.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButtazzo2001_327-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButtazzo2001-327\">[298]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Isaac_Asimov\" title=\"Isaac Asimov\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9aa5a817142483ea71354a06dd25bcb6\">Isaac Asimov<\/a> introduced the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Three_Laws_of_Robotics\" title=\"Three Laws of Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c2e4393b87f809c2d9eb5cc9fe89101\">Three Laws of Robotics<\/a> in many books and stories, most notably the \"Multivac\" series about a super-intelligent computer of the same name. Asimov's laws are often brought up during lay discussions of machine ethics;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008_328-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008-328\">[299]<\/a><\/sup> while almost all artificial intelligence researchers are familiar with Asimov's laws through popular culture, they generally consider the laws useless for many reasons, one of which is their ambiguity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCauley2007_329-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley2007-329\">[300]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Several works use AI to force us to confront the fundamental question of what makes us human, showing us artificial beings that have <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sentience\" title=\"Sentience\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0cc015b39f4a0fbbe13615e5400bd8d\">the ability to feel<\/a>, and thus to suffer. This appears in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Karel_%C4%8Capek\" title=\"Karel \u010capek\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89fef944a9385a283c305b8268dc66bc\">Karel \u010capek<\/a>'s <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/R.U.R.\" title=\"R.U.R.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c4517be68c67ada2e989427daf3e78c\">R.U.R.<\/a><\/i>, the films <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/A.I._Artificial_Intelligence\" title=\"A.I. Artificial Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69cf4178a0b5f12a546c001986bf7508\">A.I. Artificial Intelligence<\/a><\/i> and <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ex_Machina_(film)\" title=\"Ex Machina (film)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7af6891dfa7ddee51cfd737c99e51828\">Ex Machina<\/a><\/i>, as well as the novel <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Do_Androids_Dream_of_Electric_Sheep%3F\" title=\"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97cd714558b30d4fe9e2386dc9970824\">Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?<\/a><\/i>, by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philip_K._Dick\" title=\"Philip K. Dick\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c7a1ae8bbe84fdbc52e8ad143cb71bb\">Philip K. Dick<\/a>. Dick considers the idea that our understanding of human subjectivity is altered by technology created with artificial intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalvan1997_330-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalvan1997-330\">[301]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_effect\" title=\"AI effect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47396a038586b92543c1d3524bafc444\">AI effect<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_detection_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial intelligence detection software\" data-key=\"f8a26bf4cd99eb5917bc6e8a3be3fcf6\">Artificial intelligence detection software<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Software to detect AI-generated content<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in healthcare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a83c45f6d758fe57b1fe4cb086a660dd\">Artificial intelligence in healthcare<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Overview of the use of artificial intelligence in healthcare<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behavior_selection_algorithm\" title=\"Behavior selection algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7554428e33fd4d1c700379187b9c8b4a\">Behavior selection algorithm<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Algorithm that selects actions for intelligent agents<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_automation\" title=\"Business process automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6961c6e95c105b9a05bf46f6e116c7d\">Business process automation<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Technology-enabled automation of complex business processes<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Case-based_reasoning\" title=\"Case-based reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"185576b5b04df29876c608868d2a827d\">Case-based reasoning<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past problems<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emergent_algorithm\" title=\"Emergent algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd085d5c4058231f622eecf40122b76b\">Emergent algorithm<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Algorithm exhibiting emergent behavior<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Female_gendering_of_AI_technologies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Female gendering of AI technologies\" data-key=\"d2aa4f2a4cd699f2d33be9fc07f2fdb8\">Female gendering of AI technologies<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Glossary of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"441c02aab14ebdf235a3e39d66538693\">Glossary of artificial intelligence<\/a>&#160;\u2013 List of definitions of terms and concepts commonly used in the study of artificial intelligence<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotic_process_automation\" title=\"Robotic process automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d49cf593ed2f4c4a7c2e383e1b467d6\">Robotic process automation<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Form of business process automation technology<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weak_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Weak artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6e88a61f6be1cc4ab344378623415d1\">Weak artificial intelligence<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Form of artificial intelligence<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wetware_computer\" title=\"Wetware computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"632182a286f66766ba661121d77dc021\">Wetware computer<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Computer composed of organic material<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligence_amplification\" title=\"Intelligence amplification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"602934c942883a26a432ce951c95d158\">Intelligence amplification<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Use of information technology to augment human intelligence<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Explanatory_notes\">Explanatory notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-lower-alpha\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Problems_of_AI-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Problems_of_AI_11-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Problems_of_AI_11-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">This list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: <a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, <a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004)<\/a>, <a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998)<\/a> and <a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998)<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Tools_of_AI-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Tools_of_AI_13-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Tools_of_AI_13-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">This list of tools is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: <a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, <a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004)<\/a>, <a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998)<\/a> and <a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998)<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">It is among the reasons that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_system\" title=\"Expert system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6a738b57cf1f26d8d60f3adb61e3384\">expert systems<\/a> proved to be inefficient for capturing knowledge.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTENewquist1994296_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewquist1994296-32\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrevier1993204\u2013208_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrevier1993204\u2013208-33\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n\"Rational agent\" is general term used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economics\" title=\"Economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6a490a031e67e7a7ea4fca8dc646e1c\">economics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy\" title=\"Philosophy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14ccd0db1fd666754f9f2f851d3a55f7\">philosophy<\/a> and theoretical artificial intelligence. It can refer to anything that directs its behavior to accomplish goals, such as a person, an animal, a corporation, a nation, or, in the case of AI, a computer program.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Turing\" title=\"Alan Turing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48468f77ba0cf295402108f0dd72c040\">Alan Turing<\/a> discussed the centrality of learning as early as 1950, in his classic paper \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing_Machinery_and_Intelligence\" title=\"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22cb407e5fe68247851a69a0646c3f7e\">Computing Machinery and Intelligence<\/a>\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuring1950_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuring1950-46\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> In 1956, at the original Dartmouth AI summer conference, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Solomonoff\" title=\"Ray Solomonoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"938a83ba5a77aced401a2894a2e4abde\">Ray Solomonoff<\/a> wrote a report on unsupervised probabilistic machine learning: \"An Inductive Inference Machine\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolomonoff1956_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomonoff1956-47\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See <a href=\"#Machine_translation_and_the_ALPAC_report_of_1966\" title=\"AI winter\">AI winter \u00a7&#160;Machine translation and the ALPAC report of 1966<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-93\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-93\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nCompared with symbolic logic, formal Bayesian inference is computationally expensive. For inference to be tractable, most observations must be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conditionally_independent\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Conditionally independent\" data-key=\"7fe0771b35d69a3e617240a44d8505d7\">conditionally independent<\/a> of one another. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_AdSense\" title=\"Google AdSense\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f9d4d187a85f39ea84c1718ec664f737\">AdSense<\/a> uses a Bayesian network with over 300&#160;million edges to learn which ads to serve.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015chapter_6_92-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015chapter_6-92\">[86]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-96\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-96\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Expectation-maximization, one of the most popular algorithms in machine learning, allows clustering in the presence of unknown <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Latent_variables\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Latent variables\" data-key=\"d1c4b0cd6dcdbec12c484f9a28d1f315\">latent variables<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015210_95-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015210-95\">[88]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-127\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-127\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nSome form of deep neural networks (without a specific learning algorithm) were described by:\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Turing\" title=\"Alan Turing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48468f77ba0cf295402108f0dd72c040\">Alan Turing<\/a> (1948);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785-120\">[112]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frank_Rosenblatt\" title=\"Frank Rosenblatt\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d010ae3689886c9fe2a9fd33d18e193\">Frank Rosenblatt<\/a>(1957);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785-120\">[112]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Karl_Steinbuch\" title=\"Karl Steinbuch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96d727557aa39249a25d71e4e56f0834\">Karl Steinbuch<\/a> and (1961).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a75_121-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a75-121\">[113]<\/a><\/sup>\nDeep or recurrent networks that learned (or used gradient descent) were developed by:\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ernst_Ising\" title=\"Ernst Ising\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e58d4afbf1e41deb41e05dd78c5ee97a\">Ernst Ising<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wilhelm_Lenz\" title=\"Wilhelm Lenz\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1c3c263ea56d89ea3f1110dc3e4ab40\">Wilhelm Lenz<\/a> (1925);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a76_122-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a76-122\">[114]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oliver_Selfridge\" title=\"Oliver Selfridge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6e119fd2b0d7a52aefb0e17d15a370a8\">Oliver Selfridge<\/a> (1959);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a75_121-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a75-121\">[113]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alexey_Ivakhnenko\" title=\"Alexey Ivakhnenko\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa6c35ac57ef1110d207c7c7295effbe\">Alexey Ivakhnenko<\/a> and (1965);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a76_122-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a76-122\">[114]<\/a><\/sup>\n (1977);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a77_123-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a77-123\">[115]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shun-Ichi_Amari\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Shun-Ichi Amari\" data-key=\"366ee6adb67d7b2ec6a60ed50e847a98\">Shun-Ichi Amari<\/a> (1972);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a77_123-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a77-123\">[115]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Joseph_Hopfield\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"John Joseph Hopfield\" data-key=\"9d00d55ee7cf6d10d20818c5757cbf95\">John Joseph Hopfield<\/a> (1982).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a77_123-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a77-123\">[115]<\/a><\/sup>\nBackpropagation was independently discovered by:\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Henry_J._Kelley\" title=\"Henry J. Kelley\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d8cc9a34f9b4c6f124245914a235d62\">Henry J. Kelley<\/a> (1960);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785-120\">[112]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur_E._Bryson\" title=\"Arthur E. Bryson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e574522b7c71a89078dcacdc8d0f3d89\">Arthur E. Bryson<\/a> (1962);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785-120\">[112]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_Dreyfus\" title=\"Stuart Dreyfus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5570797a1ea6d39669244b6f45263612\">Stuart Dreyfus<\/a> (1962);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785-120\">[112]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur_E._Bryson\" title=\"Arthur E. Bryson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e574522b7c71a89078dcacdc8d0f3d89\">Arthur E. Bryson<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yu-Chi_Ho\" title=\"Yu-Chi Ho\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e6e2409100e2e88a6851de529f9f43d\">Yu-Chi Ho<\/a> (1969);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785-120\">[112]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seppo_Linnainmaa\" title=\"Seppo Linnainmaa\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11fc67b0df8b62d80f1350c84b77c3c4\">Seppo Linnainmaa<\/a> (1970);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a78_124-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a78-124\">[116]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paul_Werbos\" title=\"Paul Werbos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40fa3481a9308163e8dd3a8916630e69\">Paul Werbos<\/a> (1974).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785-120\">[112]<\/a><\/sup>\nIn fact, backpropagation and gradient descent are straight forward applications of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gottfried_Leibniz\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gottfried Leibniz\" data-key=\"3b18560b5f8ebc45cc6a8598cf366873\">Gottfried Leibniz<\/a>' <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chain_rule\" title=\"Chain rule\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3369d26c8aab0e05a132588e6190dffc\">chain rule<\/a> in calculus (1676),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a72_125-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a72-125\">[117]<\/a><\/sup> and is essentially identical (for one layer) to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Method_of_least_squares\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Method of least squares\" data-key=\"a23796cce38f293e7521bfea854082e2\">method of least squares<\/a>, developed independently by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Johann_Carl_Friedrich_Gauss\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss\" data-key=\"a62c6c95d9dde7785f818283614e88c9\">Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss<\/a> (1795) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adrien-Marie_Legendre\" title=\"Adrien-Marie Legendre\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5aaf90b11a7ac809ae3a04a294a142b\">Adrien-Marie Legendre<\/a> (1805).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a73_126-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a73-126\">[118]<\/a><\/sup> There are probably many others, yet to be discovered by historians of science.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-129\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-129\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geoffrey_Hinton\" title=\"Geoffrey Hinton\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"893998bb70c7e5ace243c60bbabbe955\">Geoffrey Hinton<\/a> said, of his work on neural networks in the 1990s, \"our labeled datasets were thousands of times too small. [And] our computers were millions of times too slow\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-128\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-128\">[119]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-164\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-164\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jon_Kleinberg\" title=\"Jon Kleinberg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07ba7b871404617d9ba7cd7be5c0309e\">Jon Kleinberg<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cornell\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cornell\" data-key=\"6b5351c3cc365d275cdcb680298d3fd3\">Cornell<\/a>), Sendhil Mullainathan (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Chicago\" title=\"University of Chicago\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21548f377a84576c1bb22c14b297c1a7\">University of Chicago<\/a>), Cynthia Chouldechova (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon\" data-key=\"79383ab12fea2abb6842c360c073daf8\">Carnegie Mellon<\/a>) and Sam Corbett-Davis (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stanford\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Stanford\" data-key=\"b1459cc003991839f0603024a8d7b73c\">Stanford<\/a>)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202067\u201370_163-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202067\u201370-163\">[153]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-170\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-170\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Moritz Hardt (a director at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Intelligent_Systems\" title=\"Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"989623951ffeee9c864e9d44bf465592\">Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems<\/a>) argues that machine learning \"is fundamentally the wrong tool for a lot of domains, where you're trying to design interventions and mechanisms that change the world.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-169\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-169\">[158]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-177\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-177\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">When the law was passed in 2018, it still contained a form of this provision.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-185\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-185\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">This is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Nations\" title=\"United Nations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58df5ccf06f9a41ee69f940e1168a8ac\">United Nations<\/a>' definition, and includes things like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Land_mines\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Land mines\" data-key=\"bb178567426856bdfc01202017c9b068\">land mines<\/a> as well.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021989_184-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021989-184\">[171]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-199\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-199\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See table 4; 9% is both the OECD average and the US average.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArntzGregoryZierahn201633_198-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArntzGregoryZierahn201633-198\">[184]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-207\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-207\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Sometimes called a \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robopocalypse\" title=\"Robopocalypse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c451c648ac0fcc2f2d2c989c46035b4\">robopocalypse<\/a>\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20211001_206-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20211001-206\">[191]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-248\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-248\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\"Electronic brain\" was the term used by the press around this time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-247\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-247\">[231]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-253\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-253\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nDaniel Crevier wrote, \"the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the new science.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrevier199347\u201349_252-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrevier199347\u201349-252\">[235]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig<\/a> called the conference \"the inception of artificial intelligence.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202117_250-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202117-250\">[233]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-255\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-255\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig<\/a> wrote \"for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these people and their students.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200317_254-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200317-254\">[236]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-257\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-257\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig<\/a> wrote \"it was astonishing whenever a computer did anything kind of smartish\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200318_256-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200318-256\">[237]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-258\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-258\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nThe programs described are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur_Samuel_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"Arthur Samuel (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07ca64ab9edc7c8977958d425055d049\">Arthur Samuel<\/a>'s checkers program for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_701\" title=\"IBM 701\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"813ce04388d687273f4b74940b9e783e\">IBM 701<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Bobrow\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Daniel Bobrow\" data-key=\"deefed668828c9f306f16e5750a0fac2\">Daniel Bobrow<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/STUDENT_(computer_program)\" title=\"STUDENT (computer program)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d34fbb016c81ff992c8dbc676fb0384b\">STUDENT<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allen_Newell\" title=\"Allen Newell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92e155bb916e0a942167e5882906563e\">Newell<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbert_A._Simon\" title=\"Herbert A. Simon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d9e38903367abeb4880342cd666b2b0\">Simon<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_Theorist\" title=\"Logic Theorist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5def3113560113182833535bcc7fb40c\">Logic Theorist<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Terry_Winograd\" title=\"Terry Winograd\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02ac915309233b2e7af145a2fb8811d3\">Terry Winograd<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SHRDLU\" title=\"SHRDLU\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bc30f4e608685afbe2e6096d23b7fe4\">SHRDLU<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-260\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-260\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig<\/a> write: \"in almost all cases, these early systems failed on more difficult problems\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202121_259-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202121-259\">[238]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-270\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-270\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embodied_mind\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Embodied mind\" data-key=\"b0f47eba75a7d24cec951edb929cb476\">Embodied<\/a> approaches to AI<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck2004454\u2013462_266-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck2004454\u2013462-266\">[244]<\/a><\/sup> were championed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Moravec\" title=\"Hans Moravec\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"251f9e14d86954130e9f7e16aa21c877\">Hans Moravec<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoravec1988_267-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoravec1988-267\">[245]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rodney_Brooks\" title=\"Rodney Brooks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8193c538969269197c051496ce56e39\">Rodney Brooks<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrooks1990_268-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooks1990-268\">[246]<\/a><\/sup> and went by many names: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nouvelle_AI\" title=\"Nouvelle AI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86e434ab66843e50734bee12aca68fa9\">Nouvelle AI<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrooks1990_268-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooks1990-268\">[246]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Developmental_robotics\" title=\"Developmental robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bad5eeeb274d212ac93d951ec736f53\">Developmental robotics<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Developmental_robotics_269-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Developmental_robotics-269\">[247]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-277\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-277\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Matteo Wong wrote in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Atlantic\" title=\"The Atlantic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a97acb999d8661b4a1277f39c9d111e\">The Atlantic<\/a>: \"Whereas for decades, computer-science fields such as natural-language processing, computer vision, and robotics used extremely different methods, now they all use a programming method called \"deep learning.\" As a result, their code and approaches have become more similar, and their models are easier to integrate into one another.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWong2023_276-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2023-276\">[253]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-281\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-281\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Jack Clark wrote in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bloomberg_News\" title=\"Bloomberg News\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1274a1dfae27129abe759dcb56c83d1\">Bloomberg<\/a>: \"After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster than ever,\" and noted that the number of software projects that use machine learning at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google\" title=\"Google\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b915ee8daf11a90fecc2d0bd0513feb\">Google<\/a> increased from a \"sporadic usage\" in 2012 to more than 2,700 projects in 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2015b_279-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2015b-279\">[255]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-287\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-287\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Problem_of_other_minds\" title=\"Problem of other minds\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f00640c198595820c62744f3976349d\">Problem of other minds<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-296\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-296\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nils_Nilsson_(researcher)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nils Nilsson (researcher)\" data-key=\"5ec99f61dc752c5fa3f7b86c24345070\">Nils Nilsson<\/a> wrote in 1983: \"Simply put, there is wide disagreement in the field about what AI is all about.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTENilsson198310_295-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTENilsson198310-295\">[269]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-302\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-302\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nDaniel Crevier wrote that \"time has proven the accuracy and perceptiveness of some of Dreyfus's comments. Had he formulated them less aggressively, constructive actions they suggested might have been taken much earlier.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrevier1993125_301-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrevier1993125-301\">[274]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Searle's_strong_AI-315\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Searle's_strong_AI_315-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nSearle presented this definition of \"Strong AI\" in 1999.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESearle1999_312-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESearle1999-312\">[284]<\/a><\/sup> Searle's original formulation was \"The appropriately programmed computer really is a mind, in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTESearle19801_313-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTESearle19801-313\">[285]<\/a><\/sup> Strong AI is defined similarly by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig<\/a>: \"Stong AI \u2013 the assertion that machines that do so are <i>actually<\/i> thinking (as opposed to <i>simulating<\/i> thinking).\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20219817_314-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20219817-314\">[286]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1011085734\" \/><div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 22em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoogle2016-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoogle2016_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGoogle2016\">Google (2016)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-turing-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-turing_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-turing_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-turing_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-turing_2-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-turing_2-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCopeland2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Copeland, J., ed. (2004). <i>The Essential Turing: the ideas that gave birth to the computer age<\/i>. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-19-825079-7<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Essential+Turing%3A+the+ideas+that+gave+birth+to+the+computer+age&amp;rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&amp;rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-825079-7&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dartmouth_workshop-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Dartmouth_workshop_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Dartmouth_workshop_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dartmouth_workshop\" title=\"Dartmouth workshop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c9c16aef7f504ef818e0ea59764de30\">Dartmouth workshop<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;18)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;111\u2013136)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNRC1999\">NRC (1999<\/a>, pp.&#160;200\u2013201)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The proposal:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCarthyMinskyRochesterShannon1955\">McCarthy et al. (1955)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_in_the_60s-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_the_60s_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_the_60s_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nSuccessful programs the 1960s:\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;243\u2013252)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993<\/a>, pp.&#160;52\u2013107)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMoravec1988\">Moravec (1988<\/a>, p.&#160;9)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;19\u201321)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_in_the_80s-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_the_80s_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_the_80s_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nFunding initiatives in the early 1980s: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fifth_Generation_Project\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fifth Generation Project\" data-key=\"dc8fafeda25737907f2196f12f4687f0\">Fifth Generation Project<\/a> (Japan), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alvey\" title=\"Alvey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1d690fa44e990886bdc25e66e125cb4\">Alvey<\/a> (UK), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microelectronics_and_Computer_Technology_Corporation\" title=\"Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59af6fadc9ca1307b025c4e95eb1a7e7\">Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation<\/a> (US), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strategic_Computing_Initiative\" title=\"Strategic Computing Initiative\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed8fd7149deefae07c439c1adae756a9\">Strategic Computing Initiative<\/a> (US):\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;426\u2013441)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993<\/a>, pp.&#160;161\u2013162, 197\u2013203, 211, 240)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;23)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNRC1999\">NRC (1999<\/a>, pp.&#160;210\u2013211)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNewquist1994\">Newquist (1994<\/a>, pp.&#160;235\u2013248)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-First_AI_winter-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-First_AI_winter_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-First_AI_winter_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nFirst <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_Winter\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI Winter\" data-key=\"e21ab2ed92c2b3a426616dcc8a180b60\">AI Winter<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lighthill_report\" title=\"Lighthill report\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36a1a6b47ed38abd3c468d76c7bf8aa0\">Lighthill report<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mansfield_Amendment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mansfield Amendment\" data-key=\"8e7fd7e41fb96382a622c2461b2c3651\">Mansfield Amendment<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993<\/a>, pp.&#160;115\u2013117)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;21\u201322)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNRC1999\">NRC (1999<\/a>, pp.&#160;212\u2013213)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFHowe1994\">Howe (1994)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNewquist1994\">Newquist (1994<\/a>, pp.&#160;189\u2013201)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Second_AI_winter-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Second_AI_winter_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Second_AI_winter_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nSecond <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_Winter\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI Winter\" data-key=\"e21ab2ed92c2b3a426616dcc8a180b60\">AI Winter<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;24)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;430\u2013435)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993<\/a>, pp.&#160;209\u2013210)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNRC1999\">NRC (1999<\/a>, pp.&#160;214\u2013216)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNewquist1994\">Newquist (1994<\/a>, pp.&#160;301\u2013318)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Deep_learning_revolution-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Deep_learning_revolution_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Deep_learning_revolution_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a> revolution, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AlexNet\" title=\"AlexNet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17a64ec37666a1ab8826f4bcf89f7cbb\">AlexNet<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFGoldman2022\">Goldman (2022)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;26)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcKinsey2018\">McKinsey (2018)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEToews2023-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToews2023_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFToews2023\">Toews (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank2023-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrank2023_10-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrank2023_10-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFFrank2023\">Frank (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AGI-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-AGI_12-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AGI_12-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AGI_12-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">Artificial general intelligence<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;32\u201333, 1020\u20131021)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Proposal for the modern version:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFPennachinGoertzel2007\">Pennachin &amp; Goertzel (2007)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Warnings of overspecialization in AI from leading researchers:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1995\">Nilsson (1995)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCarthy2007\">McCarthy (2007)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFBealWinston2009\">Beal &amp; Winston (2009)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_influences-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_influences_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a71.2).<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nProblem solving, puzzle solving, game playing and deduction:\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 3\u20135)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 6) (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Constraint_satisfaction\" title=\"Constraint satisfaction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"262ac44bc55e9894ea1d1f77fd0f9bdd\">constraint satisfaction<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, chpt. 2, 3, 7, 9)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, chpt. 3, 4, 6, 8)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 7\u201312)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nUncertain reasoning:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 12\u201318)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;345\u2013395)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;333\u2013381)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 7\u201312)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Intractability-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Intractability_17-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Intractability_17-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Intractability_17-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intractably\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intractably\" data-key=\"8237f9be91486be1695918891970fd86\">Intractability and efficiency<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Combinatorial_explosion\" title=\"Combinatorial explosion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7adb666ea7d8e9537dda277bb943196\">combinatorial explosion<\/a>:\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;21)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning_18-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning_18-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning_18-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nPsychological evidence of the prevalence sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFKahneman2011\">Kahneman (2011)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFDreyfusDreyfus1986\">Dreyfus &amp; Dreyfus (1986)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFWasonShapiro1966\">Wason &amp; Shapiro (1966)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFKahnemanSlovicTversky1982\">Kahneman, Slovic &amp; Tversky (1982)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">Knowledge representation<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_engineering\" title=\"Knowledge engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7267aab1197163e1afb413bc0c1d979b\">knowledge engineering<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 10)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;23\u201346, 69\u201381, 169\u2013233, 235\u2013277, 281\u2013298, 319\u2013345)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;227\u2013243),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 17.1\u201317.4, 18)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTESmoliarZhang1994-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmoliarZhang1994_20-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFSmoliarZhang1994\">Smoliar &amp; Zhang (1994)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTENeumannM\u00f6ller2008-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeumannM\u00f6ller2008_21-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFNeumannM\u00f6ller2008\">Neumann &amp; M\u00f6ller (2008)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEKupermanReichleyBailey2006-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKupermanReichleyBailey2006_22-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFKupermanReichleyBailey2006\">Kuperman, Reichley &amp; Bailey (2006)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGarry2005-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGarry2005_23-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMcGarry2005\">McGarry (2005)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertiniDel_BimboTorniai2006-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertiniDel_BimboTorniai2006_24-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFBertiniDel_BimboTorniai2006\">Bertini, Del Bimbo &amp; Torniai (2006)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021272-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021272_25-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, pp.&#160;272.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Representing_categories_and_relations-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Representing_categories_and_relations_26-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nRepresenting categories and relations: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_network\" title=\"Semantic network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64a11922fbc4867fa40750caf3480c27\">Semantic networks<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Description_logic\" title=\"Description logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27300d027ae9835f67566eb6262b8187\">description logics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)\" title=\"Inheritance (object-oriented programming)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"014ac63e61a88ab56d8aa40d77c142ee\">inheritance<\/a> (including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Frame (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5de0ade622122365c91ffa3e5ebb99e7\">frames<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scripts_(artificial_intelligence)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Scripts (artificial intelligence)\" data-key=\"0aea090f1579129b5cdcc3f48d8bc667\">scripts<\/a>):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a710.2 &amp; 10.5),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;174\u2013177),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;248\u2013258),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 18.3)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Representing_time-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Representing_time_27-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Representing events and time:<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Situation_calculus\" title=\"Situation calculus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4054713bef9d121fb1ad13be0606a97\">Situation calculus<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Event_calculus\" title=\"Event calculus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d7fc6b02518fa30f59e90006e0c8ce1\">event calculus<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fluent_calculus\" title=\"Fluent calculus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fff3e9224b85f8daa97d32dbffbdc61e\">fluent calculus<\/a> (including solving the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_problem\" title=\"Frame problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51f6d2eccfe1f077362bc8264e5cf325\">frame problem<\/a>):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a710.3),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;281\u2013298),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 18.2)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Representing_causation-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Representing_causation_28-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"#Causal_calculus\" title=\"Causality\">Causal calculus<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;335\u2013337)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Representing_knowledge_about_knowledge-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Representing_knowledge_about_knowledge_29-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nRepresenting knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modal_logic\" title=\"Modal logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfc5296412f894cbbad0a776c7f524f9\">modal logics<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a710.4),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;275\u2013277)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic_30-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic_30-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Default_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Default reasoning\" data-key=\"9a7e44d10e86a591ef9568c20e32790d\">Default reasoning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_problem\" title=\"Frame problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51f6d2eccfe1f077362bc8264e5cf325\">Frame problem<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Default_logic\" title=\"Default logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"933c9f13c7f9c9dcf83d5285c4bad102\">default logic<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-monotonic_logic\" title=\"Non-monotonic logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c13bba29e69b618970cbd7fe0b603ec\">non-monotonic logics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Circumscription_(logic)\" title=\"Circumscription (logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c65c6ccdf03ac558d4456cb7bcf8e03d\">circumscription<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Closed_world_assumption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Closed world assumption\" data-key=\"d2816e19a8579a4f4463d7f8f20b1323\">closed world assumption<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abductive_reasoning\" title=\"Abductive reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"264cd823c453d6095a82de6f8ce3c5b1\">abduction<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a710.6)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;248\u2013256, 323\u2013335)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;335\u2013363)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, ~18.3.3)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>(Poole <i>et al.<\/i> places abduction under \"default reasoning\". Luger <i>et al.<\/i> places this under \"uncertain reasoning\").\n<\/p>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge_31-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge_31-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nBreadth of commonsense knowledge:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFLenatGuha1989\">Lenat &amp; Guha (1989<\/a>, Introduction)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993<\/a>, pp.&#160;113\u2013114),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMoravec1988\">Moravec (1988<\/a>, p.&#160;13),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;241, 385, 982) (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qualification_problem\" title=\"Qualification problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d72ea8e5eb11cff2348636d41410a27\">qualification problem<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTENewquist1994296-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENewquist1994296_32-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFNewquist1994\">Newquist (1994)<\/a>, p.&#160;296.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTECrevier1993204\u2013208-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrevier1993204\u2013208_33-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993)<\/a>, pp.&#160;204\u2013208.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021528-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021528_36-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;528.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">Automated planning<\/a>:\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 11).<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated decision making\" data-key=\"479c93b186ba68209cc54b136b59728b\">Automated decision making<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_theory\" title=\"Decision theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"137e9a51ae7bf68325846793519501ea\">Decision theory<\/a>:\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 16\u201318).<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-39\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"#classical_planning\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\">Classical planning<\/a>:\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, Section 11.2).<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nSensorless or \"conformant\" planning, contingent planning, replanning (a.k.a online planning):\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, Section 11.5).<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nUncertain preferences:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, Section 16.7)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inverse_reinforcement_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inverse reinforcement learning\" data-key=\"44882403715644d66bc206337033a943\">Inverse reinforcement learning<\/a>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, Section 22.6)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_value_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information value theory\" data-key=\"cd8cd239f4545d574b1750d05f39a008\">Information value theory<\/a>:\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, Section 16.6).<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markov_decision_process\" title=\"Markov decision process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a165b52a9ae8569c3987f865361587a4\">Markov decision process<\/a>:\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 17).<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-44\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_theory\" title=\"Game theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5498b159fb87dc60c8ad0a722348a50a\">Game theory<\/a> and multi-agent decision theory:\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 18).<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-machine_learning-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-machine_learning_45-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">Learning<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 19\u201322)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;397\u2013438)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;385\u2013542)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 3.3, 10.3, 17.5, 20)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTETuring1950-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuring1950_46-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFTuring1950\">Turing (1950)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomonoff1956-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolomonoff1956_47-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFSolomonoff1956\">Solomonoff (1956)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">Unsupervised learning<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;653) (definition)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;738\u2013740) (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">cluster analysis<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;846\u2013860) (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Word_embedding\" title=\"Word embedding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2af58b92b11d0550e304e03202c56dae\">word embedding<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Supervised_learning-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Supervised_learning_50-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Supervised_learning_50-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">Supervised learning<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a719.2) (Definition)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, Chpt. 19\u201320) (Techniques)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">Reinforcement learning<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 22)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;442\u2013449)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transfer_learning\" title=\"Transfer learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fcc29c127bd186329e75098901899d9\">Transfer learning<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;281)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFThe_Economist2016\">The Economist (2016)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-53\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/builtin.com\/artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence (AI): What Is AI and How Does It Work? | Built In\"<\/a>. <i>builtin.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=builtin.com&amp;rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence+%28AI%29%3A+What+Is+AI+and+How+Does+It+Work%3F+%7C+Built+In&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbuiltin.com%2Fartificial-intelligence&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-54\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_learning_theory\" title=\"Computational learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cc562e86774b252f65ad147577243ae\">Computational learning theory<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;672\u2013674)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFJordanMitchell2015\">Jordan &amp; Mitchell (2015)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a> (NLP):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 23\u201324)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;91\u2013104)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;591\u2013632)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nSubproblems of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">NLP<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;849\u2013850)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021856\u2013858-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021856\u2013858_58-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;856\u2013858.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickson2022-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickson2022_59-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDickson2022\">Dickson (2022)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Modern statistical and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">deep learning<\/a> approaches to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">NLP<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 24)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCambriaWhite2014\">Cambria &amp; White (2014)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEVincent2019-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVincent2019_61-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFVincent2019\">Vincent (2019)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021875\u2013878-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021875\u2013878_62-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;875\u2013878.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEBushwick2023-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBushwick2023_63-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFBushwick2023\">Bushwick (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-64\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 25)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 6)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021849\u2013850-65\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021849\u2013850_65-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, pp.&#160;849\u2013850.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021895\u2013899-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021895\u2013899_66-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, pp.&#160;895\u2013899.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021899\u2013901-67\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021899\u2013901_67-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, pp.&#160;899\u2013901.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021931\u2013938-68\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021931\u2013938_68-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, pp.&#160;931\u2013938.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMIT_AIL2014-69\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMIT_AIL2014_69-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMIT_AIL2014\">MIT AIL (2014)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-70\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-70\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affective_computing\" title=\"Affective computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2d2895ad8508fe3d7e92180ab59a670\">Affective computing<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFThro1993\">Thro (1993)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFEdelson1991\">Edelson (1991)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFTaoTan2005\">Tao &amp; Tan (2005)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFScassellati2002\">Scassellati (2002)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaddell2018-71\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaddell2018_71-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFWaddell2018\">Waddell (2018)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoriaCambriaBajpaiHussain2017-72\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoriaCambriaBajpaiHussain2017_72-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPoriaCambriaBajpaiHussain2017\">Poria et al. (2017)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-73\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_algorithm\" title=\"Search algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8e2192ba143c7f57418b352fefb05f1\">Search algorithms<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, Chpt. 3\u20135)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;113\u2013163)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;79\u2013164, 193\u2013219)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 7\u201312)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-State_space_search-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-State_space_search_74-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/State_space_search\" title=\"State space search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"416f44b7d5908ce41a1f0e6367790d1a\">State space search<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 3)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021\u00a711.2-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021\u00a711.2_75-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, \u00a711.2.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Uninformed_search-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Uninformed_search_76-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uninformed_search\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Uninformed search\" data-key=\"5ae2080f3654975719397261f66d0018\">Uninformed searches<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Breadth_first_search\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Breadth first search\" data-key=\"b592d69a58f5dae7e564076ee0a0c527\">breadth first search<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Depth-first_search\" title=\"Depth-first search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62df3384d9ca21e07a2535287aebea08\">depth-first search<\/a> and general <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/State_space_search\" title=\"State space search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"416f44b7d5908ce41a1f0e6367790d1a\">state space search<\/a>):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a73.4)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;113\u2013132)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;79\u2013121)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 8)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Informed_search-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Informed_search_77-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristic\" title=\"Heuristic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43bdbf6d64573ad3685511cbc07502fd\">Heuristic<\/a> or informed searches (e.g., greedy <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Best-first_search\" title=\"Best-first search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fdb8c8c179b9b016ad4b09b749b5f23\">best first<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/A*_search_algorithm\" title=\"A* search algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6b35f945632692d3f6a55cc3e6b8b14\">A*<\/a>):\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, s\u00a73.5)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;132\u2013147)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworth2017\">Poole &amp; Mackworth (2017<\/a>, \u00a73.6)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;133\u2013150)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adversarial_search\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Adversarial search\" data-key=\"ba1389c9fa8d56c9e078a47bff84c538\">Adversarial search<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 5)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Local_search-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Local_search_79-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_search_(optimization)\" title=\"Local search (optimization)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cab8b40fc21fbe49622f9597f8273a7\">Local<\/a> or \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">optimization<\/a>\" search:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 4)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_computation\" title=\"Evolutionary computation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b60cad0a27f9a67815f7da22a51b185\">Evolutionary computation<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a74.1.2)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerkleMiddendorf2013-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerkleMiddendorf2013_81-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMerkleMiddendorf2013\">Merkle &amp; Middendorf (2013)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Logic-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Logic_82-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic\" title=\"Logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1765a5c4c6dcb7becba1cf644fe3897\">Logic<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 6\u20139)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;35\u201377)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 13\u201316)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Propositional_logic-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Propositional_logic_83-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Propositional_logic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Propositional logic\" data-key=\"c9369aad6f2772123d846a70baa93ee5\">Propositional logic<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 6)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;45\u201350)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 13)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Predicate_logic-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Predicate_logic_84-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First-order_logic\" title=\"First-order logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0440e828c0aa870ff198a30aba920282\">First-order logic<\/a> and features such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Equality_(mathematics)\" title=\"Equality (mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b702b0dbf99835b501e36de15d4db035\">equality<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 7)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;268\u2013275),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;50\u201362),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 15)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Inference-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Inference_85-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_inference\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Logical inference\" data-key=\"9a3a763fc7796a8547cf94733c2af588\">Logical inference<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 10)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021\u00a78.3.1-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021\u00a78.3.1_86-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, \u00a78.3.1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Resolution-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Resolution_87-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resolution_(logic)\" title=\"Resolution (logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0134dc87bf60dfb80a3f5ce91765df7d\">Resolution<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unification_(computer_science)\" title=\"Unification (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0731da9545f1cd15b55a39673b939a8\">unification<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a77.5.2, \u00a79.2, \u00a79.5)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Logic_as_search-88\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Logic_as_search_88-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forward_chaining\" title=\"Forward chaining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"816c7a2d7a6b9a461f4ff5e72cd29fa3\">Forward chaining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backward_chaining\" title=\"Backward chaining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5efd143343ba959844997778b3ac4b6\">backward chaining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Horn_clause\" title=\"Horn clause\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08129ab108d3d828c170b1b7c3c33116\">Horn clauses<\/a>, and logical deduction as search:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a79.3, \u00a79.4)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;~46\u201352)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;62\u201373)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 4.2, 7.2)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Fuzzy_logic-89\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Fuzzy_logic_89-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\" title=\"Fuzzy logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b5089e9114f91c54ad40c5615094874\">Fuzzy logic<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;214, 255, 459)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFScientific_American1999\">Scientific American (1999)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Uncertain_reasoning-90\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Uncertain_reasoning_90-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Uncertain_reasoning_90-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nStochastic methods for uncertain reasoning:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, Chpt. 12\u201318 and 20),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;345\u2013395),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;165\u2013191, 333\u2013381),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 19)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bayesian_networks-91\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bayesian_networks_91-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian networks<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a712.5\u201312.6, \u00a713.4\u201313.5, \u00a714.3\u201314.5, \u00a716.5, \u00a720.2 -20.3),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;361\u2013381),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;~182\u2013190, \u2248363\u2013379),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 19.3\u20134)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015chapter_6-92\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015chapter_6_92-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos (2015)<\/a>, chapter 6.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bayesian_inference-94\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bayesian_inference_94-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_inference\" title=\"Bayesian inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26d0e9d790d16771f099137b199877f7\">Bayesian inference<\/a> algorithm:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a713.3\u201313.5),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;361\u2013381),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;~363\u2013379),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 19.4 &amp; 7)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015210-95\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015210_95-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos (2015)<\/a>, p.&#160;210.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bayesian_learning-97\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bayesian_learning_97-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bayesian learning\" data-key=\"47a160e5cb5341ef013690d2df9436e3\">Bayesian learning<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expectation-maximization_algorithm\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expectation-maximization algorithm\" data-key=\"30bd70c5e82d98624d02ec9cb807855d\">expectation-maximization algorithm<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, Chpt. 20),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;424\u2013433),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 20)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos (2015<\/a>, p.&#160;210)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bayesian_decision_networks-98\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bayesian_decision_networks_98-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_decision_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bayesian decision theory\" data-key=\"d0b27716d762b0a89ee0d3d8d58c19b2\">Bayesian decision theory<\/a> and Bayesian <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision network\" data-key=\"ec62f139d48f4a0547a651f78040aaf3\">decision networks<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a716.5)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Stochastic_temporal_models-99\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Stochastic_temporal_models_99-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Stochastic_temporal_models_99-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Stochastic_temporal_models_99-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nStochastic temporal models:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, Chpt. 14)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hidden_Markov_model\" title=\"Hidden Markov model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2584878cd5e770c2f74616bed61710\">Hidden Markov model<\/a>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a714.3)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kalman_filter\" title=\"Kalman filter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9ff163ecb988890e9319920b2455342\">Kalman filters<\/a>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a714.4)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_Bayesian_network\" title=\"Dynamic Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c77f6b75feb8e5df8f5bea6a137d340c\">Dynamic Bayesian networks<\/a>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a714.5)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Decisions_theory_and_analysis-100\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Decisions_theory_and_analysis_100-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_theory\" title=\"Decision theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"137e9a51ae7bf68325846793519501ea\">decision theory<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_analysis\" title=\"Decision analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c11ec4cc4375ffe34b09e6bcb177863\">decision analysis<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, Chpt. 16\u201318),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth &amp; Goebel (1998<\/a>, pp.&#160;381\u2013394)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Information_value_theory-101\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Information_value_theory_101-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_value_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information value theory\" data-key=\"cd8cd239f4545d574b1750d05f39a008\">Information value theory<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a716.6)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Markov_decision_process-102\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Markov_decision_process_102-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markov_decision_process\" title=\"Markov decision process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a165b52a9ae8569c3987f865361587a4\">Markov decision processes<\/a> and dynamic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision network\" data-key=\"ec62f139d48f4a0547a651f78040aaf3\">decision networks<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 17)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Game_theory_and_mechanism_design-103\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Game_theory_and_mechanism_design_103-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_theory\" title=\"Game theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5498b159fb87dc60c8ad0a722348a50a\">Game theory<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mechanism_design\" title=\"Mechanism design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e592c085fda248bc8c378cadc4d0488\">mechanism design<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 18)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Statistical_classifiers-104\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Statistical_classifiers_104-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nStatistical learning methods and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classifier_(mathematics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Classifier (mathematics)\" data-key=\"eb8bf8d2fe7b65d50bff7a5773990770\">classifiers<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, chpt. 20),<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-105\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-105\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alternating_decision_tree\" title=\"Alternating decision tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e194b20236c22163974c18a2bc508fe\">Decision trees<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a719.3)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos (2015<\/a>, p.&#160;88)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-106\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-106\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nonparametric_statistics\" title=\"Nonparametric statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"701f3242e0e3fa697d41edd50d686e5f\">Non-parameteric<\/a> learning models such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K-nearest_neighbor\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"K-nearest neighbor\" data-key=\"362b2ee4896ee32c20f2b7bf7ddeb8e1\">K-nearest neighbor<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support_vector_machines\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Support vector machines\" data-key=\"7d46d1a27940a8842a2e7b74baae7279\">support vector machines<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a719.7)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos (2015<\/a>, p.&#160;187) (k-nearest neighbor)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos (2015<\/a>, p.&#160;88) (kernel methods)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015152-107\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015152_107-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos (2015)<\/a>, p.&#160;152.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-108\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-108\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Naive_Bayes_classifier\" title=\"Naive Bayes classifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18dd737ec81f328d3d6681e1620445c7\">Naive Bayes classifier<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a712.6)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos (2015<\/a>, p.&#160;152)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Neural_networks-109\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Neural_networks_109-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Neural_networks_109-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nNeural networks:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, Chpt. 21),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos (2015<\/a>, Chapter 4)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Backpropagation-110\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Backpropagation_110-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nGradient calculation in computational graphs, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backpropagation\" title=\"Backpropagation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7681d69c3acc425256855e31afdd0bf4\">backpropagation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_differentiation\" title=\"Automatic differentiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"992efde1106c37b9da753814774d44e0\">automatic differentiation<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a721.2),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;467\u2013474),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 3.3)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-111\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-111\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_approximation_theorem\" title=\"Universal approximation theorem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a83bae83b57fdffb41324c3c766e8d5f\">Universal approximation theorem<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;752)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The theorem:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFCybenko1988\">Cybenko (1988)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFHornikStinchcombeWhite1989\">Hornik, Stinchcombe &amp; White (1989)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-112\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-112\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feedforward_neural_network\" title=\"Feedforward neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcbc04f3ee4edcf5215ba9705be493de\">Feedforward neural networks<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a721.1)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-113\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-113\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recurrent_neural_network\" title=\"Recurrent neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9947826e865b6f1481a9350c2d215826\">Recurrent neural networks<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a721.6)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-114\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-114\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perceptron\" title=\"Perceptron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04a4d1565003f718e5659ee6ae90061f\">Perceptrons<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;21, 22, 683, 22)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Deep_learning-115\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Deep_learning_115-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Deep_learning_115-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, Chpt. 21)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFGoodfellowBengioCourville2016\">Goodfellow, Bengio &amp; Courville (2016)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFHinton_et_al.2016\">Hinton <i>et al.<\/i> (2016)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFSchmidhuber2015\">Schmidhuber (2015)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-116\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-116\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Convolutional_neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Convolutional neural networks\" data-key=\"6d0e638aea3a0244190acd3ee51b1d95\">Convolutional neural networks<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, \u00a721.3)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDengYu2014199\u2013200-117\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDengYu2014199\u2013200_117-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDengYu2014\">Deng &amp; Yu (2014)<\/a>, pp.&#160;199\u2013200.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTECiresanMeierSchmidhuber2012-118\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECiresanMeierSchmidhuber2012_118-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFCiresanMeierSchmidhuber2012\">Ciresan, Meier &amp; Schmidhuber (2012)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021751-119\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021751_119-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;751.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785-120\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021785_120-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;785.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a75-121\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a75_121-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a75_121-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFSchmidhuber2022\">Schmidhuber (2022)<\/a>, \u00a75.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a76-122\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a76_122-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a76_122-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFSchmidhuber2022\">Schmidhuber (2022)<\/a>, \u00a76.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a77-123\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a77_123-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a77_123-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a77_123-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFSchmidhuber2022\">Schmidhuber (2022)<\/a>, \u00a77.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a78-124\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a78_124-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFSchmidhuber2022\">Schmidhuber (2022)<\/a>, \u00a78.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a72-125\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a72_125-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFSchmidhuber2022\">Schmidhuber (2022)<\/a>, \u00a72.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a73-126\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidhuber2022\u00a73_126-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFSchmidhuber2022\">Schmidhuber (2022)<\/a>, \u00a73.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-128\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-128\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Quoted in <a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020<\/a>, p.&#160;22)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2023-130\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2023_130-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFSmith2023\">Smith (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-131\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-131\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/news.mit.edu\/2023\/explained-generative-ai-1109\" target=\"_blank\">\"Explained: Generative AI\"<\/a>. 9 November 2023.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Explained%3A+Generative+AI&amp;rft.date=2023-11-09&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.mit.edu%2F2023%2Fexplained-generative-ai-1109&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-132\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-132\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/mitsloanedtech.mit.edu\/ai\/tools\/writing\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI Writing and Content Creation Tools\"<\/a>. MIT Sloan Teaching &amp; Learning Technologies<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=AI+Writing+and+Content+Creation+Tools&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Sloan+Teaching+%26+Learning+Technologies&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmitsloanedtech.mit.edu%2Fai%2Ftools%2Fwriting%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarmouyet2023-133\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarmouyet2023_133-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMarmouyet2023\">Marmouyet (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEKobielus2019-134\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKobielus2019_134-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFKobielus2019\">Kobielus (2019)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-135\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-135\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDavenportKalakota2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Davenport, T; Kalakota, R (June 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6616181\" target=\"_blank\">\"The potential for artificial intelligence in healthcare\"<\/a>. <i>Future Healthc J<\/i>. <b>6<\/b> (2): 94\u201398. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7861%2Ffuturehosp.6-2-94\" target=\"_blank\">10.7861\/futurehosp.6-2-94<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6616181\" target=\"_blank\">6616181<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/31363513\" target=\"_blank\">31363513<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Future+Healthc+J.&amp;rft.atitle=The+potential+for+artificial+intelligence+in+healthcare&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=94-98&amp;rft.date=2019-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6616181%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31363513&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7861%2Ffuturehosp.6-2-94&amp;rft.aulast=Davenport&amp;rft.aufirst=T&amp;rft.au=Kalakota%2C+R&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6616181&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-The_future_of_personalized_cardiova-136\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-The_future_of_personalized_cardiova_136-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-The_future_of_personalized_cardiova_136-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBaxThorpeRomanov2023\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bax, Monique; Thorpe, Jordan; Romanov, Valentin (December 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389%2Ffsens.2023.1294721\" target=\"_blank\">\"The future of personalized cardiovascular medicine demands 3D and 4D printing, stem cells, and artificial intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Frontiers in Sensors<\/i>. <b>4<\/b>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389%2Ffsens.2023.1294721\" target=\"_blank\">10.3389\/fsens.2023.1294721<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2673-5067\" target=\"_blank\">2673-5067<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Sensors&amp;rft.atitle=The+future+of+personalized+cardiovascular+medicine+demands+3D+and+4D+printing%2C+stem+cells%2C+and+artificial+intelligence&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.date=2023-12&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffsens.2023.1294721&amp;rft.issn=2673-5067&amp;rft.aulast=Bax&amp;rft.aufirst=Monique&amp;rft.au=Thorpe%2C+Jordan&amp;rft.au=Romanov%2C+Valentin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3389%252Ffsens.2023.1294721&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-137\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-137\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJumperEvansPritzel2021\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Jumper, J; Evans, R; Pritzel, A (2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8371605\" target=\"_blank\">\"Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold\"<\/a>. <i>Nature<\/i>. <b>596<\/b> (7873): 583\u2013589. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2021Natur.596..583J\" target=\"_blank\">2021Natur.596..583J<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03819-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/s41586-021-03819-2<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8371605\" target=\"_blank\">8371605<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/34265844\" target=\"_blank\">34265844<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=Highly+accurate+protein+structure+prediction+with+AlphaFold&amp;rft.volume=596&amp;rft.issue=7873&amp;rft.pages=583-589&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8371605%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34265844&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03819-2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Natur.596..583J&amp;rft.aulast=Jumper&amp;rft.aufirst=J&amp;rft.au=Evans%2C+R&amp;rft.au=Pritzel%2C+A&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8371605&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-138\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-138\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWurmanBarrettKawamoto2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wurman, P.R.; Barrett, S.; Kawamoto, K. (2022). \"Outracing champion Gran Turismo drivers with deep reinforcement learning\". <i>Nature 602<\/i>. <b>602<\/b>: 223\u2013228. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fs41586-021-04357-7\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/s41586-021-04357-7<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+602&amp;rft.atitle=Outracing+champion+Gran+Turismo+drivers+with+deep+reinforcement+learning&amp;rft.volume=602&amp;rft.pages=223-228&amp;rft.date=2022&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-021-04357-7&amp;rft.aulast=Wurman&amp;rft.aufirst=P.R.&amp;rft.au=Barrett%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Kawamoto%2C+K.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTESimonite2016-139\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimonite2016_139-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFSimonite2016\">Simonite (2016)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021987-140\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021987_140-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;987.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTELaskowski2023-141\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaskowski2023_141-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLaskowski2023\">Laskowski (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEGAO2022-142\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGAO2022_142-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGAO2022\">GAO (2022)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEValinsky2019-143\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEValinsky2019_143-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFValinsky2019\">Valinsky (2019)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021991-144\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021991_144-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;991.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021991\u2013992-145\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021991\u2013992_145-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;991\u2013992.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202063-146\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202063_146-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020)<\/a>, p.&#160;63.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEVincent2022-147\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVincent2022_147-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFVincent2022\">Vincent (2022)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner2023-148\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReisner2023_148-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFReisner2023\">Reisner (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlterHarris2023-149\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlterHarris2023_149-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAlterHarris2023\">Alter &amp; Harris (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTENicas2018-150\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicas2018_150-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFNicas2018\">Nicas (2018)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-151\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-151\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/politics\/2019\/07\/22\/trust-and-distrust-in-america\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Trust and Distrust in America\"<\/a>. 22 July 2019.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Trust+and+Distrust+in+America&amp;rft.date=2019-07-22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Fpolitics%2F2019%2F07%2F22%2Ftrust-and-distrust-in-america%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2023-152\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2023_152-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFWilliams2023\">Williams (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorHern2023-153\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorHern2023_153-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFTaylorHern2023\">Taylor &amp; Hern (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2023-154\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2023_154-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2023_154-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRose2023\">Rose (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTECNA2019-155\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECNA2019_155-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFCNA2019\">CNA (2019)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoffrey200817-156\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoffrey200817_156-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGoffrey2008\">Goffrey (2008)<\/a>, p.&#160;17.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-157\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-157\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFBerdahlBakerMannOsoba2023\">Berdahl et al. (2023)<\/a>; <a href=\"#CITEREFGoffrey2008\">Goffrey (2008<\/a>, p.&#160;17); <a href=\"#CITEREFRose2023\">Rose (2023)<\/a>; <a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;995)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-158\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-158\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithmic_bias\" title=\"Algorithmic bias\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03a3ae18f9e582251dac4193d8945a43\">Algorithmic bias<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fairness_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Fairness (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c4297acb6d19a768bdd031d21cf24c0\">Fairness (machine learning)<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, section 27.3.3)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020<\/a>, Fairness)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202025-159\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202025_159-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020)<\/a>, p.&#160;25.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021995-160\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021995_160-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021995_160-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;995.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrantHill2023-161\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrantHill2023_161-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGrantHill2023\">Grant &amp; Hill (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonAngwin2016-162\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonAngwin2016_162-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLarsonAngwin2016\">Larson &amp; Angwin (2016)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202067\u201370-163\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202067\u201370_163-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020)<\/a>, p.&#160;67\u201370.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-165\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-165\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020<\/a>, pp.&#160;67\u201370); <a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;993\u2013994)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-166\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-166\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;995); <a href=\"#CITEREFLipartito2011\">Lipartito (2011<\/a>, p.&#160;36); <a href=\"#CITEREFGoodmanFlaxman2017\">Goodman &amp; Flaxman (2017<\/a>, p.&#160;6); <a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020<\/a>, pp.&#160;39\u201340, 65)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-167\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-167\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Quoted in <a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020<\/a>, p.&#160;65).<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-168\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-168\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;994); <a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020<\/a>, pp.&#160;40, 80\u201381)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-169\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-169\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Quoted in <a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020<\/a>, p.&#160;80)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDockrill2022-171\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDockrill2022_171-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDockrill2022\">Dockrill (2022)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTESample2017-172\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESample2017_172-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFSample2017\">Sample (2017)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-173\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-173\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.techopedia.com\/definition\/34940\/black-box-ai\" target=\"_blank\">\"Black Box AI\"<\/a>. 16 June 2023.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Black+Box+AI&amp;rft.date=2023-06-16&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.techopedia.com%2Fdefinition%2F34940%2Fblack-box-ai&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian2020110-174\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian2020110_174-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020)<\/a>, p.&#160;110.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202088\u201391-175\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202088\u201391_175-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020)<\/a>, pp.&#160;88\u201391.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-176\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-176\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020<\/a>, p.&#160;83); <a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;997)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202091-178\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202091_178-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020)<\/a>, p.&#160;91.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202083-179\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202083_179-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020)<\/a>, p.&#160;83.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerma2021-180\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVerma2021_180-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFVerma2021\">Verma (2021)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERothman2020-181\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERothman2020_181-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRothman2020\">Rothman (2020)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian2020105-108-182\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian2020105-108_182-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020)<\/a>, p.&#160;105-108.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian2020108\u2013112-183\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian2020108\u2013112_183-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020)<\/a>, pp.&#160;108\u2013112.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021989-184\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021989_184-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;989.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-186\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-186\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRobitzski2018\">Robitzski (2018)<\/a>; <a href=\"#CITEREFSainato2015\">Sainato (2015)<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021987-990-187\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021987-990_187-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;987-990.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021988-188\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021988_188-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;988.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarari2018-189\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarari2018_189-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFHarari2018\">Harari (2018)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-190\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-190\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBuckleyMozur2019\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Buckley, Chris; Mozur, Paul (22 May 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/05\/22\/world\/asia\/china-surveillance-xinjiang.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"How China Uses High-Tech Surveillance to Subdue Minorities\"<\/a>. <i>The New York Times<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=How+China+Uses+High-Tech+Surveillance+to+Subdue+Minorities&amp;rft.date=2019-05-22&amp;rft.aulast=Buckley&amp;rft.aufirst=Chris&amp;rft.au=Mozur%2C+Paul&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F05%2F22%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Fchina-surveillance-xinjiang.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-191\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-191\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210307203740\/https:\/\/consent.yahoo.com\/v2\/collectConsent?sessionId=3_cc-session_c8562b93-9863-4915-8523-6c7b930a3efc\" target=\"_blank\">\"Security lapse exposed a Chinese smart city surveillance system\"<\/a>. 3 May 2019. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/social.techcrunch.com\/2019\/05\/03\/china-smart-city-exposed\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 7 March 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 September<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Security+lapse+exposed+a+Chinese+smart+city+surveillance+system&amp;rft.date=2019-05-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsocial.techcrunch.com%2F2019%2F05%2F03%2Fchina-smart-city-exposed%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-192\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-192\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nextbigwhat.com\/ai-traffic-signals-to-be-installed-in-bengaluru-soon\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI traffic signals to be installed in Bengaluru soon\"<\/a>. <i>NextBigWhat<\/i>. 24 September 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 October<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=NextBigWhat&amp;rft.atitle=AI+traffic+signals+to+be+installed+in+Bengaluru+soon&amp;rft.date=2019-09-24&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnextbigwhat.com%2Fai-traffic-signals-to-be-installed-in-bengaluru-soon%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrbinaLentzosInvernizziEkins2022-193\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrbinaLentzosInvernizziEkins2022_193-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFUrbinaLentzosInvernizziEkins2022\">Urbina et al. (2022)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-194\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-194\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTarnoff2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Tarnoff, Ben (4 August 2023). \"Lessons from Eliza\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Guardian_Weekly\" title=\"The Guardian Weekly\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6aa7a764e2b39a7b75435e83cdfdfe5\">The Guardian Weekly<\/a><\/i>. pp.&#160;34\u20139.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Guardian+Weekly&amp;rft.atitle=Lessons+from+Eliza&amp;rft.pages=34-9&amp;rft.date=2023-08-04&amp;rft.aulast=Tarnoff&amp;rft.aufirst=Ben&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-auto1-195\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-auto1_195-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-auto1_195-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">E McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2022) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ilj\/article\/51\/3\/511\/6321008\" target=\"_blank\">51(3) Industrial Law Journal 511\u2013559<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230527163045\/https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ilj\/article\/51\/3\/511\/6321008\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 27 May 2023 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-196\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-196\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFFordColvin2015\">Ford &amp; Colvin (2015)<\/a>;<a href=\"#CITEREFMcGaughey2022\">McGaughey (2022)<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEIGM_Chicago2017-197\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIGM_Chicago2017_197-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFIGM_Chicago2017\">IGM Chicago (2017)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEArntzGregoryZierahn201633-198\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArntzGregoryZierahn201633_198-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFArntzGregoryZierahn2016\">Arntz, Gregory &amp; Zierahn (2016)<\/a>, p.&#160;33.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-200\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-200\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLohr2017\">Lohr (2017)<\/a>; <a href=\"#CITEREFFreyOsborne2017\">Frey &amp; Osborne (2017)<\/a>; <a href=\"#CITEREFArntzGregoryZierahn2016\">Arntz, Gregory &amp; Zierahn (2016<\/a>, p.&#160;33)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgenstern2015-201\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgenstern2015_201-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMorgenstern2015\">Morgenstern (2015)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-202\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-202\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMahdawi2017\">Mahdawi (2017)<\/a>; <a href=\"#CITEREFThompson2014\">Thompson (2014)<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-203\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-203\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZhou2023\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Zhou, Viola (11 April 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/restofworld.org\/2023\/ai-image-china-video-game-layoffs\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI is already taking video game illustrators' jobs in China\"<\/a>. <i>Rest of World<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 August<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Rest+of+World&amp;rft.atitle=AI+is+already+taking+video+game+illustrators%27+jobs+in+China&amp;rft.date=2023-04-11&amp;rft.aulast=Zhou&amp;rft.aufirst=Viola&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frestofworld.org%2F2023%2Fai-image-china-video-game-layoffs%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-204\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-204\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCarter2023\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Carter, Justin (11 April 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gamedeveloper.com\/art\/china-s-game-art-industry-reportedly-decimated-ai-art-use\" target=\"_blank\">\"China's game art industry reportedly decimated by growing AI use\"<\/a>. <i>Game Developer<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 August<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Game+Developer&amp;rft.atitle=China%27s+game+art+industry+reportedly+decimated+by+growing+AI+use&amp;rft.date=2023-04-11&amp;rft.aulast=Carter&amp;rft.aufirst=Justin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gamedeveloper.com%2Fart%2Fchina-s-game-art-industry-reportedly-decimated-ai-art-use&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTECellan-Jones2014-205\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECellan-Jones2014_205-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFCellan-Jones2014\">Cellan-Jones (2014)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20211001-206\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20211001_206-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig 2021<\/a>, p.&#160;1001.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEBostrom2014-208\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom2014_208-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFBostrom2014\">Bostrom (2014)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2019-209\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2019_209-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussell2019\">Russell (2019)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-210\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-210\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFBostrom2014\">Bostrom (2014)<\/a>; <a href=\"#CITEREFM\u00fcllerBostrom2014\">M\u00fcller &amp; Bostrom (2014)<\/a>; <a href=\"#CITEREFBostrom2015\">Bostrom (2015)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarari2023-211\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarari2023_211-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFHarari2023\">Harari (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEM\u00fcllerBostrom2014-212\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEM\u00fcllerBostrom2014_212-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFM\u00fcllerBostrom2014\">M\u00fcller &amp; Bostrom (2014)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-213\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-213\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nLeaders' concerns about the existential risks of AI around 2015:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRawlinson2015\">Rawlinson (2015)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFHolley2015\">Holley (2015)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFGibbs2014\">Gibbs (2014)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFSainato2015\">Sainato (2015)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-214\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-214\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nArguments that AI is not an imminent risk:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFBrooks2014\">Brooks (2014)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFGeist2015\">Geist (2015)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMadrigal2015\">Madrigal (2015)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLee2014\">Lee (2014)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian202067,_73-215\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202067,_73_215-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian202067,_73_215-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFChristian2020\">Christian (2020)<\/a>, pp.&#160;67, 73.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEValance2023-216\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEValance2023_216-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFValance2023\">Valance (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-guardian2023-217\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-guardian2023_217-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTaylor2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Taylor, Josh (7 May 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2023\/may\/07\/rise-of-artificial-intelligence-is-inevitable-but-should-not-be-feared-father-of-ai-says\" target=\"_blank\">\"Rise of artificial intelligence is inevitable but should not be feared, 'father of AI' says\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 May<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&amp;rft.atitle=Rise+of+artificial+intelligence+is+inevitable+but+should+not+be+feared%2C+%27father+of+AI%27+says&amp;rft.date=2023-05-07&amp;rft.aulast=Taylor&amp;rft.aufirst=Josh&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2023%2Fmay%2F07%2Frise-of-artificial-intelligence-is-inevitable-but-should-not-be-feared-father-of-ai-says&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-foxnews2023-218\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-foxnews2023_218-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFColton2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Colton, Emma (7 May 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.foxnews.com\/tech\/father-ai-jurgen-schmidhuber-says-tech-fears-misplaced-cannot-stop\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>'Father of AI' says tech fears misplaced: 'You cannot stop it'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <i>Fox News<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 May<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Fox+News&amp;rft.atitle=%27Father+of+AI%27+says+tech+fears+misplaced%3A+%27You+cannot+stop+it%27&amp;rft.date=2023-05-07&amp;rft.aulast=Colton&amp;rft.aufirst=Emma&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foxnews.com%2Ftech%2Ffather-ai-jurgen-schmidhuber-says-tech-fears-misplaced-cannot-stop&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-forbes2023-219\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-forbes2023_219-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJones2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Jones, Hessie (23 May 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/hessiejones\/2023\/05\/23\/juergen-schmidhuber-renowned-father-of-modern-ai-says-his-lifes-work-wont-lead-to-dystopia\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Juergen Schmidhuber, Renowned 'Father Of Modern AI,' Says His Life's Work Won't Lead To Dystopia\"<\/a>. <i>Forbes<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 May<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Forbes&amp;rft.atitle=Juergen+Schmidhuber%2C+Renowned+%27Father+Of+Modern+AI%2C%27+Says+His+Life%27s+Work+Won%27t+Lead+To+Dystopia&amp;rft.date=2023-05-23&amp;rft.aulast=Jones&amp;rft.aufirst=Hessie&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fhessiejones%2F2023%2F05%2F23%2Fjuergen-schmidhuber-renowned-father-of-modern-ai-says-his-lifes-work-wont-lead-to-dystopia%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-andrewng2023-220\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-andrewng2023_220-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMcMorrow2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">McMorrow, Ryan (19 December 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/2dc07f9e-d2a9-4d98-b746-b051f9352be3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Andrew Ng: 'Do we think the world is better off with more or less intelligence?'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <i>Financial Times<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Andrew+Ng%3A+%E2%80%98Do+we+think+the+world+is+better+off+with+more+or+less+intelligence%3F%E2%80%99&amp;rft.date=2023-12-19&amp;rft.aulast=McMorrow&amp;rft.aufirst=Ryan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F2dc07f9e-d2a9-4d98-b746-b051f9352be3&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-lecun2023-221\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-lecun2023_221-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLevy2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Levy, Steven (22 December 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/artificial-intelligence-meta-yann-lecun-interview\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Not to Be Stupid About AI, With Yann LeCun\"<\/a>. <i>Wired<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Wired&amp;rft.atitle=How+Not+to+Be+Stupid+About+AI%2C+With+Yann+LeCun&amp;rft.date=2023-12-22&amp;rft.aulast=Levy&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fstory%2Fartificial-intelligence-meta-yann-lecun-interview%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEYudkowsky2008-222\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYudkowsky2008_222-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFYudkowsky2008\">Yudkowsky (2008)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonAnderson2011-223\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonAnderson2011_223-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonAnderson2011_223-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndersonAnderson2011\">Anderson &amp; Anderson (2011)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAAAI2014-224\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAAAI2014_224-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAAAI2014\">AAAI (2014)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEWallach2010-225\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWallach2010_225-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFWallach2010\">Wallach (2010)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2019173-226\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell2019173_226-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussell2019\">Russell (2019)<\/a>, p.&#160;173.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-227\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-227\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAlan_Turing_Institute2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Alan Turing Institute (2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.turing.ac.uk\/sites\/default\/files\/2019-06\/understanding_artificial_intelligence_ethics_and_safety.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Understanding artificial intelligence ethics and safety\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+artificial+intelligence+ethics+and+safety&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.au=Alan+Turing+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.turing.ac.uk%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2019-06%2Funderstanding_artificial_intelligence_ethics_and_safety.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-228\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-228\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAlan_Turing_Institute2023\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Alan Turing Institute (2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.turing.ac.uk\/sites\/default\/files\/2023-12\/aieg-ati-ai-ethics-an-intro_1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI Ethics and Governance in Practice\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=AI+Ethics+and+Governance+in+Practice&amp;rft.date=2023&amp;rft.au=Alan+Turing+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.turing.ac.uk%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2023-12%2Faieg-ati-ai-ethics-an-intro_1.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-229\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-229\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFloridiCowls2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Floridi, Luciano; Cowls, Josh (23 June 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdsr.mitpress.mit.edu\/pub\/l0jsh9d1\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Unified Framework of Five Principles for AI in Society\"<\/a>. <i>Harvard Data Science Review<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (1). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162%2F99608f92.8cd550d1\" target=\"_blank\">10.1162\/99608f92.8cd550d1<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:198775713\" target=\"_blank\">198775713<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Harvard+Data+Science+Review&amp;rft.atitle=A+Unified+Framework+of+Five+Principles+for+AI+in+Society&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.date=2019-06-23&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F99608f92.8cd550d1&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A198775713%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Floridi&amp;rft.aufirst=Luciano&amp;rft.au=Cowls%2C+Josh&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdsr.mitpress.mit.edu%2Fpub%2Fl0jsh9d1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-230\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-230\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBurukEkmekciArda2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Buruk, Banu; Ekmekci, Perihan Elif; Arda, Berna (1 September 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11019-020-09948-1\" target=\"_blank\">\"A critical perspective on guidelines for responsible and trustworthy artificial intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy<\/i>. <b>23<\/b> (3): 387\u2013399. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs11019-020-09948-1\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s11019-020-09948-1<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1572-8633\" target=\"_blank\">1572-8633<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/32236794\" target=\"_blank\">32236794<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:214766800\" target=\"_blank\">214766800<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Medicine%2C+Health+Care+and+Philosophy&amp;rft.atitle=A+critical+perspective+on+guidelines+for+responsible+and+trustworthy+artificial+intelligence&amp;rft.volume=23&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=387-399&amp;rft.date=2020-09-01&amp;rft.issn=1572-8633&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A214766800%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32236794&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11019-020-09948-1&amp;rft.aulast=Buruk&amp;rft.aufirst=Banu&amp;rft.au=Ekmekci%2C+Perihan+Elif&amp;rft.au=Arda%2C+Berna&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs11019-020-09948-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-231\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-231\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKamilaJasrotia2023\" class=\"citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol\">Kamila, Manoj Kumar; Jasrotia, Sahil Singh (1 January 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/IJOES-05-2023-0107\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ethical issues in the development of artificial intelligence: recognizing the risks\"<\/a>. <i>International Journal of Ethics and Systems<\/i>. ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108%2FIJOES-05-2023-0107\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/IJOES-05-2023-0107<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2514-9369\" target=\"_blank\">2514-9369<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:259614124\" target=\"_blank\">259614124<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Ethics+and+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Ethical+issues+in+the+development+of+artificial+intelligence%3A+recognizing+the+risks&amp;rft.volume=ahead-of-print&amp;rft.issue=ahead-of-print&amp;rft.date=2023-01-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A259614124%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=2514-9369&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2FIJOES-05-2023-0107&amp;rft.aulast=Kamila&amp;rft.aufirst=Manoj+Kumar&amp;rft.au=Jasrotia%2C+Sahil+Singh&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1108%2FIJOES-05-2023-0107&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-232\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-232\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nRegulation of AI to mitigate risks:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFBerryhillHeangClogherMcBride2019\">Berryhill et al. (2019)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFBarfieldPagallo2018\">Barfield &amp; Pagallo (2018)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFIphofenKritikos2019\">Iphofen &amp; Kritikos (2019)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFWirtzWeyererGeyer2018\">Wirtz, Weyerer &amp; Geyer (2018)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFBuiten2019\">Buiten (2019)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTELaw_Library_of_Congress_(U.S.)._Global_Legal_Research_Directorate2019-233\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaw_Library_of_Congress_(U.S.)._Global_Legal_Research_Directorate2019_233-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLaw_Library_of_Congress_(U.S.)._Global_Legal_Research_Directorate2019\">Law Library of Congress (U.S.). Global Legal Research Directorate (2019)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEVincent2023-234\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVincent2023_234-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVincent2023_234-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFVincent2023\">Vincent (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanford_University2023-235\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStanford_University2023_235-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFStanford_University2023\">Stanford University (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2021-236\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2021_236-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2021_236-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2021_236-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2021_236-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFUNESCO2021\">UNESCO (2021)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEKissinger2021-237\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKissinger2021_237-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFKissinger2021\">Kissinger (2021)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAltmanBrockmanSutskever2023-238\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAltmanBrockmanSutskever2023_238-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAltmanBrockmanSutskever2023\">Altman, Brockman &amp; Sutskever (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-239\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-239\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVOA_News2023\" class=\"citation web cs1\">VOA News (25 October 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.voanews.com\/a\/un-announces-advisory-body-on-artificial-intelligence-\/7328732.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"UN Announces Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=UN+Announces+Advisory+Body+on+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.date=2023-10-25&amp;rft.au=VOA+News&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voanews.com%2Fa%2Fun-announces-advisory-body-on-artificial-intelligence-%2F7328732.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2023-240\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2023_240-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFEdwards2023\">Edwards (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEKasperowicz2023-241\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasperowicz2023_241-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFKasperowicz2023\">Kasperowicz (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox_News2023-242\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox_News2023_242-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFFox_News2023\">Fox News (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-243\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-243\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMilmo2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Milmo, Dan (3 November 2023). \"Hope or Horror? The great AI debate dividing its pioneers\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Guardian_Weekly\" title=\"The Guardian Weekly\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6aa7a764e2b39a7b75435e83cdfdfe5\">The Guardian Weekly<\/a><\/i>. pp.&#160;10\u201312.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Guardian+Weekly&amp;rft.atitle=Hope+or+Horror%3F+The+great+AI+debate+dividing+its+pioneers&amp;rft.pages=10-12&amp;rft.date=2023-11-03&amp;rft.aulast=Milmo&amp;rft.aufirst=Dan&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2023-11-01-bletchley-declaration-full-244\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2023-11-01-bletchley-declaration-full_244-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20231101123904\/https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/ai-safety-summit-2023-the-bletchley-declaration\/the-bletchley-declaration-by-countries-attending-the-ai-safety-summit-1-2-november-2023\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Bletchley Declaration by Countries Attending the AI Safety Summit, 1-2 November 2023\"<\/a>. <i>GOV.UK<\/i>. 1 November 2023. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/ai-safety-summit-2023-the-bletchley-declaration\/the-bletchley-declaration-by-countries-attending-the-ai-safety-summit-1-2-november-2023\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 1 November 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 November<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=GOV.UK&amp;rft.atitle=The+Bletchley+Declaration+by+Countries+Attending+the+AI+Safety+Summit%2C+1-2+November+2023&amp;rft.date=2023-11-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fpublications%2Fai-safety-summit-2023-the-bletchley-declaration%2Fthe-bletchley-declaration-by-countries-attending-the-ai-safety-summit-1-2-november-2023&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-245\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-245\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation pressrelease cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/news\/countries-agree-to-safe-and-responsible-development-of-frontier-ai-in-landmark-bletchley-declaration\" target=\"_blank\">\"Countries agree to safe and responsible development of frontier AI in landmark Bletchley Declaration\"<\/a>. <i>GOV.UK<\/i> (Press release). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20231101115016\/https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/news\/countries-agree-to-safe-and-responsible-development-of-frontier-ai-in-landmark-bletchley-declaration\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 1 November 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 November<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Countries+agree+to+safe+and+responsible+development+of+frontier+AI+in+landmark+Bletchley+Declaration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fnews%2Fcountries-agree-to-safe-and-responsible-development-of-frontier-ai-in-landmark-bletchley-declaration&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlinski2000-246\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlinski2000_246-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFBerlinski2000\">Berlinski (2000)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-247\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-247\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/ngrams\/graph?content=electronic+brain&year_start=1930&year_end=2019&corpus=en-2019&smoothing=3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Google books ngram\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Google+books+ngram&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fngrams%2Fgraph%3Fcontent%3Delectronic%2Bbrain%26year_start%3D1930%26year_end%3D2019%26corpus%3Den-2019%26smoothing%3D3&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-249\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-249\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nAI's immediate precursors:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;51\u2013107)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993<\/a>, pp.&#160;27\u201332)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;8\u201317)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMoravec1988\">Moravec (1988<\/a>, p.&#160;3)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202117-250\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202117_250-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202117_250-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;17.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-251\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-251\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.alanturing.net\/turing_archive\/pages\/Reference%20Articles\/BriefHistofComp.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Brief History of Computing\"<\/a> at AlanTuring.net.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTECrevier199347\u201349-252\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrevier199347\u201349_252-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993)<\/a>, pp.&#160;47\u201349.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200317-254\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200317_254-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2003)<\/a>, p.&#160;17.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200318-256\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200318_256-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2003)<\/a>, p.&#160;18.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202121-259\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202121_259-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;21.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTELighthill1973-261\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELighthill1973_261-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLighthill1973\">Lighthill (1973)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202122-262\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202122_262-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;22.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-263\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-263\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expert systems\" data-key=\"44411c04edd68e6a954aa2e9e23afff0\">Expert systems<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;23, 292)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger &amp; Stubblefield (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;227\u2013331)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 17.4)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;327\u2013335, 434\u2013435)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993<\/a>, pp.&#160;145\u201362, 197\u2013203)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNewquist1994\">Newquist (1994<\/a>, pp.&#160;155\u2013183)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202124-264\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202124_264-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;24.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTENilsson19987-265\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENilsson19987_265-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998)<\/a>, p.&#160;7.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck2004454\u2013462-266\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck2004454\u2013462_266-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004)<\/a>, pp.&#160;454\u2013462.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoravec1988-267\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoravec1988_267-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMoravec1988\">Moravec (1988)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooks1990-268\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrooks1990_268-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrooks1990_268-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFBrooks1990\">Brooks (1990)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Developmental_robotics-269\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Developmental_robotics_269-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Developmental_robotics\" title=\"Developmental robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bad5eeeb274d212ac93d951ec736f53\">Developmental robotics<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFWengMcClellandPentlandSporns2001\">Weng et al. (2001)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLungarellaMettaPfeiferSandini2003\">Lungarella et al. (2003)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFAsadaHosodaKuniyoshiIshiguro2009\">Asada et al. (2009)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFOudeyer2010\">Oudeyer (2010)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202125-271\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202125_271-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;25.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-272\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-272\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993<\/a>, pp.&#160;214\u2013215)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;24, 26)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202126-273\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig202126_273-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;26.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_1990s-274\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_1990s_274-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"#Neat_vs._scruffy\">Formal<\/a> and <a href=\"#Narrow_vs._general_AI\">narrow<\/a> methods adopted in the 1990s:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;24\u201326)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;486\u2013487)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_widely_used_1990s-275\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_widely_used_1990s_275-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nAI widely used in the late 1990s:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFKurzweil2005\">Kurzweil (2005<\/a>, p.&#160;265)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNRC1999\">NRC (1999<\/a>, pp.&#160;216\u2013222)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNewquist1994\">Newquist (1994<\/a>, pp.&#160;189\u2013201)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2023-276\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWong2023_276-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFWong2023\">Wong (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Moore's_Law-278\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Moore's_Law_278-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moore%27s_Law\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Moore's Law\" data-key=\"71347d1eaa7a87cd9a9f13beab990271\">Moore's Law<\/a> and AI:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;14, 27)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2015b-279\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2015b_279-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2015b_279-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2015b_279-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFClark2015b\">Clark (2015b)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Big_data-280\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Big_data_280-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">Big data<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;26)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-282\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-282\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wipo.int\/about-ip\/en\/frontier_technologies\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Intellectual Property and Frontier Technologies\"<\/a>. <i>WIPO<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220402064804\/https:\/\/www.wipo.int\/about-ip\/en\/frontier_technologies\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 April 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 March<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=WIPO&amp;rft.atitle=Intellectual+Property+and+Frontier+Technologies&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fabout-ip%2Fen%2Ffrontier_technologies%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiFeliciantonio2023-283\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiFeliciantonio2023_283-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDiFeliciantonio2023\">DiFeliciantonio (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoswami2023-284\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoswami2023_284-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGoswami2023\">Goswami (2023)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTETuring19501-285\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuring19501_285-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuring19501_285-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFTuring1950\">Turing (1950)<\/a>, p.&#160;1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Turing_test-286\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Turing_test_286-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nTuring's original publication of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_test\" title=\"Turing test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f309ecb31df135db989e843377fb9d\">Turing test<\/a> in \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing_machinery_and_intelligence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computing machinery and intelligence\" data-key=\"a7ae96c4ff01527f793644cd9fb046d6\">Computing machinery and intelligence<\/a>\":\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFTuring1950\">Turing (1950)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Historical influence and philosophical implications:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFHaugeland1985\">Haugeland (1985<\/a>, pp.&#160;6\u20139)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993<\/a>, p.&#160;24)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;70\u201371)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;2 and 984)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTETuring1950Under_&quot;The_Argument_from_Consciousness&quot;-288\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuring1950Under_&quot;The_Argument_from_Consciousness&quot;_288-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFTuring1950\">Turing (1950)<\/a>, Under \"The Argument from Consciousness\".<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021chpt._2-289\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021chpt._2_289-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, chpt. 2.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20213-290\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20213_290-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;3.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaker2006-291\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaker2006_291-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMaker2006\">Maker (2006)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarthy1999-292\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarthy1999_292-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCarthy1999\">McCarthy (1999)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinsky1986-293\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinsky1986_293-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMinsky1986\">Minsky (1986)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-294\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-294\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cloud.google.com\/learn\/what-is-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Cloud_Platform\" title=\"Google Cloud Platform\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17aded95d27755dd7b342e0ee23f4fb0\">Google Cloud Platform<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230731114802\/https:\/\/cloud.google.com\/learn\/what-is-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 31 July 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 October<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Google+Cloud+Platform&amp;rft.atitle=What+Is+Artificial+Intelligence+%28AI%29%3F&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcloud.google.com%2Flearn%2Fwhat-is-artificial-intelligence&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTENilsson198310-295\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENilsson198310_295-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1983\">Nilsson (1983)<\/a>, p.&#160;10.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaugeland1985112\u2013117-297\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaugeland1985112\u2013117_297-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFHaugeland1985\">Haugeland (1985)<\/a>, pp.&#160;112\u2013117.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Physical_symbol_system_hypothesis-298\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Physical_symbol_system_hypothesis_298-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nPhysical symbol system hypothesis:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFNewellSimon1976\">Newell &amp; Simon (1976<\/a>, p.&#160;116)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Historical significance:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, p.&#160;153)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;19)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-299\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-299\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moravec%27s_paradox\" title=\"Moravec's paradox\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76a808942c6d7fe91ec4f8263c9888b7\">Moravec's paradox<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMoravec1988\">Moravec (1988<\/a>, pp.&#160;15\u201316)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMinsky1986\">Minsky (1986<\/a>, p.&#160;29)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPinker2007\">Pinker (2007<\/a>, pp.&#160;190\u201391)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dreyfus'_critique-300\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Dreyfus'_critique_300-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dreyfus%27_critique_of_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dreyfus' critique of AI\" data-key=\"da10b2855245e37a0180fce639e95b67\">Dreyfus' critique of AI<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFDreyfus1972\">Dreyfus (1972)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFDreyfusDreyfus1986\">Dreyfus &amp; Dreyfus (1986)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Historical significance and philosophical implications:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993<\/a>, pp.&#160;120\u2013132)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;211\u2013239)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;981\u2013982)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFFearn2007\">Fearn (2007<\/a>, Chpt. 3)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTECrevier1993125-301\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrevier1993125_301-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993)<\/a>, p.&#160;125.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTELangley2011-303\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangley2011_303-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLangley2011\">Langley (2011)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatz2012-304\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatz2012_304-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFKatz2012\">Katz (2012)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Neats_vs._scruffies-305\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Neats_vs._scruffies_305-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neats_vs._scruffies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neats vs. scruffies\" data-key=\"d9fb5258517ffdc10d3a12c54aef4bbb\">Neats vs. scruffies<\/a>, the historic debate:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;421\u2013424, 486\u2013489)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993<\/a>, p.&#160;168)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1983\">Nilsson (1983<\/a>, pp.&#160;10\u201311)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;24)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>A classic example of the \"scruffy\" approach to intelligence:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMinsky1986\">Minsky (1986)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>A modern example of neat AI and its aspirations in the 21st century:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos (2015)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEPennachinGoertzel2007-306\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPennachinGoertzel2007_306-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPennachinGoertzel2007\">Pennachin &amp; Goertzel (2007)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2016-307\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts2016_307-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts2016_307-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRoberts2016\">Roberts (2016)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021986-308\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2021986_308-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;986.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEChalmers1995-309\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChalmers1995_309-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFChalmers1995\">Chalmers (1995)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennett1991-310\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDennett1991_310-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDennett1991\">Dennett (1991)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorst2005-311\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorst2005_311-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFHorst2005\">Horst (2005)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTESearle1999-312\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESearle1999_312-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFSearle1999\">Searle (1999)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTESearle19801-313\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESearle19801_313-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFSearle1980\">Searle (1980)<\/a>, p.&#160;1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20219817-314\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20219817_314-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;9817.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Chinese_room-316\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Chinese_room_316-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nSearle's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_room\" title=\"Chinese room\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40e4f68def9042fbadc20dbe8654fdca\">Chinese room<\/a> argument:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFSearle1980\">Searle (1980)<\/a>. Searle's original presentation of the thought experiment.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFSearle1999\">Searle (1999)<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Discussion:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;985)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;443\u2013445)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier (1993<\/a>, pp.&#160;269\u2013271)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-317\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-317\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robot_rights\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Robot rights\" data-key=\"3d9e387e8ec555912cdbfcc557d3d762\">Robot rights<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;1000\u20131001)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFBBC2006\">BBC (2006)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMaschafilm2010\">Maschafilm (2010)<\/a> (the film <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plug_%26_Pray\" title=\"Plug &amp; Pray\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13d267f55e9c82961912beda0f74e036\">Plug &amp; Pray<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2015-318\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2015_318-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFEvans2015\">Evans (2015)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck200419\u201325-319\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck200419\u201325_319-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004)<\/a>, pp.&#160;19\u201325.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenderson2007-320\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenderson2007_320-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFHenderson2007\">Henderson (2007)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Singularity-321\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Singularity_321-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nThe <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligence_explosion\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intelligence explosion\" data-key=\"b16c3047e73e428a36c3c41a53b98c72\">Intelligence explosion<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technological_singularity\" title=\"Technological singularity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4787174dcb8c7955e9a9622daf8da71c\">technological singularity<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, pp.&#160;1004\u20131005)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFOmohundro2008\">Omohundro (2008)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFKurzweil2005\">Kurzweil (2005)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I._J._Good\" title=\"I. J. Good\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f254b138042de64c79205242dce9ec4\">I. J. Good<\/a>'s \"intelligence explosion\"\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFGood1965\">Good (1965)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vernor_Vinge\" title=\"Vernor Vinge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b1b61f79e9e3f719f8b2ce721dcac0f\">Vernor Vinge<\/a>'s \"singularity\"\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFVinge1993\">Vinge (1993)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20211005-322\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20211005_322-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021)<\/a>, p.&#160;1005.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-323\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-323\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transhumanism\" title=\"Transhumanism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"599e68dd128d0e860d6861776bad3385\">Transhumanism<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMoravec1988\">Moravec (1988)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFKurzweil2005\">Kurzweil (2005)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\">Russell &amp; Norvig (2021<\/a>, p.&#160;1005)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-324\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-324\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nAI as evolution:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Fredkin\" title=\"Edward Fredkin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c048410d673ea47508c13c8f98f7015\">Edward Fredkin<\/a> is quoted in <a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, p.&#160;401)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFButler1863\">Butler (1863)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFDyson1998\">Dyson (1998)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_in_myth-325\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_myth_325-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nAI in myth:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp.&#160;4\u20135)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck2004340\u2013400-326\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck2004340\u2013400_326-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004)<\/a>, pp.&#160;340\u2013400.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEButtazzo2001-327\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButtazzo2001_327-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFButtazzo2001\">Buttazzo (2001)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008-328\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008_328-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAnderson2008\">Anderson (2008)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCauley2007-329\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCauley2007_329-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCauley2007\">McCauley (2007)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalvan1997-330\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalvan1997_330-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGalvan1997\">Galvan (1997)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"AI_textbooks\">AI textbooks<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The two most widely used textbooks in 2023. (See the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/explorer.opensyllabus.org\/result\/field?id=Computer+Science\" target=\"_blank\">Open Syllabus<\/a>).\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRussellNorvig2021\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell, Stuart J.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig, Peter.<\/a> (2021). <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_Intelligence:_A_Modern_Approach\" title=\"Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9dbb28c25594c66d5bac1148dc06e5f6\">Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach<\/a><\/i> (4th&#160;ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0134610993<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LCCN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LCCN (identifier)\" data-key=\"ba0fd5211c48671576e8e562c4662655\">LCCN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lccn.loc.gov\/20190474\" target=\"_blank\">20190474<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+Modern+Approach&amp;rft.place=Hoboken&amp;rft.edition=4th&amp;rft.pub=Pearson&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F20190474&amp;rft.isbn=978-0134610993&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.aufirst=Stuart+J.&amp;rft.au=Norvig%2C+Peter.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRichKnightNair2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Elaine_Rich\" title=\"Elaine Rich\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9224f16b9a27c6304d255c2be5a81af9\">Rich, Elaine<\/a>; Knight, Kevin; Nair, Shivashankar B (2010). <i>Artificial Intelligence<\/i> (3rd&#160;ed.). New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill India. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0070087705<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.place=New+Delhi&amp;rft.edition=3rd&amp;rft.pub=Tata+McGraw+Hill+India&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-0070087705&amp;rft.aulast=Rich&amp;rft.aufirst=Elaine&amp;rft.au=Knight%2C+Kevin&amp;rft.au=Nair%2C+Shivashankar+B&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>These were the four of the most widely used AI textbooks in 2008:\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em\">\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/William_Stubblefield\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"William Stubblefield\" data-key=\"94b7de6e34baa64323c7aa321b528c22\">Stubblefield, William<\/a> (2004). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/artificialintell0000luge\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving<\/i><\/a><\/span> (5th&#160;ed.). Benjamin\/Cummings. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-8053-4780-7<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726220613\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/artificialintell0000luge\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 December<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+Structures+and+Strategies+for+Complex+Problem+Solving&amp;rft.edition=5th&amp;rft.pub=Benjamin%2FCummings&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8053-4780-7&amp;rft.aulast=Luger&amp;rft.aufirst=George&amp;rft.au=Stubblefield%2C+William&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartificialintell0000luge&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNilsson1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nils_Nilsson_(researcher)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nils Nilsson (researcher)\" data-key=\"5ec99f61dc752c5fa3f7b86c24345070\">Nilsson, Nils<\/a> (1998). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/artificialintell0000nils\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis<\/i><\/a><\/span>. Morgan Kaufmann. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-55860-467-4<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726131654\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/artificialintell0000nils\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 November<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+New+Synthesis&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-55860-467-4&amp;rft.aulast=Nilsson&amp;rft.aufirst=Nils&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartificialintell0000nils&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell, Stuart J.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig, Peter<\/a> (2003), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aima.cs.berkeley.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach<\/i><\/a> (2nd&#160;ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-13-790395-2<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+Modern+Approach&amp;rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=0-13-790395-2&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.aufirst=Stuart+J.&amp;rft.au=Norvig%2C+Peter&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faima.cs.berkeley.edu%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\">; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Mackworth\" title=\"Alan Mackworth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0e12463d5ba2a3f90905d9ae7c57867\">Mackworth, Alan<\/a>; (1998). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/computationalint00pool\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach<\/i><\/a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-19-510270-3<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726131436\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/computationalint00pool\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 August<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computational+Intelligence%3A+A+Logical+Approach&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-510270-3&amp;rft.aulast=Poole&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.au=Mackworth%2C+Alan&amp;rft.au=Goebel%2C+Randy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomputationalint00pool&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Later editions.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPooleMackworth2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Poole, David; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Mackworth\" title=\"Alan Mackworth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0e12463d5ba2a3f90905d9ae7c57867\">Mackworth, Alan<\/a> (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/artint.info\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents<\/i><\/a> (2nd&#160;ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-107-19539-4<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171207013855\/http:\/\/artint.info\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 December 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 December<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+Foundations+of+Computational+Agents&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-107-19539-4&amp;rft.aulast=Poole&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.au=Mackworth%2C+Alan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fartint.info%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_AI\">History of AI<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1054258005\" \/><div class=\"refbegin\" style=\"\">\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCrevier1993\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Crevier\" title=\"Daniel Crevier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46eaed1414bf84bc2917fb2686c02931\">Crevier, Daniel<\/a> (1993). <i>AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence<\/i>. New York, NY: BasicBooks. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-465-02997-3<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=AI%3A+The+Tumultuous+Search+for+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&amp;rft.pub=BasicBooks&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.isbn=0-465-02997-3&amp;rft.aulast=Crevier&amp;rft.aufirst=Daniel&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMcCorduck2004\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pamela_McCorduck\" title=\"Pamela McCorduck\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a3df1a76781c9d5b71f140ed6df22e0\">McCorduck, Pamela<\/a> (2004), <i>Machines Who Think<\/i> (2nd&#160;ed.), Natick, MA: A. K. Peters, Ltd., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>1-56881-205-1<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Machines+Who+Think&amp;rft.place=Natick%2C+MA&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=A.+K.+Peters%2C+Ltd.&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=1-56881-205-1&amp;rft.aulast=McCorduck&amp;rft.aufirst=Pamela&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNewquist1994\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HP_Newquist\" title=\"HP Newquist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"feb7727fa709720201bf36fe027309ff\">Newquist, H. P.<\/a> (1994). <i>The Brain Makers: Genius, Ego, And Greed In The Quest For Machines That Think<\/i>. New York: Macmillan\/SAMS. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-672-30412-5<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Brain+Makers%3A+Genius%2C+Ego%2C+And+Greed+In+The+Quest+For+Machines+That+Think&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan%2FSAMS&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-672-30412-5&amp;rft.aulast=Newquist&amp;rft.aufirst=H.+P.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_sources\">Other sources<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1054258005\" \/><div class=\"refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em\">\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/suli.pppl.gov\/2023\/course\/Rea-PPPL-SULI2023.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">AI &amp; ML in Fusion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1npCTrJ8XJn20ZGDA_DfMpANuQZFMzKPh\/view?usp=drive_link\" target=\"_blank\">AI &amp; ML in Fusion, video lecture<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230702164332\/https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1npCTrJ8XJn20ZGDA_DfMpANuQZFMzKPh\/view?usp=drive_link\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2 July 2023 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoogle2016\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/wildoftech.com\/alphago-google-deepmind\" target=\"_blank\">\"AlphaGo \u2013 Google DeepMind\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160310191926\/https:\/\/wildoftech.com\/alphago-google-deepmind\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 March 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=AlphaGo+%E2%80%93+Google+DeepMind&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwildoftech.com%2Falphago-google-deepmind&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAlterHarris2023\" class=\"citation cs2\">Alter, Alexandra; Harris, Elizabeth A. (20 September 2023), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/09\/20\/books\/authors-openai-lawsuit-chatgpt-copyright.html?campaign_id=2&emc=edit_th_20230921&instance_id=103259&nl=todaysheadlines&regi_id=62816440&segment_id=145288&user_id=ad24f3545dae0ec44284a38bb4a88f1d\" target=\"_blank\">\"Franzen, Grisham and Other Prominent Authors Sue OpenAI\"<\/a>, <i>The New York Times<\/i><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Franzen%2C+Grisham+and+Other+Prominent+Authors+Sue+OpenAI&amp;rft.date=2023-09-20&amp;rft.aulast=Alter&amp;rft.aufirst=Alexandra&amp;rft.au=Harris%2C+Elizabeth+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F09%2F20%2Fbooks%2Fauthors-openai-lawsuit-chatgpt-copyright.html%3Fcampaign_id%3D2%26emc%3Dedit_th_20230921%26instance_id%3D103259%26nl%3Dtodaysheadlines%26regi_id%3D62816440%26segment_id%3D145288%26user_id%3Dad24f3545dae0ec44284a38bb4a88f1d&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAltmanBrockmanSutskever2023\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sam_Altman\" title=\"Sam Altman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efa7410287b4a2baa13e204858f58868\">Altman, Sam<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Greg_Brockman\" title=\"Greg Brockman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51ac13403575f3a57714e18e66be87ad\">Brockman, Greg<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ilya_Sutskever\" title=\"Ilya Sutskever\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af3077235f6ff82d0c305500f2d6a160\">Sutskever, Ilya<\/a> (22 May 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/openai.com\/blog\/governance-of-superintelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"Governance of Superintelligence\"<\/a>. <i>openai.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230527061619\/https:\/\/openai.com\/blog\/governance-of-superintelligence\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 May 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 May<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=openai.com&amp;rft.atitle=Governance+of+Superintelligence&amp;rft.date=2023-05-22&amp;rft.aulast=Altman&amp;rft.aufirst=Sam&amp;rft.au=Brockman%2C+Greg&amp;rft.au=Sutskever%2C+Ilya&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenai.com%2Fblog%2Fgovernance-of-superintelligence&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAnderson2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Anderson, Susan Leigh (2008). \"Asimov's \"three laws of robotics\" and machine metaethics\". <i>AI &amp; Society<\/i>. <b>22<\/b> (4): 477\u2013493. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs00146-007-0094-5\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s00146-007-0094-5<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:1809459\" target=\"_blank\">1809459<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=AI+%26+Society&amp;rft.atitle=Asimov%27s+%22three+laws+of+robotics%22+and+machine+metaethics.&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=477-493&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00146-007-0094-5&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1809459%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Anderson&amp;rft.aufirst=Susan+Leigh&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAndersonAnderson2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Anderson, Michael; Anderson, Susan Leigh (2011). <i>Machine Ethics<\/i>. Cambridge University Press.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Machine+Ethics&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Anderson&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft.au=Anderson%2C+Susan+Leigh&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFArntzGregoryZierahn2016\" class=\"citation cs2\">Arntz, Melanie; Gregory, Terry; Zierahn, Ulrich (2016), \"The risk of automation for jobs in OECD countries: A comparative analysis\", <i>OECD Social, Employment, and Migration Working Papers 189<\/i><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=OECD+Social%2C+Employment%2C+and+Migration+Working+Papers+189&amp;rft.atitle=The+risk+of+automation+for+jobs+in+OECD+countries%3A+A+comparative+analysis&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.aulast=Arntz&amp;rft.aufirst=Melanie&amp;rft.au=Gregory%2C+Terry&amp;rft.au=Zierahn%2C+Ulrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAsadaHosodaKuniyoshiIshiguro2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Asada, M.; Hosoda, K.; Kuniyoshi, Y.; Ishiguro, H.; Inui, T.; Yoshikawa, Y.; Ogino, M.; Yoshida, C. (2009). \"Cognitive developmental robotics: a survey\". <i>IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (1): 12\u201334. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2Ftamd.2009.2021702\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/tamd.2009.2021702<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:10168773\" target=\"_blank\">10168773<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Autonomous+Mental+Development&amp;rft.atitle=Cognitive+developmental+robotics%3A+a+survey&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=12-34&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Ftamd.2009.2021702&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10168773%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Asada&amp;rft.aufirst=M.&amp;rft.au=Hosoda%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Kuniyoshi%2C+Y.&amp;rft.au=Ishiguro%2C+H.&amp;rft.au=Inui%2C+T.&amp;rft.au=Yoshikawa%2C+Y.&amp;rft.au=Ogino%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Yoshida%2C+C.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMcKinsey2018\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mckinsey.com\/business-functions\/mckinsey-analytics\/our-insights\/ask-the-ai-experts-whats-driving-todays-progress-in-ai\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ask the AI experts: What's driving today's progress in AI?\"<\/a>. <i>McKinsey &amp; Company<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180413190018\/https:\/\/www.mckinsey.com\/business-functions\/mckinsey-analytics\/our-insights\/ask-the-ai-experts-whats-driving-todays-progress-in-ai\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 April 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=McKinsey+%26+Company&amp;rft.atitle=Ask+the+AI+experts%3A+What%27s+driving+today%27s+progress+in+AI%3F&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mckinsey.com%2Fbusiness-functions%2Fmckinsey-analytics%2Four-insights%2Fask-the-ai-experts-whats-driving-todays-progress-in-ai&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBarfieldPagallo2018\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Barfield, Woodrow; Pagallo, Ugo (2018). <i>Research handbook on the law of artificial intelligence<\/i>. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-78643-904-8<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1039480085\" target=\"_blank\">1039480085<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Research+handbook+on+the+law+of+artificial+intelligence&amp;rft.place=Cheltenham%2C+UK&amp;rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1039480085&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-78643-904-8&amp;rft.aulast=Barfield&amp;rft.aufirst=Woodrow&amp;rft.au=Pagallo%2C+Ugo&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBealWinston2009\" class=\"citation cs2\">Beal, J.; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Patrick_Winston\" title=\"Patrick Winston\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c64f3c5473a65ff66615c57996a9e39\">Winston, Patrick<\/a> (2009), \"The New Frontier of Human-Level Artificial Intelligence\", <i>IEEE Intelligent Systems<\/i>, <b>24<\/b>: 21\u201324, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FMIS.2009.75\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/MIS.2009.75<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/1721.1%2F52357\" target=\"_blank\">1721.1\/52357<\/a><\/span>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:32437713\" target=\"_blank\">32437713<\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Intelligent+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=The+New+Frontier+of+Human-Level+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.volume=24&amp;rft.pages=21-24&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1721.1%2F52357&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32437713%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMIS.2009.75&amp;rft.aulast=Beal&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rft.au=Winston%2C+Patrick&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBerdahlBakerMannOsoba2023\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Berdahl, Carl Thomas; Baker, Lawrence; Mann, Sean; Osoba, Osonde; Girosi, Federico (7 February 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ai.jmir.org\/2023\/1\/e42936\" target=\"_blank\">\"Strategies to Improve the Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Health Equity: Scoping Review\"<\/a>. <i>JMIR AI<\/i>. <b>2<\/b>: e42936. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196%2F42936\" target=\"_blank\">10.2196\/42936<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2817-1705\" target=\"_blank\">2817-1705<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:256681439\" target=\"_blank\">256681439<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230221145255\/https:\/\/ai.jmir.org\/2023\/1\/e42936\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 21 February 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 February<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=JMIR+AI&amp;rft.atitle=Strategies+to+Improve+the+Impact+of+Artificial+Intelligence+on+Health+Equity%3A+Scoping+Review&amp;rft.volume=2&amp;rft.pages=e42936&amp;rft.date=2023-02-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256681439%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=2817-1705&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2196%2F42936&amp;rft.aulast=Berdahl&amp;rft.aufirst=Carl+Thomas&amp;rft.au=Baker%2C+Lawrence&amp;rft.au=Mann%2C+Sean&amp;rft.au=Osoba%2C+Osonde&amp;rft.au=Girosi%2C+Federico&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fai.jmir.org%2F2023%2F1%2Fe42936&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBerlinski2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Berlinski\" title=\"David Berlinski\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"12de7ae9b1211d45a724563468dad1de\">Berlinski, David<\/a> (2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/adventofalgorith0000berl\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Advent of the Algorithm<\/i><\/a>. Harcourt Books. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-15-601391-8<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/46890682\" target=\"_blank\">46890682<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726215744\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/adventofalgorith0000berl\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 August<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Advent+of+the+Algorithm&amp;rft.pub=Harcourt+Books&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F46890682&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-15-601391-8&amp;rft.aulast=Berlinski&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fadventofalgorith0000berl&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBerryhillHeangClogherMcBride2019\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Berryhill, Jamie; Heang, K\u00e9vin Kok; Clogher, Rob; McBride, Keegan (2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/oecd-opsi.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/AI-Report-Online.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Hello, World: Artificial Intelligence and its Use in the Public Sector<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Paris: OECD Observatory of Public Sector Innovation. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191220021331\/https:\/\/oecd-opsi.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/AI-Report-Online.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 20 December 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 August<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Hello%2C+World%3A+Artificial+Intelligence+and+its+Use+in+the+Public+Sector&amp;rft.place=Paris&amp;rft.pub=OECD+Observatory+of+Public+Sector+Innovation&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.aulast=Berryhill&amp;rft.aufirst=Jamie&amp;rft.au=Heang%2C+K%C3%A9vin+Kok&amp;rft.au=Clogher%2C+Rob&amp;rft.au=McBride%2C+Keegan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foecd-opsi.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F11%2FAI-Report-Online.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBertiniDel_BimboTorniai2006\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Bertini, M; Del Bimbo, A; Torniai, C (2006). \"Automatic annotation and semantic retrieval of video sequences using multimedia ontologies\". <i>MM '06 Proceedings of the 14th ACM international conference on Multimedia<\/i>. 14th ACM international conference on Multimedia. Santa Barbara: ACM. pp.&#160;679\u2013682.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.atitle=Automatic+annotation+and+semantic+retrieval+of+video+sequences+using+multimedia+ontologies&amp;rft.btitle=MM+%2706+Proceedings+of+the+14th+ACM+international+conference+on+Multimedia&amp;rft.place=Santa+Barbara&amp;rft.pages=679-682&amp;rft.pub=ACM&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.aulast=Bertini&amp;rft.aufirst=M&amp;rft.au=Del+Bimbo%2C+A&amp;rft.au=Torniai%2C+C&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBostrom2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nick_Bostrom\" title=\"Nick Bostrom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c3c8bc124e1204cfb4d1594e89c8a93\">Bostrom, Nick<\/a> (2014). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superintelligence:_Paths,_Dangers,_Strategies\" title=\"Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7fd8ddc116ccf6b8dc91ca1db5a2e63\"><i>Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies<\/i><\/a>. Oxford University Press.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Superintelligence%3A+Paths%2C+Dangers%2C+Strategies&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.aulast=Bostrom&amp;rft.aufirst=Nick&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBostrom2015\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Bostrom, Nick (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/nick_bostrom_what_happens_when_our_computers_get_smarter_than_we_are\/transcript\" target=\"_blank\">\"What happens when our computers get smarter than we are?\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TED_(conference)\" title=\"TED (conference)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97dc7d8e2ed9bdec483464cb7b8491c0\">TED (conference)<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200725005719\/https:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/nick_bostrom_what_happens_when_our_computers_get_smarter_than_we_are\/transcript\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 25 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 January<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=What+happens+when+our+computers+get+smarter+than+we+are%3F&amp;rft.pub=TED+%28conference%29&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.aulast=Bostrom&amp;rft.aufirst=Nick&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ted.com%2Ftalks%2Fnick_bostrom_what_happens_when_our_computers_get_smarter_than_we_are%2Ftranscript&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrooks2014\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Brooks, Rodney (10 November 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141112130954\/http:\/\/www.rethinkrobotics.com\/artificial-intelligence-tool-threat\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"artificial intelligence is a tool, not a threat\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rethinkrobotics.com\/artificial-intelligence-tool-threat\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 12 November 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=artificial+intelligence+is+a+tool%2C+not+a+threat&amp;rft.date=2014-11-10&amp;rft.aulast=Brooks&amp;rft.aufirst=Rodney&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rethinkrobotics.com%2Fartificial-intelligence-tool-threat%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrooks1990\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rodney_Brooks\" title=\"Rodney Brooks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8193c538969269197c051496ce56e39\">Brooks, Rodney<\/a> (1990). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/people.csail.mit.edu\/brooks\/papers\/elephants.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Elephants Don't Play Chess\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Robotics and Autonomous Systems<\/i>. <b>6<\/b> (1\u20132): 3\u201315. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CiteSeerX (identifier)\" data-key=\"d1ea3e5168e7880002688dac1448af19\">CiteSeerX<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.588.7539\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.588.7539<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0921-8890%2805%2980025-9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/S0921-8890(05)80025-9<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070809020912\/http:\/\/people.csail.mit.edu\/brooks\/papers\/elephants.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 9 August 2007.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Robotics+and+Autonomous+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Elephants+Don%27t+Play+Chess&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&amp;rft.pages=3-15&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.588.7539%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0921-8890%2805%2980025-9&amp;rft.aulast=Brooks&amp;rft.aufirst=Rodney&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.csail.mit.edu%2Fbrooks%2Fpapers%2Felephants.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBuiten2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Buiten, Miriam C (2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017%2Ferr.2019.8\" target=\"_blank\">\"Towards Intelligent Regulation of Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>European Journal of Risk Regulation<\/i>. <b>10<\/b> (1): 41\u201359. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017%2Ferr.2019.8\" target=\"_blank\">10.1017\/err.2019.8<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1867-299X\" target=\"_blank\">1867-299X<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Risk+Regulation&amp;rft.atitle=Towards+Intelligent+Regulation+of+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=41-59&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Ferr.2019.8&amp;rft.issn=1867-299X&amp;rft.aulast=Buiten&amp;rft.aufirst=Miriam+C&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Ferr.2019.8&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBushwick2023\" class=\"citation cs2\">Bushwick, Sophie (16 March 2023), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/what-the-new-gpt-4-ai-can-do\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What the New GPT-4 AI Can Do\"<\/a>, <i>Scientific American<\/i><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&amp;rft.atitle=What+the+New+GPT-4+AI+Can+Do&amp;rft.date=2023-03-16&amp;rft.aulast=Bushwick&amp;rft.aufirst=Sophie&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fwhat-the-new-gpt-4-ai-can-do%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFButler1863\" class=\"citation news cs1 cs1-prop-jul-greg-uncertainty\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Samuel_Butler_(novelist)\" title=\"Samuel Butler (novelist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e10417b2af600ca52e522c57713009b3\">Butler, Samuel<\/a> (13 June 1863). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nzetc.victoria.ac.nz\/tm\/scholarly\/tei-ButFir-t1-g1-t1-g1-t4-body.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Darwin among the Machines\"<\/a>. Letters to the Editor. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Press\" title=\"The Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86f5952c90191df761190a60fea91392\">The Press<\/a><\/i>. Christchurch, New Zealand. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080919172551\/http:\/\/www.nzetc.org\/tm\/scholarly\/tei-ButFir-t1-g1-t1-g1-t4-body.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 September 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 October<\/span> 2014<\/span> \u2013 via Victoria University of Wellington.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Press&amp;rft.atitle=Darwin+among+the+Machines&amp;rft.date=1863-06-13&amp;rft.aulast=Butler&amp;rft.aufirst=Samuel&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnzetc.victoria.ac.nz%2Ftm%2Fscholarly%2Ftei-ButFir-t1-g1-t1-g1-t4-body.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFButtazzo2001\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Buttazzo, G. (July 2001). \"Artificial consciousness: Utopia or real possibility?\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_(magazine)\" title=\"Computer (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d547f8fc9de43474a8023ba83ee330c0\">Computer<\/a><\/i>. <b>34<\/b> (7): 24\u201330. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2F2.933500\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/2.933500<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Computer&amp;rft.atitle=Artificial+consciousness%3A+Utopia+or+real+possibility%3F&amp;rft.volume=34&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=24-30&amp;rft.date=2001-07&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F2.933500&amp;rft.aulast=Buttazzo&amp;rft.aufirst=G.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCambriaWhite2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Cambria, Erik; White, Bebo (May 2014). \"Jumping NLP Curves: A Review of Natural Language Processing Research [Review Article]\". <i>IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine<\/i>. <b>9<\/b> (2): 48\u201357. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FMCI.2014.2307227\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/MCI.2014.2307227<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:206451986\" target=\"_blank\">206451986<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Computational+Intelligence+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Jumping+NLP+Curves%3A+A+Review+of+Natural+Language+Processing+Research+%5BReview+Article%5D&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=48-57&amp;rft.date=2014-05&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMCI.2014.2307227&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206451986%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Cambria&amp;rft.aufirst=Erik&amp;rft.au=White%2C+Bebo&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCellan-Jones2014\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Cellan-Jones, Rory (2 December 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/technology-30290540\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stephen Hawking warns artificial intelligence could end mankind\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BBC_News\" title=\"BBC News\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"255865441b3342024adf145c10c2e1d7\">BBC News<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030054329\/http:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/technology-30290540\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=Stephen+Hawking+warns+artificial+intelligence+could+end+mankind&amp;rft.date=2014-12-02&amp;rft.aulast=Cellan-Jones&amp;rft.aufirst=Rory&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Ftechnology-30290540&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChalmers1995\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Chalmers\" title=\"David Chalmers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec4a71fe936ef9233c3333ca26d35e22\">Chalmers, David<\/a> (1995). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.imprint.co.uk\/chalmers.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Facing up to the problem of consciousness\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Consciousness_Studies\" title=\"Journal of Consciousness Studies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a4ef1cc5b72118348333a156606c75\">Journal of Consciousness Studies<\/a><\/i>. <b>2<\/b> (3): 200\u2013219. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050308163649\/http:\/\/www.imprint.co.uk\/chalmers.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 8 March 2005<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 October<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Consciousness+Studies&amp;rft.atitle=Facing+up+to+the+problem+of+consciousness&amp;rft.volume=2&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=200-219&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.aulast=Chalmers&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imprint.co.uk%2Fchalmers.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChristian2020\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brian_Christian\" title=\"Brian Christian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b7aebe632527d14f616d04435d25223\">Christian, Brian<\/a> (2020). <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Alignment_Problem\" title=\"The Alignment Problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f281ee2e1331a0683885f456d87864ed\">The Alignment Problem<\/a>: Machine learning and human values<\/i>. W. W. Norton &amp; Company. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-393-86833-3<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1233266753\" target=\"_blank\">1233266753<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Alignment+Problem%3A+Machine+learning+and+human+values&amp;rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1233266753&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-393-86833-3&amp;rft.aulast=Christian&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCiresanMeierSchmidhuber2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ciresan, D.; Meier, U.; Schmidhuber, J. (2012). \"Multi-column deep neural networks for image classification\". <i>2012 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition<\/i>. pp.&#160;3642\u20133649. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1202.2745\" target=\"_blank\">1202.2745<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2Fcvpr.2012.6248110\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/cvpr.2012.6248110<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4673-1228-8<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:2161592\" target=\"_blank\">2161592<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Multi-column+deep+neural+networks+for+image+classification&amp;rft.btitle=2012+IEEE+Conference+on+Computer+Vision+and+Pattern+Recognition&amp;rft.pages=3642-3649&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1202.2745&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2161592%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Fcvpr.2012.6248110&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4673-1228-8&amp;rft.aulast=Ciresan&amp;rft.aufirst=D.&amp;rft.au=Meier%2C+U.&amp;rft.au=Schmidhuber%2C+J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFClark2015b\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Clark, Jack (2015b). <span class=\"cs1-lock-subscription\" title=\"Paid subscription required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2015-12-08\/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why 2015 Was a Breakthrough Year in Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a><\/span>. <i>Bloomberg.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161123053855\/https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2015-12-08\/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 23 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Bloomberg.com&amp;rft.atitle=Why+2015+Was+a+Breakthrough+Year+in+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.aulast=Clark&amp;rft.aufirst=Jack&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2015-12-08%2Fwhy-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCNA2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">CNA (12 January 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.channelnewsasia.com\/news\/commentary\/artificial-intelligence-big-data-bias-hiring-loans-key-challenge-11097374\" target=\"_blank\">\"Commentary: Bad news. Artificial intelligence is biased\"<\/a>. <i>CNA<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190112104421\/https:\/\/www.channelnewsasia.com\/news\/commentary\/artificial-intelligence-big-data-bias-hiring-loans-key-challenge-11097374\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 12 January 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=CNA&amp;rft.atitle=Commentary%3A+Bad+news.+Artificial+intelligence+is+biased&amp;rft.date=2019-01-12&amp;rft.au=CNA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.channelnewsasia.com%2Fnews%2Fcommentary%2Fartificial-intelligence-big-data-bias-hiring-loans-key-challenge-11097374&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCybenko1988\" class=\"citation report cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Cybenko\" title=\"George Cybenko\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00833f96a846c784bcc0a44b10f3a916\">Cybenko, G.<\/a> (1988). Continuous valued neural networks with two hidden layers are sufficient (Report). 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(2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/research.microsoft.com\/pubs\/209355\/DeepLearning-NowPublishing-Vol7-SIG-039.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Deep Learning: Methods and Applications\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Foundations and Trends in Signal Processing<\/i>. <b>7<\/b> (3\u20134): 1\u2013199. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1561%2F2000000039\" target=\"_blank\">10.1561\/2000000039<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160314152112\/http:\/\/research.microsoft.com\/pubs\/209355\/DeepLearning-NowPublishing-Vol7-SIG-039.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 14 March 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 October<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Foundations+and+Trends+in+Signal+Processing&amp;rft.atitle=Deep+Learning%3A+Methods+and+Applications&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&amp;rft.pages=1-199&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1561%2F2000000039&amp;rft.aulast=Deng&amp;rft.aufirst=L.&amp;rft.au=Yu%2C+D.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearch.microsoft.com%2Fpubs%2F209355%2FDeepLearning-NowPublishing-Vol7-SIG-039.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDennett1991\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Dennett\" title=\"Daniel Dennett\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"400639e3b2831a6424003b83d2f2fdec\">Dennett, Daniel<\/a> (1991). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consciousness_Explained\" title=\"Consciousness Explained\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef96bdd30d20d37237543ce2c388f62\"><i>Consciousness Explained<\/i><\/a>. The Penguin Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-7139-9037-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Consciousness+Explained&amp;rft.pub=The+Penguin+Press&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7139-9037-9&amp;rft.aulast=Dennett&amp;rft.aufirst=Daniel&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDiFeliciantonio2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">DiFeliciantonio, Chase (3 April 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sfchronicle.com\/tech\/article\/ai-artificial-intelligence-report-stanford-17869558.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI has already changed the world. This report shows how\"<\/a>. <i>San Francisco Chronicle<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230619015309\/https:\/\/www.sfchronicle.com\/tech\/article\/ai-artificial-intelligence-report-stanford-17869558.php\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 June 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=San+Francisco+Chronicle&amp;rft.atitle=AI+has+already+changed+the+world.+This+report+shows+how&amp;rft.date=2023-04-03&amp;rft.aulast=DiFeliciantonio&amp;rft.aufirst=Chase&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfchronicle.com%2Ftech%2Farticle%2Fai-artificial-intelligence-report-stanford-17869558.php&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDickson2022\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Dickson, Ben (2 May 2022). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/bdtechtalks.com\/2022\/05\/02\/what-is-the-transformer\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Machine learning: What is the transformer architecture?\"<\/a>. <i>TechTalks<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 November<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=TechTalks&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+learning%3A+What+is+the+transformer+architecture%3F&amp;rft.date=2022-05-02&amp;rft.aulast=Dickson&amp;rft.aufirst=Ben&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbdtechtalks.com%2F2022%2F05%2F02%2Fwhat-is-the-transformer%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDockrill2022\" class=\"citation cs2\">Dockrill, Peter (27 June 2022), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220627225827\/https:\/\/www.sciencealert.com\/robots-with-flawed-ai-make-sexist-racist-and-toxic-decisions-experiment-shows\" target=\"_blank\">\"Robots With Flawed AI Make Sexist And Racist Decisions, Experiment Shows\"<\/a>, <i>Science Alert<\/i>, archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencealert.com\/robots-with-flawed-ai-make-sexist-racist-and-toxic-decisions-experiment-shows\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 27 June 2022<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science+Alert&amp;rft.atitle=Robots+With+Flawed+AI+Make+Sexist+And+Racist+Decisions%2C+Experiment+Shows&amp;rft.date=2022-06-27&amp;rft.aulast=Dockrill&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencealert.com%2Frobots-with-flawed-ai-make-sexist-racist-and-toxic-decisions-experiment-shows&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDomingos2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pedro_Domingos\" title=\"Pedro Domingos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"054fdd869e12e909b1bb7842a2b55e14\">Domingos, Pedro<\/a> (2015). <i>The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basic_Books\" title=\"Basic Books\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a45c9bfeb695415c9b540ec18eb0af4c\">Basic Books<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0465065707<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Master+Algorithm%3A+How+the+Quest+for+the+Ultimate+Learning+Machine+Will+Remake+Our+World&amp;rft.pub=Basic+Books&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=978-0465065707&amp;rft.aulast=Domingos&amp;rft.aufirst=Pedro&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDreyfus1972\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hubert_Dreyfus\" title=\"Hubert Dreyfus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7b4ff8e951542af50a558d4a1d6abc5\">Dreyfus, Hubert<\/a> (1972). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/What_Computers_Can%27t_Do\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"What Computers Can't Do\" data-key=\"e94c158ee445cf022cbee701236f9c14\"><i>What Computers Can't Do<\/i><\/a>. New York: MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-06-011082-6<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=What+Computers+Can%27t+Do&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=1972&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-06-011082-6&amp;rft.aulast=Dreyfus&amp;rft.aufirst=Hubert&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDreyfusDreyfus1986\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hubert_Dreyfus\" title=\"Hubert Dreyfus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7b4ff8e951542af50a558d4a1d6abc5\">Dreyfus, Hubert<\/a>; Dreyfus, Stuart (1986). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/mindovermachinep00drey\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Mind over Machine: The Power of Human Intuition and Expertise in the Era of the Computer<\/i><\/a>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-02-908060-3<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726131414\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/mindovermachinep00drey\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 August<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Mind+over+Machine%3A+The+Power+of+Human+Intuition+and+Expertise+in+the+Era+of+the+Computer&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Blackwell&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-02-908060-3&amp;rft.aulast=Dreyfus&amp;rft.aufirst=Hubert&amp;rft.au=Dreyfus%2C+Stuart&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmindovermachinep00drey&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDyson1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Dyson_(science_historian)\" title=\"George Dyson (science historian)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24ab0a81cf8f365c1303a86a89652fce\">Dyson, George<\/a> (1998). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/darwinamongmachi00dyso\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Darwin among the Machines<\/i><\/a>. Allan Lane Science. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-7382-0030-9<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726131443\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/darwinamongmachi00dyso\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 August<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Darwin+among+the+Machines&amp;rft.pub=Allan+Lane+Science&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7382-0030-9&amp;rft.aulast=Dyson&amp;rft.aufirst=George&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdarwinamongmachi00dyso&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEdelson1991\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Edelson, Edward (1991). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nervoussystem0000edel\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Nervous System<\/i><\/a><\/span>. New York: Chelsea House. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-7910-0464-7<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726131758\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nervoussystem0000edel\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 November<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Nervous+System&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Chelsea+House&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7910-0464-7&amp;rft.aulast=Edelson&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnervoussystem0000edel&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEdwards2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Edwards, Benj (17 May 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/information-technology\/2023\/05\/poll-61-of-americans-say-ai-threatens-humanitys-future\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Poll: AI poses risk to humanity, according to majority of Americans\"<\/a>. <i>Ars Technica<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230619013608\/https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/information-technology\/2023\/05\/poll-61-of-americans-say-ai-threatens-humanitys-future\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 June 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&amp;rft.atitle=Poll%3A+AI+poses+risk+to+humanity%2C+according+to+majority+of+Americans&amp;rft.date=2023-05-17&amp;rft.aulast=Edwards&amp;rft.aufirst=Benj&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Finformation-technology%2F2023%2F05%2Fpoll-61-of-americans-say-ai-threatens-humanitys-future%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEvans2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Woody_Evans\" title=\"Woody Evans\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"305f84dbe0924d325cd39180bc8827de\">Evans, Woody<\/a> (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5209%2Frev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49072\" target=\"_blank\">\"Posthuman Rights: Dimensions of Transhuman Worlds\"<\/a>. <i>Teknokultura<\/i>. <b>12<\/b> (2). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5209%2Frev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49072\" target=\"_blank\">10.5209\/rev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49072<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Teknokultura&amp;rft.atitle=Posthuman+Rights%3A+Dimensions+of+Transhuman+Worlds&amp;rft.volume=12&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5209%2Frev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49072&amp;rft.aulast=Evans&amp;rft.aufirst=Woody&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5209%252Frev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49072&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFearn2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Fearn, Nicholas (2007). <i>The Latest Answers to the Oldest Questions: A Philosophical Adventure with the World's Greatest Thinkers<\/i>. New York: Grove Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-8021-1839-4<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Latest+Answers+to+the+Oldest+Questions%3A+A+Philosophical+Adventure+with+the+World%27s+Greatest+Thinkers&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Grove+Press&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8021-1839-4&amp;rft.aulast=Fearn&amp;rft.aufirst=Nicholas&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFordColvin2015\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Ford, Martin; Colvin, Geoff (6 September 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2015\/sep\/06\/will-robots-create-destroy-jobs\" target=\"_blank\">\"Will robots create more jobs than they destroy?\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180616204119\/https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2015\/sep\/06\/will-robots-create-destroy-jobs\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 16 June 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&amp;rft.atitle=Will+robots+create+more+jobs+than+they+destroy%3F&amp;rft.date=2015-09-06&amp;rft.aulast=Ford&amp;rft.aufirst=Martin&amp;rft.au=Colvin%2C+Geoff&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2015%2Fsep%2F06%2Fwill-robots-create-destroy-jobs&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFox_News2023\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Fox News (2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/static.foxnews.com\/foxnews.com\/content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/Fox_April-21-24-2023_Complete_National_Topline_May-1-Release.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Fox News Poll\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Fox News. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230512082712\/https:\/\/static.foxnews.com\/foxnews.com\/content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/Fox_April-21-24-2023_Complete_National_Topline_May-1-Release.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 12 May 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Fox+News+Poll&amp;rft.pub=Fox+News&amp;rft.date=2023&amp;rft.au=Fox+News&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstatic.foxnews.com%2Ffoxnews.com%2Fcontent%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F05%2FFox_April-21-24-2023_Complete_National_Topline_May-1-Release.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFrank2023\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Frank, Michael (22 September 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/thediplomat.com\/2023\/09\/us-leadership-in-artificial-intelligence-can-shape-the-21st-century-global-order\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"US Leadership in Artificial Intelligence Can Shape the 21st Century Global Order\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Diplomat\" title=\"The Diplomat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3e9cf2bd18ccdfb23ddf9c89d2e2606\">The Diplomat<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>. <q>Instead, the United States has developed a new area of dominance that the rest of the world views with a mixture of awe, envy, and resentment: artificial intelligence... From AI models and research to cloud computing and venture capital, U.S. companies, universities, and research labs \u2013 and their affiliates in allied countries \u2013 appear to have an enormous lead in both developing cutting-edge AI and commercializing it. The value of U.S. venture capital investments in AI start-ups exceeds that of the rest of the world combined.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Diplomat&amp;rft.atitle=US+Leadership+in+Artificial+Intelligence+Can+Shape+the+21st+Century+Global+Order&amp;rft.date=2023-09-22&amp;rft.aulast=Frank&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthediplomat.com%2F2023%2F09%2Fus-leadership-in-artificial-intelligence-can-shape-the-21st-century-global-order%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFreyOsborne2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Frey, Carl Benedikt; Osborne, Michael A (1 January 2017). \"The future of employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerisation?\". <i>Technological Forecasting and Social Change<\/i>. <b>114<\/b>: 254\u2013280. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CiteSeerX (identifier)\" data-key=\"d1ea3e5168e7880002688dac1448af19\">CiteSeerX<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.395.416\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.395.416<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.techfore.2016.08.019\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.techfore.2016.08.019<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0040-1625\" target=\"_blank\">0040-1625<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Technological+Forecasting+and+Social+Change&amp;rft.atitle=The+future+of+employment%3A+How+susceptible+are+jobs+to+computerisation%3F&amp;rft.volume=114&amp;rft.pages=254-280&amp;rft.date=2017-01-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.395.416%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft.issn=0040-1625&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.techfore.2016.08.019&amp;rft.aulast=Frey&amp;rft.aufirst=Carl+Benedikt&amp;rft.au=Osborne%2C+Michael+A&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFThe_Economist2016\" class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.economist.com\/news\/special-report\/21700756-artificial-intelligence-boom-based-old-idea-modern-twist-not\" target=\"_blank\">\"From not working to neural networking\"<\/a>. <i>The Economist<\/i>. 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161231203934\/https:\/\/www.economist.com\/news\/special-report\/21700756-artificial-intelligence-boom-based-old-idea-modern-twist-not\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 31 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Economist&amp;rft.atitle=From+not+working+to+neural+networking&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fspecial-report%2F21700756-artificial-intelligence-boom-based-old-idea-modern-twist-not&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGalvan1997\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Galvan, Jill (1 January 1997). \"Entering the Posthuman Collective in Philip K. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Atomic+Scientists&amp;rft.atitle=Is+artificial+intelligence+really+an+existential+threat+to+humanity%3F&amp;rft.date=2015-08-09&amp;rft.aulast=Geist&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward+Moore&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthebulletin.org%2Fartificial-intelligence-really-existential-threat-humanity8577&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGertner2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\"> (18 July 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/07\/18\/magazine\/wikipedia-ai-chatgpt.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Wikipedia's Moment of Truth \u2013 Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right \u2014 without destroying itself in the process? + comment\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_York_Times\" title=\"The New York Times\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623c682760636b635e0bd6f2cf164389\">The New York Times<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230718233916\/https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/07\/18\/magazine\/wikipedia-ai-chatgpt.html#permid=126389255\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 18 July 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 July<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Wikipedia%27s+Moment+of+Truth+%E2%80%93+Can+the+online+encyclopedia+help+teach+A.I.+chatbots+to+get+their+facts+right+%E2%80%94+without+destroying+itself+in+the+process%3F+%2B+comment&amp;rft.date=2023-07-18&amp;rft.aulast=Gertner&amp;rft.aufirst=Jon&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F07%2F18%2Fmagazine%2Fwikipedia-ai-chatgpt.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGibbs2014\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Gibbs, Samuel (27 October 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2014\/oct\/27\/elon-musk-artificial-intelligence-ai-biggest-existential-threat\" target=\"_blank\">\"Elon Musk: artificial intelligence is our biggest existential threat\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030054330\/http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2014\/oct\/27\/elon-musk-artificial-intelligence-ai-biggest-existential-threat\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&amp;rft.atitle=Elon+Musk%3A+artificial+intelligence+is+our+biggest+existential+threat&amp;rft.date=2014-10-27&amp;rft.aulast=Gibbs&amp;rft.aufirst=Samuel&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2014%2Foct%2F27%2Felon-musk-artificial-intelligence-ai-biggest-existential-threat&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoffrey2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Goffrey, Andrew (2008). \"Algorithm\". In Fuller, Matthew (ed.). <span class=\"cs1-lock-limited\" title=\"Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/softwarestudiesl00full_007\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Software studies: a lexicon<\/i><\/a><\/span>. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. pp.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/softwarestudiesl00full_007\/page\/n29\" target=\"_blank\">15<\/a>\u201320. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4356-4787-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Algorithm&amp;rft.btitle=Software+studies%3A+a+lexicon&amp;rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&amp;rft.pages=15-20&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4356-4787-9&amp;rft.aulast=Goffrey&amp;rft.aufirst=Andrew&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsoftwarestudiesl00full_007&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoldman2022\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Goldman, Sharon (14 September 2022). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/venturebeat.com\/ai\/10-years-on-ai-pioneers-hinton-lecun-li-say-deep-learning-revolution-will-continue\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"10 years later, deep learning 'revolution' rages on, say AI pioneers Hinton, LeCun and Li\"<\/a>. <i>VentureBeat<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=VentureBeat&amp;rft.atitle=10+years+later%2C+deep+learning+%27revolution%27+rages+on%2C+say+AI+pioneers+Hinton%2C+LeCun+and+Li&amp;rft.date=2022-09-14&amp;rft.aulast=Goldman&amp;rft.aufirst=Sharon&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fventurebeat.com%2Fai%2F10-years-on-ai-pioneers-hinton-lecun-li-say-deep-learning-revolution-will-continue%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGood1965\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I._J._Good\" title=\"I. J. Good\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f254b138042de64c79205242dce9ec4\">Good, I. J.<\/a> (1965), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/exhibits.stanford.edu\/feigenbaum\/catalog\/gz727rg3869\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine<\/i><\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Speculations+Concerning+the+First+Ultraintelligent+Machine&amp;rft.date=1965&amp;rft.aulast=Good&amp;rft.aufirst=I.+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fexhibits.stanford.edu%2Ffeigenbaum%2Fcatalog%2Fgz727rg3869&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoodfellowBengioCourville2016\" class=\"citation cs2\">Goodfellow, Ian; Bengio, Yoshua; Courville, Aaron (2016), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160416111010\/http:\/\/www.deeplearningbook.org\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Deep Learning<\/i><\/a>, MIT Press., archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.deeplearningbook.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 16 April 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 November<\/span> 2017<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Deep+Learning&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press.&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.aulast=Goodfellow&amp;rft.aufirst=Ian&amp;rft.au=Bengio%2C+Yoshua&amp;rft.au=Courville%2C+Aaron&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deeplearningbook.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoodmanFlaxman2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Goodman, Bryce; Flaxman, Seth (2017). \"EU regulations on algorithmic decision-making and a 'right to explanation'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\". <i>AI Magazine<\/i>. <b>38<\/b> (3): 50. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1606.08813\" target=\"_blank\">1606.08813<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1609%2Faimag.v38i3.2741\" target=\"_blank\">10.1609\/aimag.v38i3.2741<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:7373959\" target=\"_blank\">7373959<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=AI+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=EU+regulations+on+algorithmic+decision-making+and+a+%27right+to+explanation%27&amp;rft.volume=38&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=50&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1606.08813&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7373959%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1609%2Faimag.v38i3.2741&amp;rft.aulast=Goodman&amp;rft.aufirst=Bryce&amp;rft.au=Flaxman%2C+Seth&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGAO2022\" class=\"citation report cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Government_Accountability_Office\" title=\"Government Accountability Office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53129fd3ae3c165a3859842913243159\">Government Accountability Office<\/a> (13 September 2022). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gao.gov\/products\/gao-22-106096\" target=\"_blank\">Consumer Data: Increasing Use Poses Risks to Privacy<\/a>. <i>gao.gov<\/i> (Report).<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Consumer+Data%3A+Increasing+Use+Poses+Risks+to+Privacy&amp;rft.date=2022-09-13&amp;rft.au=Government+Accountability+Office&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gao.gov%2Fproducts%2Fgao-22-106096&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGrantHill2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Grant, Nico; Hill, Kashmir (22 May 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/05\/22\/technology\/ai-photo-labels-google-apple.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Google's Photo App Still Can't Find Gorillas. And Neither Can Apple's\"<\/a>. <i>The New York Times<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Google%27s+Photo+App+Still+Can%27t+Find+Gorillas.+And+Neither+Can+Apple%27s.&amp;rft.date=2023-05-22&amp;rft.aulast=Grant&amp;rft.aufirst=Nico&amp;rft.au=Hill%2C+Kashmir&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F05%2F22%2Ftechnology%2Fai-photo-labels-google-apple.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoswami2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Goswami, Rohan (5 April 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cnbc.com\/2023\/04\/05\/ai-jobs-see-the-state-by-state-data-from-a-stanford-study.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Here's where the A.I. jobs are\"<\/a>. <i>CNBC<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230619015309\/https:\/\/www.cnbc.com\/2023\/04\/05\/ai-jobs-see-the-state-by-state-data-from-a-stanford-study.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 June 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=CNBC&amp;rft.atitle=Here%27s+where+the+A.I.+jobs+are&amp;rft.date=2023-04-05&amp;rft.aulast=Goswami&amp;rft.aufirst=Rohan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbc.com%2F2023%2F04%2F05%2Fai-jobs-see-the-state-by-state-data-from-a-stanford-study.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHarari2018\" class=\"citation magazine cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yuval_Noah_Harari\" title=\"Yuval Noah Harari\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"510a3dab42f7131325ffacdd11617082\">Harari, Yuval Noah<\/a> (October 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/magazine\/archive\/2018\/10\/yuval-noah-harari-technology-tyranny\/568330\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why Technology Favors Tyranny\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Atlantic\" title=\"The Atlantic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a97acb999d8661b4a1277f39c9d111e\">The Atlantic<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210925221449\/https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/magazine\/archive\/2018\/10\/yuval-noah-harari-technology-tyranny\/568330\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 25 September 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 September<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&amp;rft.atitle=Why+Technology+Favors+Tyranny&amp;rft.date=2018-10&amp;rft.aulast=Harari&amp;rft.aufirst=Yuval+Noah&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F2018%2F10%2Fyuval-noah-harari-technology-tyranny%2F568330&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHarari2023\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Harari, Yuval Noah (2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=LWiM-LuRe6w\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI and the future of humanity\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/YouTube\" title=\"YouTube\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab357cb21b6055014a8cc10ab0698ffd\">YouTube<\/a><\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=YouTube&amp;rft.atitle=AI+and+the+future+of+humanity&amp;rft.date=2023&amp;rft.aulast=Harari&amp;rft.aufirst=Yuval+Noah&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DLWiM-LuRe6w&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHaugeland1985\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Haugeland\" title=\"John Haugeland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"710a0edda7eb08c160d2f42b2fc27b00\">Haugeland, John<\/a> (1985). <i>Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea<\/i>. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-262-08153-5<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+The+Very+Idea&amp;rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-262-08153-5&amp;rft.aulast=Haugeland&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHenderson2007\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Henderson, Mark (24 April 2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thetimes.co.uk\/tto\/technology\/article1966391.ece\" target=\"_blank\">\"Human rights for robots? We're getting carried away\"<\/a>. <i>The Times Online<\/i>. London. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140531104850\/http:\/\/www.thetimes.co.uk\/tto\/technology\/article1966391.ece\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 31 May 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Times+Online&amp;rft.atitle=Human+rights+for+robots%3F+We%27re+getting+carried+away&amp;rft.date=2007-04-24&amp;rft.aulast=Henderson&amp;rft.aufirst=Mark&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Ftto%2Ftechnology%2Farticle1966391.ece&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHinton_et_al.2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Hinton, G.; Deng, L.; Yu, D.; Dahl, G.; Mohamed, A.; Jaitly, N.; Senior, A.; Vanhoucke, V.; Nguyen, P.; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tara_Sainath\" title=\"Tara Sainath\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec84857983e2f6f0f8639c009a0fc98\">Sainath, T.<\/a>; Kingsbury, B. (2012). \"Deep Neural Networks for Acoustic Modeling in Speech Recognition \u2013 The shared views of four research groups\". <i>IEEE Signal Processing Magazine<\/i>. <b>29<\/b> (6): 82\u201397. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2012ISPM...29...82H\" target=\"_blank\">2012ISPM...29...82H<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2Fmsp.2012.2205597\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/msp.2012.2205597<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:206485943\" target=\"_blank\">206485943<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Signal+Processing+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Deep+Neural+Networks+for+Acoustic+Modeling+in+Speech+Recognition+%E2%80%93+The+shared+views+of+four+research+groups&amp;rft.volume=29&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=82-97&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206485943%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Fmsp.2012.2205597&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012ISPM...29...82H&amp;rft.aulast=Hinton&amp;rft.aufirst=G.&amp;rft.au=Deng%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Yu%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Dahl%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Mohamed%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Jaitly%2C+N.&amp;rft.au=Senior%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Vanhoucke%2C+V.&amp;rft.au=Nguyen%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Sainath%2C+T.&amp;rft.au=Kingsbury%2C+B.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHolley2015\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Holley, Peter (28 January 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/the-switch\/wp\/2015\/01\/28\/bill-gates-on-dangers-of-artificial-intelligence-dont-understand-why-some-people-are-not-concerned\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bill Gates on dangers of artificial intelligence: 'I don't understand why some people are not concerned'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <i>The Washington Post<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0190-8286\" target=\"_blank\">0190-8286<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030054330\/https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/the-switch\/wp\/2015\/01\/28\/bill-gates-on-dangers-of-artificial-intelligence-dont-understand-why-some-people-are-not-concerned\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&amp;rft.atitle=Bill+Gates+on+dangers+of+artificial+intelligence%3A+%27I+don%27t+understand+why+some+people+are+not+concerned%27&amp;rft.date=2015-01-28&amp;rft.issn=0190-8286&amp;rft.aulast=Holley&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fthe-switch%2Fwp%2F2015%2F01%2F28%2Fbill-gates-on-dangers-of-artificial-intelligence-dont-understand-why-some-people-are-not-concerned%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHornikStinchcombeWhite1989\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Hornik, Kurt; Stinchcombe, Maxwell; White, Halbert (1989). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/cognitivemedium.com\/magic_paper\/assets\/Hornik.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Multilayer Feedforward Networks are Universal Approximators<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Neural Networks<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 August<\/span> 2007<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence+at+Edinburgh+University%3A+a+Perspective&amp;rft.date=1994-11&amp;rft.aulast=Howe&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.inf.ed.ac.uk%2Fabout%2FAIhistory.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFIGM_Chicago2017\" class=\"citation web cs1\">IGM Chicago (30 June 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.igmchicago.org\/surveys\/robots-and-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"Robots and Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>www.igmchicago.org<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190501114826\/http:\/\/www.igmchicago.org\/surveys\/robots-and-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 1 May 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 July<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.igmchicago.org&amp;rft.atitle=Robots+and+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.date=2017-06-30&amp;rft.au=IGM+Chicago&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.igmchicago.org%2Fsurveys%2Frobots-and-artificial-intelligence&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFIphofenKritikos2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Iphofen, Ron; Kritikos, Mihalis (3 January 2019). \"Regulating artificial intelligence and robotics: ethics by design in a digital society\". <i>Contemporary Social Science<\/i>. <b>16<\/b> (2): 170\u2013184. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F21582041.2018.1563803\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/21582041.2018.1563803<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2158-2041\" target=\"_blank\">2158-2041<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:59298502\" target=\"_blank\">59298502<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Contemporary+Social+Science&amp;rft.atitle=Regulating+artificial+intelligence+and+robotics%3A+ethics+by+design+in+a+digital+society&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=170-184&amp;rft.date=2019-01-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59298502%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=2158-2041&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F21582041.2018.1563803&amp;rft.aulast=Iphofen&amp;rft.aufirst=Ron&amp;rft.au=Kritikos%2C+Mihalis&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJordanMitchell2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Jordan, M. 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(16 July 2015). \"Machine learning: Trends, perspectives, and prospects\". <i>Science<\/i>. <b>349<\/b> (6245): 255\u2013260. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2015Sci...349..255J\" target=\"_blank\">2015Sci...349..255J<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.aaa8415\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.aaa8415<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/26185243\" target=\"_blank\">26185243<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:677218\" target=\"_blank\">677218<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Machine+learning%3A+Trends%2C+perspectives%2C+and+prospects&amp;rft.volume=349&amp;rft.issue=6245&amp;rft.pages=255-260&amp;rft.date=2015-07-16&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aaa8415&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A677218%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26185243&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Sci...349..255J&amp;rft.aulast=Jordan&amp;rft.aufirst=M.+I.&amp;rft.au=Mitchell%2C+T.+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKahneman2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Kahneman\" title=\"Daniel Kahneman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45fadd048de64f2457eb0179d1ee33b4\">Kahneman, Daniel<\/a> (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ZuKTvERuPG8C\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Thinking, Fast and Slow<\/i><\/a>. 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New York: Cambridge University Press. <b>185<\/b> (4157): 1124\u20131131. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/1974Sci...185.1124T\" target=\"_blank\">1974Sci...185.1124T<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.185.4157.1124\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.185.4157.1124<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-521-28414-1<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/17835457\" target=\"_blank\">17835457<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:143452957\" target=\"_blank\">143452957<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Judgment+under+uncertainty%3A+Heuristics+and+biases&amp;rft.volume=185&amp;rft.issue=4157&amp;rft.pages=1124-1131&amp;rft.date=1982&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143452957%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1974Sci...185.1124T&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17835457&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.185.4157.1124&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-28414-1&amp;rft.aulast=Kahneman&amp;rft.aufirst=Daniel&amp;rft.au=Slovic%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Tversky%2C+Amos&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKasperowicz2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Kasperowicz, Peter (1 May 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.foxnews.com\/politics\/regulate-ai-gop-much-more-skeptical-than-dems-that-the-government-can-do-it-right-poll\" target=\"_blank\">\"Regulate AI? GOP much more skeptical than Dems that government can do it right: poll\"<\/a>. <i>Fox News<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230619013616\/https:\/\/www.foxnews.com\/politics\/regulate-ai-gop-much-more-skeptical-than-dems-that-the-government-can-do-it-right-poll\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 June 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 October<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&amp;rft.atitle=Noam+Chomsky+on+Where+Artificial+Intelligence+Went+Wrong&amp;rft.date=2012-11-01&amp;rft.aulast=Katz&amp;rft.aufirst=Yarden&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Ftechnology%2Farchive%2F2012%2F11%2Fnoam-chomsky-on-where-artificial-intelligence-went-wrong%2F261637%2F%3Fsingle_page%3Dtrue&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMIT_AIL2014\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ai.mit.edu\/projects\/humanoid-robotics-group\/kismet\/kismet.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Kismet\"<\/a>. MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Humanoid Robotics Group. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017040432\/http:\/\/www.ai.mit.edu\/projects\/humanoid-robotics-group\/kismet\/kismet.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 October 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 October<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Kismet&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Artificial+Intelligence+Laboratory%2C+Humanoid+Robotics+Group&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ai.mit.edu%2Fprojects%2Fhumanoid-robotics-group%2Fkismet%2Fkismet.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKissinger2021\" class=\"citation news cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Henry_Kissinger\" title=\"Henry Kissinger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9483856d57cac05d478da81e69abf742\">Kissinger, Henry<\/a> (1 November 2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/being-human-artifical-intelligence-ai-chess-antibiotic-philosophy-ethics-bill-of-rights-11635795271\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Challenge of Being Human in the Age of AI\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Wall_Street_Journal\" title=\"The Wall Street Journal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f01ac1e33bbf6d25fdd85331ab0ea2f\">The Wall Street Journal<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211104012825\/https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/being-human-artifical-intelligence-ai-chess-antibiotic-philosophy-ethics-bill-of-rights-11635795271\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 November 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=The+Challenge+of+Being+Human+in+the+Age+of+AI&amp;rft.date=2021-11-01&amp;rft.aulast=Kissinger&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fbeing-human-artifical-intelligence-ai-chess-antibiotic-philosophy-ethics-bill-of-rights-11635795271&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKobielus2019\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Kobielus, James (27 November 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/ai-or-machine-learning\/gpus-continue-to-dominate-the-ai-accelerator-market-for-now\" target=\"_blank\">\"GPUs Continue to Dominate the AI Accelerator Market for Now\"<\/a>. <i>InformationWeek<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211019031104\/https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/ai-or-machine-learning\/gpus-continue-to-dominate-the-ai-accelerator-market-for-now\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 October 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 June<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=InformationWeek&amp;rft.atitle=GPUs+Continue+to+Dominate+the+AI+Accelerator+Market+for+Now&amp;rft.date=2019-11-27&amp;rft.aulast=Kobielus&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2Fai-or-machine-learning%2Fgpus-continue-to-dominate-the-ai-accelerator-market-for-now&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKupermanReichleyBailey2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kuperman, G. J.; Reichley, R. M.; Bailey, T. C. (1 July 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1513681\" target=\"_blank\">\"Using Commercial Knowledge Bases for Clinical Decision Support: Opportunities, Hurdles, and Recommendations\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association<\/i>. <b>13<\/b> (4): 369\u2013371. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1197%2Fjamia.M2055\" target=\"_blank\">10.1197\/jamia.M2055<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1513681\" target=\"_blank\">1513681<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/16622160\" target=\"_blank\">16622160<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Medical+Informatics+Association&amp;rft.atitle=Using+Commercial+Knowledge+Bases+for+Clinical+Decision+Support%3A+Opportunities%2C+Hurdles%2C+and+Recommendations&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=369-371&amp;rft.date=2006-07-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1513681%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16622160&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1197%2Fjamia.M2055&amp;rft.aulast=Kuperman&amp;rft.aufirst=G.+J.&amp;rft.au=Reichley%2C+R.+M.&amp;rft.au=Bailey%2C+T.+C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1513681&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKurzweil2005\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Kurzweil\" title=\"Ray Kurzweil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bfcf52303d37aac624912e3fdddd296\">Kurzweil, Ray<\/a> (2005). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Singularity_is_Near\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"The Singularity is Near\" data-key=\"c64ef1fe142a126a0999d7cb2a96b17f\"><i>The Singularity is Near<\/i><\/a>. Penguin Books. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-670-03384-3<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Singularity+is+Near&amp;rft.pub=Penguin+Books&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-670-03384-3&amp;rft.aulast=Kurzweil&amp;rft.aufirst=Ray&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLangley2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Langley, Pat (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10994-011-5242-y\" target=\"_blank\">\"The changing science of machine learning\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\">Machine Learning<\/a><\/i>. <b>82<\/b> (3): 275\u2013279. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10994-011-5242-y\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s10994-011-5242-y<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Machine+Learning&amp;rft.atitle=The+changing+science+of+machine+learning&amp;rft.volume=82&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=275-279&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10994-011-5242-y&amp;rft.aulast=Langley&amp;rft.aufirst=Pat&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10994-011-5242-y&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLarsonAngwin2016\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Larson, Jeff; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Julia_Angwin\" title=\"Julia Angwin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8259607ca1b54ae4a89ffe7510e798b4\">Angwin, Julia<\/a> (23 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.propublica.org\/article\/how-we-analyzed-the-compas-recidivism-algorithm\" target=\"_blank\">\"How We Analyzed the COMPAS Recidivism Algorithm\"<\/a>. <i>ProPublica<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190429190950\/https:\/\/www.propublica.org\/article\/how-we-analyzed-the-compas-recidivism-algorithm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 April 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ProPublica&amp;rft.atitle=How+We+Analyzed+the+COMPAS+Recidivism+Algorithm&amp;rft.date=2016-05-23&amp;rft.aulast=Larson&amp;rft.aufirst=Jeff&amp;rft.au=Angwin%2C+Julia&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.propublica.org%2Farticle%2Fhow-we-analyzed-the-compas-recidivism-algorithm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLaskowski2023\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Laskowski, Nicole (November 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.techtarget.com\/searchenterpriseai\/definition\/AI-Artificial-Intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is Artificial Intelligence and How Does AI Work? TechTarget\"<\/a>. <i>Enterprise AI<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Enterprise+AI&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+Artificial+Intelligence+and+How+Does+AI+Work%3F+TechTarget&amp;rft.date=2023-11&amp;rft.aulast=Laskowski&amp;rft.aufirst=Nicole&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.techtarget.com%2Fsearchenterpriseai%2Fdefinition%2FAI-Artificial-Intelligence&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLaw_Library_of_Congress_(U.S.)._Global_Legal_Research_Directorate2019\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Law Library of Congress (U.S.). Global Legal Research Directorate, issuing body. (2019). <i>Regulation of artificial intelligence in selected jurisdictions<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LCCN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LCCN (identifier)\" data-key=\"ba0fd5211c48671576e8e562c4662655\">LCCN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lccn.loc.gov\/2019668143\" target=\"_blank\">2019668143<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1110727808\" target=\"_blank\">1110727808<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Regulation+of+artificial+intelligence+in+selected+jurisdictions&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1110727808&amp;rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2019668143&amp;rft.au=Law+Library+of+Congress+%28U.S.%29.+Global+Legal+Research+Directorate%2C+issuing+body.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLee2014\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Lee, Timothy B. (22 August 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.vox.com\/2014\/8\/22\/6043635\/5-reasons-we-shouldnt-worry-about-super-intelligent-computers-taking\" target=\"_blank\">\"Will artificial intelligence destroy humanity? Here are 5 reasons not to worry\"<\/a>. <i>Vox<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030092203\/http:\/\/www.vox.com\/2014\/8\/22\/6043635\/5-reasons-we-shouldnt-worry-about-super-intelligent-computers-taking\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Vox&amp;rft.atitle=Will+artificial+intelligence+destroy+humanity%3F+Here+are+5+reasons+not+to+worry.&amp;rft.date=2014-08-22&amp;rft.aulast=Lee&amp;rft.aufirst=Timothy+B.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2F2014%2F8%2F22%2F6043635%2F5-reasons-we-shouldnt-worry-about-super-intelligent-computers-taking&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLenatGuha1989\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Douglas_Lenat\" title=\"Douglas Lenat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fab9f948aad98953f943d7d1de883e91\">Lenat, Douglas<\/a>; Guha, R. V. (1989). <i>Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems<\/i>. Addison-Wesley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-201-51752-1<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Building+Large+Knowledge-Based+Systems&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-201-51752-1&amp;rft.aulast=Lenat&amp;rft.aufirst=Douglas&amp;rft.au=Guha%2C+R.+V.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLighthill1973\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James_Lighthill\" title=\"James Lighthill\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1cc095758af88371cdb95668fb4fca29\">Lighthill, James<\/a> (1973). \"Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey\". <i>Artificial Intelligence: a paper symposium<\/i>. Science Research Council.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+General+Survey&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+a+paper+symposium&amp;rft.pub=Science+Research+Council&amp;rft.date=1973&amp;rft.aulast=Lighthill&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLipartito2011\" class=\"citation cs2\">Lipartito, Kenneth (6 January 2011), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de\/28142\/1\/MPRA_paper_28142.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Narrative and the Algorithm: Genres of Credit Reporting from the Nineteenth Century to Today<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> (Unpublished manuscript), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139%2Fssrn.1736283\" target=\"_blank\">10.2139\/ssrn.1736283<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:166742927\" target=\"_blank\">166742927<\/a>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ghostarchive.org\/archive\/20221009\/https:\/\/mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de\/28142\/1\/MPRA_paper_28142.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 9 October 2022<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Narrative+and+the+Algorithm%3A+Genres+of+Credit+Reporting+from+the+Nineteenth+Century+to+Today&amp;rft.date=2011-01-06&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.1736283&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A166742927%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Lipartito&amp;rft.aufirst=Kenneth&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de%2F28142%2F1%2FMPRA_paper_28142.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLohr2017\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Lohr, Steve (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2017\/01\/12\/technology\/robots-will-take-jobs-but-not-as-fast-as-some-fear-new-report-says.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Robots Will Take Jobs, but Not as Fast as Some Fear, New Report Says\"<\/a>. <i>The New York Times<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180114073704\/https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2017\/01\/12\/technology\/robots-will-take-jobs-but-not-as-fast-as-some-fear-new-report-says.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 January 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Robots+Will+Take+Jobs%2C+but+Not+as+Fast+as+Some+Fear%2C+New+Report+Says&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.aulast=Lohr&amp;rft.aufirst=Steve&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F01%2F12%2Ftechnology%2Frobots-will-take-jobs-but-not-as-fast-as-some-fear-new-report-says.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLungarellaMettaPfeiferSandini2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Lungarella, M.; Metta, G.; Pfeifer, R.; Sandini, G. (2003). \"Developmental robotics: a survey\". <i>Connection Science<\/i>. <b>15<\/b> (4): 151\u2013190. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CiteSeerX (identifier)\" data-key=\"d1ea3e5168e7880002688dac1448af19\">CiteSeerX<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.83.7615\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.83.7615<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F09540090310001655110\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/09540090310001655110<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:1452734\" target=\"_blank\">1452734<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Connection+Science&amp;rft.atitle=Developmental+robotics%3A+a+survey&amp;rft.volume=15&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=151-190&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.83.7615%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1452734%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09540090310001655110&amp;rft.aulast=Lungarella&amp;rft.aufirst=M.&amp;rft.au=Metta%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Pfeifer%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Sandini%2C+G.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAAAI2014\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141129044821\/http:\/\/www.aaai.org\/Library\/Symposia\/Fall\/fs05-06\" target=\"_blank\">\"Machine Ethics\"<\/a>. <i>aaai.org<\/i>. 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(27 February 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/report\/2012\/11\/19\/losing-humanity\/case-against-killer-robots\" target=\"_blank\">\"The case against killer robots, from a guy actually working on artificial intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Fusion.net<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160204175716\/http:\/\/fusion.net\/story\/54583\/the-case-against-killer-robots-from-a-guy-actually-building-ai\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 February 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Read this to prepare your future\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180114021804\/https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/us-news\/2017\/jun\/26\/jobs-future-automation-robots-skills-creative-health\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 January 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=How+YouTube+Drives+People+to+the+Internet%27s+Darkest+Corners&amp;rft.date=2018-02-07&amp;rft.issn=0099-9660&amp;rft.aulast=Nicas&amp;rft.aufirst=Jack&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fhow-youtube-drives-viewers-to-the-internets-darkest-corners-1518020478&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNilsson1983\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nils_Nilsson_(researcher)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nils Nilsson (researcher)\" data-key=\"5ec99f61dc752c5fa3f7b86c24345070\">Nilsson, Nils<\/a> (1983). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ai.stanford.edu\/~nilsson\/OnlinePubs-Nils\/General%20Essays\/AIMag04-04-002.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence Prepares for 2001\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>AI Magazine<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (1). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200817194457\/http:\/\/ai.stanford.edu\/~nilsson\/OnlinePubs-Nils\/General%20Essays\/AIMag04-04-002.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 17 August 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 August<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=AI+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence+Prepares+for+2001&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.date=1983&amp;rft.aulast=Nilsson&amp;rft.aufirst=Nils&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fai.stanford.edu%2F~nilsson%2FOnlinePubs-Nils%2FGeneral%2520Essays%2FAIMag04-04-002.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> Presidential Address to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Artificial_Intelligence\" title=\"Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8d17dba2c2805408d4a3fc60e820e1e\">Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNRC1999\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_National_Research_Council\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"United States National Research Council\" data-key=\"f2b29a0245cb37417c0425aa4f9868b4\">NRC (United States National Research Council)<\/a> (1999). \"Developments in Artificial Intelligence\". <i>Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research<\/i>. National Academy Press.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Developments+in+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.btitle=Funding+a+Revolution%3A+Government+Support+for+Computing+Research&amp;rft.pub=National+Academy+Press&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.au=NRC+%28United+States+National+Research+Council%29&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOmohundro2008\" class=\"citation conference cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steve_Omohundro\" title=\"Steve Omohundro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a0394c1cdb5179b85a1a9861f80b0c8\">Omohundro, Steve<\/a> (2008). <i>The Nature of Self-Improving Artificial Intelligence<\/i>. presented and distributed at the 2007 Singularity Summit, San Francisco, CA.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Self-Improving+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.pub=presented+and+distributed+at+the+2007+Singularity+Summit%2C+San+Francisco%2C+CA.&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.aulast=Omohundro&amp;rft.aufirst=Steve&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOudeyer2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Oudeyer, P-Y. (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pyoudeyer.com\/IEEETAMDOudeyer10.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"On the impact of robotics in behavioral and cognitive sciences: from insect navigation to human cognitive development\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development<\/i>. <b>2<\/b> (1): 2\u201316. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2Ftamd.2009.2039057\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/tamd.2009.2039057<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:6362217\" target=\"_blank\">6362217<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181003202543\/http:\/\/www.pyoudeyer.com\/IEEETAMDOudeyer10.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 3 October 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 June<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Autonomous+Mental+Development&amp;rft.atitle=On+the+impact+of+robotics+in+behavioral+and+cognitive+sciences%3A+from+insect+navigation+to+human+cognitive+development&amp;rft.volume=2&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=2-16&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Ftamd.2009.2039057&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6362217%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Oudeyer&amp;rft.aufirst=P-Y.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pyoudeyer.com%2FIEEETAMDOudeyer10.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPennachinGoertzel2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Pennachin, C.; Goertzel, B. (2007). \"Contemporary Approaches to Artificial General Intelligence\". <i>Artificial General Intelligence<\/i>. Cognitive Technologies. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp.&#160;1\u201330. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-540-68677-4_1\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-540-68677-4_1<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-540-23733-4<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Contemporary+Approaches+to+Artificial+General+Intelligence&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+General+Intelligence&amp;rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&amp;rft.series=Cognitive+Technologies&amp;rft.pages=1-30&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-540-68677-4_1&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-540-23733-4&amp;rft.aulast=Pennachin&amp;rft.aufirst=C.&amp;rft.au=Goertzel%2C+B.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPinker2007\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steven_Pinker\" title=\"Steven Pinker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6c8d4a543849ac2ceea02b81ac062f8\">Pinker, Steven<\/a> (2007) [1994], <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Language_Instinct\" title=\"The Language Instinct\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3afd2957091b13dc210674e1d19bd5a\"><i>The Language Instinct<\/i><\/a>, Perennial Modern Classics, Harper, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-06-133646-1<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Language+Instinct&amp;rft.series=Perennial+Modern+Classics&amp;rft.pub=Harper&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-06-133646-1&amp;rft.aulast=Pinker&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPoriaCambriaBajpaiHussain2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Poria, Soujanya; Cambria, Erik; Bajpai, Rajiv; Hussain, Amir (September 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/researchrepository.napier.ac.uk\/Output\/1792429\" target=\"_blank\">\"A review of affective computing: From unimodal analysis to multimodal fusion\"<\/a>. <i>Information Fusion<\/i>. <b>37<\/b>: 98\u2013125. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.inffus.2017.02.003\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.inffus.2017.02.003<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/1893%2F25490\" target=\"_blank\">1893\/25490<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:205433041\" target=\"_blank\">205433041<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230323165407\/https:\/\/www.napier.ac.uk\/research-and-innovation\/research-search\/outputs\/a-review-of-affective-computing-from-unimodal-analysis-to-multimodal-fusion\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 23 March 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 April<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Information+Fusion&amp;rft.atitle=A+review+of+affective+computing%3A+From+unimodal+analysis+to+multimodal+fusion&amp;rft.volume=37&amp;rft.pages=98-125&amp;rft.date=2017-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1893%2F25490&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205433041%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.inffus.2017.02.003&amp;rft.aulast=Poria&amp;rft.aufirst=Soujanya&amp;rft.au=Cambria%2C+Erik&amp;rft.au=Bajpai%2C+Rajiv&amp;rft.au=Hussain%2C+Amir&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearchrepository.napier.ac.uk%2FOutput%2F1792429&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRawlinson2015\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Rawlinson, Kevin (29 January 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/31047780\" target=\"_blank\">\"Microsoft's Bill Gates insists AI is a threat\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150129183607\/http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/31047780\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 January 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 January<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=Microsoft%27s+Bill+Gates+insists+AI+is+a+threat&amp;rft.date=2015-01-29&amp;rft.aulast=Rawlinson&amp;rft.aufirst=Kevin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2F31047780&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFReisner2023\" class=\"citation cs2\">Reisner, Alex (19 August 2023), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/archive\/2023\/08\/books3-ai-meta-llama-pirated-books\/675063\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Revealed: The Authors Whose Pirated Books are Powering Generative AI\"<\/a>, <i>The Atlantic<\/i><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&amp;rft.atitle=Revealed%3A+The+Authors+Whose+Pirated+Books+are+Powering+Generative+AI&amp;rft.date=2023-08-19&amp;rft.aulast=Reisner&amp;rft.aufirst=Alex&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Ftechnology%2Farchive%2F2023%2F08%2Fbooks3-ai-meta-llama-pirated-books%2F675063%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRoberts2016\" class=\"citation magazine cs1\">Roberts, Jacob (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180819152455\/https:\/\/www.sciencehistory.org\/distillations\/magazine\/thinking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"Thinking Machines: The Search for Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Distillations<\/i>. Vol.&#160;2, no.&#160;2. pp.&#160;14\u201323. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencehistory.org\/distillations\/magazine\/thinking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 19 August 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Distillations&amp;rft.atitle=Thinking+Machines%3A+The+Search+for+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.volume=2&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=14-23&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.aulast=Roberts&amp;rft.aufirst=Jacob&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencehistory.org%2Fdistillations%2Fmagazine%2Fthinking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRobitzski2018\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Robitzski, Dan (5 September 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/futurism.com\/artificial-intelligence-experts-fear\/amp\" target=\"_blank\">\"Five experts share what scares them the most about AI\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191208094101\/https:\/\/futurism.com\/artificial-intelligence-experts-fear\/amp\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 8 December 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 December<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Five+experts+share+what+scares+them+the+most+about+AI&amp;rft.date=2018-09-05&amp;rft.aulast=Robitzski&amp;rft.aufirst=Dan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffuturism.com%2Fartificial-intelligence-experts-fear%2Famp&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBBC2006\" class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.bbc.co.uk\/2\/hi\/technology\/6200005.stm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Robots could demand legal rights\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. 21 December 2006. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191015042628\/http:\/\/news.bbc.co.uk\/2\/hi\/technology\/6200005.stm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 15 October 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 February<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=Robots+could+demand+legal+rights&amp;rft.date=2006-12-21&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Ftechnology%2F6200005.stm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRose2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Rose, Steve (11 July 2023). \"AI Utopia or dystopia?\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Guardian_Weekly\" title=\"The Guardian Weekly\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6aa7a764e2b39a7b75435e83cdfdfe5\">The Guardian Weekly<\/a><\/i>. pp.&#160;42\u201343.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Guardian+Weekly&amp;rft.atitle=AI+Utopia+or+dystopia%3F&amp;rft.pages=42-43&amp;rft.date=2023-07-11&amp;rft.aulast=Rose&amp;rft.aufirst=Steve&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRussell2019\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell, Stuart<\/a> (2019). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_Compatible\" title=\"Human Compatible\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4b58e0c033ae18489393035c6360746\"><i>Human Compatible: Artificial Intelligence and the Problem of Control<\/i><\/a>. United States: Viking. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-525-55861-3<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1083694322\" target=\"_blank\">1083694322<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Human+Compatible%3A+Artificial+Intelligence+and+the+Problem+of+Control&amp;rft.place=United+States&amp;rft.pub=Viking&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1083694322&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-525-55861-3&amp;rft.aulast=Russell&amp;rft.aufirst=Stuart&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSainato2015\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Sainato, Michael (19 August 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/observer.com\/2015\/08\/stephen-hawking-elon-musk-and-bill-gates-warn-about-artificial-intelligence\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stephen Hawking, Elon Musk, and Bill Gates Warn About Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Observer<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030053323\/http:\/\/observer.com\/2015\/08\/stephen-hawking-elon-musk-and-bill-gates-warn-about-artificial-intelligence\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Observer&amp;rft.atitle=Stephen+Hawking%2C+Elon+Musk%2C+and+Bill+Gates+Warn+About+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.date=2015-08-19&amp;rft.aulast=Sainato&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fobserver.com%2F2015%2F08%2Fstephen-hawking-elon-musk-and-bill-gates-warn-about-artificial-intelligence%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSample2017\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Sample, Ian (5 November 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/science\/2017\/nov\/05\/computer-says-no-why-making-ais-fair-accountable-and-transparent-is-crucial\" target=\"_blank\">\"Computer says no: why making AIs fair, accountable and transparent is crucial\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&amp;rft.atitle=Computer+says+no%3A+why+making+AIs+fair%2C+accountable+and+transparent+is+crucial&amp;rft.date=2017-11-05&amp;rft.aulast=Sample&amp;rft.aufirst=Ian&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2017%2Fnov%2F05%2Fcomputer-says-no-why-making-ais-fair-accountable-and-transparent-is-crucial&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRothman2020\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Rothman, Denis (7 October 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.codemotion.com\/magazine\/ai-ml\/lime-explainable-ai\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Exploring LIME Explanations and the Mathematics Behind It\"<\/a>. <i>Codemotion<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 November<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Codemotion&amp;rft.atitle=Exploring+LIME+Explanations+and+the+Mathematics+Behind+It&amp;rft.date=2020-10-07&amp;rft.aulast=Rothman&amp;rft.aufirst=Denis&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.codemotion.com%2Fmagazine%2Fai-ml%2Flime-explainable-ai%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFScassellati2002\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Scassellati, Brian (2002). \"Theory of mind for a humanoid robot\". <i>Autonomous Robots<\/i>. <b>12<\/b> (1): 13\u201324. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023%2FA%3A1013298507114\" target=\"_blank\">10.1023\/A:1013298507114<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:1979315\" target=\"_blank\">1979315<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Autonomous+Robots&amp;rft.atitle=Theory+of+mind+for+a+humanoid+robot&amp;rft.volume=12&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=13-24&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1013298507114&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1979315%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Scassellati&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchmidhuber2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/J%C3%BCrgen_Schmidhuber\" title=\"J\u00fcrgen Schmidhuber\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae96f5e25b67a3cb555f191f8e157ed8\">Schmidhuber, J.<\/a> (2015). \"Deep Learning in Neural Networks: An Overview\". <i>Neural Networks<\/i>. <b>61<\/b>: 85\u2013117. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1404.7828\" target=\"_blank\">1404.7828<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.neunet.2014.09.003\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.neunet.2014.09.003<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/25462637\" target=\"_blank\">25462637<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:11715509\" target=\"_blank\">11715509<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Neural+Networks&amp;rft.atitle=Deep+Learning+in+Neural+Networks%3A+An+Overview&amp;rft.volume=61&amp;rft.pages=85-117&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1404.7828&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11715509%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25462637&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neunet.2014.09.003&amp;rft.aulast=Schmidhuber&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchmidhuber2022\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/J%C3%BCrgen_Schmidhuber\" title=\"J\u00fcrgen Schmidhuber\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae96f5e25b67a3cb555f191f8e157ed8\">Schmidhuber, J\u00fcrgen<\/a> (2022). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/people.idsia.ch\/~juergen\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Annotated History of Modern AI and Deep Learning\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Annotated+History+of+Modern+AI+and+Deep+Learning&amp;rft.date=2022&amp;rft.aulast=Schmidhuber&amp;rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpeople.idsia.ch%2F~juergen%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchulzBehnke2012\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Schulz, Hannes; Behnke, Sven (1 November 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/230690795\" target=\"_blank\">\"Deep Learning\"<\/a>. <i>KI \u2013 K\u00fcnstliche Intelligenz<\/i>. <b>26<\/b> (4): 357\u2013363. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs13218-012-0198-z\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s13218-012-0198-z<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1610-1987\" target=\"_blank\">1610-1987<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:220523562\" target=\"_blank\">220523562<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=KI+%E2%80%93+K%C3%BCnstliche+Intelligenz&amp;rft.atitle=Deep+Learning&amp;rft.volume=26&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=357-363&amp;rft.date=2012-11-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220523562%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=1610-1987&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs13218-012-0198-z&amp;rft.aulast=Schulz&amp;rft.aufirst=Hannes&amp;rft.au=Behnke%2C+Sven&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F230690795&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSearle1980\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Searle\" title=\"John Searle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8a0c5f2845bfc0d1b015937657a9b1f\">Searle, John<\/a> (1980). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/cogprints.org\/7150\/1\/10.1.1.83.5248.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Minds, Brains and Programs\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (3): 417\u2013457. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017%2FS0140525X00005756\" target=\"_blank\">10.1017\/S0140525X00005756<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:55303721\" target=\"_blank\">55303721<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190317230215\/http:\/\/cogprints.org\/7150\/1\/10.1.1.83.5248.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 17 March 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 August<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=Minds%2C+Brains+and+Programs&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=417-457&amp;rft.date=1980&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X00005756&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55303721%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Searle&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcogprints.org%2F7150%2F1%2F10.1.1.83.5248.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSearle1999\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Searle\" title=\"John Searle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8a0c5f2845bfc0d1b015937657a9b1f\">Searle, John<\/a> (1999). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/mindlanguagesoci00sear\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Mind, language and society<\/i><\/a>. New York: Basic Books. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-465-04521-1<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/231867665\" target=\"_blank\">231867665<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726220615\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/mindlanguagesoci00sear\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 August<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Mind%2C+language+and+society&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Basic+Books&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F231867665&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-465-04521-1&amp;rft.aulast=Searle&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmindlanguagesoci00sear&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSimonite2016\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Simonite, Tom (31 March 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/2016\/03\/31\/161234\/how-google-plans-to-solve-artificial-intelligence\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Google Plans to Solve Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>MIT Technology Review<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=MIT+Technology+Review&amp;rft.atitle=How+Google+Plans+to+Solve+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.date=2016-03-31&amp;rft.aulast=Simonite&amp;rft.aufirst=Tom&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologyreview.com%2F2016%2F03%2F31%2F161234%2Fhow-google-plans-to-solve-artificial-intelligence%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSmith2023\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Smith, Craig S. (15 March 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/craigsmith\/2023\/03\/15\/gpt-4-creator-ilya-sutskever-on-ai-hallucinations-and-ai-democracy\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ChatGPT-4 Creator Ilya Sutskever on AI Hallucinations and AI Democracy\"<\/a>. <i>Forbes<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Forbes&amp;rft.atitle=ChatGPT-4+Creator+Ilya+Sutskever+on+AI+Hallucinations+and+AI+Democracy&amp;rft.date=2023-03-15&amp;rft.aulast=Smith&amp;rft.aufirst=Craig+S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fcraigsmith%2F2023%2F03%2F15%2Fgpt-4-creator-ilya-sutskever-on-ai-hallucinations-and-ai-democracy%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSmoliarZhang1994\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Smoliar, Stephen W.; Zhang, HongJiang (1994). \"Content based video indexing and retrieval\". <i>IEEE MultiMedia<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (2): 62\u201372. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2F93.311653\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/93.311653<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:32710913\" target=\"_blank\">32710913<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+MultiMedia&amp;rft.atitle=Content+based+video+indexing+and+retrieval&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=62-72&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F93.311653&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32710913%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Smoliar&amp;rft.aufirst=Stephen+W.&amp;rft.au=Zhang%2C+HongJiang&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSolomonoff1956\" class=\"citation conference cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Solomonoff\" title=\"Ray Solomonoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"938a83ba5a77aced401a2894a2e4abde\">Solomonoff, Ray<\/a> (1956). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/world.std.com\/~rjs\/indinf56.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>An Inductive Inference Machine<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on Artificial Intelligence. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110426161749\/http:\/\/world.std.com\/~rjs\/indinf56.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 26 April 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 March<\/span> 2011<\/span> \u2013 via std.com, pdf scanned copy of the original.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=An+Inductive+Inference+Machine&amp;rft.date=1956&amp;rft.aulast=Solomonoff&amp;rft.aufirst=Ray&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworld.std.com%2F~rjs%2Findinf56.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> Later published as<br \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol\">Solomonoff, Ray (1957). \"An Inductive Inference Machine\". <i>IRE Convention Record<\/i>. Vol.&#160;Section on Information Theory, part 2. pp.&#160;56\u201362.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=An+Inductive+Inference+Machine&amp;rft.btitle=IRE+Convention+Record&amp;rft.pages=56-62&amp;rft.date=1957&amp;rft.aulast=Solomonoff&amp;rft.aufirst=Ray&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFStanford_University2023\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Stanford University (2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/aiindex.stanford.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/HAI_AI-Index-Report-2023_CHAPTER_6-1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence Index Report 2023\/Chapter 6: Policy and Governance\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. AI Index. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230619013609\/https:\/\/aiindex.stanford.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/HAI_AI-Index-Report-2023_CHAPTER_6-1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 19 June 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence+Index+Report+2023%2FChapter+6%3A+Policy+and+Governance&amp;rft.pub=AI+Index&amp;rft.date=2023&amp;rft.au=Stanford+University&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faiindex.stanford.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F04%2FHAI_AI-Index-Report-2023_CHAPTER_6-1.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTaoTan2005\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Tao, Jianhua; Tan, Tieniu (2005). <i>Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction<\/i>. Affective Computing: A Review. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol.&#160;3784. Springer. pp.&#160;981\u2013995. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F11573548\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/11573548<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-540-29621-8<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=Affective+Computing+and+Intelligent+Interaction&amp;rft.series=Lecture+Notes+in+Computer+Science&amp;rft.pages=981-995&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F11573548&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-540-29621-8&amp;rft.aulast=Tao&amp;rft.aufirst=Jianhua&amp;rft.au=Tan%2C+Tieniu&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTaylorHern2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Taylor, Josh; Hern, Alex (2 May 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2023\/may\/02\/geoffrey-hinton-godfather-of-ai-quits-google-warns-dangers-of-machine-learning\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>'Godfather of AI' Geoffrey Hinton quits Google and warns over dangers of misinformation\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Guardian\" title=\"The Guardian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c1524bb31f0ee6ff14f8f44c7f3595d\">The Guardian<\/a><\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&amp;rft.atitle=%27Godfather+of+AI%27+Geoffrey+Hinton+quits+Google+and+warns+over+dangers+of+misinformation&amp;rft.date=2023-05-02&amp;rft.aulast=Taylor&amp;rft.aufirst=Josh&amp;rft.au=Hern%2C+Alex&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2023%2Fmay%2F02%2Fgeoffrey-hinton-godfather-of-ai-quits-google-warns-dangers-of-machine-learning&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFThompson2014\" class=\"citation magazine cs1\">Thompson, Derek (23 January 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/business\/archive\/2014\/01\/what-jobs-will-the-robots-take\/283239\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Jobs Will the Robots Take?\"<\/a>. <i>The Atlantic<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180424202435\/https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/business\/archive\/2014\/01\/what-jobs-will-the-robots-take\/283239\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 April 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&amp;rft.atitle=What+Jobs+Will+the+Robots+Take%3F&amp;rft.date=2014-01-23&amp;rft.aulast=Thompson&amp;rft.aufirst=Derek&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fbusiness%2Farchive%2F2014%2F01%2Fwhat-jobs-will-the-robots-take%2F283239%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFThro1993\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Thro, Ellen (1993). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/isbn_9780816026289\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Robotics: The Marriage of Computers and Machines<\/i><\/a>. New York: Facts on File. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-8160-2628-9<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726131505\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/isbn_9780816026289\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 August<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Robotics%3A+The+Marriage+of+Computers+and+Machines&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Facts+on+File&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8160-2628-9&amp;rft.aulast=Thro&amp;rft.aufirst=Ellen&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780816026289&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFToews2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Toews, Rob (3 September 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/robtoews\/2023\/09\/03\/transformers-revolutionized-ai-what-will-replace-them\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Transformers Revolutionized AI. What Will Replace Them?\"<\/a>. <i>Forbes<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Forbes&amp;rft.atitle=Transformers+Revolutionized+AI.+What+Will+Replace+Them%3F&amp;rft.date=2023-09-03&amp;rft.aulast=Toews&amp;rft.aufirst=Rob&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Frobtoews%2F2023%2F09%2F03%2Ftransformers-revolutionized-ai-what-will-replace-them%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTuring1950\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Turing\" title=\"Alan Turing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48468f77ba0cf295402108f0dd72c040\">Turing, Alan<\/a> (October 1950), \"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\", <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mind_(journal)\" title=\"Mind (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7d8a82bb0475f3d765461e8aef179b2\">Mind<\/a><\/i>, <b>LIX<\/b> (236): 433\u2013460, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093%2Fmind%2FLIX.236.433\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/mind\/LIX.236.433<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0026-4423\" target=\"_blank\">0026-4423<\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Mind&amp;rft.atitle=Computing+Machinery+and+Intelligence&amp;rft.volume=LIX&amp;rft.issue=236&amp;rft.pages=433-460&amp;rft.date=1950-10&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmind%2FLIX.236.433&amp;rft.issn=0026-4423&amp;rft.aulast=Turing&amp;rft.aufirst=Alan&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFUNESCO2021\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/unesdoc.unesco.org\/ark:\/48223\/pf0000377433\/PDF\/377433eng.pdf.multi\" target=\"_blank\"><i>UNESCO Science Report: the Race Against Time for Smarter Development<\/i><\/a>. Paris: UNESCO. 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-92-3-100450-6<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220618233752\/https:\/\/unesdoc.unesco.org\/ark:\/48223\/pf0000377433\/PDF\/377433eng.pdf.multi\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 18 June 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 September<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=UNESCO+Science+Report%3A+the+Race+Against+Time+for+Smarter+Development.&amp;rft.place=Paris&amp;rft.pub=UNESCO&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft.isbn=978-92-3-100450-6&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000377433%2FPDF%2F377433eng.pdf.multi&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFUrbinaLentzosInvernizziEkins2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Urbina, Fabio; Lentzos, Filippa; Invernizzi, C\u00e9dric; Ekins, Sean (7 March 2022). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC9544280\" target=\"_blank\">\"Dual use of artificial-intelligence-powered drug discovery\"<\/a>. <i>Nature Machine Intelligence<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (3): 189\u2013191. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fs42256-022-00465-9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/s42256-022-00465-9<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC9544280\" target=\"_blank\">9544280<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/36211133\" target=\"_blank\">36211133<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:247302391\" target=\"_blank\">247302391<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Machine+Intelligence&amp;rft.atitle=Dual+use+of+artificial-intelligence-powered+drug+discovery&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=189-191&amp;rft.date=2022-03-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9544280%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247302391%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36211133&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs42256-022-00465-9&amp;rft.aulast=Urbina&amp;rft.aufirst=Fabio&amp;rft.au=Lentzos%2C+Filippa&amp;rft.au=Invernizzi%2C+C%C3%A9dric&amp;rft.au=Ekins%2C+Sean&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9544280&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFValance2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Valance, Christ (30 May 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/uk-65746524\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial intelligence could lead to extinction, experts warn\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230617200355\/https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/uk-65746524\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 June 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 June<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=Artificial+intelligence+could+lead+to+extinction%2C+experts+warn&amp;rft.date=2023-05-30&amp;rft.aulast=Valance&amp;rft.aufirst=Christ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fuk-65746524&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFValinsky2019\" class=\"citation cs2\">Valinsky, Jordan (11 April 2019), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2019\/04\/11\/tech\/amazon-alexa-listening\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Amazon reportedly employs thousands of people to listen to your Alexa conversations\"<\/a>, <i>CNN.com<\/i><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=CNN.com&amp;rft.atitle=Amazon+reportedly+employs+thousands+of+people+to+listen+to+your+Alexa+conversations&amp;rft.date=2019-04-11&amp;rft.aulast=Valinsky&amp;rft.aufirst=Jordan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2019%2F04%2F11%2Ftech%2Famazon-alexa-listening%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVerma2021\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Verma, Yugesh (25 December 2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/analyticsindiamag.com\/a-complete-guide-to-shap-shapley-additive-explanations-for-practitioners\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Complete Guide to SHAP \u2013 SHAPley Additive exPlanations for Practitioners\"<\/a>. <i>Analytics India Magazine<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 November<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Analytics+India+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=A+Complete+Guide+to+SHAP+%E2%80%93+SHAPley+Additive+exPlanations+for+Practitioners&amp;rft.date=2021-12-25&amp;rft.aulast=Verma&amp;rft.aufirst=Yugesh&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanalyticsindiamag.com%2Fa-complete-guide-to-shap-shapley-additive-explanations-for-practitioners%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVincent2019\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Vincent, James (7 November 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2019\/11\/7\/20953040\/openai-text-generation-ai-gpt-2-full-model-release-1-5b-parameters\" target=\"_blank\">\"OpenAI has published the text-generating AI it said was too dangerous to share\"<\/a>. <i>The Verge<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200611054114\/https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2019\/11\/7\/20953040\/openai-text-generation-ai-gpt-2-full-model-release-1-5b-parameters\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 June 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 June<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Verge&amp;rft.atitle=OpenAI+has+published+the+text-generating+AI+it+said+was+too+dangerous+to+share&amp;rft.date=2019-11-07&amp;rft.aulast=Vincent&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2019%2F11%2F7%2F20953040%2Fopenai-text-generation-ai-gpt-2-full-model-release-1-5b-parameters&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVincent2022\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Vincent, James (15 November 2022). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/23444685\/generative-ai-copyright-infringement-legal-fair-use-training-data\" target=\"_blank\">\"The scary truth about AI copyright is nobody knows what will happen next\"<\/a>. <i>The Verge<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230619055201\/https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/23444685\/generative-ai-copyright-infringement-legal-fair-use-training-data\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 June 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Verge&amp;rft.atitle=The+scary+truth+about+AI+copyright+is+nobody+knows+what+will+happen+next&amp;rft.date=2022-11-15&amp;rft.aulast=Vincent&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F23444685%2Fgenerative-ai-copyright-infringement-legal-fair-use-training-data&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVincent2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Vincent, James (3 April 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/23667752\/ai-progress-2023-report-stanford-corporate-control\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI is entering an era of corporate control\"<\/a>. <i>The Verge<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230619005803\/https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/23667752\/ai-progress-2023-report-stanford-corporate-control\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 June 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Verge&amp;rft.atitle=AI+is+entering+an+era+of+corporate+control&amp;rft.date=2023-04-03&amp;rft.aulast=Vincent&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F23667752%2Fai-progress-2023-report-stanford-corporate-control&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVinge1993\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vernor_Vinge\" title=\"Vernor Vinge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b1b61f79e9e3f719f8b2ce721dcac0f\">Vinge, Vernor<\/a> (1993). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070101133646\/http:\/\/www-rohan.sdsu.edu\/faculty\/vinge\/misc\/singularity.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Coming Technological Singularity: How to Survive in the Post-Human Era\"<\/a>. <i>Vision 21: Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in the Era of Cyberspace<\/i>: 11. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/1993vise.nasa...11V\" target=\"_blank\">1993vise.nasa...11V<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www-rohan.sdsu.edu\/faculty\/vinge\/misc\/singularity.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 1 January 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Vision+21%3A+Interdisciplinary+Science+and+Engineering+in+the+Era+of+Cyberspace&amp;rft.atitle=The+Coming+Technological+Singularity%3A+How+to+Survive+in+the+Post-Human+Era&amp;rft.pages=11&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993vise.nasa...11V&amp;rft.aulast=Vinge&amp;rft.aufirst=Vernor&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-rohan.sdsu.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fvinge%2Fmisc%2Fsingularity.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWaddell2018\" class=\"citation magazine cs1\">Waddell, Kaveh (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/archive\/2017\/04\/uncanny-valley-digital-assistants\/523806\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chatbots Have Entered the Uncanny Valley\"<\/a>. <i>The Atlantic<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180424202350\/https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/archive\/2017\/04\/uncanny-valley-digital-assistants\/523806\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 April 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&amp;rft.atitle=Chatbots+Have+Entered+the+Uncanny+Valley&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.aulast=Waddell&amp;rft.aufirst=Kaveh&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Ftechnology%2Farchive%2F2017%2F04%2Funcanny-valley-digital-assistants%2F523806%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWallach2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Wallach, Wendell (2010). <i>Moral Machines<\/i>. Oxford University Press.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Moral+Machines&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.aulast=Wallach&amp;rft.aufirst=Wendell&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWasonShapiro1966\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Cathcart_Wason\" title=\"Peter Cathcart Wason\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"174a7d2d9a0e3c5222363b0934b58018\">Wason, P. C.<\/a>; Shapiro, D. (1966). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/newhorizonsinpsy0000foss\" target=\"_blank\">\"Reasoning\"<\/a><\/span>. In Foss, B. M. (ed.). <i>New horizons in psychology<\/i>. Harmondsworth: Penguin. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200726131518\/https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/newhorizonsinpsy0000foss\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 July 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 November<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Reasoning&amp;rft.btitle=New+horizons+in+psychology&amp;rft.place=Harmondsworth&amp;rft.pub=Penguin&amp;rft.date=1966&amp;rft.aulast=Wason&amp;rft.aufirst=P.+C.&amp;rft.au=Shapiro%2C+D.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewhorizonsinpsy0000foss&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWengMcClellandPentlandSporns2001\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Weng, J.; McClelland; Pentland, A.; Sporns, O.; Stockman, I.; Sur, M.; Thelen, E. (2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cse.msu.edu\/dl\/SciencePaper.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Autonomous mental development by robots and animals\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Science<\/i>. <b>291<\/b> (5504): 599\u2013600. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.291.5504.599\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.291.5504.599<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/11229402\" target=\"_blank\">11229402<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:54131797\" target=\"_blank\">54131797<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130904235242\/http:\/\/www.cse.msu.edu\/dl\/SciencePaper.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 4 September 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 June<\/span> 2013<\/span> \u2013 via msu.edu.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Autonomous+mental+development+by+robots+and+animals&amp;rft.volume=291&amp;rft.issue=5504&amp;rft.pages=599-600&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54131797%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11229402&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.291.5504.599&amp;rft.aulast=Weng&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rft.au=McClelland&amp;rft.au=Pentland%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Sporns%2C+O.&amp;rft.au=Stockman%2C+I.&amp;rft.au=Sur%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Thelen%2C+E.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cse.msu.edu%2Fdl%2FSciencePaper.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFScientific_American1999\" class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/what-is-fuzzy-logic-are-t\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is 'fuzzy logic'? Are there computers that are inherently fuzzy and do not apply the usual binary logic?\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific American<\/i>. 21 October 1999. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180506035133\/https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/what-is-fuzzy-logic-are-t\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 May 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+%27fuzzy+logic%27%3F+Are+there+computers+that+are+inherently+fuzzy+and+do+not+apply+the+usual+binary+logic%3F&amp;rft.date=1999-10-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fwhat-is-fuzzy-logic-are-t%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWilliams2023\" class=\"citation cs2\">Williams, Rhiannon (28 June 2023), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/2023\/06\/28\/1075683\/humans-may-be-more-likely-to-believe-disinformation-generated-by-ai\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Humans may be more likely to believe disinformation generated by AI\"<\/a>, <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT_Technology_Review\" title=\"MIT Technology Review\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"602e18e5c001c770ff573f02c05ee726\">MIT Technology Review<\/a><\/i><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=MIT+Technology+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Humans+may+be+more+likely+to+believe+disinformation+generated+by+AI&amp;rft.date=2023-06-28&amp;rft.aulast=Williams&amp;rft.aufirst=Rhiannon&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologyreview.com%2F2023%2F06%2F28%2F1075683%2Fhumans-may-be-more-likely-to-believe-disinformation-generated-by-ai%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWirtzWeyererGeyer2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wirtz, Bernd W.; Weyerer, Jan C.; Geyer, Carolin (24 July 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/zenodo.org\/record\/3569435\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence and the Public Sector \u2013 Applications and Challenges\"<\/a>. <i>International Journal of Public Administration<\/i>. <b>42<\/b> (7): 596\u2013615. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F01900692.2018.1498103\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/01900692.2018.1498103<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0190-0692\" target=\"_blank\">0190-0692<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:158829602\" target=\"_blank\">158829602<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200818131415\/https:\/\/zenodo.org\/record\/3569435\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 18 August 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 August<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Public+Administration&amp;rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence+and+the+Public+Sector+%E2%80%93+Applications+and+Challenges&amp;rft.volume=42&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=596-615&amp;rft.date=2018-07-24&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158829602%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0190-0692&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01900692.2018.1498103&amp;rft.aulast=Wirtz&amp;rft.aufirst=Bernd+W.&amp;rft.au=Weyerer%2C+Jan+C.&amp;rft.au=Geyer%2C+Carolin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F3569435&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWong2023\" class=\"citation cs2\">Wong, Matteo (19 May 2023), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/archive\/2023\/05\/ai-advancements-multimodal-models\/674113\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ChatGPT Is Already Obsolete\"<\/a>, <i>The Atlantic<\/i><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&amp;rft.atitle=ChatGPT+Is+Already+Obsolete&amp;rft.date=2023-05-19&amp;rft.aulast=Wong&amp;rft.aufirst=Matteo&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Ftechnology%2Farchive%2F2023%2F05%2Fai-advancements-multimodal-models%2F674113%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFYudkowsky2008\" class=\"citation cs2\">Yudkowsky, E (2008), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/intelligence.org\/files\/AIPosNegFactor.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence as a Positive and Negative Factor in Global Risk\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>, <i>Global Catastrophic Risks<\/i>, Oxford University Press, 2008, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2008gcr..book..303Y\" target=\"_blank\">2008gcr..book..303Y<\/a>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131019182403\/http:\/\/intelligence.org\/files\/AIPosNegFactor.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 19 October 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 September<\/span> 2021<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Global+Catastrophic+Risks&amp;rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence+as+a+Positive+and+Negative+Factor+in+Global+Risk&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008gcr..book..303Y&amp;rft.aulast=Yudkowsky&amp;rft.aufirst=E&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fintelligence.org%2Ffiles%2FAIPosNegFactor.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1054258005\" \/><div class=\"refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em\">\n<ul><li>Ashish Vaswani, Noam Shazeer, Niki Parmar et al. \"Attention is all you need.\" Advances in neural information processing systems 30 (2017). Seminal paper on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transformer_(machine_learning_model)\" title=\"Transformer (machine learning model)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b03043859b7f60436170330be1fdecf1\">transformers<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Autor\" title=\"David Autor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"297c28589cd120a307737dd9fa18c93f\">Autor, David H.<\/a>, \"Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation\" (2015) 29(3) <i>Journal of Economic Perspectives<\/i> 3.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Margaret_Boden\" title=\"Margaret Boden\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e97e774601f11921b0fc400ba20fb344\">Boden, Margaret<\/a>, <i>Mind As Machine<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_University_Press\" title=\"Oxford University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d18ae98bb880a41214eeea3e78f31ffe\">Oxford University Press<\/a>, 2006.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kenneth_Cukier\" title=\"Kenneth Cukier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a98b9709123920bf294d3b250b6c6360\">Cukier, Kenneth<\/a>, \"Ready for Robots? How to Think about the Future of AI\", <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Foreign_Affairs\" title=\"Foreign Affairs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e110ad310d062082d4de6fac119b180e\">Foreign Affairs<\/a><\/i>, vol. 98, no. 4 (July\/August 2019), pp.&#160;192\u201398. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Dyson_(science_historian)\" title=\"George Dyson (science historian)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24ab0a81cf8f365c1303a86a89652fce\">George Dyson<\/a>, historian of computing, writes (in what might be called \"Dyson's Law\") that \"Any system simple enough to be understandable will not be complicated enough to behave intelligently, while any system complicated enough to behave intelligently will be too complicated to understand.\" (p.&#160;197.) Computer scientist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alex_Pentland\" title=\"Alex Pentland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24b00d033ca89610f51940866426c0f3\">Alex Pentland<\/a> writes: \"Current <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">AI machine-learning<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithm\" title=\"Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b91430604726f884a846b998f41902e\">algorithms<\/a> are, at their core, dead simple stupid. They work, but they work by brute force.\" (p.&#160;198.)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pedro_Domingos\" title=\"Pedro Domingos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"054fdd869e12e909b1bb7842a2b55e14\">Domingos, Pedro<\/a>, \"Our Digital Doubles: AI will serve our species, not control it\", <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_American\" title=\"Scientific American\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78478150ef4a0fec815a7dd19d513fb8\">Scientific American<\/a><\/i>, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp.&#160;88\u201393. \"AIs are like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autistic_savant\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Autistic savant\" data-key=\"01eb39b926c3b5991da55d0e013d5cef\">autistic savants<\/a> and will remain so for the foreseeable future.... AIs lack <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_sense\" title=\"Common sense\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9943591affcc75a382e15d036a3c48f3\">common sense<\/a> and can easily make errors that a human never would... They are also liable to take our instructions too literally, giving us precisely what we asked for instead of what we actually wanted.\" (p.&#160;93.)<\/li>\n<li>Gertner, Jon. (2023) \"Wikipedia's Moment of Truth: Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right \u2014 without destroying itself in the process?\" <i>New York Times Magazine<\/i> (July 18, 2023) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/07\/18\/magazine\/wikipedia-ai-chatgpt.html\" target=\"_blank\">online<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James_Gleick\" title=\"James Gleick\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e25df16d03ee7a0eb5d14b4934afa8e\">Gleick, James<\/a>, \"The Fate of Free Will\" (review of , <i>Free Agents: How Evolution Gave Us Free Will<\/i>, Princeton University Press, 2023, 333 pp.), <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_York_Review_of_Books\" title=\"The New York Review of Books\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41838bf5800baf14ecf5d56446e7daa9\">The New York Review of Books<\/a><\/i>, vol. LXXI, no. 1 (18 January 2024), pp. 27\u201328, 30. \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agency_(philosophy)\" title=\"Agency (philosophy)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c79ea6db692e26e37da9a5dd45ff4961\">Agency<\/a> is what distinguishes us from machines. For biological creatures, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reason\" title=\"Reason\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f52a4b5b5378378e40aae45ea9394645\">reason<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Motivation\" title=\"Motivation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ed733bd3d1728b328fb9b018ac30171\">purpose<\/a> come from acting in the world and experiencing the consequences. Artificial intelligences \u2013 disembodied, strangers to blood, sweat, and tears \u2013 have no occasion for that.\" (p. 30.)<\/li>\n<li>, \"A Murder Mystery Puzzle: The literary puzzle <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cain%27s_Jawbone\" title=\"Cain's Jawbone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f8e92109f4b2d9a22a35da4551185e3\">Cain's Jawbone<\/a><\/i>, which has stumped humans for decades, reveals the limitations of natural-language-processing algorithms\", <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_American\" title=\"Scientific American\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78478150ef4a0fec815a7dd19d513fb8\">Scientific American<\/a><\/i>, vol. 329, no. 4 (November 2023), pp.&#160;81\u201382. \"This murder mystery competition has revealed that although NLP (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural-language_processing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Natural-language processing\" data-key=\"d8aa68fc6669acaaaa9470072cf0bef7\">natural-language processing<\/a>) models are capable of incredible feats, their abilities are very much limited by the amount of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Context_(linguistics)\" title=\"Context (linguistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f765d5fe9134119095c0418a497afd86\">context<\/a> they receive. This [...] could cause [difficulties] for researchers who hope to use them to do things such as analyze <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ancient_language\" title=\"Ancient language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac6976804e2dd2edfbfabbcd78a3896d\">ancient languages<\/a>. In some cases, there are few historical records on long-gone <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Civilization\" title=\"Civilization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bfd7583dc6761c4fdc3db5633fc84b4\">civilizations<\/a> to serve as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Training_data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Training data\" data-key=\"0db8c5b44d4ec00e41c269cc5a0b73b8\">training data<\/a> for such a purpose.\" (p.&#160;82.)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Immerwahr\" title=\"Daniel Immerwahr\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"992b8be513bbeaa10989fa68b32cb48e\">Immerwahr, Daniel<\/a>, \"Your Lying Eyes: People now use A.I. to generate fake videos indistinguishable from real ones. How much does it matter?\", <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_Yorker\" title=\"The New Yorker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c8155f0446536a3f0823e4c2bcb6fa2\">The New Yorker<\/a><\/i>, 20 November 2023, pp.&#160;54\u201359. \"If by '<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deepfakes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Deepfakes\" data-key=\"fb64ac82be3f347a928785495c133f25\">deepfakes<\/a>' we mean realistic videos produced using artificial intelligence that actually deceive people, then they barely exist. The fakes aren't deep, and the deeps aren't fake. [...] A.I.-generated videos are not, in general, operating in our media as counterfeited evidence. Their role better resembles that of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cartoon\" title=\"Cartoon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8af594bb8392fa60dc5733ce96bd254\">cartoons<\/a>, especially smutty ones.\" (p.&#160;59.)<\/li>\n<li>Johnston, John (2008) <i>The Allure of Machinic Life: Cybernetics, Artificial Life, and the New AI<\/i>, MIT Press.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJumperEvansPritzelGreen2021\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Jumper, John; Evans, Richard; Pritzel, Alexander; et&#160;al. (26 August 2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8371605\" target=\"_blank\">\"Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold\"<\/a>. <i>Nature<\/i>. <b>596<\/b> (7873): 583\u2013589. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2021Natur.596..583J\" target=\"_blank\">2021Natur.596..583J<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03819-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/s41586-021-03819-2<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8371605\" target=\"_blank\">8371605<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/34265844\" target=\"_blank\">34265844<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:235959867\" target=\"_blank\">235959867<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=Highly+accurate+protein+structure+prediction+with+AlphaFold&amp;rft.volume=596&amp;rft.issue=7873&amp;rft.pages=583-589&amp;rft.date=2021-08-26&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8371605%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A235959867%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Natur.596..583J&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34265844&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03819-2&amp;rft.aulast=Jumper&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft.au=Evans%2C+Richard&amp;rft.au=Pritzel%2C+Alexander&amp;rft.au=Green%2C+Tim&amp;rft.au=Figurnov%2C+Michael&amp;rft.au=Ronneberger%2C+Olaf&amp;rft.au=Tunyasuvunakool%2C+Kathryn&amp;rft.au=Bates%2C+Russ&amp;rft.au=%C5%BD%C3%ADdek%2C+Augustin&amp;rft.au=Potapenko%2C+Anna&amp;rft.au=Bridgland%2C+Alex&amp;rft.au=Meyer%2C+Clemens&amp;rft.au=Kohl%2C+Simon+A.+A.&amp;rft.au=Ballard%2C+Andrew+J.&amp;rft.au=Cowie%2C+Andrew&amp;rft.au=Romera-Paredes%2C+Bernardino&amp;rft.au=Nikolov%2C+Stanislav&amp;rft.au=Jain%2C+Rishub&amp;rft.au=Adler%2C+Jonas&amp;rft.au=Back%2C+Trevor&amp;rft.au=Petersen%2C+Stig&amp;rft.au=Reiman%2C+David&amp;rft.au=Clancy%2C+Ellen&amp;rft.au=Zielinski%2C+Michal&amp;rft.au=Steinegger%2C+Martin&amp;rft.au=Pacholska%2C+Michalina&amp;rft.au=Berghammer%2C+Tamas&amp;rft.au=Bodenstein%2C+Sebastian&amp;rft.au=Silver%2C+David&amp;rft.au=Vinyals%2C+Oriol&amp;rft.au=Senior%2C+Andrew+W.&amp;rft.au=Kavukcuoglu%2C+Koray&amp;rft.au=Kohli%2C+Pushmeet&amp;rft.au=Hassabis%2C+Demis&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8371605&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLeCunBengioHinton2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">LeCun, Yann; Bengio, Yoshua; Hinton, Geoffrey (28 May 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature14539\" target=\"_blank\">\"Deep learning\"<\/a>. <i>Nature<\/i>. <b>521<\/b> (7553): 436\u2013444. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2015Natur.521..436L\" target=\"_blank\">2015Natur.521..436L<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fnature14539\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/nature14539<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/26017442\" target=\"_blank\">26017442<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:3074096\" target=\"_blank\">3074096<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230605235832\/https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature14539\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 5 June 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=Deep+learning&amp;rft.volume=521&amp;rft.issue=7553&amp;rft.pages=436-444&amp;rft.date=2015-05-28&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature14539&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3074096%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26017442&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.521..436L&amp;rft.aulast=LeCun&amp;rft.aufirst=Yann&amp;rft.au=Bengio%2C+Yoshua&amp;rft.au=Hinton%2C+Geoffrey&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fnature14539&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gary_Marcus\" title=\"Gary Marcus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac4273b8d8efbca9ddf14fb3203ded12\">Marcus, Gary<\/a>, \"Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind\", <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_American\" title=\"Scientific American\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78478150ef4a0fec815a7dd19d513fb8\">Scientific American<\/a><\/i>, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp.&#160;61\u201363. Marcus points out a so far insuperable stumbling block to artificial intelligence: an incapacity for reliable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disambiguation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Disambiguation\" data-key=\"a7b465898257b2b2943a303d0defc2b5\">disambiguation<\/a>. \"[V]irtually every sentence [that people generate] is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ambiguity\" title=\"Ambiguity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f08f4603d44faf03b4810b1f2b422299\">ambiguous<\/a>, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so good at comprehending <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language\" title=\"Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdf16c504014c1d7fbeffec5c351c774\">language<\/a> that we do not usually notice.\" A prominent example is the \"pronoun disambiguation problem\" (\"PDP\"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pronoun\" title=\"Pronoun\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99a9f207e6c405d913a7fc6da1b20ff3\">pronoun<\/a> in a sentence\u2014such as \"he\", \"she\" or \"it\"\u2014refers.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gary_Marcus\" title=\"Gary Marcus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac4273b8d8efbca9ddf14fb3203ded12\">Marcus, Gary<\/a>, \"Artificial Confidence: Even the newest, buzziest systems of artificial general intelligence are stymmied by the same old problems\", <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_American\" title=\"Scientific American\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78478150ef4a0fec815a7dd19d513fb8\">Scientific American<\/a><\/i>, vol. 327, no. 4 (October 2022), pp.&#160;42\u201345.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMitchell2019\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mitchell, Melanie (2019). <i>Artificial intelligence: a guide for thinking humans<\/i>. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780374257835<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Artificial+intelligence%3A+a+guide+for+thinking+humans&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.isbn=9780374257835&amp;rft.aulast=Mitchell&amp;rft.aufirst=Melanie&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMnihKavukcuogluSilverRusu2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Mnih, Volodymyr; Kavukcuoglu, Koray; Silver, David; et&#160;al. (26 February 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature14236\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Human-level control through deep reinforcement learning\"<\/a>. <i>Nature<\/i>. <b>518<\/b> (7540): 529\u2013533. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2015Natur.518..529M\" target=\"_blank\">2015Natur.518..529M<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fnature14236\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/nature14236<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/25719670\" target=\"_blank\">25719670<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:205242740\" target=\"_blank\">205242740<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230619055525\/https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature14236\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 June 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=Human-level+control+through+deep+reinforcement+learning&amp;rft.volume=518&amp;rft.issue=7540&amp;rft.pages=529-533&amp;rft.date=2015-02-26&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature14236&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205242740%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25719670&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.518..529M&amp;rft.aulast=Mnih&amp;rft.aufirst=Volodymyr&amp;rft.au=Kavukcuoglu%2C+Koray&amp;rft.au=Silver%2C+David&amp;rft.au=Rusu%2C+Andrei+A.&amp;rft.au=Veness%2C+Joel&amp;rft.au=Bellemare%2C+Marc+G.&amp;rft.au=Graves%2C+Alex&amp;rft.au=Riedmiller%2C+Martin&amp;rft.au=Fidjeland%2C+Andreas+K.&amp;rft.au=Ostrovski%2C+Georg&amp;rft.au=Petersen%2C+Stig&amp;rft.au=Beattie%2C+Charles&amp;rft.au=Sadik%2C+Amir&amp;rft.au=Antonoglou%2C+Ioannis&amp;rft.au=King%2C+Helen&amp;rft.au=Kumaran%2C+Dharshan&amp;rft.au=Wierstra%2C+Daan&amp;rft.au=Legg%2C+Shane&amp;rft.au=Hassabis%2C+Demis&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fnature14236%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> Introduced <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_Q-learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Deep Q-learning\" data-key=\"c78ebdb22e13602db3a0d67a77fb76b7\">DQN<\/a>, which produced human-level performance on some Atari games.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eyal_Press\" title=\"Eyal Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"655f56ae2808691bde1aedf26ecc0967\">Press, Eyal<\/a>, \"In Front of Their Faces: Does facial-recognition technology lead police to ignore contradictory evidence?\", <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_Yorker\" title=\"The New Yorker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c8155f0446536a3f0823e4c2bcb6fa2\">The New Yorker<\/a><\/i>, 20 November 2023, pp.&#160;20\u201326.<\/li>\n<li>, \"AI's IQ: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ChatGPT\" title=\"ChatGPT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"205da2acb6bbb6260cafb3040cba93fe\">ChatGPT<\/a> aced a [standard intelligence] test but showed that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligence\" title=\"Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34e224ca1f6aff5a40148ce1a229588d\">intelligence<\/a> cannot be measured by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IQ\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IQ\" data-key=\"9938a67f4ac3ddb6343f849f6a2a89bf\">IQ<\/a> alone\", <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_American\" title=\"Scientific American\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78478150ef4a0fec815a7dd19d513fb8\">Scientific American<\/a><\/i>, vol. 329, no. 1 (July\/August 2023), p.&#160;7. \"Despite its high IQ, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ChatGPT\" title=\"ChatGPT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"205da2acb6bbb6260cafb3040cba93fe\">ChatGPT<\/a> fails at tasks that require real humanlike reasoning or an understanding of the physical and social world.... ChatGPT seemed unable to reason logically and tried to rely on its vast database of... facts derived from online texts.\"<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSerenkoMichael_Dohan2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Serenko, Alexander; Michael Dohan (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aserenko.com\/papers\/JOI_AI_Journal_Ranking_Serenko.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comparing the expert survey and citation impact journal ranking methods: Example from the field of Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Journal of Informetrics<\/i>. <b>5<\/b> (4): 629\u201349. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.joi.2011.06.002\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.joi.2011.06.002<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131004212839\/http:\/\/www.aserenko.com\/papers\/JOI_AI_Journal_Ranking_Serenko.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 4 October 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 September<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Informetrics&amp;rft.atitle=Comparing+the+expert+survey+and+citation+impact+journal+ranking+methods%3A+Example+from+the+field+of+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=629-49&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.joi.2011.06.002&amp;rft.aulast=Serenko&amp;rft.aufirst=Alexander&amp;rft.au=Michael+Dohan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aserenko.com%2Fpapers%2FJOI_AI_Journal_Ranking_Serenko.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSilverHuangMaddisonGuez2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Silver, David; Huang, Aja; Maddison, Chris J.; et&#160;al. (28 January 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature16961\" target=\"_blank\">\"Mastering the game of Go with deep neural networks and tree search\"<\/a>. <i>Nature<\/i>. <b>529<\/b> (7587): 484\u2013489. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2016Natur.529..484S\" target=\"_blank\">2016Natur.529..484S<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fnature16961\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/nature16961<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/26819042\" target=\"_blank\">26819042<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:515925\" target=\"_blank\">515925<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230618213059\/https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nature16961\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 18 June 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=Mastering+the+game+of+Go+with+deep+neural+networks+and+tree+search&amp;rft.volume=529&amp;rft.issue=7587&amp;rft.pages=484-489&amp;rft.date=2016-01-28&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature16961&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A515925%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26819042&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016Natur.529..484S&amp;rft.aulast=Silver&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.au=Huang%2C+Aja&amp;rft.au=Maddison%2C+Chris+J.&amp;rft.au=Guez%2C+Arthur&amp;rft.au=Sifre%2C+Laurent&amp;rft.au=van+den+Driessche%2C+George&amp;rft.au=Schrittwieser%2C+Julian&amp;rft.au=Antonoglou%2C+Ioannis&amp;rft.au=Panneershelvam%2C+Veda&amp;rft.au=Lanctot%2C+Marc&amp;rft.au=Dieleman%2C+Sander&amp;rft.au=Grewe%2C+Dominik&amp;rft.au=Nham%2C+John&amp;rft.au=Kalchbrenner%2C+Nal&amp;rft.au=Sutskever%2C+Ilya&amp;rft.au=Lillicrap%2C+Timothy&amp;rft.au=Leach%2C+Madeleine&amp;rft.au=Kavukcuoglu%2C+Koray&amp;rft.au=Graepel%2C+Thore&amp;rft.au=Hassabis%2C+Demis&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fnature16961&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEuropean_Commission2020\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/info\/sites\/info\/files\/commission-white-paper-artificial-intelligence-feb2020_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>White Paper: On Artificial Intelligence \u2013 A European approach to excellence and trust<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Brussels: European Commission. 2020. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200220173419\/https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/info\/sites\/info\/files\/commission-white-paper-artificial-intelligence-feb2020_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 20 February 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 February<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=White+Paper%3A+On+Artificial+Intelligence+%E2%80%93+A+European+approach+to+excellence+and+trust&amp;rft.place=Brussels&amp;rft.pub=European+Commission&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Finfo%2Fsites%2Finfo%2Ffiles%2Fcommission-white-paper-artificial-intelligence-feb2020_en.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation encyclopaedia cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iep.utm.edu\/art-inte\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy\" title=\"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cd510f18a82ba3a17584224ef620f12\">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/a><\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fart-inte&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFThomason\" class=\"citation encyclopaedia cs1\">Thomason, Richmond. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/logic-ai\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Logic and Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_N._Zalta\" title=\"Edward N. Zalta\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b452e51c9d610557958ac26dff8332ba\">Zalta, Edward N.<\/a> (ed.). <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy\" title=\"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b68b5de1d3d70cb0dfaf7d6baa42dca2\">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/a><\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Logic+and+Artificial+Intelligence&amp;rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.aulast=Thomason&amp;rft.aufirst=Richmond&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Flogic-ai%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/programmes\/p003k9fc\" target=\"_blank\">Artificial Intelligence<\/a>. BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Agar, Alison Adam &amp; Igor Aleksander (<i>In Our Time<\/i>, 8 December 2005).<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/datascience.cancer.gov\/news-events\/blog\/theranostics-and-ai-next-advance-cancer-precision-medicine\" target=\"_blank\">Theranostics and AI\u2014The Next Advance in Cancer Precision Medicine<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1456\nCached time: 20240110081331\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 3.441 seconds\nReal time usage: 3.904 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 37393\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 900624\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 146719\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 64\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 664845\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 2.202\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 24088241\/52428800 bytes\nLua Profile:\n<\/p>\n<pre> dataWrapper <mw.lua:672> 300 ms 13.6%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction 280 ms 12.7%\n ? 240 ms 10.9%\n recursiveClone <mwInit.lua:41> 160 ms 7.3%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find 140 ms 6.4%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments 120 ms 5.5%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub 100 ms 4.5%\n gsub 80 ms 3.6%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode 80 ms 3.6%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match 80 ms 3.6%\n [others] 620 ms 28.2%\n<\/pre>\n<p>Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 3210.412 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>20.80% 667.910 2 Template:Reflist\n17.24% 553.602 180 Template:Sfnp\n10.15% 325.864 306 Template:Harvtxt\n 9.79% 314.202 50 Template:Cite_journal\n 9.12% 292.872 43 Template:Cite_book\n 6.04% 193.785 43 Template:Cite_news\n 5.77% 185.286 44 Template:Cite_web\n 5.27% 169.073 11 Template:Annotated_link\n 4.39% 140.961 31 Template:Efn\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:1164-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110081327 and revision id 1194661524. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110101351\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.429 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.986 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 805028\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 725.412 1 wikipedia:Artificial_intelligence\n100.00% 725.412 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10544-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110101350 and revision id 48267. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_images":[],"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_timestamp":1704907014,"e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9_type":"article","e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9_title":"Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures","e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures","e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9_plaintext":"\n\nLII:Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory ProceduresFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchTitle: Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures\nAuthor for citation: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International\nPublication date: January 2021\n\nContents \n\n1 Introduction \n2 How does this discussion relate to previous work? \n\n2.1 Before we get too far into this... \n\n\n3 Transitioning from typical lab operations to automated systems \n\n3.1 What will happen to people\u2019s jobs as a result of automation? \n3.2 What is the role of AI and ML in automation? \n3.3 Where do we find the resources to carry out automation projects\/programs? \n3.4 What equipment would we need for automated processes, and will it be different that what we currently have? \n3.5 What role does a LES play in laboratory automation? \n\n3.5.1 What does this have to do with automation? \n\n\n3.6 How do we go about planning for automation? \n\n3.6.1 Justification, expectations, and goals \n3.6.2 Analyzing the process \n3.6.3 Scheduling automation projects \n3.6.4 Budgeting \n\n\n\n\n4 Build, buy, or cooperate? \n5 Project planning \n6 Conclusions (so far) \n7 Abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms \n8 Footnotes \n9 About the author \n10 References \n\n\n\nIntroduction \nScientists have been dealing with the issue of laboratory automation for decades, and during that time the meaning of those words has expanded from the basics of connecting an instrument to a computer, to the possibility of a fully integrated informatics infrastructure beginning with sample preparation and continuing on to the laboratory information management system (LIMS), electronic laboratory notebook (ELN), and beyond. Throughout this evolution there has been one underlying concern: how do we go about doing this?\nThe answer to that question has changed from a focus on hardware and programming, to today\u2019s need for a lab-wide informatics strategy. We\u2019ve moved from the bits and bytes of assembly language programming to managing terabytes of files and data structures.\nThe high-end of the problem\u2014the large informatics database systems\u2014has received significant industry-wide attention in the last decade. The stuff on the lab bench, while the target of a lot of individual products, has been less organized and more experimental. Failed or incompletely met promises have to yield to planned successes. How we do it needs to change. This document is about the considerations required when making that change. The haphazard \"let's try this\" method has to give way to more engineered solutions and a realistic appraisal of the human issues, as well as the underlying technology management and planning.\nWhy is this important? Whether you are conducting intense laboratory experiments to produce data and information or making chocolate chip cookies in the kitchen, two things remain important: productivity and the quality of the products. In either case, if the productivity isn\u2019t high enough, you won\u2019t be able to justify your work; if the quality isn\u2019t there, no one will want what you produce. Conducting laboratory work and making cookies have a lot in common. Your laboratories exist to answer questions. What happens if I do this? What is the purity of this material? What is the structure of this compound? The field of laboratories asking these questions is extensive, basically covering the entire array of lab bench and scientific work, including chemistry, life sciences, physics, and electronics labs. The more efficiently we answer those questions, the more likely it will be that these labs will continue operating and, that you\u2019ll achieve the goals your organization has set. At some point, it comes down to performance against goals and the return on the investment organizations make in lab operations.\nIn addition to product quality and productivity, there are a number of other points that favor automation over manual implementations of lab processes. They include:\n\nlower costs per test;\nbetter control over expenditures;\na stronger basis for better workflow planning;\nreproducibility;\npredictably; and\ntighter adherence to procedures, i.e., consistency.\nLists similar to the one above can be found in justifications for lab automation, and cookie production, without further comment. It\u2019s just assumed that everyone agrees and that the reasoning is obvious. Since we are going to use those items to justify the cost and effort that goes into automation, we should take a closer look at them.\nLets begin with reproducibility, predictability, and consistency, very similar concerns that reflect automation\u2019s ability to produce the same product with the desired characteristics over and over. For data and information, that means that the same analysis on the same materials will yield the same results, that all the steps are documented and that the process is under control. The variability that creeps into the execution of a process by people is eliminated. That variability in human labor can result from the quality of training, equipment setup and calibration, readings from analog devices (e.g., meters, pipette meniscus, charts, etc.), there is a long list of potential issues.\nConcerns with reproducibility, predictability, and consistency are common to production environments, general lab work, manufacturing, and even food service. There are several pizza restaurants in our area using one of two methods of making the pies. Both start the preparation the same way, spreading dough and adding cheese and toppings, but the differences are in how they are cooked. Once method uses standard ovens (e.g., gas, wood, or electric heating); the pizza goes in, the cook watches it, and then removes it when the cooking is completed. This leads to a lot of variability in the product, some a function of the cook\u2019s attention, some depending on requests for over or under cooking the crust. Some is based on \"have it your way\" customization. The second method uses a metal conveyor belt to move the pie through an oven. The oven temperature is set as is the speed of the belt, and as long as the settings are the same, you get a reproducible, consistent product order after order. It\u2019s a matter of priorities. Manual verses automated. Consistent product quality verses how the cook feels that day. In the end, reducing variability and being able to demonstrate consistent, accurate, results gives people confidence in your product.\nLower costs per test, better control over expenditures, and better workflow planning also benefit from automation. Automated processes are more cost-efficient since the sample throughput is higher and the labor cost is reduced. The cost per test and the material usage is predictable since variability in components used in testing is reduced or eliminated, and workflow planning is improved since the time per test is known, work can be better scheduled. Additionally, process scale-up should be easier if there is a high demand for particular procedures. However there is a lot of work that has to be considered before automation is realizable, and that is where this discussion is headed.\n\n How does this discussion relate to previous work? \nThis work follows on the heels of two previous works:\n\nComputerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide (2015): This book presents the range of informatics technologies, their relationship to each other, and the role they play in laboratory work. It differentiates a LIMS from an ELN and scientific data management system (SDMS) for example, contrasting their use and how they would function in different lab working environments. In addition, it covers topics such as support and regulatory issues.\nA Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work (2018): This webinar series complements the above text. It begins by introducing the major topics in informatics (e.g., LIMS, ELN, etc.) and then discusses their use from a strategic viewpoint. Where and how do you start planning? What is your return on investment? What should get implemented first, and then what are my options? The series then moves on to developing an information management strategy for the lab, taking into account budgets, support, ease of implementation, and the nature of your lab\u2019s work.\nThe material in this write-up picks up where the last part of the webinar series ends. The last session covers lab processes, amd this picks up that thread and goes into more depth concerning a basic issue: how do you move from manual methods to automated systems?\nProductivity has always been an issue in laboratory work. Until the 1950s, a lab had little choice but to add more people if more work needed to be done. Since then, new technologies have afforded wider options, including new instrument technologies. The execution of the work was still done by people, but the tools were better. Now we have other options. We just have to figure out when, if, and how to use them.\n\nBefore we get too far into this... \nWith elements such as productivity, return on investment (ROI), data quality, and data integrity as driving factors in this work, you shouldn\u2019t be surprised if a lot of the material reads like a discussion of manufacturing methodologies; we\u2019ve already seen some examples. We are talking about scientific work, but the same things that drive the elements noted in labs have very close parallels in product manufacturing. The work we are describing here will be referenced as \"scientific manufacturing,\" manufacturing or production in support of scientific programs.&#91;a&#93;\nThe key points of a productivity conversation in both lab and material production environments are almost exact overlays, the only significant difference is that the results of the efforts are data and information in one case, and a physical item you might sell in the other. Product quality and integrity are valued considerations in both. For scientists, this may require an adjustment to their perspectives when dealing with automation. On the plus side, the lessons learned in product manufacturing can be applied to lab bench work, making the path to implementation a bit easier while providing a framework for understanding what a successful automation effort looks like. People with backgrounds in product manufacturing can be a useful resource in the lab, with a bit of an adjustment in perspective on their part.\n\nTransitioning from typical lab operations to automated systems \nTransitioning a lab from its current state of operations to one that incorporates automation can raise a number of questions, and people\u2019s anxiety levels. There are several questions that should be considered to set expectations for automated systems and how they will impact jobs and the introduction of new technologies. They include:\n\nWhat will happen to people\u2019s jobs as a result of automation?\nWhat is the role of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) in automation?\nWhere do we find the resources to carry out automation projects\/programs?\nWhat equipment would we need for automated processes, and will it be different that what we currently have?\nWhat role does a laboratory execution system (LES) play in laboratory automation?\nHow do we go about planning for automation?\n What will happen to people\u2019s jobs as a result of automation? \nStories are appearing in print, online, and in television news reporting about the potential for automation to replace human effort in the labor force. It seems like it is an all-or-none situation, either people will continue working in their occupations or automation (e.g., mechanical, software, AI, etc.) will replace them. The storyline is people are expensive and automated work can be less costly in the long run. If commercial manufacturing is a guide, automation is a preferred option from both a productivity and an ROI perspective. In order to make the productivity gains from automation similar to those seen in commercial manufacturing, there are some basic requirements and conditions that have to be met:\n\nThe process has to be well documented and understood, down to the execution of each step without variation, while error detection and recovery have to be designed in.\nThe process has to remain static and be expected to continue over enough execution cycles to make it economically attractive to design, build, and maintain.\nAutomation-compatible equipment has to be available. Custom-built components are going to be expensive and could represent a barrier to successful implementation.\nThere has to be a driving need to justify the cost of automation; economics, the volume of work that has to be addressed, working with hazardous materials, and lack of educated workers are just a few of the factors that would need to be considered.\nThere are places in laboratory work where production-scale automation has been successfully implemented; life sciences applications for processes based on microplate technologies are one example. When we look at the broad scope of lab work across disciplines, most lab processes don\u2019t lend themselves to that level of automation, at least not yet. We\u2019ll get into this in more detail later. But that brings us back to the starting point: what happens to people's jobs?\nIn the early stages of manufacturing automation, as well as fields such as mining where work was labor intensive and repetitive, people did lose jobs when new methods of production were introduced. That shift from a human workforce to automated task execution is expanding as system designers probe markets from retail to transportation.&#91;1&#93; Lower skilled occupations gave way first, and we find ourselves facing automation efforts that are moving up the skills ladder, most recently is the potential for automated driving, a technology that has yet to be fully embraced but is moving in that direction. The problem that leaves us with is providing displaced workers with a means of employment that gives them at least a living income, and the purpose, dignity, and self-worth that they\u2019d like to have. This is going to require significant education, and people are going to have to come to grips with the realization that education never stops.\nDue to the push for increased productivity, lab work has seen some similar developments in automation. The development of automated pipettes, titration stations, auto-injectors, computer-assisted instrumentation, and automation built to support microplate technologies represent just a few places where specific tasks have been addressed. However these developments haven\u2019t moved people out of the workplace as has happened in manufacturing, mining, etc. In some cases they\u2019ve changed the work, replacing repetitive time-consuming tasks with equipment that allows lab personnel to take on different tasks. In other cases the technology addresses work that couldn\u2019t be performed in a cost-effective manner with human effort; without automation, that work might just not be feasible due to the volume of work (whose delivery might be limited by the availability of the right people, equipment, and facilities) or the need to work with hazardous materials. Automation may prevent the need for hiring new people while giving those currently working more challenging tasks.\nAs noted in the previous paragraph, much of the automation in lab work is at the task level: equipment designed to carry out a specific function such as Karl-Fisher titrations. Some equipment designed around microplate formats can function at both the task level and as part of user-integrated robotics system. This gives the planner useful options about the introduction of automation that makes it easier for personnel to get accustomed to automation before moving into scientific manufacturing.\nOverall, laboratory people shouldn\u2019t be loosing their jobs as a result of lab automation, but they do have to be open to changes in their jobs, and that could require an investment in their education. Take someone whose current job is to carry out a lab procedure, someone who understands all aspects of the work, including troubleshooting equipment, reagents, and any special problems that may crop up. Someone else may have developed the procedure, but that person is the expert in its execution.\nFirst of all you need these experts to help plan and test the automated systems if you decide to create that project. These would also be the best people to educate as automated systems managers; they know how the process is supposed to work and should be in a position to detect problems. If it crashes, you\u2019ll need someone who can cover the work while problems are be addressed. Secondly, if lab personnel get the idea that they are watching their replacement being installed, they may leave before the automated systems are ready. In the event of a delay, you\u2019ll have a backlog and no one to handle it.\nBeyond that, people will be freed from the routine of carrying out processes and be able to address work that had been put on a back burner until it could be addressed. As we move toward automated systems, jobs will change by expansion to accommodate typical lab work, as well as the management, planning, maintenance, and evolution of laboratory automation and computing.\nAutomation in lab work is not an \"all or none\" situation. Processes can be structured so that the routine work is done by systems, and the analyst can spend time reviewing the results, looking for anomalies and interesting patterns, while being able to make decisions about the need for and nature of follow-on efforts.\n\n What is the role of AI and ML in automation? \nWhen we discuss automation, what we are referencing now is basic robotics and programming. AI may, and likely will, play a role in the work, but first we have to get the foundations right before we consider the next step; we need to put in the human intelligence first. Part of the issue with AI is that we don\u2019t know what it is.\nScience fiction aside, many of today's applications of AI have a limited role in lab work today. Here are some examples:\n\nHaving a system that can bring up all relevant information on a research question\u2014a sort of super Google\u2014or a variation of IBM\u2019s Watson could have significant benefits.\nAnalyzing complex data or large volumes of data could be beneficial, e.g., the analysis of radio astronomy data to find fast radio bursts (FRB). After discovering 21 FRB signals upon analyzing five hours of data, researchers at Green Bank Telescope used AI to analyze 400 terabytes of older data and detected another 100.&#91;2&#93;\n\"[A] team at Glasgow University has paired a machine-learning system with a robot that can run and analyze its own chemical reaction. The result is a system that can figure out every reaction that's possible from a given set of starting materials.\"&#91;3&#93;\nHelixAI is using Amazon's Alexa as a digital assitant for laboratory work.&#91;4&#93;\nNote that the points above are research-based applications, not routine production environments where regulatory issues are important. While there are research applications that might be more forgiving of AI systems because the results are evaluated by human intelligence, and problematic results can be made subject to further verification, data entry systems such as voice entry have to be carefully tested and the results of that data entry verified and shown to be correct.\nPharma IQ continues to publish material on advanced topics in laboratory informatics, including articles on how labs are benefiting from new technologies&#91;5&#93; and survey reports such as AI 2020: The Future of Drug Discovery. In that report they note&#91;6&#93;:\n\n\"94% of pharma professionals expect that intelligent technologies will have a noticeable impact on the pharmaceutical industry over the next two years.\"\n\"Almost one fifth of pharma professionals believe that we are on the cusp of a revolution.\"\n\"Intelligent automation and predictive analytics are expected to have the most significant impact on the industry.\"\n\"However, a lack of understanding and awareness about the benefits of AI-led technologies remain a hindrance to their implementation.\"\nNote that these are expectations, not a reflection of current reality. That same report makes comments about the impact of AI on headcount disruption, asking, \"Do you expect intelligent enterprise technologies&#91;b&#93; to significantly cut and\/or create jobs in pharma through 2020?\" Among the responses, 47 percent said they expected those technologies to do both, 40 percent said it will create new job opportunities, and 13 percent said there will be no dramatic change, with zero percent saying they expected solely job losses.&#91;6&#93;\nWhile there are high levels of expectations and hopes for results, we need to approach the idea of AI in labs with some caution. We read about examples based on machine learning (ML), for example using computer systems to recognize cats in photos, to recognized faces in a crowd, etc. We don\u2019t know how they accomplish their tasks, and we can\u2019t analyze their algorithms and decision-making. That leaves us with testing in quality, which at best is an uncertain process with qualified results (it has worked so far). One problem with testing AI systems based on ML is that they are going to continually evolve, so testing may affect the ML processes by providing a bias. It may also cause continued, redundant testing, because something we thought was evaluated was changed by the \u201cexperiences\u201d the AI based it\u2019s learning on. As one example, could the AI modify the science through process changes without our knowing because it didn\u2019t understand the science or the goals of the work?\nAI is a black box with ever-changing contents. That shouldn\u2019t be taken as a condemnation of AI in the lab, but rather as a challenge to human intelligence in evaluating, proving, and applying the technology. That application includes defining the operating boundaries of an AI system. Rather than creating a master AI for a complete process, we may elect to divide the AI\u2019s area of operation into multiple, independent segments, with segment integration occurring in later stages once we are confident in their ability to work and show clear evidence of systems stability. In all of this we need to remember that our goal is the production of high-quality data and information in a controlled, predictable environment, not gee-wiz technology. One place where AI (or clever programming) could be of use is in better workflow planning, which takes into account current workloads and assignments, factors in the inevitable panic-level testing need, and, perhaps in a QC\/production environment, anticipates changes in analysis requirements based on changes in production operations.\nThroughout this section I've treated \u201cAI\u201d as \u201cartificial intelligence,\u201d its common meaning. There may be a better way of looking at it for lab use as, noted in this excerpt from the October 2018 issue of Wired magazine&#91;7&#93;:\n\nAugmented intelligence. Not \u201cartificial,\u201d but how Doug Engelbart&#91;c&#93; envisioned our relationship with computer: AI doesn\u2019t replace humans. It offers idiot-savant assistants that enable us to become the best humans we can be.\nAugmented intelligence (AuI) is a better term for what we might experience in lab work, at least in the near future. It suggests something that is both more realistic and attainable, with the synergism that would make it, and automation, attractive to lab management and personnel\u2014a tool they can work with and improve lab operations that doesn\u2019t carry the specter of something going on that they don\u2019t understand or control. OPUS\/SEARCH from Bruker might be just such an entry in this category.&#91;8&#93; AuI may serve as a first-pass filter for large data sets\u2014as noted in the radio astronomy and chemistry examples noted earlier\u2014reducing those sets of data and information to smaller collections that human intelligence can\/should evaluate. However, that does put a burden on the AuI to avoid excessive false positives or negatives, something that can be adjusted over time.\nBeyond that there is the possibility of more cooperative work between people and AuI systems. An article in Scientific American titled \u201cMy Boss the Robot\u201d&#91;9&#93; describes the advantage of a human-robot team, with the robot doing the heavy work and the human\u2014under the robots guidance\u2014doing work he was more adept at, verses a team of experts with the same task. The task, welding a Humvee frame, was competed by the human machine pair in 10 hours at a cost of $1,150; the team of experts took 89 hours and a cost of $7,075. That might translate into terms of laboratory work by having a robot do routine, highly repetitive tasks and the analyst overseeing the operation and doing higher-level analysis of the results.\nCertainly, AI\/AuI is going to change over time as programming and software technology becomes more sophisticated and capable; today\u2019s example of AuI might be seen as tomorrow\u2019s clever software. However, a lot depends on the experience of the user.\nThere is something important to ask about laboratory technology development, and AI in particular: is the direction of development going to be the result of someone\u2019s innovation that people look at and embrace, or will it be the result of a deliberate choice of lab people saying \u201cthis is where we need to go, build systems that will get us there\u201d? The difference is important, and lab managers and personnel need to be in control of the planning and implementation of systems.\n\n Where do we find the resources to carry out automation projects\/programs? \nGiven the potential scope of work, you may need people with skills in programming, robotics, instrumentation, and possibly mechanical or electrical engineering if off-the-shelf components aren\u2019t available. The biggest need is for people who can do the planning and optimization that is needed as you move from manual to semi- or fully-automated systems, particularly specialists in process engineering who can organize and plan the work, including the process controls and provision for statistical process control.\nWe need to develop people who are well versed in laboratory work and the technologies that can be applied to that work, as assets in laboratory automation development and planning. In the past, this role has been filled with lab personnel having an interest in the subject, IT people willing to extend their responsibilities, and\/or outside consultants. A 2017 report by Salesforce Research states \"77% of IT leaders believe IT functions as an extension\/partner of business units rather than as a separate function.\"&#91;10&#93; The report makes no mention of laboratory work or manufacturing aside from those being functions within businesses surveyed. Unless a particular effort is made, IT personnel rarely have the backgrounds needed to meet the needs of lab work. In many cases, they will try and fit lab needs into software they are already familiar with, rather then extend their backgrounds into new computational environments. Office and pure database applications are easily handled, but when we get to the lab bench, it's another matter entirely.\nThe field is getting complex enough that we need people whose responsibilities span both science and technology. This subject is discussed in the webinar series A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work, Part 5 \"Supporting Laboratory Systems.\"\n\n What equipment would we need for automated processes, and will it be different that what we currently have? \nThis is an interesting issue and it directly addresses the commitment labs have to automation, particularly robotics. In the early days of lab automation when Zymark (Zymate and Benchmate), Perkin Elmer, and Hewlett Packard (ORCA) were the major players in the market, the robot had to adapt to equipment that was designed for human use: standard laboratory equipment. They did that through special modifications and the use of different grippers to handle test tubes, beakers, and flasks. While some companies wanted to test the use of robotics in the lab, they didn\u2019t want to invest in equipment that could only be used with robots; they wanted lab workers to pick up where the robots left off in case the robots didn\u2019t work.\nSince then, equipment has evolved to support automation more directly. In some cases it is a device (e.g., a balance, pH meter, etc.) that has front panel human operator capability and rear connectors for computer communications. Liquid handling systems have seen the most advancement through the adoption of microplate formats and equipment designed to work with them. However, the key point is standardization of the sample containers. Vials and microplates lend themselves to a variety of automation devices, from sample processing to auto-injectors\/samplers. The issue is getting the samples into those formats.\nOne point that labs, in any scientific discipline, have to come to grips with is the commitment to automation. That commitment isn\u2019t going to be done on a lab-wide basis, but on a procedure-by-procedure basis. Full automation may not be appropriate for all lab work, whereas partial automation may be a better choice, and in some cases no automation may be required (we\u2019ll get into that later). The point that needs to be addressed is the choice of equipment. In most cases, equipment is designed for use by people, with options for automation and electronic communications. However, if you want to maximize throughput, you may have to follow examples from manufacturing and commit to equipment that is only used by automation. That will mean a redesign of the equipment, a shared risk for both the vendors and the users. The upside to this is that equipment can be specifically designed for a task, be more efficient, have the links needed for integration, use less material, and, more likely, take up less space. One example is the microplate, allowing for tens, hundreds, or thousands (depending on the plate used) of sample cells in a small space. What used to take many cubic feet of space as test tubes (the precursor to using microplates) is now a couple of cubic inches, using much less material and working space. Note, however, that while microplates are used by lab personnel, their use in automated systems provides greater efficiency and productivity.\nThe idea of equipment used only in an automated process isn\u2019t new. The development and commercialization of segmented flow analyzers\u2014initially by Technicon in the form of the AutoAnalyzers for general use, and the SMA (Sequential Multiple Analyzer) and SMAC (Sequential Multiple Analyzer with Computer) in clinical markets\u2014improved a lab's ability to process samples. These systems were phased out with new equipment that consumed less material. Products like these are being provided by Seal Analytical&#91;11&#93; for environmental work and Bran+Luebbe (a division of SPX Process Equipment in Germany).&#91;12&#93;\nThe issue in committing to automated equipment is that vendors and users will have to agree on equipment specifications and use them within procedures. One place this has been done successfully is in clinical chemistry labs. What other industry workflows could benefit? Do the vendors lead or do the users drive the issue? Vendors need to be convinced that there is a viable market for product before making an investment, and users need to be equally convinced that they will succeed in applying those products. In short, procedures that are important to a particular industry have to be identified, and both users and vendors have to come together to develop automated procedure and equipment specifications for products. This has been done successfully in clinical chemistry markets to the extent that equipment is marketed for use as validated for particular procedures.\n\n What role does a LES play in laboratory automation? \nBefore ELNs settled into their current role in laboratory work, the initial implementations differed considerably from what we have now. LabTech Notebook was released in 1986 (discontinued in 2004) to provide communications between computers and devices that used RS-232 serial communications. In the early 2000s SmartLab from Velquest was the first commercial product to carry the \"electronic laboratory notebook\" identifier. That product became a stand-alone entry in the laboratory execution system (LES) market; since its release, the same conceptual functionality has been incorporated into LIMS and ELNs that fit the more current expectation for an ELN.\nAt it\u2019s core, LES are scripted test procedures that an analyst would follow to carry out a laboratory method, essentially functioning as the programmed execution of a lab process. Each step in a process is described, followed exactly, and provision is made within the script for data collection. In addition, the LES can\/will (depending on the implementation; \"can\" in the case of SmartLab) check to see if the analyst is qualified to carry out the work and that the equipment and reagents are current, calibrated, and suitable for use. The systems can also have access to help files that an analyst can reference if there are questions about how to carry out a step or resolve issues. Beyond that, the software had the ability to work with lab instruments and automatically acquire data either through direct interfaces (e.g., balances, pH meters, etc.) or through parsing PDF files of instrument reports.\nThere are two reasons that these systems are attractive. First, they provide for a rigorous execution of a process with each step being logged as it is done. Second, that log provides a regulatory inspector with documented evidence that the work was done properly, making it easier for the lab to meet any regulatory burden.\nSince the initial development of SmartLab, that product has changed ownership and is currently in the hands of Dassault Syst\u00e8mes as part of the BIOVIA product line. As noted above, LIMS and ELN vendors have incorporated similar functionality into their products. Using those features requires \u201cscripting\u201d (in reality, software development), but it does allow the ability to access the database structures within those products. The SmartLab software needed programmed interfaces to other vendors' LIMS and ELNs to gain access to the same information.\n\n What does this have to do with automation? \nWhen we think about automated systems, particularly full-automation with robotic support, it is a programmed process from start to finish. The samples are introduced at the start, and the process continues until the final data\/information is reported and stored. These can be large scale systems using microplate formats, including tape-based systems from Douglas Scientific&#91;13&#93;, programmable autosamplers such as those from Agilent&#91;14&#93;, or systems built around robotics arms from a variety of vendors that move samples from one station to another.\nBoth LES and the automation noted in the previous paragraph have the following point in common: there is a strict process that must be followed, with no provision for variation. The difference is that in one case that process is implemented completely through the use of computers, as well as electronic and mechanical equipment. In the other case, the process is being carried out by lab personnel using computers, as well as electronic and mechanical lab equipment. In essence, people take the place of mechanical robots, which conjures up all kinds of images going back to the 1927 film Metropolis.&#91;d&#93; Though the LES represents a step toward more sophisticated automation, both methods still require:\n\nprogramming, including \u201cscripting\u201d (the LES methods are a script that has to be followed);\nvalidated, proven processes; and\nqualified staff, though the qualifications differ. (In both cases they have to be fully qualified to carry out the process in question. However in the full automation case, they will require more education on running, managing, and troubleshooting the systems.)\nIn the case of full automation, there has to be sufficient justification for the automation of the process, including sufficient sample processing. The LES-human implementation can be run for a single sample if needed, and the operating personnel can be trained on multiple procedures, switching tasks as needed. Electro-mechanical automation would require a change in programming, verification that the system is operating properly, and may require equipment re-configuration. Which method is better for a particular lab depends on trade-offs between sample load, throughput requirements, cost, and flexibility. People are adaptable, easily moving between tasks, whereas equipment has to be adapted to a task.\n\n How do we go about planning for automation? \nThere are three forms of automation to be considered:\n\nNo automation \u2013 Instead, the lab relies on lab personnel to carry out all steps of a procedure.\nPartial automation \u2013 Automated equipment is used to carry out steps in a procedure. Given the current state of laboratory systems, this is the most prevalent since most lab equipment has computer components in them to facilitate their use.\nFull automation - The entire process is automated. The definition of \u201centire\u201d is open to each labs interpretation and may vary from one process to another. For example, some samples may need some handing before they are suitable for use in a procedure. That might be a selection process from a freezer, grinding materials prior to a solvent extraction, and so on, representing cases where the equipment available isn\u2019t suitable for automated equipment interaction. One goal is to minimize this effort since it can put a limit on the productivity of the entire process. This is also an area where negotiation between the lab and the sample submitter can be useful. Take plastic pellets for example, which often need to be ground into a course powder before they can be analyzed; having the submitter provide them in this form will reduce the time and cost of the analysis. Standardizing on the sample container can also facilitate the analysis (having the lab provide the submitter with standard sample vials using barcodes or RFID chips can streamline the process).\nOne common point that these three forms share is a well-described method (procedure, process) that needs to be addressed. That method should be fully developed, tested, and validated. This is the reference point for evaluating any form of automation (Figure 1).\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 1. Items to be considered in automating systems\n\n\n\nThe documentation for the chosen method should include the bulleted list of items from Figure 1, as they describe the science aspects of the method. The last four points are important. The method should be validated since the manual procedure is a reference point for determining if the automated system is producing useful results. The reproducibility metric offers a means of evaluating at least one expected improvement in an automated system; you\u2019d expect less variability in the results. This requires a set of reference sample materials that can be repeatedly evaluated to compare the manual and automated systems, and to periodically test the methods in use to ensure that there aren\u2019t any trends developing that would compromise the method\u2019s use. Basically, this amounts to statistical quality control on the processes.\nThe next step is to decide what improvements you are looking for in an automated system: increased throughput, lower cost of operation, the ability to off-load human work, reduced variability, etc. In short, what are your goals?\nThat brings us to the matter of project planning. We\u2019re not going to go into a lot of depth in this piece about project planning, as there are a number of references&#91;e&#93; on the subject, including material produced by the former Institute for Laboratory Automation.&#91;f&#93; There are some aspects of the subject that we do need to touch on, however, and they include:\n\njustifying the project and setting expectations and goals;\nanalyzing the process;\nscheduling automation projects; and\nbudgeting.\n Justification, expectations, and goals \nBasically why are you doing this, what do you expect to gain? What arguments are you going to use to justify the work and expense involved in the project? How will you determine if the project is successful?\nFundamentally, automation efforts are about productivity and the bulleted items noted in the introduction of this piece, repeated below with additional commentary:\n\nLower costs per test, and better control over expenditure: These can result from a reduction in labor and materials costs, including more predictable and consistent reagent usage per test.\nStronger basis for better workflow planning: Informatics systems can provide better management over workloads and resource allocation, while key performance indicators can show where bottlenecks are occurring or if samples are taking too long to process. These can be triggers for procedure automation to improve throughput.\nReproducibility: The test results from automated procedures can be expected to be more reproducible by eliminating the variability that is typical of steps executed by people. Small variation in dispensing reagents, for example, could be eliminated.\nPredictability: The time to completion for a given test is more predictable in automated programs; once the process starts it keeps going without interruptions that can be found in human centered activities\nTighter adherence to procedures: Automated procedures have no choice but to be consistent in procedure execution; that is what programming and automation is about.\nOf these, which are important to your project? If you achieved these goals, what would it mean to your labs operations and the organization as a whole; this is part of the justification for carrying out the projects.\nAs noted earlier, there are several things to consider in order to justify a project. First, there has to be a growing need that supports a procedures automation, one that can\u2019t be satisfied by other means that could include adding people, equipment, and lab space, or outsourcing the work (with the added burden of insuring data quality and integrity, and integrating that work with the lab\u2019s data\/information). Second, the cost of the project must be balanced by it\u2019s benefits. This includes any savings in cost, people (not reducing headcount, but avoiding new hires), material, and equipment, as well as the improvement of timeliness of results and overall lab operations. Third, when considering project justification, the automated process\u2019s useful lifetime has to be long enough to justify the development work. And finally, the process has to be stable so that you aren\u2019t in a constant re-development situation (this differs from periodic upgrades and performance improvements, EVOP in manufacturing terms). One common point of failure in projects is changes in underlying procedures; if the basic process model changes, you are trying to hit a moving target. That ruins schedules and causes budgets to inflate.\nThis may seem like a lot of things to think about for something that could be as simple as perhaps moving from manual pipettes to automatic units, but that just means the total effort to do the work will be small. However it is still important since it impacts data quality and integrity, and your ability to defend your results should they be challenged. And, by the way, the issue of automated pipettes isn\u2019t simple; there is a lot to consider in properly specifying and using these products.&#91;g&#93;\n\nAnalyzing the process \nAssuming that you have a well-described, thoroughly tested and validated procedure, that process has to be analyzed for optimization and suitability for automation. This is an end-to-end evaluation, not just a examination of isolated steps. This is an important point. Looking at a single step without taking into account the rest of the process may improve that portion of the process but have consequences elsewhere.\nTake a common example: working in a testing environment where samples are being submitted by outside groups (Figure 2).\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 2. Lab sample processing, initial data entry through results\n\n\n\nMost LIMS will permit sample submitters (with appropriate permissions) to enter the sample description information directly into the LIMS, reducing some of the clerical burden. Standardizing on sample containers, with barcodes, reduces the effort and cost in some aspects of sample handling. A barcode scanner could be used to scan samples as they arrive into the lab, letting the system know that they are ready to be tested.\nThat brings us to an evaluation of the process as a whole, as well as an examination of the individual steps in the procedure. As shown in Figure 1, automation can be done in one of two ways: automating the full process or automating individual steps. Your choice depends on several factors, not the least of which is your comfort level and confidence in adopting automation as a strategy for increasing productivity. For some, concentrating on improvements in individual steps is an attractive approach. The cost and risk may be lower and if a problem occurs you can always backup to a fully manual implementation until they are resolved.\nCare does have to be taken in choosing which steps to improve. From one perspective, you\u2019d want to do the step-wise implementation of automation as close to the end of the process as possible. The problem with doing it earlier is that you may create a backup in later stages of the process. Optimizing step 2, for example, doesn\u2019t do you much good if step 3 is overloaded and requires more people, or additional (possibly unplanned) automation to relieve a bottleneck there. In short, before you automate or improve a given step, you need to be sure that downstream processing can absorb the increase in materials flow. In addition, optimizing all the individual steps, one at time, doesn\u2019t necessarily add up to a well-designed full system automation. The transition between steps may not be as effective or efficient if the system were evaluated as a whole. If the end of the process is carried out by commercial instrumentation, the ability to absorb more work is easier since most of these systems are automated with computer data acquisition and processing, and many have auto-samplers available to accumulate samples that can be processed automatically. Some of those auto-samplers have built in robotics for common sample handling functions. If the workload builds, additional instruments can pick up the load, and equipment such as Baytek International\u2019s TurboTube&#91;15&#93; can accumulate sample vials in a common system and route them to individual instruments for processing.\nAnother consideration for partial automation is where the process is headed in the future. If the need for the process persists over a long period of time, will you eventually get to the point of needing to redo the automation to an integrated stream? If so, is it better to take the plunge early on instead of continually expending resources to upgrade it?\nOther considerations include the ability to re-purpose equipment. If a process isn\u2019t used full-time (a justification for partial automation) the same components may be used in improving other processes. Ideally, if you go the full-process automation route, you\u2019ll have sufficient sample throughput to keep it running for an extended period of time, and not have to start and stop the system as samples accumulate. A smoothly running slower automation process is better than a faster system that lies idle for significant periods of time, particularly since startup and shutdown procedures may diminish the operational cost savings in both equipment use and people\u2019s time.\nAll these points become part of both the technical justification and budget requirements.\nAnalyzing the process: Simulation and modeling\nSimulation and modeling have been part of science and engineering for decades, supported by ever-increasing powerful computing hardware and software. Continuous systems simulations have shown us the details of how machinery works, how chemical reactions occur, and how chromatographic systems and other instrumentation behaves.&#91;16&#93; There is another aspect to modeling and simulation that is appropriate here.\nDiscrete-events simulation (DES) is used to model and understand processes in business and manufacturing applications, evaluating the interactions between service providers and customers, for example. One application of DES is to determine the best way to distribute incoming customers to a limited number of servers, taking into account that not all customers have the same needs; some will tie up a service provider a lot longer than others, as represented by the classic bank teller line problem. That is one question that discrete systems can analyze. This form of simulation and modeling is appropriate to event-driven processes where the action is focused on discrete steps (like materials moving from one workstation to another) rather than as a continuous function of time (most naturally occurring systems fall into this category, e.g., heat flow and models using differential equations).\nThe processes in your lab can be described and analyzed via DES systems.&#91;17&#93;&#91;18&#93;&#91;19&#93; Those laboratory procedures are a sequence of steps, each having a precursor, variable duration, and following step until the end of the process is reached; this is basically the same as a manufacturing operation where modeling and simulation have been used successfully for decades. DES can be used to evaluate those processes and ask questions that can guide you on the best paths to take in applying automation technologies and solving productivity or throughput problems. For example:\n\nWhat happens if we tighten up the variability in a particular step; how will that affect the rest of the system?\nWhat happens at the extremes of the variability in process steps; does it create a situation where samples pile up?\nHow much of a workload can the process handle before one step becomes saturated with work and the entire system backs up?\nCan you introduce an alternate path to process those samples and avoid problems (e.g., if samples are held for too long in one stage, do they deteriorate)?\nCan the output of several parallel slower procedures be merged into a feed stream for a common instrumental technique?\nIn complex procedures some steps may be sensitive to small delays, and DES can help test and uncover them. Note that setting up these models will require the collection of a lot of data about the processes and their timing, so this is not something to be taken casually.\nPrevious research&#91;16&#93;&#91;17&#93;&#91;18&#93;&#91;19&#93; suggests only a few ideas where simulation can be effective, including one where an entire labs operation\u2019s was evaluated. Models that extensive can be used to not only look at procedures, but also the introduction of informatics systems. This may appear to be a significant undertaking, and it can be depending on the complexity of the lab processes. However, simple processes can be initially modeled on spreadsheets to see if more significant effort is justified. Operations research, of which DES is a part, has been usefully applied in production operations to increase throughput and improve ROI. It might be successfully applied to some routine production oriented lab work.\nMost lab processes are linear in their execution, one step following another, with the potential for loop-backs should problems be recognized with samples, reagents (e.g., being out-of-date, doesn\u2019t look right, need to obtain new materials), or equipment (e.g., not functioning properly, out of calibration, busy due to other work). On one level, the modeling of a manually implemented process should appear to be simple: each step takes a certain amount of time. If you add up the times, you have a picture of the process execution through time. However, the reality is quite different if you take into account problems (and their resolution) that can occur in each of those steps. The data collection used to model the procedure can change how that picture looks and your ability to improve it. By monitoring the process over a number of iterations, you can find out how much variation there is in the execution time for each step and whether or not the variation is a normal distribution or skewed (e.g., if one step is skewed, how does it impact others?).\nQuestions to ask about potential problems that could occur at each step include:\n\nHow often do problems with reagents occur and how much of a delay does that create?\nIs instrumentation always in calibration (do you know?), are there operational problems with devices and their control systems (what are the ramifications?), are procedures delayed due to equipment being in use by someone else, and how long does it take to make changeovers in operating conditions?\nWhat happens to the samples; do they degrade over time? What impact does this have on the accuracy of results and their reproducibility?\nHow often are workflows interrupted by the need to deal with high-priority samples, and what effect does it have on the processing of other samples?\nJust the collection of data can suggest useful improvements before there are any considerations for automation, and perhaps negating the need for it. The answer to a lab\u2019s productivity might be as simple as adding another instrument if that is a bottleneck. It might also suggest that an underutilized device might be more productive if sample preparation for different procedures workflows were organized differently. Underutilization might be a consequence of the amount of time needed to prepare the equipment for service: doing so for one sample might be disproportionately time consuming (and expensive) and cause other samples to wait until there were enough of them to justify the preparation. It could also suggest that some lab processes should be outsourced to groups that have a more consistent sample flow and turn-around time (TAT) for that technique. Some of these points are illustrated in Figures 3a and 3b below.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 3a. Simplified process views versus some modeling considerations. Note that the total procedure execution time is affected by the variability in each step, plus equipment and material availability delays; these can change from one day to the next in manual implementations.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 3b. The execution times of each step include the variable execution times of potential issues that can occur in each stage. Note that because each factor has a different distribution curve, the total execution time has a much wider variability than the individual factors.\n\n\n\nHow does the simulation system work? Once you have all the data set up, the simulation runs thousands of times using random number generators to pick out variables in execution times for each component in each step. For example, if there is a one-in-ten chance a piece of equipment will be in use when needed, 10% of the runs will show that with each one picking a delay time based on the input delay distribution function. With a large number of runs, you can see where delays exist and how they impact the overall processes behavior. You can also adjust the factors (what happens if equipment delays are cut in half) and see the effect of doing that. By testing the system, you can make better judgments on how to apply your resources.\nSome of the issues that surface may be things that lab personnel know about and just deal with. It isn\u2019t until the problems are looked at that the impact on operations are fully realized and addressed. Modeling and simulation may appear to be overkill for lab process automation, something reserved for large- scale production projects. The physical size of the project is not the key factor, it is the complexity of the system that matters and the potential for optimization.\nOne benefit of a well-structured simulation of lab processes is that it would provide a solid basis for making recommendations for project approval and budgeting. The most significant element in modeling and simulation is the initial data collection, asking lab personnel to record the time it takes to carry out steps. This isn\u2019t likely to be popular if they don\u2019t understand why it is being done and what the benefits will be to them and the lab; accurate information is essential. This is another case where \u201cbad data is worse than no data.\u201d\nGuidleines for process automation\nThere are two types of guidelines that will be of interest to those conducting automation work: those that help you figure out what to do and how to do it, and those that must be met to satisfy regulatory requirements (both those evaluated by internal or external groups or organizations).\nThe first is going to depend on the nature of the science and automation being done to support it. Equipment vendor community support groups can be of assistance. Additionally, professional groups like the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA), International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE), and Parenteral Drug Association (PDA) in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industrues, with similar organizations in other industries and other countries. This may seem like a large jump from laboratory work, but it is appropriate when we consider the ramification of full-process automation. You are essentially developing a manufacturing operation on a lab bench, and the same concerns that large-scale production have also apply here; you have to ensure that the process is maintained and in control. The same is true of manual or semi-automated lab work, but it is more critical in fully-automated systems because of the potential high volume of results that can be produced.\nThe second set is going to consist of regulatory guidelines from groups appropriate to your industry: the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and International Organization for Standardization (ISO), as well as international groups (e.g., GAMP, GALP) etc. The interesting point is that we are looking at a potentially complete automation scheme for a procedure; does that come under manufacturing or laboratory? The likelihood is that laboratory guidelines will apply since the work is being done within the lab's footprint; however, there are things that can be learned from their manufacturing counterparts that may assist in project management and documentation. One interesting consideration is what happens when fully automated testing, such as on-line analyzers, becomes integrated with both the lab and production or process control data\/information streams. Which regulatory guidelines apply? It may come down to who is responsible for managing and supporting those systems.\n\nScheduling automation projects \nThere are two parts to the schedule issue: how long is it going to take to compete the project (dependent on the process and people), and when do you start? The second point will be addressed here.\nThe timing of an automated process coming online is important. If it comes on too soon, there may not be enough work to justify it\u2019s use, and startup\/shutdown procedures may create more work than the system saves. If it comes too late, people will be frustrated with a heavy workload while the system that was supposed to provide relief is under development. \nIn Figure 4, the blue line represents the growing need for sample\/material processing using a given laboratory procedure. Ideally, you\u2019d like the automated version to be available when that blue line crosses the \u201cautomation needed on-line\u201d level of processing requirements; this the point where the current (manual?) implementation can no longer meet the demands of sample throughput requirements.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 4. Timing the development of an automated system\n\n\n\nThose throughput limits are something you are going to have to evaluate and measure on a regular basis and use to make adjustments to the planning process (accelerating or slowing it as appropriate). How fast is the demand growing and at what point will your current methods be overwhelmed? Hiring more people is one option, but then the lab's operating expenses increase due to the cost of people, equipment, and lab space.\nOnce we have an idea of when something has to be working, we can begin the process of planning; note: the planning can begin at any point, it would be good to get the preliminaries done as soon as a manual process is finalized so that you have an idea of what you\u2019ll be getting into. Those preliminaries include looking at equipment that might be used (keeping track of its development), training requirements, developer resources, and implementation strategies, all of which would be updated as new information becomes available. The \u201cwe\u2019ll-get-to-it-when-we-need-it\u201d approach is just going to create a lot of stress and frustration.\nYou need to put together a first-pass project plan so that you can detail what you know, and more importantly what you don\u2019t know. The goal is to have enough information, updated as noted above, so that you can determine if an automated solution is feasible, make an informed initial choice between full and partial automation, and have a timeline for implementation. Any time estimate is going to be subject to change as you gather information and refine your implementation approach. The point of the timeline is to figure out how long the yellow box in Figure 4 is because that is going to tell you how much time you have to get the plan together and working; it is a matter of setting priorities and recognizing what they are. The time between now and the start of the yellow box is what you have to work with for planning and evaluating plans, and any decisions that are needed before you begin, including corporate project management requirements and approvals.\nThose plans have to include time for validation and the evaluation of the new implementation against the standard implementation. Does it work? Do we know how to use and maintain it? And are people educated in its use? Is there documentation for the project?\n\nBudgeting \nAt some point, all the material above and following this section comes down to budgeting: how much will it cost to implement a program and is it worth it? Of the two points, the latter is the one that is most important. How do you go about that? (Note: Some of this material is also covered in the webinar series A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work in the section on ROI.)\nWhat a lot of this comes down to is explaining and justifying the choices you\u2019ve made in your project proposal. We\u2019re not going to go into a lot of depth, but just note some of the key issues:\n\nDid you choose full or partial automation for your process?\nWhat drove that choice? If in your view it would be less expensive than the full automation of a process, how long will it be until the next upgrade is needed to another stage?\nHow independent are the potential, sequential implementation efforts that may be undertaken in the future? Will there be a need to connect them, and if so, how will the incremental costs compare to just doing it once and getting it over with?\nThere is a tendency in lab work to treat problems and the products that might be used to address them in isolation. You see the need for a LIMS or ELN, or an instrument data system, and the focus is on those issues. Effective decisions have to consider both the immediate and longer-term aspects of a problem. If you want to get access to a LIMS, have you considered how it will affect other aspects of lab work such as connecting instrument to it?\nThe same holds true for partial automation as a solution to a lab process productivity problem. While you are addressing a particular step, should you be looking at the potential for synergism by addressing other concerns. Modeling and simulations of processes can help resolve that issue.\nHave you factored in the cost of support and education? The support issue needs to address the needs of lab personnel in managing the equipment and the options for vendor support, as well as the impact on IT groups. Note that the IT group will require access to vendor support, as well as being educated on their role in any project work.\nWhat happens if you don\u2019t automate? One way to justify the cost of a project is to help people understand what the lab\u2019s operations will be like without it. Will more people, equipment, space, or added shifts be needed? At what cost? What would the impact be on those who need the results and how would it affect their programs?\n\n Build, buy, or cooperate? \nIn this write up and some of the referenced materials, we\u2019ve noted several times the benefits that clinical labs have gained through automation, although crediting it all to the use of automation alone isn\u2019t fair. What the clinical laboratory industry did was recognize that there was a need for the use of automation to solve problems with the operational costs of running labs, and recognition that they could benefit further by coming together and cooperatively addressing lab operational problems.\nIt\u2019s that latter point that made the difference and resulted in standardized communications, and purpose-built commercial equipment that could be used to implement automation in their labs. They also had common sample types, common procedures, and data processing. That same commonality applies to segments of industrial and academic lab work. Take life sciences as an example. Where possible, that industry has standardized on micro-plates for sample processing. The result is a wide selection of instruments and robotics built around that sample-holding format that greatly improves lab economics and throughput. While it isn\u2019t the answer to everything, it\u2019s a good answer to a lot of things.\nIf your industry segment came together and recognized that you used common procedures, how would you benefit by creating a common approach to automation instead of each lab doing it on their own? It would open the development of common products or product variations from vendors and relieve the need for each lab developing its own answer to the need. The result could be more effective and easily supportable solutions.\n\nProject planning \nOnce you\u2019ve decided on the project you are going to undertake, the next stage is looking at the steps needed to manage your project (Figure 5).\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 5. Steps in a laboratory automation project. This diagram is modeled after the GAMP V for systems validation.\n\n\n\nThe planning begins with the method description from Figure 1, which describes the science behind the project and the specification of how the automation is expected to be put into effect: as full-process automation, a specific step, or steps in the process. The provider of those documents is considered the \u201ccustomer\u201d and is consistent with GAMP V nomenclature (Figure 6); that consistency is important due to the need for system-wide validation protocols.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 6. GAMP V model for showing customer and supplier roles in specifying and evaluating project components for computer hardware and software.\n\n\n\nFrom there the \u201csupplier\u201d (e.g., internal development group, consultant, IT services, etc.) responds with a functional specification that is reviewed by the customer. The \u201canalysis, prototyping, and evaluation\u201d step, represented in the third box of Figure 5, is not the same as the process analysis noted earlier in this piece. The earlier section was to help you determine what work needed to be done and documented in the user requirements specification. The analysis and associated tasks here are specific to the implementation of this project. The colored arrows refer to the diagram in Figure 7. That process defines the equipment needed, dependencies, and options\/technologies for automation implementations, including robotics, instrument design requirements, pre-built automation (e.g., titrators, etc.) and any custom components. The documentation and specifications are part of the validation protocol.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 7. Defining dependencies and qualification of equipment\n\n\n\nThe prototyping function is an important part of the overall process. It is rare that someone will look at a project and come up with a working solution on the first pass. There is always tinkering and modifications that occur as you move from a blank slate to a working system. You make notes along the way about what should be done differently in the final product, and places where improvements or adjustments are needed. These all become part of the input to the system design specification that will be reviewed and approved by the customer and supplier. The prototype can be considered a proof of concept or a demonstration of what will occur in the finished product. Remember also that prototypes would not have to be validated since they wouldn\u2019t be used in a production environment; they are simply a test bed used prior to the development of a production system.\nThe component design specifications are the refined requirement for elements that will be used in the final design. Those refinements could point to updated models of components or equipment used, modifications needed, or recommendations for products with capabilities other than those used in the prototype.\nThe boxes on the left side of Figure 5 are documents that go into increasing depth as the system is designed and specified. The details in those items will vary with the extent of the project. The right side of the diagram is a series of increasingly sophisticated testing and evaluation against steps in the right side, culminating in the final demonstration that the system works, has been validated, and is accepted by the customer. It also means that lab and support personnel are educated in their roles.\n\n Conclusions (so far) \n\u201cLaboratory automation\u201d has to give way to \u201claboratory automation engineering.\u201d From the initial need to the completion of the validation process, we have to plan, design, and implement successful systems on a routine basis. Just as the manufacturing industries transitioned from cottage industries to production lines and then to integrated production-information systems, the execution of laboratory science has to tread a similar path if the demands for laboratory results are going to be met in a financially responsible manner. The science is fundamental; however, we need to pay attention now to efficient execution.\n\n Abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms \nAI: Artificial intelligence\nAuI: Augmented intelligence\nDES: Discrete-events simulation\nELN: Electronic laboratory notebook\nEPA: Environmental Protection Agency\nFDA: Food and Drug Administration\nFRB: Fast radio bursts\nGALP: Good automated laboratory practices\nGAMP: Good automated manufacturing practice\nISO: International Organization for Standardization\nLES: Laboratory execution system\nLIMS: Laboratory information management system\nML: Machine learning\nROI: Return on investment\nSDMS: Scientific data management system\nTAT: Turn-around time\n\r\n\n\nFootnotes \n\n\n\u2191 The term \"scientific manufacturing\" was first mentioned to the author by Mr. Alberto Correia, then of Cambridge Biomedical, Boston, MA. \n\n\u2191 Intelligent enterprise technologies referenced in the report include robotic process automation, machine learning, artificial intelligence, the internet Of things, predictive analysis, and cognitive computing. \n\n\u2191 Doug Engelbart found the field of human-computer interaction and is credited with the invention of the computer mouse, and the \u201cMother of All Demos\u201d in 1968. \n\n\u2191 See Metropolis (1927 film) on Wikipedia. \n\n\u2191 See for example https:\/\/www.projectmanager.com\/project-planning; the simplest thing to do it put \u201cproject planning\u201d in a search engine and browse the results for something interesting. \n\n\u2191 See for example https:\/\/theinformationdrivenlaboratory.wordpress.com\/category\/resources\/; note that any references to the ILA should be ignored as the original site is gone, with the domain name perhaps having been leased by another organization that has no affiliation with the original Institute for Laboratory Automation. \n\n\u2191 As a starting point, view the Artel, Inc. site as one source. Also, John Bradshaw gave an informative presentation on \u201cThe Importance of Liquid Handling Details and Their Impact on your Assays\u201d at the 2012 European Lab Automation Conference, Hamburg, Germany. \n\n\nAbout the author \nInitially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Frey, C.B.; Osborne, M.A.&#32;(17 September 2013).&#32;\"The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford.&#32;https:\/\/www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk\/downloads\/academic\/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Hsu, J.&#32;(24 September 2018).&#32;\"Is it aliens? Scientists detect more mysterious radio signals from distant galaxy\".&#32;NBC News MACH.&#32;https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/mach\/science\/it-aliens-scientists-detect-more-mysterious-radio-signals-distant-galaxy-ncna912586 .&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Timmer, J.&#32;(18 July 2018).&#32;\"AI plus a chemistry robot finds all the reactions that will work\".&#32;Ars Technica.&#32;https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/science\/2018\/07\/ai-plus-a-chemistry-robot-finds-all-the-reactions-that-will-work\/5\/ .&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"HelixAI - Voice Powered Digital Laboratory Assistants for Scientific Laboratories\".&#32;HelixAI.&#32;http:\/\/www.askhelix.io\/ .&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 PharmaIQ News&#32;(20 August 2018).&#32;\"Automation, IoT and the future of smarter research environments\".&#32;PharmaIQ.&#32;https:\/\/www.pharma-iq.com\/pre-clinical-discovery-and-development\/news\/automation-iot-and-the-future-of-smarter-research-environments .&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 PharmaIQ&#32;(14 November 2017).&#32;\"The Future of Drug Discovery: AI 2020\".&#32;PharmaIQ.&#32;https:\/\/www.pharma-iq.com\/pre-clinical-discovery-and-development\/whitepapers\/the-future-of-drug-discovery-ai-2020 .&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Rossetto, L.&#32;(2018).&#32;\"Fight the Dour\".&#32;Wired&#32;(October): 826\u20137.&#32;https:\/\/www.magzter.com\/stories\/Science\/WIRED\/Fight-The-Dour . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"OPUS Package: SEARCH &amp; IDENT\".&#32;Bruker Corporation.&#32;https:\/\/www.bruker.com\/en\/products-and-solutions\/infrared-and-raman\/opus-spectroscopy-software\/search-identify.html .&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Bourne, D.&#32;(2013).&#32;\"My Boss the Robot\".&#32;Scientific American&#32;308&#32;(5): 38\u201341.&#32;doi:10.1038\/scientificamerican0513-38.&#32;PMID&#160;23627215. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 SalesForce Research&#32;(2017).&#32;\"Second Annual State of IT\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;SalesForce.&#32;https:\/\/a.sfdcstatic.com\/content\/dam\/www\/ocms\/assets\/pdf\/misc\/2017-state-of-it-report-salesforce.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Seal Analytical - Products\".&#32;Seal Analytical.&#32;https:\/\/seal-analytical.com\/Products\/tabid\/55\/language\/en-US\/Default.aspx .&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Bran+Luebbe\".&#32;SPX FLOW, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.spxflow.com\/bran-luebbe\/ .&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Array Tape Advanced Consumable\".&#32;Douglas Scientific.&#32;https:\/\/www.douglasscientific.com\/Products\/ArrayTape.aspx .&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Agilent 1200 Series Standard and Preparative Autosamplers - User Manual\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Agilent Technologies.&#32;November 2008.&#32;https:\/\/www.agilent.com\/cs\/library\/usermanuals\/Public\/G1329-90012_StandPrepSamplers_ebook.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"iPRO Interface - Products\".&#32;Baytek International, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.baytekinternational.com\/products\/ipro-interface\/89-products .&#32;Retrieved 05 February 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 16.0 16.1 Joyce, J.&#32;(2018).&#32;\"Computer Modeling and Simulation\".&#32;Lab Manager&#32;(9): 32\u201335.&#32;https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/laboratory-technology\/computer-modeling-and-simulation-1826 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 17.0 17.1 Costigliola, A.; Ata\u00edde, F.A.P.; Vieira, S.M. et al.&#32;(2017).&#32;\"Simulation Model of a Quality Control Laboratory in Pharmaceutical Industry\".&#32;IFAC-PapersOnLine&#32;50&#32;(1): 9014-9019.&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.ifacol.2017.08.1582. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 18.0 18.1 Meng, L.; Liu, R.; Essick, C. et al.&#32;(2013).&#32;\"Improving Medical Laboratory Operations via Discrete-event Simulation\".&#32;Proceedings of the 2013 INFORMS Healthcare Conference.&#32;https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/263238201_Improving_Medical_Laboratory_Operations_via_Discrete-event_Simulation . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 19.0 19.1 \"Application of discrete-event simulation in health care clinics: A survey\".&#32;Journal of the Operational Research Society&#32;50: 109\u201323.&#32;1999.&#32;doi:10.1057\/palgrave.jors.2600669. &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 9 February 2022, at 19:42.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 4,855 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures rootpage-LII_Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>Considerations in the Automation of Laboratory Procedures<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: January 2021\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Scientists have been dealing with the issue of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_automation\" title=\"Laboratory automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0061880849aeaca05f8aa27ae171f331\">laboratory automation<\/a> for decades, and during that time the meaning of those words has expanded from the basics of connecting an instrument to a computer, to the possibility of a fully integrated <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">informatics<\/a> infrastructure beginning with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sample_(material)\" title=\"Sample (material)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f8cd41a077a88d02370c02a3ba3d9d6\">sample<\/a> preparation and continuing on to the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN), and beyond. Throughout this evolution there has been one underlying concern: how do we go about doing this?\n<\/p><p>The answer to that question has changed from a focus on hardware and programming, to today\u2019s need for a lab-wide informatics strategy. We\u2019ve moved from the bits and bytes of assembly language programming to managing terabytes of files and data structures.\n<\/p><p>The high-end of the problem\u2014the large informatics database systems\u2014has received significant industry-wide attention in the last decade. The stuff on the lab bench, while the target of a lot of individual products, has been less organized and more experimental. Failed or incompletely met promises have to yield to planned successes. How we do it needs to change. This document is about the considerations required when making that change. The haphazard \"let's try this\" method has to give way to more engineered solutions and a realistic appraisal of the human issues, as well as the underlying technology management and planning.\n<\/p><p>Why is this important? Whether you are conducting intense laboratory experiments to produce data and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> or making chocolate chip cookies in the kitchen, two things remain important: productivity and the quality of the products. In either case, if the productivity isn\u2019t high enough, you won\u2019t be able to justify your work; if the quality isn\u2019t there, no one will want what you produce. Conducting laboratory work and making cookies have a lot in common. Your laboratories exist to answer questions. What happens if I do this? What is the purity of this material? What is the structure of this compound? The field of laboratories asking these questions is extensive, basically covering the entire array of lab bench and scientific work, including chemistry, life sciences, physics, and electronics labs. The more efficiently we answer those questions, the more likely it will be that these labs will continue operating and, that you\u2019ll achieve the goals your organization has set. At some point, it comes down to performance against goals and the return on the investment organizations make in lab operations.\n<\/p><p>In addition to product quality and productivity, there are a number of other points that favor automation over manual implementations of lab processes. They include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>lower costs per test;<\/li>\n<li>better control over expenditures;<\/li>\n<li>a stronger basis for better <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a> planning;<\/li>\n<li>reproducibility;<\/li>\n<li>predictably; and<\/li>\n<li>tighter adherence to procedures, i.e., consistency.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Lists similar to the one above can be found in justifications for lab automation, and cookie production, without further comment. It\u2019s just assumed that everyone agrees and that the reasoning is obvious. Since we are going to use those items to justify the cost and effort that goes into automation, we should take a closer look at them.\n<\/p><p>Lets begin with reproducibility, predictability, and consistency, very similar concerns that reflect automation\u2019s ability to produce the same product with the desired characteristics over and over. For data and information, that means that the same analysis on the same materials will yield the same results, that all the steps are documented and that the process is under control. The variability that creeps into the execution of a process by people is eliminated. That variability in human labor can result from the quality of training, equipment setup and calibration, readings from analog devices (e.g., meters, pipette meniscus, charts, etc.), there is a long list of potential issues.\n<\/p><p>Concerns with reproducibility, predictability, and consistency are common to production environments, general lab work, manufacturing, and even food service. There are several pizza restaurants in our area using one of two methods of making the pies. Both start the preparation the same way, spreading dough and adding cheese and toppings, but the differences are in how they are cooked. Once method uses standard ovens (e.g., gas, wood, or electric heating); the pizza goes in, the cook watches it, and then removes it when the cooking is completed. This leads to a lot of variability in the product, some a function of the cook\u2019s attention, some depending on requests for over or under cooking the crust. Some is based on \"have it your way\" customization. The second method uses a metal conveyor belt to move the pie through an oven. The oven temperature is set as is the speed of the belt, and as long as the settings are the same, you get a reproducible, consistent product order after order. It\u2019s a matter of priorities. Manual verses automated. Consistent product quality verses how the cook feels that day. In the end, reducing variability and being able to demonstrate consistent, accurate, results gives people confidence in your product.\n<\/p><p>Lower costs per test, better control over expenditures, and better workflow planning also benefit from automation. Automated processes are more cost-efficient since the sample throughput is higher and the labor cost is reduced. The cost per test and the material usage is predictable since variability in components used in testing is reduced or eliminated, and workflow planning is improved since the time per test is known, work can be better scheduled. Additionally, process scale-up should be easier if there is a high demand for particular procedures. However there is a lot of work that has to be considered before automation is realizable, and that is where this discussion is headed.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-How_does_this_discussion_relate_to_previous_work?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"How_does_this_discussion_relate_to_previous_work.3F\">How does this discussion relate to previous work?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This work follows on the heels of two previous works:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pda.org\/bookstore\/product-detail\/2684-computerized-systems-in-modern-lab\" target=\"_blank\">Computerized Systems in the Modern Laboratory: A Practical Guide<\/a><\/i> (2015): This book presents the range of informatics technologies, their relationship to each other, and the role they play in laboratory work. It differentiates a LIMS from an ELN and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">scientific data management system<\/a> (SDMS) for example, contrasting their use and how they would function in different lab working environments. In addition, it covers topics such as support and regulatory issues.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\" title=\"LII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization&#39;s Work\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360\">A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/a><\/i> (2018): This webinar series complements the above text. It begins by introducing the major topics in informatics (e.g., LIMS, ELN, etc.) and then discusses their use from a strategic viewpoint. Where and how do you start planning? What is your return on investment? What should get implemented first, and then what are my options? The series then moves on to developing an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management\" title=\"Information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73\">information management<\/a> strategy for the lab, taking into account budgets, support, ease of implementation, and the nature of your lab\u2019s work.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The material in this write-up picks up where the last part of the webinar series ends. The last session covers lab processes, amd this picks up that thread and goes into more depth concerning a basic issue: how do you move from manual methods to automated systems?\n<\/p><p>Productivity has always been an issue in laboratory work. Until the 1950s, a lab had little choice but to add more people if more work needed to be done. Since then, new technologies have afforded wider options, including new instrument technologies. The execution of the work was still done by people, but the tools were better. Now we have other options. We just have to figure out when, if, and how to use them.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Before_we_get_too_far_into_this...\">Before we get too far into this...<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>With elements such as productivity, return on investment (ROI), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fe43b05eae4dfa9b5c0547cc8cfcceb\">data quality<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167\">data integrity<\/a> as driving factors in this work, you shouldn\u2019t be surprised if a lot of the material reads like a discussion of manufacturing methodologies; we\u2019ve already seen some examples. We are talking about scientific work, but the same things that drive the elements noted in labs have very close parallels in product manufacturing. The work we are describing here will be referenced as \"scientific manufacturing,\" manufacturing or production in support of scientific programs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">&#91;a&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The key points of a productivity conversation in both lab and material production environments are almost exact overlays, the only significant difference is that the results of the efforts are data and information in one case, and a physical item you might sell in the other. Product quality and integrity are valued considerations in both. For scientists, this may require an adjustment to their perspectives when dealing with automation. On the plus side, the lessons learned in product manufacturing can be applied to lab bench work, making the path to implementation a bit easier while providing a framework for understanding what a successful automation effort looks like. People with backgrounds in product manufacturing can be a useful resource in the lab, with a bit of an adjustment in perspective on their part.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Transitioning_from_typical_lab_operations_to_automated_systems\">Transitioning from typical lab operations to automated systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Transitioning a lab from its current state of operations to one that incorporates automation can raise a number of questions, and people\u2019s anxiety levels. There are several questions that should be considered to set expectations for automated systems and how they will impact jobs and the introduction of new technologies. They include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>What will happen to people\u2019s jobs as a result of automation?<\/li>\n<li>What is the role of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI) and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122\">machine learning<\/a> (ML) in automation?<\/li>\n<li>Where do we find the resources to carry out automation projects\/programs?<\/li>\n<li>What equipment would we need for automated processes, and will it be different that what we currently have?<\/li>\n<li>What role does a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\" title=\"Laboratory execution system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a\">laboratory execution system<\/a> (LES) play in laboratory automation?<\/li>\n<li>How do we go about planning for automation?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-What_will_happen_to_people\u2019s_jobs_as_a_result_of_automation?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"What_will_happen_to_people.E2.80.99s_jobs_as_a_result_of_automation.3F\">What will happen to people\u2019s jobs as a result of automation?<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Stories are appearing in print, online, and in television news reporting about the potential for automation to replace human effort in the labor force. It seems like it is an all-or-none situation, either people will continue working in their occupations or automation (e.g., mechanical, software, AI, etc.) will replace them. The storyline is people are expensive and automated work can be less costly in the long run. If commercial manufacturing is a guide, automation is a preferred option from both a productivity and an ROI perspective. In order to make the productivity gains from automation similar to those seen in commercial manufacturing, there are some basic requirements and conditions that have to be met:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The process has to be well documented and understood, down to the execution of each step without variation, while error detection and recovery have to be designed in.<\/li>\n<li>The process has to remain static and be expected to continue over enough execution cycles to make it economically attractive to design, build, and maintain.<\/li>\n<li>Automation-compatible equipment has to be available. Custom-built components are going to be expensive and could represent a barrier to successful implementation.<\/li>\n<li>There has to be a driving need to justify the cost of automation; economics, the volume of work that has to be addressed, working with hazardous materials, and lack of educated workers are just a few of the factors that would need to be considered.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>There are places in laboratory work where production-scale automation has been successfully implemented; life sciences applications for processes based on microplate technologies are one example. When we look at the broad scope of lab work across disciplines, most lab processes don\u2019t lend themselves to that level of automation, at least not yet. We\u2019ll get into this in more detail later. But that brings us back to the starting point: what happens to people's jobs?\n<\/p><p>In the early stages of manufacturing automation, as well as fields such as mining where work was labor intensive and repetitive, people did lose jobs when new methods of production were introduced. That shift from a human workforce to automated task execution is expanding as system designers probe markets from retail to transportation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FreyTheFuture13_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FreyTheFuture13-2\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Lower skilled occupations gave way first, and we find ourselves facing automation efforts that are moving up the skills ladder, most recently is the potential for automated driving, a technology that has yet to be fully embraced but is moving in that direction. The problem that leaves us with is providing displaced workers with a means of employment that gives them at least a living income, and the purpose, dignity, and self-worth that they\u2019d like to have. This is going to require significant education, and people are going to have to come to grips with the realization that education never stops.\n<\/p><p>Due to the push for increased productivity, lab work has seen some similar developments in automation. The development of automated pipettes, titration stations, auto-injectors, computer-assisted instrumentation, and automation built to support microplate technologies represent just a few places where specific tasks have been addressed. However these developments haven\u2019t moved people out of the workplace as has happened in manufacturing, mining, etc. In some cases they\u2019ve changed the work, replacing repetitive time-consuming tasks with equipment that allows lab personnel to take on different tasks. In other cases the technology addresses work that couldn\u2019t be performed in a cost-effective manner with human effort; without automation, that work might just not be feasible due to the volume of work (whose delivery might be limited by the availability of the right people, equipment, and facilities) or the need to work with hazardous materials. Automation may prevent the need for hiring new people while giving those currently working more challenging tasks.\n<\/p><p>As noted in the previous paragraph, much of the automation in lab work is at the task level: equipment designed to carry out a specific function such as Karl-Fisher titrations. Some equipment designed around microplate formats can function at both the task level and as part of user-integrated robotics system. This gives the planner useful options about the introduction of automation that makes it easier for personnel to get accustomed to automation before moving into scientific manufacturing.\n<\/p><p>Overall, laboratory people shouldn\u2019t be loosing their jobs as a result of lab automation, but they do have to be open to changes in their jobs, and that could require an investment in their education. Take someone whose current job is to carry out a lab procedure, someone who understands all aspects of the work, including troubleshooting equipment, reagents, and any special problems that may crop up. Someone else may have developed the procedure, but that person is the expert in its execution.\n<\/p><p>First of all you need these experts to help plan and test the automated systems if you decide to create that project. These would also be the best people to educate as automated systems managers; they know how the process is supposed to work and should be in a position to detect problems. If it crashes, you\u2019ll need someone who can cover the work while problems are be addressed. Secondly, if lab personnel get the idea that they are watching their replacement being installed, they may leave before the automated systems are ready. In the event of a delay, you\u2019ll have a backlog and no one to handle it.\n<\/p><p>Beyond that, people will be freed from the routine of carrying out processes and be able to address work that had been put on a back burner until it could be addressed. As we move toward automated systems, jobs will change by expansion to accommodate typical lab work, as well as the management, planning, maintenance, and evolution of laboratory automation and computing.\n<\/p><p>Automation in lab work is not an \"all or none\" situation. Processes can be structured so that the routine work is done by systems, and the analyst can spend time reviewing the results, looking for anomalies and interesting patterns, while being able to make decisions about the need for and nature of follow-on efforts.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-What_is_the_role_of_AI_and_ML_in_automation?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"What_is_the_role_of_AI_and_ML_in_automation.3F\">What is the role of AI and ML in automation?<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>When we discuss automation, what we are referencing now is basic robotics and programming. AI may, and likely will, play a role in the work, but first we have to get the foundations right before we consider the next step; we need to put in the human intelligence first. Part of the issue with AI is that we don\u2019t know what it is.\n<\/p><p>Science fiction aside, many of today's applications of AI have a limited role in lab work today. Here are some examples:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Having a system that can bring up all relevant information on a research question\u2014a sort of super Google\u2014or a variation of IBM\u2019s Watson could have significant benefits.<\/li>\n<li>Analyzing complex data or large volumes of data could be beneficial, e.g., the analysis of radio astronomy data to find fast radio bursts (FRB). After discovering 21 FRB signals upon analyzing five hours of data, researchers at Green Bank Telescope used AI to analyze 400 terabytes of older data and detected another 100.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HsuIsIt18_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HsuIsIt18-3\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"[A] team at Glasgow University has paired a machine-learning system with a robot that can run and analyze its own chemical reaction. The result is a system that can figure out every reaction that's possible from a given set of starting materials.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TimmerAIPlus18_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TimmerAIPlus18-4\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>HelixAI is using Amazon's Alexa as a digital assitant for laboratory work.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HelixAIHome_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HelixAIHome-5\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Note that the points above are research-based applications, not routine production environments where regulatory issues are important. While there are research applications that might be more forgiving of AI systems because the results are evaluated by human intelligence, and problematic results can be made subject to further verification, data entry systems such as voice entry have to be carefully tested and the results of that data entry verified and shown to be correct.\n<\/p><p>Pharma IQ continues to publish material on advanced topics in laboratory informatics, including articles on how labs are benefiting from new technologies<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PharmaIQNewsAutom18_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PharmaIQNewsAutom18-6\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and survey reports such as <i>AI 2020: The Future of Drug Discovery<\/i>. In that report they note<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PharmaIQTheFuture17_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PharmaIQTheFuture17-7\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>\"94% of pharma professionals expect that intelligent technologies will have a noticeable impact on the pharmaceutical industry over the next two years.\"<\/li>\n<li>\"Almost one fifth of pharma professionals believe that we are on the cusp of a revolution.\"<\/li>\n<li>\"Intelligent automation and predictive analytics are expected to have the most significant impact on the industry.\"<\/li>\n<li>\"However, a lack of understanding and awareness about the benefits of AI-led technologies remain a hindrance to their implementation.\"<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Note that these are expectations, not a reflection of current reality. That same report makes comments about the impact of AI on headcount disruption, asking, \"Do you expect intelligent enterprise technologies<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">&#91;b&#93;<\/a><\/sup> to significantly cut and\/or create jobs in pharma through 2020?\" Among the responses, 47 percent said they expected those technologies to do both, 40 percent said it will create new job opportunities, and 13 percent said there will be no dramatic change, with zero percent saying they expected solely job losses.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PharmaIQTheFuture17_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PharmaIQTheFuture17-7\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While there are high levels of expectations and hopes for results, we need to approach the idea of AI in labs with some caution. We read about examples based on machine learning (ML), for example using computer systems to recognize cats in photos, to recognized faces in a crowd, etc. We don\u2019t know how they accomplish their tasks, and we can\u2019t analyze their algorithms and decision-making. That leaves us with testing in quality, which at best is an uncertain process with qualified results (it has worked so far). One problem with testing AI systems based on ML is that they are going to continually evolve, so testing may affect the ML processes by providing a bias. It may also cause continued, redundant testing, because something we thought was evaluated was changed by the \u201cexperiences\u201d the AI based it\u2019s learning on. As one example, could the AI modify the science through process changes without our knowing because it didn\u2019t understand the science or the goals of the work?\n<\/p><p>AI is a black box with ever-changing contents. That shouldn\u2019t be taken as a condemnation of AI in the lab, but rather as a challenge to human intelligence in evaluating, proving, and applying the technology. That application includes defining the operating boundaries of an AI system. Rather than creating a master AI for a complete process, we may elect to divide the AI\u2019s area of operation into multiple, independent segments, with segment integration occurring in later stages once we are confident in their ability to work and show clear evidence of systems stability. In all of this we need to remember that our goal is the production of high-quality data and information in a controlled, predictable environment, not gee-wiz technology. One place where AI (or clever programming) could be of use is in better workflow planning, which takes into account current workloads and assignments, factors in the inevitable panic-level testing need, and, perhaps in a QC\/production environment, anticipates changes in analysis requirements based on changes in production operations.\n<\/p><p>Throughout this section I've treated \u201cAI\u201d as \u201cartificial intelligence,\u201d its common meaning. There may be a better way of looking at it for lab use as, noted in this excerpt from the October 2018 issue of Wired magazine<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RossettoFight18_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RossettoFight18-9\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Augmented intelligence. Not \u201cartificial,\u201d but how Doug Engelbart<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">&#91;c&#93;<\/a><\/sup> envisioned our relationship with computer: AI doesn\u2019t replace humans. It offers idiot-savant assistants that enable us to become the best humans we can be.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Augmented intelligence (AuI) is a better term for what we might experience in lab work, at least in the near future. It suggests something that is both more realistic and attainable, with the synergism that would make it, and automation, attractive to lab management and personnel\u2014a tool they can work with and improve lab operations that doesn\u2019t carry the specter of something going on that they don\u2019t understand or control. OPUS\/SEARCH from Bruker might be just such an entry in this category.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BrukerOPUS_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BrukerOPUS-11\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> AuI may serve as a first-pass filter for large data sets\u2014as noted in the radio astronomy and chemistry examples noted earlier\u2014reducing those sets of data and information to smaller collections that human intelligence can\/should evaluate. However, that does put a burden on the AuI to avoid excessive false positives or negatives, something that can be adjusted over time.\n<\/p><p>Beyond that there is the possibility of more cooperative work between people and AuI systems. An article in <i>Scientific American<\/i> titled \u201cMy Boss the Robot\u201d<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BourneMyBoss13_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BourneMyBoss13-12\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> describes the advantage of a human-robot team, with the robot doing the heavy work and the human\u2014under the robots guidance\u2014doing work he was more adept at, verses a team of experts with the same task. The task, welding a Humvee frame, was competed by the human machine pair in 10 hours at a cost of $1,150; the team of experts took 89 hours and a cost of $7,075. That might translate into terms of laboratory work by having a robot do routine, highly repetitive tasks and the analyst overseeing the operation and doing higher-level analysis of the results.\n<\/p><p>Certainly, AI\/AuI is going to change over time as programming and software technology becomes more sophisticated and capable; today\u2019s example of AuI might be seen as tomorrow\u2019s clever software. However, a lot depends on the experience of the user.\n<\/p><p>There is something important to ask about laboratory technology development, and AI in particular: is the direction of development going to be the result of someone\u2019s innovation that people look at and embrace, or will it be the result of a deliberate choice of lab people saying \u201cthis is where we need to go, build systems that will get us there\u201d? The difference is important, and lab managers and personnel need to be in control of the planning and implementation of systems.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Where_do_we_find_the_resources_to_carry_out_automation_projects\/programs?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Where_do_we_find_the_resources_to_carry_out_automation_projects.2Fprograms.3F\">Where do we find the resources to carry out automation projects\/programs?<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Given the potential scope of work, you may need people with skills in programming, robotics, instrumentation, and possibly mechanical or electrical engineering if off-the-shelf components aren\u2019t available. The biggest need is for people who can do the planning and optimization that is needed as you move from manual to semi- or fully-automated systems, particularly specialists in process engineering who can organize and plan the work, including the process controls and provision for statistical process control.\n<\/p><p>We need to develop people who are well versed in laboratory work and the technologies that can be applied to that work, as assets in laboratory automation development and planning. In the past, this role has been filled with lab personnel having an interest in the subject, IT people willing to extend their responsibilities, and\/or outside consultants. A 2017 report by Salesforce Research states \"77% of IT leaders believe IT functions as an extension\/partner of business units rather than as a separate function.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SalesForceSecondAnn17_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SalesForceSecondAnn17-13\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The report makes no mention of laboratory work or manufacturing aside from those being functions within businesses surveyed. Unless a particular effort is made, IT personnel rarely have the backgrounds needed to meet the needs of lab work. In many cases, they will try and fit lab needs into software they are already familiar with, rather then extend their backgrounds into new computational environments. Office and pure database applications are easily handled, but when we get to the lab bench, it's another matter entirely.\n<\/p><p>The field is getting complex enough that we need people whose responsibilities span both science and technology. This subject is discussed in the webinar series <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\" title=\"LII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization&#39;s Work\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360\">A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/a><\/i>, Part 5 \"Supporting Laboratory Systems.\"\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-What_equipment_would_we_need_for_automated_processes,_and_will_it_be_different_that_what_we_currently_have?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"What_equipment_would_we_need_for_automated_processes.2C_and_will_it_be_different_that_what_we_currently_have.3F\">What equipment would we need for automated processes, and will it be different that what we currently have?<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This is an interesting issue and it directly addresses the commitment labs have to automation, particularly robotics. In the early days of lab automation when Zymark (Zymate and Benchmate), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/PerkinElmer_Inc.\" title=\"PerkinElmer Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dabda40785b60866d056709e611512f8\">Perkin Elmer<\/a>, and Hewlett Packard (ORCA) were the major players in the market, the robot had to adapt to equipment that was designed for human use: standard laboratory equipment. They did that through special modifications and the use of different grippers to handle test tubes, beakers, and flasks. While some companies wanted to test the use of robotics in the lab, they didn\u2019t want to invest in equipment that could only be used with robots; they wanted lab workers to pick up where the robots left off in case the robots didn\u2019t work.\n<\/p><p>Since then, equipment has evolved to support automation more directly. In some cases it is a device (e.g., a balance, pH meter, etc.) that has front panel human operator capability and rear connectors for computer communications. Liquid handling systems have seen the most advancement through the adoption of microplate formats and equipment designed to work with them. However, the key point is standardization of the sample containers. Vials and microplates lend themselves to a variety of automation devices, from sample processing to auto-injectors\/samplers. The issue is getting the samples into those formats.\n<\/p><p>One point that labs, in any scientific discipline, have to come to grips with is the commitment to automation. That commitment isn\u2019t going to be done on a lab-wide basis, but on a procedure-by-procedure basis. Full automation may not be appropriate for all lab work, whereas partial automation may be a better choice, and in some cases no automation may be required (we\u2019ll get into that later). The point that needs to be addressed is the choice of equipment. In most cases, equipment is designed for use by people, with options for automation and electronic communications. However, if you want to maximize throughput, you may have to follow examples from manufacturing and commit to equipment that is only used by automation. That will mean a redesign of the equipment, a shared risk for both the vendors and the users. The upside to this is that equipment can be specifically designed for a task, be more efficient, have the links needed for integration, use less material, and, more likely, take up less space. One example is the microplate, allowing for tens, hundreds, or thousands (depending on the plate used) of sample cells in a small space. What used to take many cubic feet of space as test tubes (the precursor to using microplates) is now a couple of cubic inches, using much less material and working space. Note, however, that while microplates are used by lab personnel, their use in automated systems provides greater efficiency and productivity.\n<\/p><p>The idea of equipment used only in an automated process isn\u2019t new. The development and commercialization of segmented flow analyzers\u2014initially by Technicon in the form of the AutoAnalyzers for general use, and the SMA (Sequential Multiple Analyzer) and SMAC (Sequential Multiple Analyzer with Computer) in clinical markets\u2014improved a lab's ability to process samples. These systems were phased out with new equipment that consumed less material. Products like these are being provided by Seal Analytical<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SealAnal_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SealAnal-14\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> for environmental work and Bran+Luebbe (a division of SPX Process Equipment in Germany).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BranLuebbe_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BranLuebbe-15\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The issue in committing to automated equipment is that vendors and users will have to agree on equipment specifications and use them within procedures. One place this has been done successfully is in clinical chemistry labs. What other industry workflows could benefit? Do the vendors lead or do the users drive the issue? Vendors need to be convinced that there is a viable market for product before making an investment, and users need to be equally convinced that they will succeed in applying those products. In short, procedures that are important to a particular industry have to be identified, and both users and vendors have to come together to develop automated procedure and equipment specifications for products. This has been done successfully in clinical chemistry markets to the extent that equipment is marketed for use as validated for particular procedures.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-What_role_does_a_LES_play_in_laboratory_automation?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"What_role_does_a_LES_play_in_laboratory_automation.3F\">What role does a LES play in laboratory automation?<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Before ELNs settled into their current role in laboratory work, the initial implementations differed considerably from what we have now. LabTech Notebook was released in 1986 (discontinued in 2004) to provide communications between computers and devices that used RS-232 serial communications. In the early 2000s SmartLab from Velquest was the first commercial product to carry the \"electronic laboratory notebook\" identifier. That product became a stand-alone entry in the laboratory execution system (LES) market; since its release, the same conceptual functionality has been incorporated into LIMS and ELNs that fit the more current expectation for an ELN.\n<\/p><p>At it\u2019s core, LES are scripted test procedures that an analyst would follow to carry out a laboratory method, essentially functioning as the programmed execution of a lab process. Each step in a process is described, followed exactly, and provision is made within the script for data collection. In addition, the LES can\/will (depending on the implementation; \"can\" in the case of SmartLab) check to see if the analyst is qualified to carry out the work and that the equipment and reagents are current, calibrated, and suitable for use. The systems can also have access to help files that an analyst can reference if there are questions about how to carry out a step or resolve issues. Beyond that, the software had the ability to work with lab instruments and automatically acquire data either through direct interfaces (e.g., balances, pH meters, etc.) or through parsing PDF files of instrument reports.\n<\/p><p>There are two reasons that these systems are attractive. First, they provide for a rigorous execution of a process with each step being logged as it is done. Second, that log provides a regulatory inspector with documented evidence that the work was done properly, making it easier for the lab to meet any regulatory burden.\n<\/p><p>Since the initial development of SmartLab, that product has changed ownership and is currently in the hands of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dassault_Syst%C3%A8mes_SA\" title=\"Dassault Syst\u00e8mes SA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1be69bd73e35bc3db0c3229284bf9416\">Dassault Syst\u00e8mes<\/a> as part of the BIOVIA product line. As noted above, LIMS and ELN vendors have incorporated similar functionality into their products. Using those features requires \u201cscripting\u201d (in reality, software development), but it does allow the ability to access the database structures within those products. The SmartLab software needed programmed interfaces to other vendors' LIMS and ELNs to gain access to the same information.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"rdp-ebb-What_does_this_have_to_do_with_automation?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"What_does_this_have_to_do_with_automation.3F\">What does this have to do with automation?<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>When we think about automated systems, particularly full-automation with robotic support, it is a programmed process from start to finish. The samples are introduced at the start, and the process continues until the final data\/information is reported and stored. These can be large scale systems using microplate formats, including tape-based systems from Douglas Scientific<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DouglasScientificArrayTape_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DouglasScientificArrayTape-16\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, programmable autosamplers such as those from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Agilent_Technologies,_Inc.\" title=\"Agilent Technologies, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dcea1a676a012bcbe3af9562dd17f8a0\">Agilent<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Agilent1200Series_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Agilent1200Series-17\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, or systems built around robotics arms from a variety of vendors that move samples from one station to another.\n<\/p><p>Both LES and the automation noted in the previous paragraph have the following point in common: there is a strict process that must be followed, with no provision for variation. The difference is that in one case that process is implemented completely through the use of computers, as well as electronic and mechanical equipment. In the other case, the process is being carried out by lab personnel using computers, as well as electronic and mechanical lab equipment. In essence, people take the place of mechanical robots, which conjures up all kinds of images going back to the 1927 film <i>Metropolis<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">&#91;d&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Though the LES represents a step toward more sophisticated automation, both methods still require:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>programming, including \u201cscripting\u201d (the LES methods are a script that has to be followed);<\/li>\n<li>validated, proven processes; and<\/li>\n<li>qualified staff, though the qualifications differ. (In both cases they have to be fully qualified to carry out the process in question. However in the full automation case, they will require more education on running, managing, and troubleshooting the systems.)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In the case of full automation, there has to be sufficient justification for the automation of the process, including sufficient sample processing. The LES-human implementation can be run for a single sample if needed, and the operating personnel can be trained on multiple procedures, switching tasks as needed. Electro-mechanical automation would require a change in programming, verification that the system is operating properly, and may require equipment re-configuration. Which method is better for a particular lab depends on trade-offs between sample load, throughput requirements, cost, and flexibility. People are adaptable, easily moving between tasks, whereas equipment has to be adapted to a task.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-How_do_we_go_about_planning_for_automation?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"How_do_we_go_about_planning_for_automation.3F\">How do we go about planning for automation?<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are three forms of automation to be considered:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>No automation \u2013 Instead, the lab relies on lab personnel to carry out all steps of a procedure.<\/li>\n<li>Partial automation \u2013 Automated equipment is used to carry out steps in a procedure. Given the current state of laboratory systems, this is the most prevalent since most lab equipment has computer components in them to facilitate their use.<\/li>\n<li>Full automation - The entire process is automated. The definition of \u201centire\u201d is open to each labs interpretation and may vary from one process to another. For example, some samples may need some handing before they are suitable for use in a procedure. That might be a selection process from a freezer, grinding materials prior to a solvent extraction, and so on, representing cases where the equipment available isn\u2019t suitable for automated equipment interaction. One goal is to minimize this effort since it can put a limit on the productivity of the entire process. This is also an area where negotiation between the lab and the sample submitter can be useful. Take plastic pellets for example, which often need to be ground into a course powder before they can be analyzed; having the submitter provide them in this form will reduce the time and cost of the analysis. Standardizing on the sample container can also facilitate the analysis (having the lab provide the submitter with standard sample vials using barcodes or RFID chips can streamline the process).<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>One common point that these three forms share is a well-described method (procedure, process) that needs to be addressed. That method should be fully developed, tested, and validated. This is the reference point for evaluating any form of automation (Figure 1).\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig1_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"684c380f41ae1fa9a0e3ed8844cc8c6d\"><img alt=\"Fig1 Liscouski ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/3\/31\/Fig1_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 1.<\/b> Items to be considered in automating systems<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The documentation for the chosen method should include the bulleted list of items from Figure 1, as they describe the science aspects of the method. The last four points are important. The method should be validated since the manual procedure is a reference point for determining if the automated system is producing useful results. The reproducibility metric offers a means of evaluating at least one expected improvement in an automated system; you\u2019d expect less variability in the results. This requires a set of reference sample materials that can be repeatedly evaluated to compare the manual and automated systems, and to periodically test the methods in use to ensure that there aren\u2019t any trends developing that would compromise the method\u2019s use. Basically, this amounts to statistical quality control on the processes.\n<\/p><p>The next step is to decide what improvements you are looking for in an automated system: increased throughput, lower cost of operation, the ability to off-load human work, reduced variability, etc. In short, what are your goals?\n<\/p><p>That brings us to the matter of project planning. We\u2019re not going to go into a lot of depth in this piece about project planning, as there are a number of references<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">&#91;e&#93;<\/a><\/sup> on the subject, including material produced by the former Institute for Laboratory Automation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">&#91;f&#93;<\/a><\/sup> There are some aspects of the subject that we do need to touch on, however, and they include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>justifying the project and setting expectations and goals;<\/li>\n<li>analyzing the process;<\/li>\n<li>scheduling automation projects; and<\/li>\n<li>budgeting.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Justification,_expectations,_and_goals\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Justification.2C_expectations.2C_and_goals\">Justification, expectations, and goals<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Basically why are you doing this, what do you expect to gain? What arguments are you going to use to justify the work and expense involved in the project? How will you determine if the project is successful?\n<\/p><p>Fundamentally, automation efforts are about productivity and the bulleted items noted in the introduction of this piece, repeated below with additional commentary:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Lower costs per test, and better control over expenditure: These can result from a reduction in labor and materials costs, including more predictable and consistent reagent usage per test.<\/li>\n<li>Stronger basis for better workflow planning: Informatics systems can provide better management over workloads and resource allocation, while key performance indicators can show where bottlenecks are occurring or if samples are taking too long to process. These can be triggers for procedure automation to improve throughput.<\/li>\n<li>Reproducibility: The test results from automated procedures can be expected to be more reproducible by eliminating the variability that is typical of steps executed by people. Small variation in dispensing reagents, for example, could be eliminated.<\/li>\n<li>Predictability: The time to completion for a given test is more predictable in automated programs; once the process starts it keeps going without interruptions that can be found in human centered activities<\/li>\n<li>Tighter adherence to procedures: Automated procedures have no choice but to be consistent in procedure execution; that is what programming and automation is about.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Of these, which are important to your project? If you achieved these goals, what would it mean to your labs operations and the organization as a whole; this is part of the justification for carrying out the projects.\n<\/p><p>As noted earlier, there are several things to consider in order to justify a project. First, there has to be a growing need that supports a procedures automation, one that can\u2019t be satisfied by other means that could include adding people, equipment, and lab space, or outsourcing the work (with the added burden of insuring data quality and integrity, and integrating that work with the lab\u2019s data\/information). Second, the cost of the project must be balanced by it\u2019s benefits. This includes any savings in cost, people (not reducing headcount, but avoiding new hires), material, and equipment, as well as the improvement of timeliness of results and overall lab operations. Third, when considering project justification, the automated process\u2019s useful lifetime has to be long enough to justify the development work. And finally, the process has to be stable so that you aren\u2019t in a constant re-development situation (this differs from periodic upgrades and performance improvements, EVOP in manufacturing terms). One common point of failure in projects is changes in underlying procedures; if the basic process model changes, you are trying to hit a moving target. That ruins schedules and causes budgets to inflate.\n<\/p><p>This may seem like a lot of things to think about for something that could be as simple as perhaps moving from manual pipettes to automatic units, but that just means the total effort to do the work will be small. However it is still important since it impacts data quality and integrity, and your ability to defend your results should they be challenged. And, by the way, the issue of automated pipettes isn\u2019t simple; there is a lot to consider in properly specifying and using these products.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">&#91;g&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Analyzing_the_process\">Analyzing the process<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Assuming that you have a well-described, thoroughly tested and validated procedure, that process has to be analyzed for optimization and suitability for automation. This is an end-to-end evaluation, not just a examination of isolated steps. This is an important point. Looking at a single step without taking into account the rest of the process may improve that portion of the process but have consequences elsewhere.\n<\/p><p>Take a common example: working in a testing environment where samples are being submitted by outside groups (Figure 2).\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig2_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1944129f376f676452d5befa53e5a78\"><img alt=\"Fig2 Liscouski ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/d\/d2\/Fig2_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 2.<\/b> Lab sample processing, initial data entry through results<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Most LIMS will permit sample submitters (with appropriate permissions) to enter the sample description information directly into the LIMS, reducing some of the clerical burden. Standardizing on sample containers, with barcodes, reduces the effort and cost in some aspects of sample handling. A barcode scanner could be used to scan samples as they arrive into the lab, letting the system know that they are ready to be tested.\n<\/p><p>That brings us to an evaluation of the process as a whole, as well as an examination of the individual steps in the procedure. As shown in Figure 1, automation can be done in one of two ways: automating the full process or automating individual steps. Your choice depends on several factors, not the least of which is your comfort level and confidence in adopting automation as a strategy for increasing productivity. For some, concentrating on improvements in individual steps is an attractive approach. The cost and risk may be lower and if a problem occurs you can always backup to a fully manual implementation until they are resolved.\n<\/p><p>Care does have to be taken in choosing which steps to improve. From one perspective, you\u2019d want to do the step-wise implementation of automation as close to the end of the process as possible. The problem with doing it earlier is that you may create a backup in later stages of the process. Optimizing step 2, for example, doesn\u2019t do you much good if step 3 is overloaded and requires more people, or additional (possibly unplanned) automation to relieve a bottleneck there. In short, before you automate or improve a given step, you need to be sure that downstream processing can absorb the increase in materials flow. In addition, optimizing all the individual steps, one at time, doesn\u2019t necessarily add up to a well-designed full system automation. The transition between steps may not be as effective or efficient if the system were evaluated as a whole. If the end of the process is carried out by commercial instrumentation, the ability to absorb more work is easier since most of these systems are automated with computer data acquisition and processing, and many have auto-samplers available to accumulate samples that can be processed automatically. Some of those auto-samplers have built in robotics for common sample handling functions. If the workload builds, additional instruments can pick up the load, and equipment such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Baytek_International,_Inc.\" title=\"Baytek International, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd2781da39f29dfafa73d5f07fd530\">Baytek International\u2019s<\/a> TurboTube<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BaytekiPRO_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BaytekiPRO-22\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> can accumulate sample vials in a common system and route them to individual instruments for processing.\n<\/p><p>Another consideration for partial automation is where the process is headed in the future. If the need for the process persists over a long period of time, will you eventually get to the point of needing to redo the automation to an integrated stream? If so, is it better to take the plunge early on instead of continually expending resources to upgrade it?\n<\/p><p>Other considerations include the ability to re-purpose equipment. If a process isn\u2019t used full-time (a justification for partial automation) the same components may be used in improving other processes. Ideally, if you go the full-process automation route, you\u2019ll have sufficient sample throughput to keep it running for an extended period of time, and not have to start and stop the system as samples accumulate. A smoothly running slower automation process is better than a faster system that lies idle for significant periods of time, particularly since startup and shutdown procedures may diminish the operational cost savings in both equipment use and people\u2019s time.\n<\/p><p>All these points become part of both the technical justification and budget requirements.\n<\/p><p><b>Analyzing the process: Simulation and modeling<\/b>\n<\/p><p>Simulation and modeling have been part of science and engineering for decades, supported by ever-increasing powerful computing hardware and software. Continuous systems simulations have shown us the details of how machinery works, how chemical reactions occur, and how chromatographic systems and other instrumentation behaves.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JoyceComputer18_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JoyceComputer18-23\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup> There is another aspect to modeling and simulation that is appropriate here.\n<\/p><p>Discrete-events simulation (DES) is used to model and understand processes in business and manufacturing applications, evaluating the interactions between service providers and customers, for example. One application of DES is to determine the best way to distribute incoming customers to a limited number of servers, taking into account that not all customers have the same needs; some will tie up a service provider a lot longer than others, as represented by the classic bank teller line problem. That is one question that discrete systems can analyze. This form of simulation and modeling is appropriate to event-driven processes where the action is focused on discrete steps (like materials moving from one workstation to another) rather than as a continuous function of time (most naturally occurring systems fall into this category, e.g., heat flow and models using differential equations).\n<\/p><p>The processes in your lab can be described and analyzed via DES systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CostigliolaSimul17_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CostigliolaSimul17-24\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MengImprov13_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MengImprov13-25\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JunApplic99_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JunApplic99-26\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Those laboratory procedures are a sequence of steps, each having a precursor, variable duration, and following step until the end of the process is reached; this is basically the same as a manufacturing operation where modeling and simulation have been used successfully for decades. DES can be used to evaluate those processes and ask questions that can guide you on the best paths to take in applying automation technologies and solving productivity or throughput problems. For example:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>What happens if we tighten up the variability in a particular step; how will that affect the rest of the system?<\/li>\n<li>What happens at the extremes of the variability in process steps; does it create a situation where samples pile up?<\/li>\n<li>How much of a workload can the process handle before one step becomes saturated with work and the entire system backs up?<\/li>\n<li>Can you introduce an alternate path to process those samples and avoid problems (e.g., if samples are held for too long in one stage, do they deteriorate)?<\/li>\n<li>Can the output of several parallel slower procedures be merged into a feed stream for a common instrumental technique?<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In complex procedures some steps may be sensitive to small delays, and DES can help test and uncover them. Note that setting up these models will require the collection of a lot of data about the processes and their timing, so this is not something to be taken casually.\n<\/p><p>Previous research<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JoyceComputer18_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JoyceComputer18-23\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CostigliolaSimul17_24-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CostigliolaSimul17-24\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MengImprov13_25-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MengImprov13-25\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JunApplic99_26-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JunApplic99-26\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup> suggests only a few ideas where simulation can be effective, including one where an entire labs operation\u2019s was evaluated. Models that extensive can be used to not only look at procedures, but also the introduction of informatics systems. This may appear to be a significant undertaking, and it can be depending on the complexity of the lab processes. However, simple processes can be initially modeled on spreadsheets to see if more significant effort is justified. Operations research, of which DES is a part, has been usefully applied in production operations to increase throughput and improve ROI. It might be successfully applied to some routine production oriented lab work.\n<\/p><p>Most lab processes are linear in their execution, one step following another, with the potential for loop-backs should problems be recognized with samples, reagents (e.g., being out-of-date, doesn\u2019t look right, need to obtain new materials), or equipment (e.g., not functioning properly, out of calibration, busy due to other work). On one level, the modeling of a manually implemented process should appear to be simple: each step takes a certain amount of time. If you add up the times, you have a picture of the process execution through time. However, the reality is quite different if you take into account problems (and their resolution) that can occur in each of those steps. The data collection used to model the procedure can change how that picture looks and your ability to improve it. By monitoring the process over a number of iterations, you can find out how much variation there is in the execution time for each step and whether or not the variation is a normal distribution or skewed (e.g., if one step is skewed, how does it impact others?).\n<\/p><p>Questions to ask about potential problems that could occur at each step include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>How often do problems with reagents occur and how much of a delay does that create?<\/li>\n<li>Is instrumentation always in calibration (do you know?), are there operational problems with devices and their control systems (what are the ramifications?), are procedures delayed due to equipment being in use by someone else, and how long does it take to make changeovers in operating conditions?<\/li>\n<li>What happens to the samples; do they degrade over time? What impact does this have on the accuracy of results and their reproducibility?<\/li>\n<li>How often are workflows interrupted by the need to deal with high-priority samples, and what effect does it have on the processing of other samples?<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Just the collection of data can suggest useful improvements before there are any considerations for automation, and perhaps negating the need for it. The answer to a lab\u2019s productivity might be as simple as adding another instrument if that is a bottleneck. It might also suggest that an underutilized device might be more productive if sample preparation for different procedures workflows were organized differently. Underutilization might be a consequence of the amount of time needed to prepare the equipment for service: doing so for one sample might be disproportionately time consuming (and expensive) and cause other samples to wait until there were enough of them to justify the preparation. It could also suggest that some lab processes should be outsourced to groups that have a more consistent sample flow and turn-around time (TAT) for that technique. Some of these points are illustrated in Figures 3a and 3b below.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig3a_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"b54669998fa4961ccecbfd829e32d89d\"><img alt=\"Fig3a Liscouski ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/af\/Fig3a_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 3a.<\/b> Simplified process views versus some modeling considerations. Note that the total procedure execution time is affected by the variability in each step, plus equipment and material availability delays; these can change from one day to the next in manual implementations.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig3b_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd6e3ce511391ee3f325577fdb4f9ca8\"><img alt=\"Fig3b Liscouski ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/e\/eb\/Fig3b_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 3b.<\/b> The execution times of each step include the variable execution times of potential issues that can occur in each stage. Note that because each factor has a different distribution curve, the total execution time has a much wider variability than the individual factors.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>How does the simulation system work? Once you have all the data set up, the simulation runs thousands of times using random number generators to pick out variables in execution times for each component in each step. For example, if there is a one-in-ten chance a piece of equipment will be in use when needed, 10% of the runs will show that with each one picking a delay time based on the input delay distribution function. With a large number of runs, you can see where delays exist and how they impact the overall processes behavior. You can also adjust the factors (what happens if equipment delays are cut in half) and see the effect of doing that. By testing the system, you can make better judgments on how to apply your resources.\n<\/p><p>Some of the issues that surface may be things that lab personnel know about and just deal with. It isn\u2019t until the problems are looked at that the impact on operations are fully realized and addressed. Modeling and simulation may appear to be overkill for lab process automation, something reserved for large- scale production projects. The physical size of the project is not the key factor, it is the complexity of the system that matters and the potential for optimization.\n<\/p><p>One benefit of a well-structured simulation of lab processes is that it would provide a solid basis for making recommendations for project approval and budgeting. The most significant element in modeling and simulation is the initial data collection, asking lab personnel to record the time it takes to carry out steps. This isn\u2019t likely to be popular if they don\u2019t understand why it is being done and what the benefits will be to them and the lab; accurate information is essential. This is another case where \u201cbad data is worse than no data.\u201d\n<\/p><p><b>Guidleines for process automation<\/b>\n<\/p><p>There are two types of guidelines that will be of interest to those conducting automation work: those that help you figure out what to do and how to do it, and those that must be met to satisfy regulatory requirements (both those evaluated by internal or external groups or organizations).\n<\/p><p>The first is going to depend on the nature of the science and automation being done to support it. Equipment vendor community support groups can be of assistance. Additionally, professional groups like the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA), International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE), and Parenteral Drug Association (PDA) in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industrues, with similar organizations in other industries and other countries. This may seem like a large jump from laboratory work, but it is appropriate when we consider the ramification of full-process automation. You are essentially developing a manufacturing operation on a lab bench, and the same concerns that large-scale production have also apply here; you have to ensure that the process is maintained and in control. The same is true of manual or semi-automated lab work, but it is more critical in fully-automated systems because of the potential high volume of results that can be produced.\n<\/p><p>The second set is going to consist of regulatory guidelines from groups appropriate to your industry: the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> (FDA), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"877b052e12328aa52f6f7c3f2d56f99a\">Environmental Protection Agency<\/a> (EPA), and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO), as well as international groups (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\" title=\"Good Automated Manufacturing Practice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb\">GAMP<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\" title=\"Good Automated Laboratory Practices\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6\">GALP<\/a>) etc. The interesting point is that we are looking at a potentially complete automation scheme for a procedure; does that come under manufacturing or laboratory? The likelihood is that laboratory guidelines will apply since the work is being done within the lab's footprint; however, there are things that can be learned from their manufacturing counterparts that may assist in project management and documentation. One interesting consideration is what happens when fully automated testing, such as on-line analyzers, becomes integrated with both the lab and production or process control data\/information streams. Which regulatory guidelines apply? It may come down to who is responsible for managing and supporting those systems.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scheduling_automation_projects\">Scheduling automation projects<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>There are two parts to the schedule issue: how long is it going to take to compete the project (dependent on the process and people), and when do you start? The second point will be addressed here.\n<\/p><p>The timing of an automated process coming online is important. If it comes on too soon, there may not be enough work to justify it\u2019s use, and startup\/shutdown procedures may create more work than the system saves. If it comes too late, people will be frustrated with a heavy workload while the system that was supposed to provide relief is under development. \n<\/p><p>In Figure 4, the blue line represents the growing need for sample\/material processing using a given laboratory procedure. Ideally, you\u2019d like the automated version to be available when that blue line crosses the \u201cautomation needed on-line\u201d level of processing requirements; this the point where the current (manual?) implementation can no longer meet the demands of sample throughput requirements.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig4_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"a92c905b5cb118443f1fe9176f6b38f5\"><img alt=\"Fig4 Liscouski ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a8\/Fig4_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 4.<\/b> Timing the development of an automated system<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Those throughput limits are something you are going to have to evaluate and measure on a regular basis and use to make adjustments to the planning process (accelerating or slowing it as appropriate). How fast is the demand growing and at what point will your current methods be overwhelmed? Hiring more people is one option, but then the lab's operating expenses increase due to the cost of people, equipment, and lab space.\n<\/p><p>Once we have an idea of when something has to be working, we can begin the process of planning; note: the planning can begin at any point, it would be good to get the preliminaries done as soon as a manual process is finalized so that you have an idea of what you\u2019ll be getting into. Those preliminaries include looking at equipment that might be used (keeping track of its development), training requirements, developer resources, and implementation strategies, all of which would be updated as new information becomes available. The \u201cwe\u2019ll-get-to-it-when-we-need-it\u201d approach is just going to create a lot of stress and frustration.\n<\/p><p>You need to put together a first-pass project plan so that you can detail what you know, and more importantly what you don\u2019t know. The goal is to have enough information, updated as noted above, so that you can determine if an automated solution is feasible, make an informed initial choice between full and partial automation, and have a timeline for implementation. Any time estimate is going to be subject to change as you gather information and refine your implementation approach. The point of the timeline is to figure out how long the yellow box in Figure 4 is because that is going to tell you how much time you have to get the plan together and working; it is a matter of setting priorities and recognizing what they are. The time between now and the start of the yellow box is what you have to work with for planning and evaluating plans, and any decisions that are needed before you begin, including corporate project management requirements and approvals.\n<\/p><p>Those plans have to include time for validation and the evaluation of the new implementation against the standard implementation. Does it work? Do we know how to use and maintain it? And are people educated in its use? Is there documentation for the project?\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Budgeting\">Budgeting<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>At some point, all the material above and following this section comes down to budgeting: how much will it cost to implement a program and is it worth it? Of the two points, the latter is the one that is most important. How do you go about that? (Note: Some of this material is also covered in the webinar series <i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\" title=\"LII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization&#39;s Work\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360\">A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/a><\/i> in the section on ROI.)\n<\/p><p>What a lot of this comes down to is explaining and justifying the choices you\u2019ve made in your project proposal. We\u2019re not going to go into a lot of depth, but just note some of the key issues:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Did you choose full or partial automation for your process?<\/li>\n<li>What drove that choice? If in your view it would be less expensive than the full automation of a process, how long will it be until the next upgrade is needed to another stage?<\/li>\n<li>How independent are the potential, sequential implementation efforts that may be undertaken in the future? Will there be a need to connect them, and if so, how will the incremental costs compare to just doing it once and getting it over with?<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>There is a tendency in lab work to treat problems and the products that might be used to address them in isolation. You see the need for a LIMS or ELN, or an instrument data system, and the focus is on those issues. Effective decisions have to consider both the immediate and longer-term aspects of a problem. If you want to get access to a LIMS, have you considered how it will affect other aspects of lab work such as connecting instrument to it?\n<\/p><p>The same holds true for partial automation as a solution to a lab process productivity problem. While you are addressing a particular step, should you be looking at the potential for synergism by addressing other concerns. Modeling and simulations of processes can help resolve that issue.\n<\/p><p>Have you factored in the cost of support and education? The support issue needs to address the needs of lab personnel in managing the equipment and the options for vendor support, as well as the impact on IT groups. Note that the IT group will require access to vendor support, as well as being educated on their role in any project work.\n<\/p><p>What happens if you don\u2019t automate? One way to justify the cost of a project is to help people understand what the lab\u2019s operations will be like without it. Will more people, equipment, space, or added shifts be needed? At what cost? What would the impact be on those who need the results and how would it affect their programs?\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Build,_buy,_or_cooperate?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Build.2C_buy.2C_or_cooperate.3F\">Build, buy, or cooperate?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In this write up and some of the referenced materials, we\u2019ve noted several times the benefits that clinical labs have gained through automation, although crediting it all to the use of automation alone isn\u2019t fair. What the clinical laboratory industry did was recognize that there was a need for the use of automation to solve problems with the operational costs of running labs, and recognition that they could benefit further by coming together and cooperatively addressing lab operational problems.\n<\/p><p>It\u2019s that latter point that made the difference and resulted in standardized communications, and purpose-built commercial equipment that could be used to implement automation in their labs. They also had common sample types, common procedures, and data processing. That same commonality applies to segments of industrial and academic lab work. Take life sciences as an example. Where possible, that industry has standardized on micro-plates for sample processing. The result is a wide selection of instruments and robotics built around that sample-holding format that greatly improves lab economics and throughput. While it isn\u2019t the answer to everything, it\u2019s a good answer to a lot of things.\n<\/p><p>If your industry segment came together and recognized that you used common procedures, how would you benefit by creating a common approach to automation instead of each lab doing it on their own? It would open the development of common products or product variations from vendors and relieve the need for each lab developing its own answer to the need. The result could be more effective and easily supportable solutions.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Project_planning\">Project planning<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Once you\u2019ve decided on the project you are going to undertake, the next stage is looking at the steps needed to manage your project (Figure 5).\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig5_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"63b05e9703977e362222fe94d673287c\"><img alt=\"Fig5 Liscouski ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/4d\/Fig5_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 5.<\/b> Steps in a laboratory automation project. This diagram is modeled after the GAMP V for systems validation.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The planning begins with the method description from Figure 1, which describes the science behind the project and the specification of how the automation is expected to be put into effect: as full-process automation, a specific step, or steps in the process. The provider of those documents is considered the \u201ccustomer\u201d and is consistent with GAMP V nomenclature (Figure 6); that consistency is important due to the need for system-wide validation protocols.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig6_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"71f06c8346c550b519af5eb78dccb441\"><img alt=\"Fig6 Liscouski ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a2\/Fig6_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 6.<\/b> GAMP V model for showing customer and supplier roles in specifying and evaluating project components for computer hardware and software.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>From there the \u201csupplier\u201d (e.g., internal development group, consultant, IT services, etc.) responds with a functional specification that is reviewed by the customer. The \u201canalysis, prototyping, and evaluation\u201d step, represented in the third box of Figure 5, is not the same as the process analysis noted earlier in this piece. The earlier section was to help you determine what work needed to be done and documented in the user requirements specification. The analysis and associated tasks here are specific to the implementation of this project. The colored arrows refer to the diagram in Figure 7. That process defines the equipment needed, dependencies, and options\/technologies for automation implementations, including robotics, instrument design requirements, pre-built automation (e.g., titrators, etc.) and any custom components. The documentation and specifications are part of the validation protocol.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig6_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"71f06c8346c550b519af5eb78dccb441\"><img alt=\"Fig6 Liscouski ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a2\/Fig6_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 7.<\/b> Defining dependencies and qualification of equipment<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The prototyping function is an important part of the overall process. It is rare that someone will look at a project and come up with a working solution on the first pass. There is always tinkering and modifications that occur as you move from a blank slate to a working system. You make notes along the way about what should be done differently in the final product, and places where improvements or adjustments are needed. These all become part of the input to the system design specification that will be reviewed and approved by the customer and supplier. The prototype can be considered a proof of concept or a demonstration of what will occur in the finished product. Remember also that prototypes would not have to be validated since they wouldn\u2019t be used in a production environment; they are simply a test bed used prior to the development of a production system.\n<\/p><p>The component design specifications are the refined requirement for elements that will be used in the final design. Those refinements could point to updated models of components or equipment used, modifications needed, or recommendations for products with capabilities other than those used in the prototype.\n<\/p><p>The boxes on the left side of Figure 5 are documents that go into increasing depth as the system is designed and specified. The details in those items will vary with the extent of the project. The right side of the diagram is a series of increasingly sophisticated testing and evaluation against steps in the right side, culminating in the final demonstration that the system works, has been validated, and is accepted by the customer. It also means that lab and support personnel are educated in their roles.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Conclusions_(so_far)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Conclusions_.28so_far.29\">Conclusions (so far)<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>\u201cLaboratory automation\u201d has to give way to \u201claboratory automation engineering.\u201d From the initial need to the completion of the validation process, we have to plan, design, and implement successful systems on a routine basis. Just as the manufacturing industries transitioned from cottage industries to production lines and then to integrated production-information systems, the execution of laboratory science has to tread a similar path if the demands for laboratory results are going to be met in a financially responsible manner. The science is fundamental; however, we need to pay attention now to efficient execution.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Abbreviations,_acronyms,_and_initialisms\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Abbreviations.2C_acronyms.2C_and_initialisms\">Abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>AI<\/b>: Artificial intelligence\n<\/p><p><b>AuI<\/b>: Augmented intelligence\n<\/p><p><b>DES<\/b>: Discrete-events simulation\n<\/p><p><b>ELN<\/b>: Electronic laboratory notebook\n<\/p><p><b>EPA<\/b>: Environmental Protection Agency\n<\/p><p><b>FDA<\/b>: Food and Drug Administration\n<\/p><p><b>FRB<\/b>: Fast radio bursts\n<\/p><p><b>GALP<\/b>: Good automated laboratory practices\n<\/p><p><b>GAMP<\/b>: Good automated manufacturing practice\n<\/p><p><b>ISO<\/b>: International Organization for Standardization\n<\/p><p><b>LES<\/b>: Laboratory execution system\n<\/p><p><b>LIMS<\/b>: Laboratory information management system\n<\/p><p><b>ML<\/b>: Machine learning\n<\/p><p><b>ROI<\/b>: Return on investment\n<\/p><p><b>SDMS<\/b>: Scientific data management system\n<\/p><p><b>TAT<\/b>: Turn-around time\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Footnotes\">Footnotes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The term \"scientific manufacturing\" was first mentioned to the author by Mr. Alberto Correia, then of Cambridge Biomedical, Boston, MA.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Intelligent enterprise technologies referenced in the report include robotic process automation, machine learning, artificial intelligence, the internet Of things, predictive analysis, and cognitive computing.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Douglas_Engelbart\" data-key=\"91bc4cc7c8f10296b73c8689f9f470bb\">Doug Engelbart<\/a> found the field of human-computer interaction and is credited with the invention of the computer mouse, and the \u201cMother of All Demos\u201d in 1968.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metropolis_(1927_film)\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Metropolis (1927 film)\" data-key=\"0e4d0869e79f689fae15419230e0e902\"><i>Metropolis<\/i> (1927 film)<\/a> on Wikipedia.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See for example <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.projectmanager.com\/project-planning\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.projectmanager.com\/project-planning<\/a>; the simplest thing to do it put \u201cproject planning\u201d in a search engine and browse the results for something interesting.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See for example <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/theinformationdrivenlaboratory.wordpress.com\/category\/resources\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/theinformationdrivenlaboratory.wordpress.com\/category\/resources\/<\/a>; note that any references to the ILA should be ignored as the original site is gone, with the domain name perhaps having been leased by another organization that has no affiliation with the original Institute for Laboratory Automation.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">As a starting point, view the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.artel.co\/\" target=\"_blank\">Artel, Inc. site<\/a> as one source. Also, John Bradshaw gave an <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.artel.co\/learning_center\/2589\/\" target=\"_blank\">informative presentation<\/a> on \u201cThe Importance of Liquid Handling Details and Their Impact on your Assays\u201d at the 2012 European Lab Automation Conference, Hamburg, Germany.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"About_the_author\">About the author<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Initially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-FreyTheFuture13-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FreyTheFuture13_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Frey, C.B.; Osborne, M.A.&#32;(17 September 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk\/downloads\/academic\/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk\/downloads\/academic\/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk\/downloads\/academic\/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Employment%3A+How+Susceptible+Are+Jobs+to+Computerisation%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Frey%2C+C.B.%3B+Osborne%2C+M.A.&amp;rft.au=Frey%2C+C.B.%3B+Osborne%2C+M.A.&amp;rft.date=17+September+2013&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+Martin+School%2C+University+of+Oxford&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk%2Fdownloads%2Facademic%2FThe_Future_of_Employment.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HsuIsIt18-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HsuIsIt18_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hsu, J.&#32;(24 September 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/mach\/science\/it-aliens-scientists-detect-more-mysterious-radio-signals-distant-galaxy-ncna912586\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is it aliens? 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href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/science\/2018\/07\/ai-plus-a-chemistry-robot-finds-all-the-reactions-that-will-work\/5\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI plus a chemistry robot finds all the reactions that will work\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Ars Technica<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/science\/2018\/07\/ai-plus-a-chemistry-robot-finds-all-the-reactions-that-will-work\/5\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/science\/2018\/07\/ai-plus-a-chemistry-robot-finds-all-the-reactions-that-will-work\/5\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=AI+plus+a+chemistry+robot+finds+all+the+reactions+that+will+work&amp;rft.atitle=Ars+Technica&amp;rft.aulast=Timmer%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Timmer%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=18+July+2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fscience%2F2018%2F07%2Fai-plus-a-chemistry-robot-finds-all-the-reactions-that-will-work%2F5%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HelixAIHome-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HelixAIHome_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.askhelix.io\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"HelixAI - Voice Powered Digital Laboratory Assistants for Scientific Laboratories\"<\/a>.&#32;HelixAI<span 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Drug+Discovery%3A+AI+2020&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=PharmaIQ&amp;rft.au=PharmaIQ&amp;rft.date=14+November+2017&amp;rft.pub=PharmaIQ&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pharma-iq.com%2Fpre-clinical-discovery-and-development%2Fwhitepapers%2Fthe-future-of-drug-discovery-ai-2020&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RossettoFight18-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RossettoFight18_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Rossetto, L.&#32;(2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.magzter.com\/stories\/Science\/WIRED\/Fight-The-Dour\" target=\"_blank\">\"Fight the 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=OPUS+Package%3A+SEARCH+%26+IDENT&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Bruker+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bruker.com%2Fen%2Fproducts-and-solutions%2Finfrared-and-raman%2Fopus-spectroscopy-software%2Fsearch-identify.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BourneMyBoss13-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BourneMyBoss13_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Bourne, D.&#32;(2013).&#32;\"My Boss the Robot\".&#32;<i>Scientific American<\/i>&#32;<b>308<\/b>&#32;(5): 38\u201341.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0513-38\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/scientificamerican0513-38<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/23627215\" target=\"_blank\">23627215<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=My+Boss+the+Robot&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&amp;rft.aulast=Bourne%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Bourne%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.volume=308&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=38%E2%80%9341&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0513-38&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/23627215&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SalesForceSecondAnn17-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SalesForceSecondAnn17_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">SalesForce Research&#32;(2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/a.sfdcstatic.com\/content\/dam\/www\/ocms\/assets\/pdf\/misc\/2017-state-of-it-report-salesforce.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Second Annual State of IT\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;SalesForce<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/a.sfdcstatic.com\/content\/dam\/www\/ocms\/assets\/pdf\/misc\/2017-state-of-it-report-salesforce.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/a.sfdcstatic.com\/content\/dam\/www\/ocms\/assets\/pdf\/misc\/2017-state-of-it-report-salesforce.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Second+Annual+State+of+IT&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=SalesForce+Research&amp;rft.au=SalesForce+Research&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.pub=SalesForce&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fa.sfdcstatic.com%2Fcontent%2Fdam%2Fwww%2Focms%2Fassets%2Fpdf%2Fmisc%2F2017-state-of-it-report-salesforce.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SealAnal-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SealAnal_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/seal-analytical.com\/Products\/tabid\/55\/language\/en-US\/Default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Seal Analytical - Products\"<\/a>.&#32;Seal Analytical<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/seal-analytical.com\/Products\/tabid\/55\/language\/en-US\/Default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/seal-analytical.com\/Products\/tabid\/55\/language\/en-US\/Default.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Seal+Analytical+-+Products&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Seal+Analytical&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fseal-analytical.com%2FProducts%2Ftabid%2F55%2Flanguage%2Fen-US%2FDefault.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BranLuebbe-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BranLuebbe_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.spxflow.com\/bran-luebbe\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bran+Luebbe\"<\/a>.&#32;SPX FLOW, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.spxflow.com\/bran-luebbe\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.spxflow.com\/bran-luebbe\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Bran%2BLuebbe&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=SPX+FLOW%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spxflow.com%2Fbran-luebbe%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DouglasScientificArrayTape-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DouglasScientificArrayTape_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.douglasscientific.com\/Products\/ArrayTape.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Array Tape Advanced Consumable\"<\/a>.&#32;Douglas Scientific<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.douglasscientific.com\/Products\/ArrayTape.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.douglasscientific.com\/Products\/ArrayTape.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Array+Tape+Advanced+Consumable&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Douglas+Scientific&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.douglasscientific.com%2FProducts%2FArrayTape.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Agilent1200Series-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Agilent1200Series_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.agilent.com\/cs\/library\/usermanuals\/Public\/G1329-90012_StandPrepSamplers_ebook.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Agilent 1200 Series Standard and Preparative Autosamplers - User Manual\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Agilent Technologies.&#32;November 2008<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.agilent.com\/cs\/library\/usermanuals\/Public\/G1329-90012_StandPrepSamplers_ebook.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.agilent.com\/cs\/library\/usermanuals\/Public\/G1329-90012_StandPrepSamplers_ebook.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 04 February 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Agilent+1200+Series+Standard+and+Preparative+Autosamplers+-+User+Manual&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=November+2008&amp;rft.pub=Agilent+Technologies&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.agilent.com%2Fcs%2Flibrary%2Fusermanuals%2FPublic%2FG1329-90012_StandPrepSamplers_ebook.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BaytekiPRO-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BaytekiPRO_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.baytekinternational.com\/products\/ipro-interface\/89-products\" target=\"_blank\">\"iPRO Interface - Products\"<\/a>.&#32;Baytek International, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.baytekinternational.com\/products\/ipro-interface\/89-products\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.baytekinternational.com\/products\/ipro-interface\/89-products<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 February 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=iPRO+Interface+-+Products&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Baytek+International%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baytekinternational.com%2Fproducts%2Fipro-interface%2F89-products&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JoyceComputer18-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-JoyceComputer18_23-0\">16.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-JoyceComputer18_23-1\">16.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Joyce, J.&#32;(2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/laboratory-technology\/computer-modeling-and-simulation-1826\" target=\"_blank\">\"Computer Modeling and Simulation\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Lab Manager<\/i>&#32;(9): 32\u201335<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/laboratory-technology\/computer-modeling-and-simulation-1826\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/laboratory-technology\/computer-modeling-and-simulation-1826<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Computer+Modeling+and+Simulation&amp;rft.jtitle=Lab+Manager&amp;rft.aulast=Joyce%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Joyce%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.pages=32%E2%80%9335&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labmanager.com%2Flaboratory-technology%2Fcomputer-modeling-and-simulation-1826&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CostigliolaSimul17-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CostigliolaSimul17_24-0\">17.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CostigliolaSimul17_24-1\">17.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Costigliola, A.; Ata\u00edde, F.A.P.; Vieira, S.M. et al.&#32;(2017).&#32;\"Simulation Model of a Quality Control Laboratory in Pharmaceutical Industry\".&#32;<i>IFAC-PapersOnLine<\/i>&#32;<b>50<\/b>&#32;(1): 9014-9019.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.ifacol.2017.08.1582\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.ifacol.2017.08.1582<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Simulation+Model+of+a+Quality+Control+Laboratory+in+Pharmaceutical+Industry&amp;rft.jtitle=IFAC-PapersOnLine&amp;rft.aulast=Costigliola%2C+A.%3B+Ata%C3%ADde%2C+F.A.P.%3B+Vieira%2C+S.M.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Costigliola%2C+A.%3B+Ata%C3%ADde%2C+F.A.P.%3B+Vieira%2C+S.M.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.volume=50&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=9014-9019&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.ifacol.2017.08.1582&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MengImprov13-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MengImprov13_25-0\">18.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MengImprov13_25-1\">18.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Meng, L.; Liu, R.; Essick, C. et al.&#32;(2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/263238201_Improving_Medical_Laboratory_Operations_via_Discrete-event_Simulation\" target=\"_blank\">\"Improving Medical Laboratory Operations via Discrete-event Simulation\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Proceedings of the 2013 INFORMS Healthcare Conference<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/263238201_Improving_Medical_Laboratory_Operations_via_Discrete-event_Simulation\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/263238201_Improving_Medical_Laboratory_Operations_via_Discrete-event_Simulation<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Improving+Medical+Laboratory+Operations+via+Discrete-event+Simulation&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+2013+INFORMS+Healthcare+Conference&amp;rft.aulast=Meng%2C+L.%3B+Liu%2C+R.%3B+Essick%2C+C.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Meng%2C+L.%3B+Liu%2C+R.%3B+Essick%2C+C.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F263238201_Improving_Medical_Laboratory_Operations_via_Discrete-event_Simulation&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JunApplic99-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-JunApplic99_26-0\">19.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-JunApplic99_26-1\">19.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">\"Application of discrete-event simulation in health care clinics: A survey\".&#32;<i>Journal of the Operational Research Society<\/i>&#32;<b>50<\/b>: 109\u201323.&#32;1999.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.jors.2600669\" target=\"_blank\">10.1057\/palgrave.jors.2600669<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Application+of+discrete-event+simulation+in+health+care+clinics%3A+A+survey&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Operational+Research+Society&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.volume=50&amp;rft.pages=109%E2%80%9323&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.jors.2600669&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110092700\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.249 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.289 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 12823\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 81175\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 31614\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Considerations_in_the_Automation_of_Laboratory_Procedures<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/3\/31\/Fig1_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/d\/d2\/Fig2_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/af\/Fig3a_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/e\/eb\/Fig3b_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a8\/Fig4_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/4d\/Fig5_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a2\/Fig6_Liscouski_ConsidAutoLabProc21.png"],"e0147011cc1eb892e1a35e821657a6d9_timestamp":1704907014,"8c8c0fa8a260bb5dc333e053bde4c420_type":"article","8c8c0fa8a260bb5dc333e053bde4c420_title":"Software quality management","8c8c0fa8a260bb5dc333e053bde4c420_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_quality_management","8c8c0fa8a260bb5dc333e053bde4c420_plaintext":"\n\nSoftware quality managementFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_quality_management?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_quality_management\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_quality_management<\/a>\nCategories: Production standardsQuality managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 20:29.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 1,645 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","8c8c0fa8a260bb5dc333e053bde4c420_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Software_quality_management rootpage-Software_quality_management skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Software quality management<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_quality_management?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_quality_management\" data-key=\"657940ad491e314b2297f1c92ef39c97\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171653\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.103 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.174 seconds\nPreprocessor 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Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.\r\nFind sources:&#160;\"Software quality\"&#160;\u2013&#160;news&#160;\u00b7 newspapers&#160;\u00b7 books&#160;\u00b7 scholar&#160;\u00b7 JSTOR (December 2021 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nIn the context of software engineering, software quality refers to two related but distinct notions:[citation needed ]\n\nSoftware's functional quality reflects how well it complies with or conforms to a given design, based on functional requirements or specifications.[1] That attribute can also be described as the fitness for purpose of a piece of software or how it compares to competitors in the marketplace as a worthwhile product.[2] It is the degree to which the correct software was produced.\nSoftware structural quality refers to how it meets non-functional requirements that support the delivery of the functional requirements, such as robustness or maintainability. It has a lot more to do with the degree to which the software works as needed.\nMany aspects of structural quality can be evaluated only statically through the analysis of the software inner structure, its source code (see Software metrics),[3] at the unit level, and at the system level (sometimes referred to as end-to-end testing[4]), which is in effect how its architecture adheres to sound principles of software architecture outlined in a paper on the topic by Object Management Group (OMG).[5]\nHowever some structural qualities, such as usability, can be assessed only dynamically (users or others acting on their behalf interact with the software or, at least, some prototype or partial implementation; even the interaction with a mock version made in cardboard represents a dynamic test because such version can be considered a prototype). Other aspects, such as reliability, might involve not only the software but also the underlying hardware, therefore, it can be assessed both statically and dynamically (stress test).[citation needed ]\nFunctional quality is typically assessed dynamically but it is also possible to use static tests (such as software reviews).[citation needed ]\nHistorically, the structure, classification and terminology of attributes and metrics applicable to software quality management have been derived or extracted from the ISO 9126 and the subsequent ISO\/IEC 25000 standard.[6] Based on these models (see Models), the Consortium for IT Software Quality (CISQ) has defined five major desirable structural characteristics needed for a piece of software to provide business value:[7] Reliability, Efficiency, Security, Maintainability and (adequate) Size.[8][9][10]\nSoftware quality measurement quantifies to what extent a software program or system rates along each of these five dimensions. An aggregated measure of software quality can be computed through a qualitative or a quantitative scoring scheme or a mix of both and then a weighting system reflecting the priorities. This view of software quality being positioned on a linear continuum is supplemented by the analysis of \"critical programming errors\" that under specific circumstances can lead to catastrophic outages or performance degradations that make a given system unsuitable for use regardless of rating based on aggregated measurements. Such programming errors found at the system level represent up to 90 percent of production issues, whilst at the unit-level, even if far more numerous, programming errors account for less than 10 percent of production issues (see also Ninety\u2013ninety rule). As a consequence, code quality without the context of the whole system, as W. Edwards Deming described it, has limited value.[citation needed ]\nTo view, explore, analyze, and communicate software quality measurements, concepts and techniques of information visualization provide visual, interactive means useful, in particular, if several software quality measures have to be related to each other or to components of a software or system. For example, software maps represent a specialized approach that \"can express and combine information about software development, software quality, and system dynamics\".[11]\nSoftware quality also plays a role in the release phase of a software project. Specifically, the quality and establishment of the release processes (also patch processes),[12][13] configuration management[14] are important parts of an overall software engineering process.[15][16][17]\n\n\n\nMotivation \nSoftware quality is motivated by at least two main perspectives:\n\nRisk management: Software failure has caused more than inconvenience. Software errors can cause human fatalities (see for example: List of software bugs). The causes have ranged from poorly designed user interfaces to direct programming errors,[18][19][20] see for example Boeing 737 case or Unintended acceleration cases[21][22] or Therac-25 cases.[23] This resulted in requirements for the development of some types of software, particularly and historically for software embedded in medical and other devices that regulate critical infrastructures: \"[Engineers who write embedded software] see Java programs stalling for one third of a second to perform garbage collection and update the user interface, and they envision airplanes falling out of the sky.\".[24] In the United States, within the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the FAA Aircraft Certification Service provides software programs, policy, guidance and training, focus on software and Complex Electronic Hardware that has an effect on the airborne product (a \"product\" is an aircraft, an engine, or a propeller).[25] Certification standards such as DO-178C, ISO 26262, IEC 62304, etc. provide guidance.\nCost management: As in any other fields of engineering, a software product or service governed by good software quality costs less to maintain, is easier to understand and can change more cost-effective in response to pressing business needs.[26] Industry data demonstrate that poor application structural quality in core business applications (such as enterprise resource planning (ERP), customer relationship management (CRM) or large transaction processing systems in financial services) results in cost, schedule overruns and creates waste in the form of rework (see Muda (Japanese term)).[27][28][29] Moreover, poor structural quality is strongly correlated with high-impact business disruptions due to corrupted data, application outages, security breaches, and performance problems.[30]\nCISQ reports on the cost of poor quality estimates an impact of:\n$2.08 trillion in 2020[31][32]\n$2.84 trillion in 2018\nIBM's Cost of a Data Breach Report 2020 estimates that the average global costs of a data breach:[33][34]\n$3.86 million\nDefinitions \nISO \nSoftware quality is the \"capability of a software product to conform to requirements.\"[35][36] while for others it can be synonymous with customer- or value-creation[37][38] or even defect level.[39] Software quality measurements can be split into three parts: process quality, product quality which includes internal and external properties and lastly, quality in use, which is the effect of the software.[40]\n\nASQ \nASQ uses the following definition: Software quality describes the desirable attributes of software products. There are two main approaches exist: defect management and quality attributes.[41]\n\nNIST \nSoftware Assurance (SA) covers both the property and the process to achieve it:[42]\n\n[Justifiable] confidence that software is free from vulnerabilities, either intentionally designed into the software or accidentally inserted at any time during its life cycle and that the software functions in the intended manner\nThe planned and systematic set of activities that ensure that software life cycle processes and products conform to requirements, standards, and procedures\nPMI \nThe Project Management Institute's PMBOK Guide \"Software Extension\" defines not \"Software quality\" itself, but Software Quality Assurance (SQA) as \"a continuous process that audits other software processes to ensure that those processes are being followed (includes for example a software quality management plan).\" whereas Software Quality Control (SCQ) means \"taking care of applying methods, tools, techniques to ensure satisfaction of the work products towards quality requirements for a software under development or modification.\"[43]\n\nOther general and historic \nThe first definition of quality history remembers is from Shewhart in the beginning of 20th century: \"There are two common aspects of quality: one of them has to do with the consideration of the quality of a thing as an objective reality independent of the existence of man. The other has to do with what we think, feel or sense as a result of the objective reality. In other words, there is a subjective side of quality.\"[44]\nKitchenham and Pfleeger, further reporting the teachings of David Garvin, identify five different perspectives on quality:[45][46]\n\nThe transcendental perspective deals with the metaphysical aspect of quality. In this view of quality, it is \"something toward which we strive as an ideal, but may never implement completely\".[47] It can hardly be defined, but is similar to what a federal judge once commented about obscenity: \"I know it when I see it\".[48]\nThe user perspective is concerned with the appropriateness of the product for a given context of use. Whereas the transcendental view is ethereal, the user view is more concrete, grounded in the product characteristics that meet user's needs.[47]\nThe manufacturing perspective represents quality as conformance to requirements. This aspect of quality is stressed by standards such as ISO 9001, which defines quality as \"the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills requirements\" (ISO\/IEC 9001[49]).\nThe product perspective implies that quality can be appreciated by measuring the inherent characteristics of the product.\nThe final perspective of quality is value-based.[37] This perspective recognizes that the different perspectives of quality may have different importance, or value, to various stakeholders.\nThe problem inherent in attempts to define the quality of a product, almost any product, were stated by the master Walter A. Shewhart. The difficulty in defining quality is to translate future needs of the user into measurable characteristics, so that a product can be designed and turned out to give satisfaction at a price that the user will pay. This is not easy, and as soon as one feels fairly successful in the endeavor, he finds that the needs of the consumer have changed, competitors have moved in, etc.[50]\u2014\u200aW. Edwards Deming\nQuality is a customer determination, not an engineer's determination, not a marketing determination, nor a general management determination. It is based on the customer's actual experience with the product or service, measured against his or her requirements -- stated or unstated, conscious or merely sensed, technically operational or entirely subjective -- and always representing a moving target in a competitive market.[51]\nThe word quality has multiple meanings. Two of these meanings dominate the use of the word: 1. Quality consists of those product features which meet the need of customers and thereby provide product satisfaction. 2. Quality consists of freedom from deficiencies. Nevertheless, in a handbook such as this it is convenient to standardize on a short definition of the word quality as \"fitness for use\".[52]\nTom DeMarco has proposed that \"a product's quality is a function of how much it changes the world for the better.\"[citation needed ] This can be interpreted as meaning that functional quality and user satisfaction are more important than structural quality in determining software quality.\nAnother definition, coined by Gerald Weinberg in Quality Software Management: Systems Thinking, is \"Quality is value to some person.\"[53][54] This definition stresses that quality is inherently subjective\u2014different people will experience the quality of the same software differently. One strength of this definition is the questions it invites software teams to consider, such as \"Who are the people we want to value our software?\" and \"What will be valuable to them?\".\n\nOther meanings and controversies \nOne of the challenges in defining quality is that \"everyone feels they understand it\"[55] and other definitions of software quality could be based on extending the various descriptions of the concept of quality used in business.\nSoftware quality also often gets mixed-up with Quality Assurance or Problem Resolution Management[56] or Quality Control[57] or DevOps. It does over-lap with before mentioned areas (see also PMI definitions), but is distinctive as it does not solely focus on testing but also on processes, management, improvements, assessments, etc.[57]\n \n\nMeasurement \nAlthough the concepts presented in this section are applicable to both structural and functional software quality, measurement of the latter is essentially performed through testing [see main article: Software testing].[58] However, testing isn't enough: According to a study, individual programmers are less than 50% efficient at finding bugs in their own software.&#160;And most forms of testing are only 35% efficient. This makes it difficult to determine [software] quality.[59]\n\nIntroduction \nRelationship between software desirable characteristics (right) and measurable attributes (left)\n\nSoftware quality measurement is about quantifying to what extent a system or software possesses desirable characteristics. This can be performed through qualitative or quantitative means or a mix of both. In both cases, for each desirable characteristic, there are a set of measurable attributes the existence of which in a piece of software or system tend to be correlated and associated with this characteristic. For example, an attribute associated with portability is the number of target-dependent statements in a program. More precisely, using the Quality Function Deployment approach, these measurable attributes are the \"hows\" that need to be enforced to enable the \"whats\" in the Software Quality definition above.\nThe structure, classification and terminology of attributes and metrics applicable to software quality management have been derived or extracted from the ISO 9126-3 and the subsequent ISO\/IEC 25000:2005 quality model. The main focus is on internal structural quality. Subcategories have been created to handle specific areas like business application architecture and technical characteristics such as data access and manipulation or the notion of transactions.\nThe dependence tree between software quality characteristics and their measurable attributes is represented in the diagram on the right, where each of the 5 characteristics that matter for the user (right) or owner of the business system depends on measurable attributes (left):\n\nApplication Architecture Practices\nCoding Practices\nApplication Complexity\nDocumentation\nPortability\nTechnical and Functional Volume\nCorrelations between programming errors and production defects unveil that basic code errors account for 92 percent of the total errors in the source code. These numerous code-level issues eventually count for only 10 percent of the defects in production. Bad software engineering practices at the architecture levels account for only 8 percent of total defects, but consume over half the effort spent on fixing problems, and lead to 90 percent of the serious reliability, security, and efficiency issues in production.[60][61]\n\nCode-based analysis \nMany of the existing software measures count structural elements of the application that result from parsing the source code for such individual instructions[62] tokens[63] control structures (Complexity), and objects.[64]\nSoftware quality measurement is about quantifying to what extent a system or software rates along these dimensions. The analysis can be performed using a qualitative or quantitative approach or a mix of both to provide an aggregate view [using for example weighted average(s) that reflect relative importance between the factors being measured].\nThis view of software quality on a linear continuum has to be supplemented by the identification of discrete Critical Programming Errors. These vulnerabilities may not fail a test case, but they are the result of bad practices that under specific circumstances can lead to catastrophic outages, performance degradations, security breaches, corrupted data, and myriad other problems[65] that make a given system de facto unsuitable for use regardless of its rating based on aggregated measurements. A well-known example of vulnerability is the Common Weakness Enumeration,[66] a repository of vulnerabilities in the source code that make applications exposed to security breaches.\nThe measurement of critical application characteristics involves measuring structural attributes of the application's architecture, coding, and in-line documentation, as displayed in the picture above. Thus, each characteristic is affected by attributes at numerous levels of abstraction in the application and all of which must be included calculating the characteristic's measure if it is to be a valuable predictor of quality outcomes that affect the business. The layered approach to calculating characteristic measures displayed in the figure above was first proposed by Boehm and his colleagues at TRW (Boehm, 1978)[67] and is the approach taken in the ISO 9126 and 25000 series standards. These attributes can be measured from the parsed results of a static analysis of the application source code. Even dynamic characteristics of applications such as reliability and performance efficiency have their causal roots in the static structure of the application.\nStructural quality analysis and measurement is performed through the analysis of the source code, the architecture, software framework, database schema in relationship to principles and standards that together define the conceptual and logical architecture of a system. This is distinct from the basic, local, component-level code analysis typically performed by development tools which are mostly concerned with implementation considerations and are crucial during debugging and testing activities.\n\nReliability \nThe root causes of poor reliability are found in a combination of non-compliance with good architectural and coding practices. This non-compliance can be detected by measuring the static quality attributes of an application. Assessing the static attributes underlying an application's reliability provides an estimate of the level of business risk and the likelihood of potential application failures and defects the application will experience when placed in operation.\nAssessing reliability requires checks of at least the following software engineering best practices and technical attributes:\n\n\nApplication Architecture Practices\nCoding Practices\nComplexity of algorithms\nComplexity of programming practices\nCompliance with Object-Oriented and Structured Programming best practices (when applicable)\nComponent or pattern re-use ratio\nDirty programming\nError &amp; Exception handling (for all layers - GUI, Logic &amp; Data)\nMulti-layer design compliance\nResource bounds management\nSoftware avoids patterns that will lead to unexpected behaviors\nSoftware manages data integrity and consistency\nTransaction complexity level\n\nDepending on the application architecture and the third-party components used (such as external libraries or frameworks), custom checks should be defined along the lines drawn by the above list of best practices to ensure a better assessment of the reliability of the delivered software.\n\nEfficiency \nAs with Reliability, the causes of performance inefficiency are often found in violations of good architectural and coding practice which can be detected by measuring the static quality attributes of an application. These static attributes predict potential operational performance bottlenecks and future scalability problems, especially for applications requiring high execution speed for handling complex algorithms or huge volumes of data.\nAssessing performance efficiency requires checking at least the following software engineering best practices and technical attributes:\n\nApplication Architecture Practices\nAppropriate interactions with expensive and\/or remote resources\nData access performance and data management\nMemory, network and disk space management\nCompliance with Coding Practices[68] (Best coding practices)\nSecurity \nSoftware quality includes software security.[69] Many security vulnerabilities result from poor coding and architectural practices such as SQL injection or cross-site scripting.[70][71] These are well documented in lists maintained by CWE,[72] and the SEI\/Computer Emergency Center (CERT) at Carnegie Mellon University.[68]\nAssessing security requires at least checking the following software engineering best practices and technical attributes:\n\nImplementation, Management of a security-aware and hardening development process, e.g. Security Development Lifecycle (Microsoft) or IBM's Secure Engineering Framework.[73]\nSecure Application Architecture Practices[74][75]\nMulti-layer design compliance\nSecurity best practices (Input Validation, SQL Injection, Cross-Site Scripting, Access control etc.)[76][77]\nSecure and good Programming Practices[68]\nError &amp; Exception handling\nMaintainability \nMaintainability includes concepts of modularity, understandability, changeability, testability, reusability, and transferability from one development team to another. These do not take the form of critical issues at the code level. Rather, poor maintainability is typically the result of thousands of minor violations with best practices in documentation, complexity avoidance strategy, and basic programming practices that make the difference between clean and easy-to-read code vs. unorganized and difficult-to-read code.[78]\nAssessing maintainability requires checking the following software engineering best practices and technical attributes:\n\n\nApplication Architecture Practices\nArchitecture, Programs and Code documentation embedded in source code\nCode readability\nCode smells\nComplexity level of transactions\nComplexity of algorithms\nComplexity of programming practices\nCompliance with Object-Oriented and Structured Programming best practices (when applicable)\nComponent or pattern re-use ratio\nControlled level of dynamic coding\nCoupling ratio\nDirty programming\nDocumentation\nHardware, OS, middleware, software components and database independence\nMulti-layer design compliance\nPortability\nProgramming Practices (code level)\nReduced duplicate code and functions\nSource code file organization cleanliness\n\nMaintainability is closely related to Ward Cunningham's concept of technical debt, which is an expression of the costs resulting of a lack of maintainability. Reasons for why maintainability is low can be classified as reckless vs. prudent and deliberate vs. inadvertent,[79][80] and often have their origin in developers' inability, lack of time and goals, their carelessness and discrepancies in the creation cost of and benefits from documentation and, in particular, maintainable source code.[81]\n\nSize \nMeasuring software size requires that the whole source code be correctly gathered, including database structure scripts, data manipulation source code, component headers, configuration files etc. There are essentially two types of software sizes to be measured, the technical size (footprint) and the functional size:\n\nThere are several software technical sizing methods that have been widely described. The most common technical sizing method is number of Lines of Code (#LOC) per technology, number of files, functions, classes, tables, etc., from which backfiring Function Points can be computed;\nThe most common for measuring functional size is function point analysis. Function point analysis measures the size of the software deliverable from a user's perspective. Function point sizing is done based on user requirements and provides an accurate representation of both size for the developer\/estimator and value (functionality to be delivered) and reflects the business functionality being delivered to the customer. The method includes the identification and weighting of user recognizable inputs, outputs and data stores. The size value is then available for use in conjunction with numerous measures to quantify and to evaluate software delivery and performance (development cost per function point; delivered defects per function point; function points per staff month.).\nThe function point analysis sizing standard is supported by the International Function Point Users Group (IFPUG). It can be applied early in the software development life-cycle and it is not dependent on lines of code like the somewhat inaccurate Backfiring method. The method is technology agnostic and can be used for comparative analysis across organizations and across industries.\nSince the inception of Function Point Analysis, several variations have evolved and the family of functional sizing techniques has broadened to include such sizing measures as COSMIC, NESMA, Use Case Points, FP Lite, Early and Quick FPs, and most recently Story Points. However, Function Points has a history of statistical accuracy, and has been used as a common unit of work measurement in numerous application development management (ADM) or outsourcing engagements, serving as the \"currency\" by which services are delivered and performance is measured.\nOne common limitation to the Function Point methodology is that it is a manual process and therefore it can be labor-intensive and costly in large scale initiatives such as application development or outsourcing engagements. This negative aspect of applying the methodology may be what motivated industry IT leaders to form the Consortium for IT Software Quality focused on introducing a computable metrics standard for automating the measuring of software size while the IFPUG keep promoting a manual approach as most of its activity rely on FP counters certifications.\nCISQ defines Sizing as to estimate the size of software to support cost estimating, progress tracking or other related software project management activities. Two standards are used: Automated Function Points to measure the functional size of software and Automated Enhancement Points to measure the size of both functional and non-functional code in one measure.[82]\n\nIdentifying critical programming errors \n \nCritical Programming Errors are specific architectural and\/or coding bad practices that result in the highest, immediate or long term, business disruption risk.[83]\nThese are quite often technology-related and depend heavily on the context, business objectives and risks. Some may consider respect for naming conventions while others \u2013 those preparing the ground for a knowledge transfer for example \u2013 will consider it as absolutely critical.\nCritical Programming Errors can also be classified per CISQ Characteristics. Basic example below: \n\nReliability\nAvoid software patterns that will lead to unexpected behavior (Uninitialized variable, null pointers, etc.)\nMethods, procedures and functions doing Insert, Update, Delete, Create Table or Select must include error management\nMulti-thread functions should be made thread safe, for instance servlets or struts action classes must not have instance\/non-final static fields\nEfficiency\nEnsure centralization of client requests (incoming and data) to reduce network traffic\nAvoid SQL queries that don't use an index against large tables in a loop\nSecurity\nAvoid fields in servlet classes that are not final static\nAvoid data access without including error management\nCheck control return codes and implement error handling mechanisms\nEnsure input validation to avoid cross-site scripting flaws or SQL injections flaws\nMaintainability\nDeep inheritance trees and nesting should be avoided to improve comprehensibility\nModules should be loosely coupled (fanout, intermediaries) to avoid propagation of modifications\nEnforce homogeneous naming conventions\nOperationalized quality models \nNewer proposals for quality models such as Squale and Quamoco[84] propagate a direct integration of the definition of quality attributes and measurement. By breaking down quality attributes or even defining additional layers, the complex, abstract quality attributes (such as reliability or maintainability) become more manageable and measurable. Those quality models have been applied in industrial contexts but have not received widespread adoption.\n\nTrivia \n\"A science is as mature as its measurement tools.\"[85]\n\"I know it when I see it.\"\n\"You cannot control what you cannot measure.\"[7] (Tom DeMarco)\n\"You cannot inspect quality into a product.\" (W. Edwards Deming)[86]\n\"The bitterness of poor quality remains long after the sweetness of meeting the schedule has been forgotten.\" (Anonymous)[86]\n\"If you don't start with a spec, every piece of code you write is a patch.\" (Leslie Lamport)\nSee also \n\nSoftware bug\nAccessibility\nAvailability\nBest coding practices\nCohesion and Coupling\nCyclomatic complexity\nCoding conventions\nComputer bug\nDependability\nGQM\nISO\/IEC 9126\nSoftware Process Improvement and Capability Determination - ISO\/IEC 15504\nProgramming style\nQuality: quality control, total quality management.\nRequirements management\nScope (project management)\nSecurity\nSecurity engineering\nSoftware quality assurance\nSoftware architecture\nSoftware quality control\nSoftware metrics\nSoftware reusability\nSoftware standard\nSoftware testing\nTestability\nStatic program analysis\nFurther reading \nAndroid OS Quality Guidelines including checklists for UI, Security, etc. July 2021\nAssociation of Maritime Managers in Information Technology &amp; Communications (AMMITEC). Maritime Software Quality Guidelines. September 2017\nCapers Jones and Olivier Bonsignour, \"The Economics of Software Quality\", Addison-Wesley Professional, 1st edition, December 31, 2011, ISBN&#160;978-0-13-258220-9\nCAT Lab - CNES Code Analysis Tools Laboratory (on GitHub)\nGirish Suryanarayana, Software Process versus Design Quality: Tug of War?[87]\nHo-Won Jung, Seung-Gweon Kim, and Chang-Sin Chung. Measuring software product quality: A survey of ISO\/IEC 9126. IEEE Software, 21(5):10\u201313, September\/October 2004.\nInternational Organization for Standardization. Software Engineering\u2014Product Quality\u2014Part 1: Quality Model. ISO, Geneva, Switzerland, 2001. ISO\/IEC 9126-1:2001(E).\nMeasuring Software Product Quality: the ISO 25000 Series and CMMI (SEI site)\nMSQF - A measurement based software quality framework Cornell University Library\nOmar Alshathry, Helge Janicke, \"Optimizing Software Quality Assurance,\" compsacw, pp.&#160;87\u201392, 2010 IEEE 34th Annual Computer Software and Applications Conference Workshops, 2010.\nRobert L. Glass. Building Quality Software. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1992.\nRoland Petrasch, \"The Definition of 'Software Quality': A Practical Approach\", ISSRE, 1999\nSoftware Quality Professional,[88] American Society for Quality (ASQ)\nSoftware Quality Journal[89] by Springer Nature\nSpinellis, Diomidis (2006-04-04). Code quality: the open source perspective. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, US: Addison-Wesley Professional. ISBN&#160;978-0-321-16607-4. \nStephen H. Kan. Metrics and Models in Software Quality Engineering. Addison-Wesley, Boston, MA, second edition, 2002.\nStefan Wagner. 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(1977), Elements of Software Science, Elsevier North-Holland \nHamill, M.; Goseva-Popstojanova, K. (2009), Common faults in software fault and failure data. IEEE Transactions of Software Engineering, 35 (4), pp.&#160;484\u2013496 \nJackson, D.J. (2009), A direct path to dependable software. Communications of the ACM, 52 (4). \nMartin, R. (2001), Managing vulnerabilities in networked systems, IEEE Computer. \nMcCabe, T. (December 1976), A complexity measure. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering \nMcConnell, Steve (1993), Code Complete (First&#160;ed.), Microsoft Press \nNygard, M.T. (2007), Release It! Design and Deploy Production Ready Software, The Pragmatic Programmers. \nPark, R.E. (1992), Software Size Measurement: A Framework for Counting Source Statements. (CMU\/SEI-92-TR-020)., Software Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon University \nPressman, Roger S. (2005). Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Approach (Sixth International&#160;ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN&#160;0071267824. \nSpinellis, D. (2006), Code Quality, Addison Wesley \n\nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Software quality .\n\nWhen code is king: Mastering automotive software excellence (McKinsey, 2021)\nEmbedded System Software Quality: Why is it so often terrible? What can we do about it? 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Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 20:28.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,358 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","dc7ddaaea83c58d8aa99e6ea33d93486_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Software_quality rootpage-Software_quality skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Software quality<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Refers to two related but distinct notions: functional quality and structural quality<\/div>\n\n<p>In the context of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_engineering\" title=\"Software engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe0adbaec2a85b6f2d492710b645f017\">software engineering<\/a>, <b>software quality<\/b> refers to two related but distinct notions:<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Software's functional quality reflects how well it complies with or conforms to a given design, based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_requirements\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Functional requirements\" data-key=\"b597e70c1da2f66ecf85342130afd67b\">functional requirements<\/a> or specifications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> That attribute can also be described as the fitness for purpose of a piece of software or how it compares to competitors in the marketplace as a worthwhile <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_(business)\" title=\"Product (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56bd07708a3bfd57d684969dc2feb35e\">product<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> It is the degree to which the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_verification_and_validation#Software_validation\" title=\"Software verification and validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b02b144a395e0f9d38278156d37f677\">correct<\/a> software was produced.<\/li>\n<li>Software structural quality refers to how it meets <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-functional_requirements\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Non-functional requirements\" data-key=\"90aa6f3f0d4678ca40b6d392f7971274\">non-functional requirements<\/a> that support the delivery of the functional requirements, such as robustness or maintainability. It has a lot more to do with the degree to which the software works as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_verification_and_validation#Software_verification\" title=\"Software verification and validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b32b5808fa8edde6ddb4ee0cc0f50d8\">needed<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Many aspects of structural quality can be evaluated only <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Static_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Static testing\" data-key=\"789d773852cbb6e2a5f98cf1df441011\">statically<\/a> through the analysis of the software inner structure, its source code (see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_metric\" title=\"Software metric\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f3065f25db5ca3d4b2d832ce4bda22ea\">Software metrics<\/a>),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> at the unit level, and at the system level (sometimes referred to as end-to-end testing<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>), which is in effect how its architecture adheres to sound principles of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_architecture\" title=\"Software architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43f46c00cad09fc2ff69a1344d2ae771\">software architecture<\/a> outlined in a paper on the topic by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object_Management_Group\" title=\"Object Management Group\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91e3b340a6dd1afe3c736aba727416e8\">Object Management Group<\/a> (OMG).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However some structural qualities, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Usability\" title=\"Usability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f8bb9a01a2102ed2348087b0be3b30a\">usability<\/a>, can be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Usability_testing#Methods\" title=\"Usability testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64b68f8c34044cb793dde31d4406083e\">assessed<\/a> only <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_testing\" title=\"Dynamic testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4298ec6fb1019c7015dd85a2086debb4\">dynamically<\/a> (users or others acting on their behalf interact with the software or, at least, some prototype or partial implementation; even the interaction with a mock version made in cardboard represents a dynamic test because such version can be considered a prototype). Other aspects, such as reliability, might involve not only the software but also the underlying hardware, therefore, it can be assessed both statically and dynamically (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stress_testing_(software)\" title=\"Stress testing (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"762246176b5965453edf8599cff83d7d\">stress test<\/a>).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Functional quality is typically assessed dynamically but it is also possible to use static tests (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_review\" title=\"Software review\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d109d64b73fffac91603a4beab28f6d\">software reviews<\/a>).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Historically, the structure, classification and terminology of attributes and metrics applicable to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_quality_management\" title=\"Software quality management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"657940ad491e314b2297f1c92ef39c97\">software quality management<\/a> have been derived or extracted from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_9126\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 9126\" data-key=\"66c9cb07b51a8b51f1cc1e1a05bfb845\">ISO 9126<\/a> and the subsequent standard.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Based on these models (see Models), the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CISQ\" title=\"CISQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e60ac27d14611b874edc34c6e30889a1\">Consortium for IT Software Quality<\/a> (CISQ) has defined five major desirable structural characteristics needed for a piece of software to provide <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_value\" title=\"Business value\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbe453a76fa8a56f699e73d30bf202b0\">business value<\/a>:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:6_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:6-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Reliability, Efficiency, Security, Maintainability and (adequate) Size.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Software quality measurement quantifies to what extent a software program or system rates along each of these five dimensions. An aggregated measure of software quality can be computed through a qualitative or a quantitative scoring scheme or a mix of both and then a weighting system reflecting the priorities. This view of software quality being positioned on a linear continuum is supplemented by the analysis of \"critical programming errors\" that under specific circumstances can lead to catastrophic outages or performance degradations that make a given system unsuitable for use regardless of rating based on aggregated measurements. Such programming errors found at the system level represent up to 90 percent of production issues, whilst at the unit-level, even if far more numerous, programming errors account for less than 10 percent of production issues (see also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ninety%E2%80%93ninety_rule\" title=\"Ninety\u2013ninety rule\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38f8257c47f99d8e494ce050e660cb5c\">Ninety\u2013ninety rule<\/a>). As a consequence, code quality without the context of the whole system, as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W._Edwards_Deming\" title=\"W. Edwards Deming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"674575ae1283fd24f50baa51bbb92ff5\">W. Edwards Deming<\/a> described it, has limited value.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>To view, explore, analyze, and communicate software quality measurements, concepts and techniques of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_visualization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information visualization\" data-key=\"470dd3dc6568025f97d2b1a4d84bfa30\">information visualization<\/a> provide visual, interactive means useful, in particular, if several software quality measures have to be related to each other or to components of a software or system. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_map\" title=\"Software map\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c86ec70cf451e49c890dacf3297f46a9\">software maps<\/a> represent a specialized approach that \"can express and combine information about software development, software quality, and system dynamics\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Software quality also plays a role in the release phase of a software project. Specifically, the quality and establishment of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Release_management\" title=\"Release management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"881358b587d7187eb6ff12e6d51d36c8\">release processes<\/a> (also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Patch_(computing)\" title=\"Patch (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6aa0aa386ec56a6cdb2f9786aca67e8f\">patch processes<\/a>),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Configuration_management\" title=\"Configuration management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c9f634bcce1231b1a7f52d4d90c10b2\">configuration management<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> are important parts of an overall software engineering process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Motivation\">Motivation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Software quality is motivated by at least two main perspectives:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_Management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Risk Management\" data-key=\"edaa4bed5b8a3e30f21006fd2d7fae70\">Risk management<\/a>: Software failure has caused more than inconvenience. Software errors can cause human fatalities (see for example: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_software_bugs\" title=\"List of software bugs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc401a824468832505b86cbc8cdb6fef\">List of software bugs<\/a>). The causes have ranged from poorly designed user interfaces to direct <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programming_error\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Programming error\" data-key=\"83930570c2f46f66fd4f2e4d9dfea500\">programming errors<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> see for example <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boeing_737#Accidents_and_incidents\" title=\"Boeing 737\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9deb552fbd59f7b9de82ec45f0165c03\">Boeing 737 case<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sudden_unintended_acceleration\" title=\"Sudden unintended acceleration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1821575cea2dc10d2ae43a203a1c70d\">Unintended acceleration<\/a> cases<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Therac-25\" title=\"Therac-25\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1d9aa90f889162414b63fda7d0b4210\">Therac-25<\/a> cases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> This resulted in requirements for the development of some types of software, particularly and historically for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embedded_software\" title=\"Embedded software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"718772c75beb9722368141dd4a23d484\">software embedded<\/a> in medical and other devices that regulate critical infrastructures: \"[Engineers who write embedded software] see Java programs stalling for one third of a second to perform garbage collection and update the user interface, and they envision airplanes falling out of the sky.\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> In the United States, within the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Aviation_Administration\" title=\"Federal Aviation Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d736ddf0e944082e14e5ce1aff5b3c60\">Federal Aviation Administration<\/a> (FAA), the FAA Aircraft Certification Service provides software programs, policy, guidance and training, focus on software and Complex Electronic Hardware that has an effect on the airborne product (a \"product\" is an aircraft, an engine, or a propeller).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> Certification standards such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DO-178C\" title=\"DO-178C\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9927c97590038247a8e81ed974c6ad7\">DO-178C<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_26262\" title=\"ISO 26262\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bca05dfb34c0ac8f5f60d99d88b590e1\">ISO 26262<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_62304\" title=\"IEC 62304\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0b2b04729364ff4cc3cd73c5bbc4a6a\">IEC 62304<\/a>, etc. provide guidance.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cost_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cost management\" data-key=\"06b91d2198273faa6898df2096b59d0d\">Cost management<\/a>: As in any other fields of engineering, a software product or service governed by good software quality costs less to maintain, is easier to understand and can change more cost-effective in response to pressing business needs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> Industry data demonstrate that poor application structural quality in core <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_application\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business application\" data-key=\"03c4d4826c1de69be2789323afc61d4b\">business applications<\/a> (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_resource_planning\" title=\"Enterprise resource planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"850b202e706427b4bdd62fd8c05e7c80\">enterprise resource planning<\/a> (ERP), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_relationship_management\" title=\"Customer relationship management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8203726ea504ac5ce9b5ce91be3a96b7\">customer relationship management<\/a> (CRM) or large <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transaction_processing\" title=\"Transaction processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc4654ebea47d9f14e7ebe49367c965c\">transaction processing<\/a> systems in financial services) results in cost, schedule overruns and creates waste in the form of rework (see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Muda_(Japanese_term)\" title=\"Muda (Japanese term)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03aee6b70466f2133ecd9d0f6c2f74fb\">Muda (Japanese term)<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> Moreover, poor structural quality is strongly correlated with high-impact business disruptions due to corrupted data, application outages, security breaches, and performance problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>CISQ reports on the cost of poor quality estimates an impact of:\n<ul><li>$2.08 trillion in 2020<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.it-cisq.org\/the-cost-of-poor-quality-software-in-the-us-a-2018-report\/The-Cost-of-Poor-Quality-Software-in-the-US-2018-Report.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">$2.84 trillion in 2018<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>IBM's Cost of a Data Breach Report 2020 estimates that the average global costs of a data breach:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>$3.86 million<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Definitions\">Definitions<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ISO\">ISO<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Software quality is the \"capability of a software product to conform to requirements.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> while for others it can be synonymous with customer- or value-creation<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> or even defect level.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> Software quality measurements can be split into three parts: process quality, product quality which includes internal and external properties and lastly, quality in use, which is the effect of the software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ASQ\">ASQ<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American_Society_for_Quality\" title=\"American Society for Quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67e678f5e73c2c4a53267b042f1ca7cc\">ASQ<\/a> uses the following definition: <i>Software quality<\/i> describes the desirable attributes of software products. There are two main approaches exist: defect management and quality attributes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"NIST\">NIST<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Software Assurance (SA) covers both the property and the process to achieve it:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>[Justifiable] confidence that software is free from vulnerabilities, either intentionally designed into the software or accidentally inserted at any time during its life cycle and that the software functions in the intended manner<\/li>\n<li>The planned and systematic set of activities that ensure that software life cycle processes and products conform to requirements, standards, and procedures<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"PMI\">PMI<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_Management_Institute\" title=\"Project Management Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc9a5e1151dc1d7c098ebfd6a3ba9fc9\">Project Management Institute<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_Management_Body_of_Knowledge\" title=\"Project Management Body of Knowledge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd05f05951552d75d24469a887257177\">PMBOK<\/a> Guide \"Software Extension\" defines not <i>\"Software quality\"<\/i> itself, but Software Quality Assurance (SQA) as <i>\"a continuous process that audits other software processes to ensure that those processes are being followed (includes for example a software quality management plan).\"<\/i> whereas Software Quality Control (SCQ) means <i>\"taking care of applying methods, tools, techniques to ensure satisfaction of the work products towards quality requirements for a software under development or modification.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><\/i>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_general_and_historic\">Other general and historic<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The first definition of quality history remembers is from Shewhart in the beginning of 20th century: <i>\"There are two common aspects of quality: one of them has to do with the consideration of the quality of a thing as an objective reality independent of the existence of man. The other has to do with what we think, feel or sense as a result of the objective reality. In other words, there is a subjective side of quality.\"<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barbara_Kitchenham\" title=\"Barbara Kitchenham\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e52bf6f8123115b236093da346da2acc\">Kitchenham<\/a> and Pfleeger, further reporting the teachings of David Garvin, identify five different perspectives on quality:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The transcendental perspective deals with the metaphysical aspect of quality. In this view of quality, it is \"something toward which we strive as an ideal, but may never implement completely\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kitchenham1996_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kitchenham1996-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> It can hardly be defined, but is similar to what a federal judge once commented about obscenity: \"I know it when I see it\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The user perspective is concerned with the appropriateness of the product for a given context of use. Whereas the transcendental view is ethereal, the user view is more concrete, grounded in the product characteristics that meet user's needs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kitchenham1996_47-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kitchenham1996-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The manufacturing perspective represents quality as conformance to requirements. This aspect of quality is stressed by standards such as ISO 9001, which defines quality as \"the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills requirements\" (ISO\/IEC 9001<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO9001_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO9001-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup>).<\/li>\n<li>The product perspective implies that quality can be appreciated by measuring the inherent characteristics of the product.<\/li>\n<li>The final perspective of quality is value-based.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_37-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> This perspective recognizes that the different perspectives of quality may have different importance, or value, to various stakeholders.<\/li><\/ul>\n<blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>The problem inherent in attempts to define the quality of a product, almost any product, were stated by the master Walter A. Shewhart. The difficulty in defining quality is to translate future needs of the user into measurable characteristics, so that a product can be designed and turned out to give satisfaction at a price that the user will pay. This is not easy, and as soon as one feels fairly successful in the endeavor, he finds that the needs of the consumer have changed, competitors have moved in, etc.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Deming1988_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Deming1988-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><\/p><div class=\"templatequotecite\">\u2014\u200a<cite><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W._Edwards_Deming\" title=\"W. Edwards Deming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"674575ae1283fd24f50baa51bbb92ff5\">W. Edwards Deming<\/a><\/cite><\/div><\/blockquote>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942\" \/><blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>Quality is a customer determination, not an engineer's determination, not a marketing determination, nor a general management determination. It is based on the customer's actual experience with the product or service, measured against his or her requirements -- stated or unstated, conscious or merely sensed, technically operational or entirely subjective -- and always representing a moving target in a competitive market.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Feigenbaum_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Feigenbaum-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942\" \/><blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>The word quality has multiple meanings. Two of these meanings dominate the use of the word: 1. Quality consists of those product features which meet the need of customers and thereby provide product satisfaction. 2. Quality consists of freedom from deficiencies. Nevertheless, in a handbook such as this it is convenient to standardize on a short definition of the word quality as \"fitness for use\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Juran1988_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Juran1988-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tom_DeMarco\" title=\"Tom DeMarco\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4107d2dc31952a0edf867566734b5ab\">Tom DeMarco<\/a> has proposed that \"a product's quality is a function of how much it changes the world for the better.\"<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> This can be interpreted as meaning that functional quality and user satisfaction are more important than structural quality in determining software quality.\n<\/p><p>Another definition, coined by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gerald_Weinberg\" title=\"Gerald Weinberg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"232aba2bae946825b1d383c6f0475614\">Gerald Weinberg<\/a> in Quality Software Management: Systems Thinking, is \"Quality is value to some person.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup> This definition stresses that quality is inherently subjective\u2014different people will experience the quality of the same software differently. One strength of this definition is the questions it invites software teams to consider, such as \"Who are the people we want to value our software?\" and \"What will be valuable to them?\".\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_meanings_and_controversies\">Other meanings and controversies<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of the challenges in defining quality is that \"everyone feels they understand it\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup> and other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_(business)#Notable_definitions\" title=\"Quality (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1db943bdb4678c70d89b2966baf889d\">definitions of software quality<\/a> could be based on extending the various descriptions of the concept of quality used in business.\n<\/p><p>Software quality also often gets mixed-up with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_assurance\" title=\"Quality assurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"680f2f1a2b91429b38fd9a1d2b226d01\">Quality Assurance<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Problem_management\" title=\"Problem management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"249616d64b36e0a270fcff91ce12e945\">Problem Resolution Management<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_control\" title=\"Quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53081160bfedb3363868fc07b231ab5c\">Quality Control<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_57-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DevOps\" title=\"DevOps\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad415eac03fb3b2c00a1b65dae580cea\">DevOps<\/a>. It does over-lap with before mentioned areas (see also PMI definitions), but is distinctive as it does not solely focus on testing but also on processes, management, improvements, assessments, etc.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_57-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-SoftwareQualityMeasurement\"><\/span>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Measurement\">Measurement<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Although the concepts presented in this section are applicable to both structural and functional software quality, measurement of the latter is essentially performed through testing [see main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing\" title=\"Software testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f063d549d38c63342218d62a80c724\">Software testing<\/a>].<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup> However, testing isn't enough: According to a study, individual programmers are less than 50% efficient at finding bugs in their own software.&#160;And most forms of testing are only 35% efficient. This makes it difficult to determine [software] quality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SoftwareQualityCharacteristicAttributeRelationship.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d934d8b372b52fb61ccaf6cd439f3ca\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/5\/54\/SoftwareQualityCharacteristicAttributeRelationship.png\/310px-SoftwareQualityCharacteristicAttributeRelationship.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"310\" height=\"308\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Relationship between software desirable characteristics (right) and measurable attributes (left)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Software quality measurement is about quantifying to what extent a system or software possesses desirable characteristics. This can be performed through qualitative or quantitative means or a mix of both. In both cases, for each desirable characteristic, there are a set of measurable attributes the existence of which in a piece of software or system tend to be correlated and associated with this characteristic. For example, an attribute associated with portability is the number of target-dependent statements in a program. More precisely, using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_Function_Deployment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Quality Function Deployment\" data-key=\"0ecf32e67ec398049b1e8ea1b06f8bf7\">Quality Function Deployment<\/a> approach, these measurable attributes are the \"hows\" that need to be enforced to enable the \"whats\" in the Software Quality definition above.\n<\/p><p>The structure, classification and terminology of attributes and metrics applicable to software quality management have been derived or extracted from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_9126\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 9126\" data-key=\"66c9cb07b51a8b51f1cc1e1a05bfb845\">ISO 9126-3<\/a> and the subsequent ISO\/IEC 25000:2005 quality model. The main focus is on internal structural quality. Subcategories have been created to handle specific areas like business application architecture and technical characteristics such as data access and manipulation or the notion of transactions.\n<\/p><p>The dependence tree between software quality characteristics and their measurable attributes is represented in the diagram on the right, where each of the 5 characteristics that matter for the user (right) or owner of the business system depends on measurable attributes (left):\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Application Architecture Practices<\/li>\n<li>Coding Practices<\/li>\n<li>Application Complexity<\/li>\n<li>Documentation<\/li>\n<li>Portability<\/li>\n<li>Technical and Functional Volume<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Correlations between programming errors and production defects unveil that basic code errors account for 92 percent of the total errors in the source code. These numerous code-level issues eventually count for only 10 percent of the defects in production. Bad software engineering practices at the architecture levels account for only 8 percent of total defects, but consume over half the effort spent on fixing problems, and lead to 90 percent of the serious reliability, security, and efficiency issues in production.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Code-based_analysis\">Code-based analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Many of the existing software measures count structural elements of the application that result from parsing the source code for such individual instructions<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup> tokens<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup> control structures (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_complexity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software complexity\" data-key=\"b2e3bdc0698f5af9b6f8e2f92336d33f\">Complexity<\/a>), and objects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Software quality measurement is about quantifying to what extent a system or software rates along these dimensions. The analysis can be performed using a qualitative or quantitative approach or a mix of both to provide an aggregate view [using for example weighted average(s) that reflect relative importance between the factors being measured].\n<\/p><p>This view of software quality on a linear continuum has to be supplemented by the identification of discrete <a href=\"#CriticalProgrammingErrors\">Critical Programming Errors<\/a>. These vulnerabilities may not fail a test case, but they are the result of bad practices that under specific circumstances can lead to catastrophic outages, performance degradations, security breaches, corrupted data, and myriad other problems<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup> that make a given system de facto unsuitable for use regardless of its rating based on aggregated measurements. A well-known example of vulnerability is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_Weakness_Enumeration\" title=\"Common Weakness Enumeration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f62fd5f8fa830b570c75f7bf2faf3ce\">Common Weakness Enumeration<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup> a repository of vulnerabilities in the source code that make applications exposed to security breaches.\n<\/p><p>The measurement of critical application characteristics involves measuring structural attributes of the application's architecture, coding, and in-line documentation, as displayed in the picture above. Thus, each characteristic is affected by attributes at numerous levels of abstraction in the application and all of which must be included calculating the characteristic's measure if it is to be a valuable predictor of quality outcomes that affect the business. The layered approach to calculating characteristic measures displayed in the figure above was first proposed by Boehm and his colleagues at TRW (Boehm, 1978)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup> and is the approach taken in the ISO 9126 and 25000 series standards. These attributes can be measured from the parsed results of a static analysis of the application source code. Even dynamic characteristics of applications such as reliability and performance efficiency have their causal roots in the static structure of the application.\n<\/p><p>Structural quality analysis and measurement is performed through the analysis of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Source_code\" title=\"Source code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4805f9becd39a1999614ab543deeb594\">source code<\/a>, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_architecture\" title=\"Software architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43f46c00cad09fc2ff69a1344d2ae771\">architecture<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_framework\" title=\"Software framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f71dbfb08a43d870691b58be38036a40\">software framework<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_schema\" title=\"Database schema\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab20ee150e597eb5a9db99cd7836853a\">database schema<\/a> in relationship to principles and standards that together define the conceptual and logical architecture of a system. This is distinct from the basic, local, component-level code analysis typically performed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Development_tool\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Development tool\" data-key=\"34cba1d29e986954c38f8ea965343e11\">development tools<\/a> which are mostly concerned with implementation considerations and are crucial during <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Debugging\" title=\"Debugging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f3a390a14e60386eb139f1f1f1d52f3e\">debugging<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing\" title=\"Software testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f063d549d38c63342218d62a80c724\">testing<\/a> activities.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reliability\">Reliability<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The root causes of poor reliability are found in a combination of non-compliance with good architectural and coding practices. This non-compliance can be detected by measuring the static quality attributes of an application. Assessing the static attributes underlying an application's reliability provides an estimate of the level of business risk and the likelihood of potential application failures and defects the application will experience when placed in operation.\n<\/p><p>Assessing reliability requires checks of at least the following software engineering best practices and technical attributes:\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"div-col\">\n<ul><li>Application Architecture Practices<\/li>\n<li>Coding Practices<\/li>\n<li>Complexity of algorithms<\/li>\n<li>Complexity of programming practices<\/li>\n<li>Compliance with Object-Oriented and Structured Programming best practices (when applicable)<\/li>\n<li>Component or pattern re-use ratio<\/li>\n<li>Dirty programming<\/li>\n<li>Error &amp; Exception handling (for all layers - GUI, Logic &amp; Data)<\/li>\n<li>Multi-layer design compliance<\/li>\n<li>Resource bounds management<\/li>\n<li>Software avoids patterns that will lead to unexpected behaviors<\/li>\n<li>Software manages data integrity and consistency<\/li>\n<li>Transaction complexity level<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>Depending on the application architecture and the third-party components used (such as external libraries or frameworks), custom checks should be defined along the lines drawn by the above list of best practices to ensure a better assessment of the reliability of the delivered software.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Efficiency\">Efficiency<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As with Reliability, the causes of performance inefficiency are often found in violations of good architectural and coding practice which can be detected by measuring the static quality attributes of an application. These static attributes predict potential operational performance bottlenecks and future scalability problems, especially for applications requiring high execution speed for handling complex algorithms or huge volumes of data.\n<\/p><p>Assessing performance efficiency requires checking at least the following software engineering best practices and technical attributes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Application Architecture Practices<\/li>\n<li>Appropriate interactions with expensive and\/or remote resources<\/li>\n<li>Data access performance and data management<\/li>\n<li>Memory, network and disk space management<\/li>\n<li>Compliance with Coding Practices<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_68-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Best_coding_practices\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Best coding practices\" data-key=\"3af867efd00ba3d17b33e9885ed323c6\">Best coding practices<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security\">Security<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Software quality includes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_security\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software security\" data-key=\"8fe986fb0edc3b9924251bf25aaca82a\">software security<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup> Many security vulnerabilities result from poor coding and architectural practices such as SQL injection or cross-site scripting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup> These are well documented in lists maintained by CWE,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup> and the SEI\/Computer Emergency Center <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CERT_Coordination_Center\" title=\"CERT Coordination Center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1142413f0929fb35d2d8d9093d2ff81e\">(CERT)<\/a> at Carnegie Mellon University.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_68-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Assessing security requires at least checking the following software engineering best practices and technical attributes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Implementation, Management of a security-aware and hardening development process, e.g. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_Development_Lifecycle\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Security Development Lifecycle\" data-key=\"c13393c64b8c04deff3820ab33cfda2e\">Security Development Lifecycle<\/a> (Microsoft) or IBM's Secure Engineering Framework.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Secure Application Architecture Practices<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Multi-layer design compliance<\/li>\n<li>Security best practices (Input Validation, SQL Injection, Cross-Site Scripting, Access control etc.)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-76\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Secure and good Programming Practices<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_68-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Error &amp; Exception handling<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Maintainability\">Maintainability<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Maintainability includes concepts of modularity, understandability, changeability, testability, reusability, and transferability from one development team to another. These do not take the form of critical issues at the code level. Rather, poor maintainability is typically the result of thousands of minor violations with best practices in documentation, complexity avoidance strategy, and basic programming practices that make the difference between clean and easy-to-read code vs. unorganized and difficult-to-read code.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Assessing maintainability requires checking the following software engineering best practices and technical attributes:\n<\/p>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\">\n<ul><li>Application Architecture Practices<\/li>\n<li>Architecture, Programs and Code documentation embedded in source code<\/li>\n<li>Code readability<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_smells\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Code smells\" data-key=\"a83e66a54320c59fe11a1442ac92be98\">Code smells<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Complexity level of transactions<\/li>\n<li>Complexity of algorithms<\/li>\n<li>Complexity of programming practices<\/li>\n<li>Compliance with Object-Oriented and Structured Programming best practices (when applicable)<\/li>\n<li>Component or pattern re-use ratio<\/li>\n<li>Controlled level of dynamic coding<\/li>\n<li>Coupling ratio<\/li>\n<li>Dirty programming<\/li>\n<li>Documentation<\/li>\n<li>Hardware, OS, middleware, software components and database independence<\/li>\n<li>Multi-layer design compliance<\/li>\n<li>Portability<\/li>\n<li>Programming Practices (code level)<\/li>\n<li>Reduced <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Duplicate_code\" title=\"Duplicate code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a2894d756fb6b9444accd6b23f0900a\">duplicate code<\/a> and functions<\/li>\n<li>Source code file organization cleanliness<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>Maintainability is closely related to Ward Cunningham's concept of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technical_debt\" title=\"Technical debt\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a53dab15ac64ee1bdb9161986e8e4833\">technical debt<\/a>, which is an expression of the costs resulting of a lack of maintainability. Reasons for why maintainability is low can be classified as reckless vs. prudent and deliberate vs. inadvertent,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup> and often have their origin in developers' inability, lack of time and goals, their carelessness and discrepancies in the creation cost of and benefits from documentation and, in particular, maintainable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Source_code\" title=\"Source code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4805f9becd39a1999614ab543deeb594\">source code<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-81\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Size\">Size<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Measuring software size requires that the whole source code be correctly gathered, including database structure scripts, data manipulation source code, component headers, configuration files etc. There are essentially two types of software sizes to be measured, the technical size (footprint) and the functional size:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>There are several <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_Sizing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software Sizing\" data-key=\"931d44230d0c5a3b33537f00fbc0f393\">software technical sizing<\/a> methods that have been widely described. The most common technical sizing method is number of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lines_of_Code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Lines of Code\" data-key=\"0dbe0b808c46ac7497cbc95b85524ad0\">Lines of Code<\/a> (#LOC) per technology, number of files, functions, classes, tables, etc., from which backfiring Function Points can be computed;<\/li>\n<li>The most common for measuring functional size is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Function_point\" title=\"Function point\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6497ab4976f479aee9be7bb5d1269170\">function point<\/a> analysis. Function point analysis measures the size of the software deliverable from a user's perspective. Function point sizing is done based on user requirements and provides an accurate representation of both size for the developer\/estimator and value (functionality to be delivered) and reflects the business functionality being delivered to the customer. The method includes the identification and weighting of user recognizable inputs, outputs and data stores. The size value is then available for use in conjunction with numerous measures to quantify and to evaluate software delivery and performance (development cost per function point; delivered defects per function point; function points per staff month.).<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The function point analysis sizing standard is supported by the International Function Point Users Group (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IFPUG\" title=\"IFPUG\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed6c7147e68ceee5331dbdde93ca3a20\">IFPUG<\/a>). It can be applied early in the software development life-cycle and it is not dependent on lines of code like the somewhat inaccurate Backfiring method. The method is technology agnostic and can be used for comparative analysis across organizations and across industries.\n<\/p><p>Since the inception of Function Point Analysis, several variations have evolved and the family of functional sizing techniques has broadened to include such sizing measures as COSMIC, NESMA, Use Case Points, FP Lite, Early and Quick FPs, and most recently Story Points. However, Function Points has a history of statistical accuracy, and has been used as a common unit of work measurement in numerous application development management (ADM) or outsourcing engagements, serving as the \"currency\" by which services are delivered and performance is measured.\n<\/p><p>One common limitation to the Function Point methodology is that it is a manual process and therefore it can be labor-intensive and costly in large scale initiatives such as application development or outsourcing engagements. This negative aspect of applying the methodology may be what motivated industry IT leaders to form the Consortium for IT Software Quality focused on introducing a computable metrics standard for automating the measuring of software size while the IFPUG keep promoting a manual approach as most of its activity rely on FP counters certifications.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CISQ\" title=\"CISQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e60ac27d14611b874edc34c6e30889a1\">CISQ<\/a> defines Sizing as to estimate the size of software to support cost estimating, progress tracking or other related software project management activities. Two standards are used: <i>Automated Function Points<\/i> to measure the functional size of software and <i>Automated Enhancement Points<\/i> to measure the size of both functional and non-functional code in one measure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-82\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Identifying_critical_programming_errors\">Identifying critical programming errors<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-CriticalProgrammingErrors\"><\/span> \nCritical Programming Errors are specific architectural and\/or coding bad practices that result in the highest, immediate or long term, business disruption risk.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>These are quite often technology-related and depend heavily on the context, business objectives and risks. Some may consider respect for naming conventions while others \u2013 those preparing the ground for a knowledge transfer for example \u2013 will consider it as absolutely critical.\n<\/p><p>Critical Programming Errors can also be classified per CISQ Characteristics. Basic example below: \n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Reliability\n<ul><li>Avoid software patterns that will lead to unexpected behavior (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uninitialized_variable\" title=\"Uninitialized variable\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"677d00adf97c45b146d56b86db0fbbca\">Uninitialized variable<\/a>, null pointers, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>Methods, procedures and functions doing Insert, Update, Delete, Create Table or Select must include error management<\/li>\n<li>Multi-thread functions should be made thread safe, for instance servlets or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Struts\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Apache Struts\" data-key=\"5957f1f42e255c8b5d988a787a1d5641\">struts<\/a> action classes must not have instance\/non-final static fields<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Efficiency\n<ul><li>Ensure centralization of client requests (incoming and data) to reduce network traffic<\/li>\n<li>Avoid SQL queries that don't use an index against large tables in a loop<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Security\n<ul><li>Avoid fields in servlet classes that are not final static<\/li>\n<li>Avoid data access without including error management<\/li>\n<li>Check control return codes and implement error handling mechanisms<\/li>\n<li>Ensure input validation to avoid cross-site scripting flaws or SQL injections flaws<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Maintainability\n<ul><li>Deep inheritance trees and nesting should be avoided to improve comprehensibility<\/li>\n<li>Modules should be loosely coupled (fanout, intermediaries) to avoid propagation of modifications<\/li>\n<li>Enforce homogeneous naming conventions<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Operationalized_quality_models\">Operationalized quality models<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Newer proposals for quality models such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Squale\" title=\"Squale\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc5845b90ef6c9a484185206f9f013ca\">Squale<\/a> and Quamoco<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-84\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup> propagate a direct integration of the definition of quality attributes and measurement. By breaking down quality attributes or even defining additional layers, the complex, abstract quality attributes (such as reliability or maintainability) become more manageable and measurable. Those quality models have been applied in industrial contexts but have not received widespread adoption.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Trivia\">Trivia<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>\"A science is as mature as its measurement tools.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-85\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I_know_it_when_I_see_it\" title=\"I know it when I see it\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e15bbe1b9a20c8657c2972609faccf04\">I know it when I see it<\/a>.\"<\/li>\n<li>\"You cannot control what you cannot measure.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:6_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:6-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tom_DeMarco\" title=\"Tom DeMarco\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4107d2dc31952a0edf867566734b5ab\">Tom DeMarco<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>\"You cannot inspect quality into a product.\" (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W._Edwards_Deming\" title=\"W. Edwards Deming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"674575ae1283fd24f50baa51bbb92ff5\">W. Edwards Deming<\/a>)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:5_86-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:5-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"The bitterness of poor quality remains long after the sweetness of meeting the schedule has been forgotten.\" (Anonymous)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:5_86-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:5-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"If you don't start with a spec, every piece of code you write is a patch.\" (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leslie_Lamport\" title=\"Leslie Lamport\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8aec40e1494625081567550f8789b7e0\">Leslie Lamport<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_bug\" title=\"Software bug\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00049a1c4790d11263f4838c2bbca3a0\">Software bug<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accessibility\" title=\"Accessibility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b03a29f12fb22a58105751f50b00570\">Accessibility<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability\" title=\"Availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"852165c687e5f61ae873818e8645f987\">Availability<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Best_coding_practices\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Best coding practices\" data-key=\"3af867efd00ba3d17b33e9885ed323c6\">Best coding practices<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cohesion_(computer_science)\" title=\"Cohesion (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98ae3fa4bd889fe5763e1515b06cacf4\">Cohesion<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coupling_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Coupling (computer science)\" data-key=\"71786ee754adaf12e617b8c8d877eac0\">Coupling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyclomatic_complexity\" title=\"Cyclomatic complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cdf1edf4e057a9e5df202b154d3d7b16\">Cyclomatic complexity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coding_conventions\" title=\"Coding conventions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8809e615fcbf9a53b23f04a4d6d0a51\">Coding conventions<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_bug\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer bug\" data-key=\"fbe3d5b0fc9bbb66f7e1d8d0f06630ca\">Computer bug<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dependability\" title=\"Dependability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c30cc92ff035a8185a45ca3fd9000eea\">Dependability<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GQM\" title=\"GQM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"473bb728d12becee8a8f5f378668d2c2\">GQM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_9126\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 9126\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59be5b68a759ccb08c8ab41059a7c9ed\">ISO\/IEC 9126<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_15504\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 15504\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7be0f9e43b4e9bba2b76698ca906ff9d\">Software Process Improvement and Capability Determination - ISO\/IEC 15504<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programming_style\" title=\"Programming style\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2015a564e71db31fd94f06d51a8bf3f\">Programming style<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_(business)\" title=\"Quality (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93c3fbb1e90ef808bed953ad4e2a10d6\">Quality<\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_control\" title=\"Quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53081160bfedb3363868fc07b231ab5c\">quality control<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_quality_management\" title=\"Total quality management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7ff8974e0ed3e523301170d7548c0c5\">total quality management<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Requirements_management\" title=\"Requirements management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"635d2547225a27bc1f7ffca0e05787f5\">Requirements management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scope_(project_management)\" title=\"Scope (project management)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d3f0db65b407ebd87340e08006c40d6\">Scope (project management)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security\" title=\"Security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e6b2450277dd2c09e3659581ee8b6ea\">Security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_engineering\" title=\"Security engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"607823fd746ac98ff4d3dc13924f7d1e\">Security engineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_quality_assurance\" title=\"Software quality assurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f973ed3721fcd3a4b813486e1aef498b\">Software quality assurance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_architecture\" title=\"Software architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43f46c00cad09fc2ff69a1344d2ae771\">Software architecture<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_quality_control\" title=\"Software quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8530d27aa2caf36e986466094d8f953\">Software quality control<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_metric\" title=\"Software metric\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f3065f25db5ca3d4b2d832ce4bda22ea\">Software metrics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_reusability\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software reusability\" data-key=\"e05ca1cab6d813125d228af6e2d8c0ed\">Software reusability<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_standard\" title=\"Software standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9952d796ff31a834ea019d6e229705cd\">Software standard<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing\" title=\"Software testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f063d549d38c63342218d62a80c724\">Software testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testability\" title=\"Software testability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96445798b28aecbdf34ce124f1df7a87\">Testability<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Static_program_analysis\" title=\"Static program analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6213a20a6941fb4caa7645255dc1de66\">Static program analysis<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Android_(operating_system)\" title=\"Android (operating system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4367a4e67ff6009ca76098e827576ad\">Android<\/a> OS <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/developer.android.com\/quality\" target=\"_blank\">Quality Guidelines<\/a> including checklists for UI, Security, etc. July 2021<\/li>\n<li>Association of Maritime Managers in Information Technology &amp; Communications (AMMITEC). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ammitec.org\/images\/AMMITEC_Maritime_Software_Quality_Guidelines_v1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Maritime Software Quality Guidelines<\/a>. September 2017<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capers_Jones\" title=\"Capers Jones\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1357ec3ab7c2d50799242c31e2a0abf3\">Capers Jones<\/a> and Olivier Bonsignour, \"The Economics of Software Quality\", Addison-Wesley Professional, 1st edition, December 31, 2011, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-13-258220-9<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cnescatlab.github.io\/\" target=\"_blank\">CAT Lab - CNES Code Analysis Tools Laboratory<\/a> (on GitHub)<\/li>\n<li>Girish Suryanarayana, Software Process versus Design Quality: Tug of War?<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ieeesw_87-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ieeesw-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Ho-Won Jung, Seung-Gweon Kim, and Chang-Sin Chung. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/doi.ieeecomputersociety.org\/10.1109\/MS.2004.1331309\" target=\"_blank\">Measuring software product quality: A survey of ISO\/IEC 9126<\/a>. <i>IEEE Software<\/i>, 21(5):10\u201313, September\/October 2004.<\/li>\n<li>International Organization for Standardization. <i>Software Engineering\u2014Product Quality\u2014Part 1: Quality Model<\/i>. ISO, Geneva, Switzerland, 2001. ISO\/IEC 9126-1:2001(E).<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sei.cmu.edu\/library\/abstracts\/presentations\/esepg.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">Measuring Software Product Quality: the ISO 25000 Series and CMMI (SEI site)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/arxiv-web3.library.cornell.edu\/abs\/1408.3253\" target=\"_blank\">MSQF - A measurement based software quality framework<\/a><\/i> Cornell University Library<\/li>\n<li>Omar Alshathry, Helge Janicke, \"Optimizing Software Quality Assurance,\" compsacw, pp.&#160;87\u201392, 2010 IEEE 34th Annual Computer Software and Applications Conference Workshops, 2010.<\/li>\n<li>Robert L. Glass. <i>Building Quality Software<\/i>. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1992.<\/li>\n<li>Roland Petrasch, \"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/258105237_The_Definition_of_Software_Quality-_A_Practical_Approach\" target=\"_blank\">The Definition of 'Software Quality': A Practical Approach<\/a>\", ISSRE, 1999<\/li>\n<li>Software Quality Professional,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-88\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American_Society_for_Quality\" title=\"American Society for Quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67e678f5e73c2c4a53267b042f1ca7cc\">American Society for Quality<\/a> (ASQ)<\/li>\n<li>Software Quality Journal<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-89\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-89\">[89]<\/a><\/sup> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Springer_Nature\" title=\"Springer Nature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"06decdde2594c7a3eeb6605ac6e933be\">Springer Nature<\/a><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSpinellis2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Spinellis, Diomidis (2006-04-04). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.spinellis.gr\/codequality\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Code quality: the open source perspective<\/i><\/a>. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, US: Addison-Wesley Professional. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-321-16607-4<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Code+quality%3A+the+open+source+perspective&amp;rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey%2C+US&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley+Professional&amp;rft.date=2006-04-04&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-321-16607-4&amp;rft.aulast=Spinellis&amp;rft.aufirst=Diomidis&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spinellis.gr%2Fcodequality%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li>Stephen H. Kan. <i>Metrics and Models in Software Quality Engineering<\/i>. Addison-Wesley, Boston, MA, second edition, 2002.<\/li>\n<li>Stefan Wagner. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.springer.com\/us\/book\/9783642385704\" target=\"_blank\">Software Product Quality Control<\/a>. Springer, 2013.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Notes<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/re-magazine.ireb.org\/articles\/learning-from-history-the-case-of-software-requirements-engineering\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Learning from history: The case of Software Requirements Engineering \u2013 Requirements Engineering Magazine\"<\/a>. <i>Learning from history: The case of Software Requirements Engineering \u2013 Requirements Engineering Magazine<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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McGraw-Hill Education. p.&#160;388. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0071267824<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Software+Engineering%3A+A+Practitioner%27s+Approach&amp;rft.pages=388&amp;rft.edition=Sixth+International&amp;rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.isbn=0071267824&amp;rft.aulast=Pressman&amp;rft.aufirst=Roger+S.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.omg.org\/spec\/ASCQM\/About-ASCQM\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"About the Automated Source Code Quality Measures Specification Version 1.0\"<\/a>. <i>www.omg.org<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(November 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/1353217\" target=\"_blank\">\"Software's secret sauce: the \"-ilities\" [software quality]\"<\/a>. <i>IEEE Software<\/i>. <b>21<\/b> (6): 14\u201315. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FMS.2004.54\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/MS.2004.54<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1937-4194\" target=\"_blank\">1937-4194<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Software&amp;rft.atitle=Software%27s+secret+sauce%3A+the+%22-ilities%22+%5Bsoftware+quality%5D&amp;rft.volume=21&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=14-15&amp;rft.date=2011-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMS.2004.54&amp;rft.issn=1937-4194&amp;rft.aulast=Voas&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F1353217&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:1-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.it-cisq.org\/standards\/code-quality-standards\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Code Quality Standards | CISQ - Consortium for Information &amp; Software Quality\"<\/a>. <i>www.it-cisq.org<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Proceedings of the IEEE ACM ICSE Workshop on Managing Technical Debt, pp. 9-16, 2011.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/na.theiia.org\/standards-guidance\/recommended-guidance\/practice-guides\/Pages\/Global-Technology-Audit-Guide-IT-Change-Management-Critical-for-Organizational-Success.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"IIA - Global Technology Audit Guide: IT Change Management: Critical for Organizational Success\"<\/a>. <i>na.theiia.org<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-02-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=na.theiia.org&amp;rft.atitle=IIA+-+Global+Technology+Audit+Guide%3A+IT+Change+Management%3A+Critical+for+Organizational+Success&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fna.theiia.org%2Fstandards-guidance%2Frecommended-guidance%2Fpractice-guides%2FPages%2FGlobal-Technology-Audit-Guide-IT-Change-Management-Critical-for-Organizational-Success.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBoursier2018\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Boursier, J\u00e9r\u00f4me (2018-01-11). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.malwarebytes.com\/cybercrime\/exploits\/2018\/01\/meltdown-and-spectre-fallout-patching-problems-persist\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Meltdown and Spectre fallout: patching problems persist\"<\/a>. <i>Malwarebytes Labs<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-02-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Malwarebytes+Labs&amp;rft.atitle=Meltdown+and+Spectre+fallout%3A+patching+problems+persist&amp;rft.date=2018-01-11&amp;rft.aulast=Boursier&amp;rft.aufirst=J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.malwarebytes.com%2Fcybercrime%2Fexploits%2F2018%2F01%2Fmeltdown-and-spectre-fallout-patching-problems-persist%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/docs.microsoft.com\/en-us\/mem\/configmgr\/sum\/plan-design\/software-updates-best-practices\" target=\"_blank\">\"Best practices for software updates - Configuration Manager\"<\/a>. <i>docs.microsoft.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-02-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=docs.microsoft.com&amp;rft.atitle=Best+practices+for+software+updates+-+Configuration+Manager&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocs.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fmem%2Fconfigmgr%2Fsum%2Fplan-design%2Fsoftware-updates-best-practices&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWright2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Wright, Hyrum K. (2009-08-25). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/1595782.1595793\" target=\"_blank\">\"Release engineering processes, models, and metrics\"<\/a>. <i>Proceedings of the doctoral symposium for ESEC\/FSE on Doctoral symposium<\/i>. ESEC\/FSE Doctoral Symposium '09. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Association for Computing Machinery. pp.&#160;27\u201328. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F1595782.1595793\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/1595782.1595793<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-60558-731-8<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:10483918\" target=\"_blank\">10483918<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Release+engineering+processes%2C+models%2C+and+metrics&amp;rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+doctoral+symposium+for+ESEC%2FFSE+on+Doctoral+symposium&amp;rft.place=Amsterdam%2C+the+Netherlands&amp;rft.series=ESEC%2FFSE+Doctoral+Symposium+%2709&amp;rft.pages=27-28&amp;rft.pub=Association+for+Computing+Machinery&amp;rft.date=2009-08-25&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10483918%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1595782.1595793&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-60558-731-8&amp;rft.aulast=Wright&amp;rft.aufirst=Hyrum+K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1145%2F1595782.1595793&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFvan_der_HoekHallHeimbignerWolf1997\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">van der Hoek, Andr\u00e9; Hall, Richard S.; Heimbigner, Dennis; Wolf, Alexander L. (November 1997). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F267896.267909\" target=\"_blank\">\"Software release management\"<\/a>. <i>ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes<\/i>. <b>22<\/b> (6): 159\u2013175. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F267896.267909\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/267896.267909<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0163-5948\" target=\"_blank\">0163-5948<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGSOFT+Software+Engineering+Notes&amp;rft.atitle=Software+release+management&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=159-175&amp;rft.date=1997-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F267896.267909&amp;rft.issn=0163-5948&amp;rft.aulast=van+der+Hoek&amp;rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&amp;rft.au=Hall%2C+Richard+S.&amp;rft.au=Heimbigner%2C+Dennis&amp;rft.au=Wolf%2C+Alexander+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1145%252F267896.267909&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSuttonMoore2008\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Sutton, Mike; Moore, Tym (2008-07-30). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cio.com\/article\/2434640\/7-ways-to-improve-your-software-release-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"7 Ways to Improve Your Software Release Management\"<\/a>. <i>CIO<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-02-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=CIO&amp;rft.atitle=7+Ways+to+Improve+Your+Software+Release+Management&amp;rft.date=2008-07-30&amp;rft.aulast=Sutton&amp;rft.aufirst=Mike&amp;rft.au=Moore%2C+Tym&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cio.com%2Farticle%2F2434640%2F7-ways-to-improve-your-software-release-management.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFClark2021\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Clark, Mitchell (2021-02-24). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2021\/2\/24\/22299346\/irobot-roomba-update-issues-vacuums-fix-several-weeks\" target=\"_blank\">\"iRobot says it'll be a few weeks until it can clean up its latest Roomba software update mess\"<\/a>. <i>The Verge<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-02-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Verge&amp;rft.atitle=iRobot+says+it%27ll+be+a+few+weeks+until+it+can+clean+up+its+latest+Roomba+software+update+mess&amp;rft.date=2021-02-24&amp;rft.aulast=Clark&amp;rft.aufirst=Mitchell&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2021%2F2%2F24%2F22299346%2Firobot-roomba-update-issues-vacuums-fix-several-weeks&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sans.org\/top25-software-errors\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Top 25 Software Errors\"<\/a>. <i>www.sans.org<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-02-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.sans.org&amp;rft.atitle=Top+25+Software+Errors&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sans.org%2Ftop25-software-errors%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/gizmodo.com\/turn-it-off-and-on-again-every-149-hours-is-a-concernin-1836818094\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>'Turn it Off and On Again Every 149 Hours' Is a Concerning Remedy for a $300 Million Airbus Plane's Software Bug\"<\/a>. <i>Gizmodo<\/i>. 30 July 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-02-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=embeddedgurus.com&amp;rft.atitle=An+Update+on+Toyota+and+Unintended+Acceleration+%C2%AB+Barr+Code&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fembeddedgurus.com%2Fbarr-code%2F2013%2F10%2Fan-update-on-toyota-and-unintended-acceleration%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sunnyday.mit.edu\/papers\/therac.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Medical Devices: The Therac-25*<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080216083852\/http:\/\/sunnyday.mit.edu\/papers\/therac.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2008-02-16 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, Nancy Leveson, University of Washington<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ptolemy.eecs.berkeley.edu\/publications\/papers\/02\/embsoft\/embsoftwre.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Embedded Software<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100705084849\/http:\/\/ptolemy.eecs.berkeley.edu\/publications\/papers\/02\/embsoft\/embsoftwre.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2010-07-05 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, Edward A. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-02-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=NIST&amp;rft.atitle=SAMATE+-+Software+Assurance+Metrics+And+Tool+Evaluation+project+main+page&amp;rft.date=2021-02-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsamate.nist.gov%2FMain_Page.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/959513383\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Software extension to the PMBOK guide<\/i><\/a>. Project Management Institute (5th&#160;ed.). Newtown Square, Pennsylvania. 2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-62825-041-1<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/959513383\" target=\"_blank\">959513383<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Software+extension+to+the+PMBOK+guide&amp;rft.place=Newtown+Square%2C+Pennsylvania&amp;rft.edition=5th&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F959513383&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-62825-041-1&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F959513383&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_book\" title=\"Template:Cite book\">cite book<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bfc82be2a8039a5c9ddc70b6cb10bda\">link<\/a>) CS1 maint: others (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_others\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: others\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"627f6dc7fbff4e2fb188e21febf64850\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-44\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShewart2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Shewart, Walter A. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1108913766\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Economioc control of quality of manufactured product<\/i><\/a>. [Place of publication not identified]: Martino Fine Books. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-61427-811-5<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1108913766\" target=\"_blank\">1108913766<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Economioc+control+of+quality+of+manufactured+product.&amp;rft.place=%5BPlace+of+publication+not+identified%5D&amp;rft.pub=Martino+Fine+Books&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1108913766&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-61427-811-5&amp;rft.aulast=Shewart&amp;rft.aufirst=Walter+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1108913766&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKitchenhamPfleeger1996\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barbara_Kitchenham\" title=\"Barbara Kitchenham\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e52bf6f8123115b236093da346da2acc\">Kitchenham, B.<\/a>; Pfleeger, S. L. (January 1996). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/476281\" target=\"_blank\">\"Software quality: the elusive target [special issues section]\"<\/a>. <i>IEEE Software<\/i>. <b>13<\/b> (1): 12\u201321. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2F52.476281\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/52.476281<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1937-4194\" target=\"_blank\">1937-4194<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Software&amp;rft.atitle=Software+quality%3A+the+elusive+target+%5Bspecial+issues+section%5D&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=12-21&amp;rft.date=1996-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F52.476281&amp;rft.issn=1937-4194&amp;rft.aulast=Kitchenham&amp;rft.aufirst=B.&amp;rft.au=Pfleeger%2C+S.+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F476281&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGarvin1988\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Garvin, David A. (1988). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/16005388\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Managing quality&#160;: the strategic and competitive edge<\/i><\/a>. New York: Free Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-02-911380-6<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/16005388\" target=\"_blank\">16005388<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Managing+quality+%3A+the+strategic+and+competitive+edge&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Free+Press&amp;rft.date=1988&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F16005388&amp;rft.isbn=0-02-911380-6&amp;rft.aulast=Garvin&amp;rft.aufirst=David+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F16005388&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Kitchenham1996-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Kitchenham1996_47-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Kitchenham1996_47-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barbara_Kitchenham\" title=\"Barbara Kitchenham\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e52bf6f8123115b236093da346da2acc\">B. Kitchenham<\/a> and S. Pfleeger, \"Software quality: the elusive target\", IEEE Software, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 12\u201321, 1996.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKan2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kan, Stephen H. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/50149641\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Metrics and models in software quality engineering<\/i><\/a> (2nd&#160;ed.). Boston: Addison-Wesley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-201-72915-6<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/50149641\" target=\"_blank\">50149641<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Metrics+and+models+in+software+quality+engineering&amp;rft.place=Boston&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50149641&amp;rft.isbn=0-201-72915-6&amp;rft.aulast=Kan&amp;rft.aufirst=Stephen+H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F50149641&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO9001-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO9001_49-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">International Organization for Standardization, \"ISO\/IEC 9001: Quality management systems -- Requirements,\" 1999.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Deming1988-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Deming1988_50-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">W. E. Deming, \"Out of the crisis: quality, productivity and competitive position\". Cambridge University Press, 1988.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Feigenbaum-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Feigenbaum_51-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">A. V. Feigenbaum, \"Total Quality Control\", McGraw-Hill, 1983.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Juran1988-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Juran1988_52-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">J.M. Juran, \"Juran's Quality Control Handbook\", McGraw-Hill, 1988.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-53\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWeinberg1991\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Weinberg, Gerald M. (1991). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/23870230\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Quality software management: Volume 1, Systems Thinking<\/i><\/a>. New York, N.Y.: Dorset House. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-932633-22-6<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/23870230\" target=\"_blank\">23870230<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Quality+software+management%3A+Volume+1%2C+Systems+Thinking&amp;rft.place=New+York%2C+N.Y.&amp;rft.pub=Dorset+House&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F23870230&amp;rft.isbn=0-932633-22-6&amp;rft.aulast=Weinberg&amp;rft.aufirst=Gerald+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F23870230&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-54\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWeinberg1993\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Weinberg, Gerald M. (1993). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/23870230\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Quality software management: Volume 2, First-Order Measurement<\/i><\/a>. New York, N.Y.: Dorset House. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-932633-22-6<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/23870230\" target=\"_blank\">23870230<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Quality+software+management%3A+Volume+2%2C+First-Order+Measurement&amp;rft.place=New+York%2C+N.Y.&amp;rft.pub=Dorset+House&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F23870230&amp;rft.isbn=0-932633-22-6&amp;rft.aulast=Weinberg&amp;rft.aufirst=Gerald+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F23870230&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Crosby, P., <i>Quality is Free<\/i>, McGraw-Hill, 1979<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.kuglermaag.com\/automotive-spice\/sup9-problem-resolution-management\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"SUP.9 \u2013 Problem Resolution Management - Kugler Maag Cie\"<\/a>. <i>www.kuglermaag.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-10-18<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=CWE+-+Common+Weakness+Enumeration&amp;rft.pub=Cwe.mitre.org&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcwe.mitre.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-73\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.redbooks.ibm.com\/abstracts\/redp4641.html?Open\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Security in Development: The IBM Secure Engineering Framework | IBM Redbooks<\/i><\/a>. 2016-09-30.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Security+in+Development%3A+The+IBM+Secure+Engineering+Framework+%7C+IBM+Redbooks&amp;rft.date=2016-09-30&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.redbooks.ibm.com%2Fabstracts%2Fredp4641.html%3FOpen&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-74\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.redbooks.ibm.com\/abstracts\/sg246014.html?Open\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Enterprise Security Architecture Using IBM Tivoli Security Solutions | IBM Redbooks<\/i><\/a>. 2016-09-30.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Enterprise+Security+Architecture+Using+IBM+Tivoli+Security+Solutions+%7C+IBM+Redbooks&amp;rft.date=2016-09-30&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.redbooks.ibm.com%2Fabstracts%2Fsg246014.html%3FOpen&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-75\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/us-cert.cisa.gov\/ics\/Secure-Architecture-Design-Definitions\" target=\"_blank\">\"Secure Architecture Design Definitions | CISA\"<\/a>. <i>us-cert.cisa.gov<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-03-09<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=us-cert.cisa.gov&amp;rft.atitle=Secure+Architecture+Design+Definitions+%7C+CISA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fus-cert.cisa.gov%2Fics%2FSecure-Architecture-Design-Definitions&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-76\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/owasp.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"OWASP Foundation | Open Source Foundation for Application Security\"<\/a>. <i>owasp.org<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-02-24<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=owasp.org&amp;rft.atitle=OWASP+Foundation+%7C+Open+Source+Foundation+for+Application+Security&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fowasp.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-77\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sans.org\/top25-programming-errors\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"CWE's Top 25\"<\/a>. Sans.org<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-10-18<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=CWE%27s+Top+25&amp;rft.pub=Sans.org&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sans.org%2Ftop25-programming-errors%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ifsq.org\/resources\/level-2\/booklet.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">IfSQ Level-2 A Foundation-Level Standard for Computer Program Source Code<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111027000121\/http:\/\/www.ifsq.org\/resources\/level-2\/booklet.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2011-10-27 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, Second Edition August 2008, Graham Bolton, Stuart Johnston, IfSQ, Institute for Software Quality.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFowler2009\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Fowler, Martin (October 14, 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/martinfowler.com\/bliki\/TechnicalDebtQuadrant.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"TechnicalDebtQuadrant\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130202111651\/http:\/\/martinfowler.com\/bliki\/TechnicalDebtQuadrant.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on February 2, 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 4,<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=TechnicalDebtQuadrant&amp;rft.date=2009-10-14&amp;rft.aulast=Fowler&amp;rft.aufirst=Martin&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmartinfowler.com%2Fbliki%2FTechnicalDebtQuadrant.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFStack_Overflow2021\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/stackoverflow.blog\/2021\/10\/18\/code-quality-a-concern-for-businesses-bottom-lines-and-empathetic-programmers\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Code quality: a concern for businesses, bottom lines, and empathetic programmers\"<\/a>. <i>Stack Overflow<\/i>. 2021-10-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2023-12-05<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Stack+Overflow&amp;rft.atitle=Code+quality%3A+a+concern+for+businesses%2C+bottom+lines%2C+and+empathetic+programmers&amp;rft.date=2021-10-18&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstackoverflow.blog%2F2021%2F10%2F18%2Fcode-quality-a-concern-for-businesses-bottom-lines-and-empathetic-programmers%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-81\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPrauseDurdik2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Prause, Christian; Durdik, Zoya (June 3, 2012). \"Architectural design and documentation: Waste in agile development?\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/publica.fraunhofer.de\/documents\/N-216042.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>2012 International Conference on Software and System Process (ICSSP)<\/i><\/a>. IEEE Computer Society. pp.&#160;130\u2013134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FICSSP.2012.6225956\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/ICSSP.2012.6225956<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4673-2352-9<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:15216552\" target=\"_blank\">15216552<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Architectural+design+and+documentation%3A+Waste+in+agile+development%3F&amp;rft.btitle=2012+International+Conference+on+Software+and+System+Process+%28ICSSP%29&amp;rft.pages=130-134&amp;rft.pub=IEEE+Computer+Society&amp;rft.date=2012-06-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15216552%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FICSSP.2012.6225956&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4673-2352-9&amp;rft.aulast=Prause&amp;rft.aufirst=Christian&amp;rft.au=Durdik%2C+Zoya&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublica.fraunhofer.de%2Fdocuments%2FN-216042.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-82\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.it-cisq.org\/standards\/software-sizing-standards\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Software Sizing Standards | CISQ - Consortium for Information &amp; Software Quality\"<\/a>. <i>www.it-cisq.org<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-01-28<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.it-cisq.org&amp;rft.atitle=Software+Sizing+Standards+%7C+CISQ+-+Consortium+for+Information+%26+Software+Quality&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.it-cisq.org%2Fstandards%2Fsoftware-sizing-standards%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-83\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/computing\/software\/why-software-fails\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why Software fails\"<\/a>. <i>IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News<\/i>. 2 September 2005<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-03-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Spectrum%3A+Technology%2C+Engineering%2C+and+Science+News&amp;rft.atitle=Why+Software+fails&amp;rft.date=2005-09-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Fcomputing%2Fsoftware%2Fwhy-software-fails&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-84\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWagnerGoebHeinemannKl\u00e4s2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wagner, Stefan; Goeb, Andreas; Heinemann, Lars; Kl\u00e4s, Michael; Lampasona, Constanza; Lochmann, Klaus; Mayr, Alois; Pl\u00f6sch, Reinhold; Seidl, Andreas (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/elib.uni-stuttgart.de\/opus\/volltexte\/2015\/9916\/pdf\/quamoco.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Operationalised product quality models and assessment: The Quamoco approach\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Information and Software Technology<\/i>. <b>62<\/b>: 101\u2013123. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1611.09230\" target=\"_blank\">1611.09230<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.infsof.2015.02.009\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.infsof.2015.02.009<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:10992384\" target=\"_blank\">10992384<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Information+and+Software+Technology&amp;rft.atitle=Operationalised+product+quality+models+and+assessment%3A+The+Quamoco+approach&amp;rft.volume=62&amp;rft.pages=101-123&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1611.09230&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10992384%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.infsof.2015.02.009&amp;rft.aulast=Wagner&amp;rft.aufirst=Stefan&amp;rft.au=Goeb%2C+Andreas&amp;rft.au=Heinemann%2C+Lars&amp;rft.au=Kl%C3%A4s%2C+Michael&amp;rft.au=Lampasona%2C+Constanza&amp;rft.au=Lochmann%2C+Klaus&amp;rft.au=Mayr%2C+Alois&amp;rft.au=Pl%C3%B6sch%2C+Reinhold&amp;rft.au=Seidl%2C+Andreas&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felib.uni-stuttgart.de%2Fopus%2Fvolltexte%2F2015%2F9916%2Fpdf%2Fquamoco.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-85\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEbert2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ebert, Christof (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/941931829\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Software Measurement: Establish - Extract - Evaluate - Execute<\/i><\/a>. 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IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering<\/i><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+complexity+measure.+IEEE+Transactions+on+Software+Engineering&amp;rft.date=1976-12&amp;rft.aulast=McCabe&amp;rft.aufirst=T.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMcConnell1993\" class=\"citation cs2\">McConnell, Steve (1993), <i>Code Complete<\/i> (First&#160;ed.), Microsoft Press<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Code+Complete&amp;rft.edition=First&amp;rft.pub=Microsoft+Press&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.aulast=McConnell&amp;rft.aufirst=Steve&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNygard2007\" class=\"citation cs2\">Nygard, M.T. (2007), <i>Release It! Design and Deploy Production Ready Software<\/i>, The Pragmatic Programmers.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Release+It%21+Design+and+Deploy+Production+Ready+Software&amp;rft.pub=The+Pragmatic+Programmers.&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.aulast=Nygard&amp;rft.aufirst=M.T.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPark1992\" class=\"citation cs2\">Park, R.E. (1992), <i>Software Size Measurement: A Framework for Counting Source Statements. (CMU\/SEI-92-TR-020).<\/i>, Software Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon University<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Software+Size+Measurement%3A+A+Framework+for+Counting+Source+Statements.+%28CMU%2FSEI-92-TR-020%29.&amp;rft.pub=Software+Engineering+Institute%2C+Carnegie+Mellon+University&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.aulast=Park&amp;rft.aufirst=R.E.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPressman2005\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roger_S._Pressman\" title=\"Roger S. Pressman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"030c9ec78bd2a3b1124d94e22a8a7ba6\">Pressman, Roger S.<\/a> (2005). <i>Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Approach<\/i> (Sixth International&#160;ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0071267824<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Software+Engineering%3A+A+Practitioner%27s+Approach&amp;rft.edition=Sixth+International&amp;rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.isbn=0071267824&amp;rft.aulast=Pressman&amp;rft.aufirst=Roger+S.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSpinellis2006\" class=\"citation cs2\">Spinellis, D. (2006), <i>Code Quality<\/i>, Addison Wesley<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Code+Quality&amp;rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.aulast=Spinellis&amp;rft.aufirst=D.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware+quality\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mckinsey.com\/industries\/automotive-and-assembly\/our-insights\/when-code-is-king-mastering-automotive-software-excellence\" target=\"_blank\">When code is king: Mastering automotive software excellence<\/a> (McKinsey, 2021)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/users.ece.cmu.edu\/~koopman\/lectures\/2016_issre.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Embedded System Software Quality: Why is it so often terrible? What can we do about it?<\/a> (by <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/users.ece.cmu.edu\/~koopman\/\" target=\"_blank\">Philip Koopman<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.it-cisq.org\/standards\/code-quality-standards\/\" target=\"_blank\">Code Quality Standards<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CISQ\" title=\"CISQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e60ac27d14611b874edc34c6e30889a1\">CISQ<\/a>\u2122<\/li>\n<li>CISQ Blog: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.it-cisq.org\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/blog.it-cisq.org<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/microelectronics.esa.int\/vhdl\/pss\/PSS-05-11.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Guide to software quality assurance<\/a> (ESA)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/emits.sso.esa.int\/emits-doc\/e_support\/Bssc962.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Guide to applying the ESA software engineering standards to small software projects<\/a> (ESA)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/centers\/ivv\/pdf\/192949main_ESA_Garcia.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">An Overview of ESA Software Product Assurance Services<\/a> (NASA\/ESA)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lsoares.medium.com\/our-approach-to-quality-in-volkswagen-software-dev-center-lisbon-72f5728e2235\" target=\"_blank\">Our approach to quality in Volkswagen Software Dev Center Lisbon<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/google.github.io\/styleguide\/\" target=\"_blank\">Google Style Guides<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoq.com\/news\/2011\/03\/Ensuring-Product-Quality-Google\/\" target=\"_blank\">Ensuring Product Quality at Google<\/a> (2011)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/sma.nasa.gov\/sma-disciplines\/software-assurance\" target=\"_blank\">NASA Software Assurance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nist.gov\/itl\/ssd\/software-quality-group\" target=\"_blank\">NIST Software Quality Group<\/a><\/li>\n<li>OMG\/CISQ <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.it-cisq.org\/standards\/automated-function-points\/\" target=\"_blank\">Automated Function Points<\/a> ()<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.omg.org\/spec\/ATDM\/\" target=\"_blank\">OMG Automated Technical Debt Standard<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/re-magazine.ireb.org\/articles\/automated-quality-assurance\" target=\"_blank\">Automated Quality Assurance<\/a> (articled in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Requirements_Engineering_Board\" title=\"International Requirements Engineering Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0be8977655f57985c13ddd13858b9aa\">IREB<\/a> by Harry Sneed)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nist.gov\/publications\/structured-testing-testing-methodology-using-cyclomatic-complexity-metric\" target=\"_blank\">Structured Testing: A Testing Methodology Using the Cyclomatic Complexity Metric<\/a> (1996)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/docs.microsoft.com\/en-us\/previous-versions\/visualstudio\/visual-studio-2015\/code-quality\/analyzing-application-quality-by-using-code-analysis-tools?view=vs-2015\" target=\"_blank\">Analyzing Application Quality by Using Code Analysis Tools<\/a> (Microsoft, Documentation, Visual Studio, 2016)<\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1406\nCached time: 20240105200233\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.967 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.119 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6107\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 244452\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 6201\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 2\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 284354\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.609\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 9457574\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 967.528 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>38.57% 373.189 1 Template:Reflist\n19.42% 187.856 53 Template:Cite_web\n12.53% 121.272 17 Template:Cite_book\n 9.40% 90.914 16 Template:Citation\n 9.11% 88.130 5 Template:Navbox\n 7.61% 73.627 1 Template:Software_quality\n 6.59% 63.723 1 Template:More_citations_needed\n 6.14% 59.418 1 Template:Ambox\n 5.49% 53.115 5 Template:Citation_needed\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:1301906-0!canonical and timestamp 20240105200232 and revision id 1193814316. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_quality\" data-key=\"11847ca4905fc5832744a035c3e0258a\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110004332\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.281 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.656 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 233308\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 526.561 1 wikipedia:Software_quality\n100.00% 526.561 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10365-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110004331 and revision id 49517. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_quality\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_quality<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","dc7ddaaea83c58d8aa99e6ea33d93486_images":[],"dc7ddaaea83c58d8aa99e6ea33d93486_timestamp":1704907013,"dfecf3cd6f18d4a5e9ac49ca360b447d_type":"article","dfecf3cd6f18d4a5e9ac49ca360b447d_title":"Quality management system","dfecf3cd6f18d4a5e9ac49ca360b447d_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_management_system","dfecf3cd6f18d4a5e9ac49ca360b447d_plaintext":"\n\nQuality management systemFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award is a prestigious National Institute of Standards and Technology-managed award that honors excellence in product and process, customer, workforce, leadership, and financial outcomes that are based on a quality management system.A quality management system (QMS) represents the collection of documented processes, management models, business strategies, human capital, and information technology that are used to plan, develop, deploy, evaluate, and improve a set of models, methods, and tools across an organization for the purpose of improving quality, particularly in-line with the organization's strategic goals. The successful development and deployment of a QMS requires the assessment of organizational resources, customer needs, industry product cycles, and more.&#91;1&#93; A QMS will attempt to establish organizational policy and objectives for resource management, assign responsibility and authority to personnel, and put into place an organizational structure among personnel.&#91;2&#93; The QMS will also be designed to focus on the core elements of quality management: planning, control, assurance, and improvement.&#91;3&#93; However, a QMS should not be confused with product and service standards, which tend to give \"explicit requirements that specific products and services should conform to\" rather than broad good management practices applicable to any product or service.&#91;4&#93;\nA successful quality management system may drive competitiveness in the organization, but competitiveness is not the core goal of a QMS; rather, customer satisfaction and, to a lesser degree, financial performance are tied to a successful QMS implementation.&#91;1&#93; Additionally, a QMS may reduce waste, identify and facilitate training, and improve staff engagement.&#91;5&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 QMS standards and elements \n\n2.1 QMS elements \n\n2.1.1 Quality policy and objectives \n2.1.2 Quality manual \n2.1.3 Procedures, instructions, and records \n2.1.4 Data management \n2.1.5 Internal processes \n2.1.6 Focus on customers \n2.1.7 Quality analysis \n2.1.8 Continual improvement \n\n\n\n\n3 Special cases \n\n3.1 Laboratories \n3.2 Medical device industry \n\n\n4 Electronic quality management system \n5 Certifications and awards \n6 Further reading \n7 Notes \n8 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nThe concept of \"quality\" as we think of it today first emerged from the Industrial Revolution. Previously, goods had been made from start to finish by the same person or team of people, with handcrafting and tweaking of a product to meet quality criteria. Mass production brought huge teams of people together to work on specific stages of production, where one person would not necessarily complete a product from start to finish. This mass production inevitably led to a decline in quality due to its emphasis on driving down prices rather than quality. This led to \"a neeed for a more regulated system both in ensuring that machines used by manufacturers were not the real problem for substandard goods as well as checking items as they came off the production line.\"&#91;6&#93;\nIn the early 1900s, pioneers such as Frederick Winslow Taylor and Henry Ford recognized the limitations of the methods being used in mass production at the time and the subsequent varying quality of output. Taylor, utilizing the concept of scientific management, helped separate production tasks into many simple steps (the assembly line) and limited quality control to a few specific individuals, in turn limiting complexity.&#91;7&#93; Ford emphasized standardization of design and component standards to ensure a standard product was produced, while quality was the responsibility of machine inspectors, \"placed in each department to cover all operations ... at frequent intervals, so that no faulty operation shall proceed for any great length of time.\"&#91;8&#93;\nPost World War II saw statistician and mathematician William Edwards Deming (after whom the Deming Prize for quality is named), the father of the quality management movement, develop a theory of quality management that focused on the \"joy in work,\" while placing emphasis on quality at each step of a process, not simply on the final inspection.&#91;9&#93; This led to several Japanese scientists and engineers inviting Deming to Japan in 1950 to share his ideas on statistical methods towards improved quality, with several companies seeing productivity and profit gains after adoption.&#91;9&#93; In 1951, engineer and management consultant Joseph M. Juran published the first edition of Juran's Quality Handbook, an influential guide to quality management that focused on \"fitness for use by the customer\" as a goal of quality. Juran's work, focusing on management's influence on quality, had a similar impact on the Japanese. The combination of Deming's and Juran's influence ultimately led to the Japanese developing their own take on quality management: Japanese Total Quality Control.&#91;9&#93;\nIn the mid-twentieth century, the focus on quality as a professional and a managerial process saw the quality profession grow from simple engineering controls to systems engineering that took quality into account at its various steps. This was most noticeable in the Japanese strategy to industry, though the U.S. didn't clearly recognize it until the early 1980s. With the decline in price competition and increase in quality competition in the 1970's putting American manufacturing in a difficult position, the early to mid-1980s saw the U.S.' industrial and government leaders recognize Japan's quality strategy&#91;10&#93;, committing to a renewed emphasis on quality in order to stay relevant in an expanding and competitive world market. The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Improvement Act of 1987 spawned the associated National Quality Program, commonly referred to as the Baldridge model&#91;1&#93;, and an award program that acted as a standard of excellence to further drive quality innovation in the marketplace. That same year, the ISO 9001, 9002, and 9003 standards were published; based off work from previous British and U.S. military standards, the standards sought to \"provide organizations with the requirements to create a quality management system (QMS) for a range of different business activities.\"&#91;11&#93; Other awards like the Deming Prize were set up by the Japanese, and the first non-Japanese company to win the prize was the U.S.'s Florida Light and Power in 1989.&#91;12&#93; The trend continued into Europe with the introduction of the European Foundation for Quality Management in 1991.&#91;1&#93; \nBy 1994, the ISO 9000 standards saw a new iteration, putting a new focus on preventative action.&#91;11&#93; At least 150 countries adopted the ISO 9000 standards by the end of 1999, with the associated third-party registration industry having a total economic impact of $4 billion. The number of adopting countries had climbed to 161 by the summer of 2002&#91;13&#93;, after the major update of the ISO 9001:2000 standard, which merged 9002 and 9003 into it and added new process-based changes.&#91;11&#93; Changes in 2008 were minor, but the 2015 revision saw major revisions in structure and how common requirements were aligned with other relevant standards, with more of a focus on risk-based thinking.&#91;11&#93;\n\nQMS standards and elements \nMany standards are used internationally for designing, implementing, and auditing quality management systems, though ISO 9001:2015 is the most well recognized and used. Other standards include&#91;5&#93;:\n\nISO 9000 and 9004\nISO 13485 for medical devices\nISO 14001 for environmental management\nISO 15189 for medical laboratories\nISO 19011 for auditing management\nISO\/IEC 17021-1 for bodies auditing and certifying management systems\nISO\/IEC 17025 for laboratories (to be updated at the end of 2017&#91;14&#93;)\nISO\/TS 16949 for automotive manufacturing\nQMS elements \nWhile quality management systems may vary by industry and by company policy, most typically share the same base-level elements, including&#91;5&#93;:\n\norganizational quality policy and objectives\nquality manual\nset of procedures, instructions, and records\ndata management\ninternal processes\nproduct\/service quality that leads to customer satisfaction\nquality analysis\ncontinual improvement, including corrective and preventive action\nQuality policy and objectives \nThese items should be an expression of senior management's desire to commit to a QMS, based on the standard(s) used and the company's vision and mission. The policy will largely focus on customers and other interested parties, using a process approach that uses evidence-based decision making and encourages improvement. Quality objectives are derived from the policy and cover all functional levels of the business.&#91;15&#93;\n\nQuality manual \nA quality manual is the first set of documentation primary to a QMS, and it's used to communicate management's expectations towards quality, how to conform to them, and how to measure that conformity. The manual typically contains a full description of the QMS, describing the standard-based requirements, quality procedures, exclusions, interactions, and granular quality policies. A successful quality manual further guides a business towards continual improvement.&#91;16&#93;&#91;17&#93;\n\n Procedures, instructions, and records \nQuality procedures don't have a set format but should include a series of consistent elements, including title, purpose, scope, responsible parties, resulting records, document controls, activity descriptions, and appendices. Any instructions should be similarly structured but also include \"details of activities that need to be realized, focusing on the sequencing of the steps, tools, and methods to be used and required accuracy.\"&#91;18&#93; A record of proofs provide traceability of the various actions taken to comply with those quality procedures and instructions, providing tools for continual improvement and corrective action.&#91;19&#93;\n\nData management \nFrom creating the policies and procedures to tracking conformance to them, files records of various sorts are inevitably created. Being able to integrate those documents and related data across the enterprise can be tricky but beneficial. Strong data management policies applied to quality data help businesses can not only mitigate risk and determine trends but also help them maintain regulatory compliance. Setting up data management policies and systems requires planning, however, including determining data types, data ownership, data quality, and metadata availability. Additional, any quality data management policy and system should meet organizational goals while identifying what should be included and excluded, and they should include a clear roadmap for how it will be implemented. Quality data management systems should be able to hand normalization, versioning, archiving, and compliance-related security.&#91;20&#93;\n\nInternal processes \n Guaging product and service quality through customer satisfaction analysis is another major part of a quality management system.\nKeeping a QMS process-based allows the various inputs and outputs of a business stay connected and unified in quality. By recognizing that \"the output of one process becomes the input of another process,\"&#91;15&#93; a single integrated process that depends on quality is revealed. Derived from procedures and instructions, a process map is built, detailing resources, authority, risks, and evaluation methods that are associated with those processes.&#91;21&#93;\n\nFocus on customers \nProduct and\/or service quality that leads to customer satisfaction is a primary goal of a QMS. This focus often comes down from senior leadership, who encourages personnel to take a similar focus through the management of relevant requirements, the management of relevant risks and opportunities, and the commitment to improving customer satisfaction.&#91;21&#93; Overall company policies should include this focus, which should then make it's way into more effective process management, and by extension, higher customer satisfaction, measured using a set of principles that include data collected directly from customers and an additive formula that aggregates all that data into a global picture of satisfaction.&#91;22&#93;\n\nQuality analysis \nA major part of a QMS is evaluating and improving processes and procedures to improve overall quality. Part of this process may include defect analysis for products, customer satisfaction analysis for services, and corrective action planning. Also included is overall product testing, tests that, for a product, may measure material, electrical, stressed, etc. characteristics to ensure functionality for the end-user. Even the business' own operations may be scrutinized to identify points in the system where physical or economical impact is most negatively felt. \n\nContinual improvement \nContinual improvement recognizes that customer needs change over time and that an incremental innovation process should always be in place to address those changing needs. \"Small steps, high frequency and small change cycles seen separately have small impacts but, added up can bring a significant contribution to the company\u2019s performance.\"&#91;23&#93; Optimally the idea of continual improvement should also be promoted by senior leadership, finding its way not only into the quality manual but ultimately also into the work culture.&#91;23&#93;\n\nSpecial cases \nLaboratories \nSeveral guidelines apply to laboratories, whether they conduct testing, calibration, or other activities. The most commonly used standard that discusses the use of a quality management system is ISO\/IEC 17025. Originally focused on calibration and testing activities, a revised version of the standard is set to be published at the end of 2017 with a broader scope of all laboratory activities.&#91;14&#93; The revised standard will also be more inline with the process approach of ISO 9001 (already used in research and development laboratories&#91;24&#93;), ISO 15189 for medical laboratories, and ISO\/IEC 17021-1 for bodies auditing and certifying management systems.&#91;14&#93; ISO\/IEC 17025 essentially lays out the management and technical requirements for a laboratories quality management system and how it should be implemented and assessed.&#91;25&#93; \nAdditionally, ISO 15189 addresses quality management systems in four major components: management responsibility, resource management, service realization, and continual improvement.&#91;26&#93; Also related is the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute's (CLSI) GP26-A3 and HS1-A2 standards on quality management system models, which offer 12 quality system essentials and are compatible with the associated ISO standards.&#91;27&#93;\n\nMedical device industry \nThe two primary guidelines for medical device manufacturer quality management systems in the United States are the ISO 13485 standard and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) 21 CFR Part 820 regulations. The two have a great deal of similarity, and many manufacturers adopt a QMS that is compliant with both guidelines. Outside the U.S., ISO 13485 has synergies with the European Union medical devices directives (93\/42\/EEC and 90\/385\/EEC; superseded by Regulation (EU) 2017\/745 in May 2017&#91;28&#93;) as well as the in vitro diagnostic medical device directive (98\/79\/EC and 2010\/227\/EU; superseded by Regulation (EU) 2017\/746 in May 2017&#91;28&#93;). The ISO standard is also incorporated in regulations for other jurisdictions such as Japan (JPAL) and Canada (CMDCAS).\nAccording to current good manufacturing practice (GMP), medical device manufacturers have the responsibility to use good judgment when developing their quality system and apply relevant sections standards, regulations, and guidelines that are applicable to their specific products and operations. As with GMP, operating within this flexibility, it is the responsibility of each manufacturer to establish requirements for each type or family of devices that will result in devices that are safe and effective, and to establish methods and procedures to design, produce, and distribute devices that meet the quality system requirements.\nBecause the FDA's 21 CFR Part 820 regulation covers a broad spectrum of devices and production processes, it allows some leeway in the details of quality system elements. It is left up to manufacturers to determine the necessity for, or extent of, some quality elements and to develop and implement procedures tailored to their particular processes and devices. For example, if it is impossible to mix up labels at a manufacturer because there is only one label to each product, then it's not necessary for the manufacturer to comply with all of the GMP requirements under device labeling.\n\nElectronic quality management system \nAs businesses and organizations have begun converting to digital data management methodologies and bringing data sources together for improved workflow and insights, the quality management system has moved from the paper realm to the electronic realm. This change allows for a more dynamic QMS that can be analyzed and updated more readily while digitally serving up a quality message to everyone in the organization.&#91;29&#93; An electronic QMS (eQMS) also provides more real-time data management, including automatically keeping track of any trend-related metrics that management require, record retention policies, inspection data, training records, and risk analysis data.&#91;30&#93;&#91;31&#93;\nThe eQMS may also integrate features from other software systems, including&#91;32&#93;&#91;33&#93;:\n\ndocument management, including change control and automated forms\/reports\nassignment and scheduling\ncorrective and preventive action (CAPA)\nlearning management\naudit trail and tracking\ncustomer management\nprocess and workflow management\nelectronic submission management\nCertifications and awards \n A visualization of the European Foundation for Quality Management's take on total quality management\nOrganizations can participate in a continuing certification process to ISO 9001:2015 to demonstrate their compliance with the standard, which includes a requirement for continual (i.e., planned) improvement of the QMS, as well as more foundational QMS components such as failure mode and effects analysis.&#91;34&#93;\nIn the U.S., the national Baldrige Performance Excellence Program educates organizations in improving their performance and administers the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award. The Baldrige Award recognizes U.S. organizations for performance excellence based on the Baldrige Criteria for Performance Excellence. The Criteria address critical aspects of management that contribute to performance excellence: leadership; strategy; customers; measurement, analysis, and knowledge management; workforce; operations; and results.&#91;35&#93; Other state and local Baldrige programs can be found via the non-profit Alliance for Performance Excellence.&#91;36&#93;\nSince 1984, Canada's National Quality Institute has presented the Canada Awards for Excellence on an annual basis to organizations that have displayed outstanding performance in the areas of quality and workplace wellness and have met the institute's criteria with documented overall achievements and results.&#91;37&#93;\nIn Europe, the European Foundation for Quality Management's EFQM Model supports an award scheme similar to the Baldrige Award for European companies.&#91;38&#93; Additionally, the European Quality in Social Services (EQUASS) sector-specific quality system addresses quality principles that are specific to personal services providers in the social and vocational education and training (VET) sectors.&#91;39&#93;\n\nFurther reading \nPeters, R.H.&#32;(2016).&#32;\"Developing and Maintaining a Laboratory Quality Management System - Version 3.0\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;American Industrial Hygiene Association.&#32;pp. 175.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 09 November 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171109230926\/ttps:\/\/www.aiha.org\/education\/MyCourses\/Lab%20course\/2.%20Student%20Manual.pdf . &#160; \nPraxiom Research Group Limited&#32;(16 August 2017).&#32;\"ISO 9001 Translated Into Plain English\".&#32;Praxiom Research Group Limited.&#32;https:\/\/www.praxiom.com\/iso-9001.htm . &#160; \nWorld Health Organization&#32;(2011)&#32;(PDF).&#32;Laboratory Quality Management System Handbook.&#32;World Health Organization.&#32;pp.&#160;246.&#32;ISBN&#160;9789241548274.&#32;https:\/\/www.who.int\/ihr\/publications\/lqms_en.pdf . &#160; \nNotes \nThis article reuses a few elements from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Rocha-Lona, L.; Garza-Reyes, J.A.; Kumar, V.&#32;(2013).&#32;Building Quality Management Systems: Selecting the Right Methods and Tools.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;202.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781466564992.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=i0sriCb7tLYC&amp;pg=PA1 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Schlickman, J.J.&#32;(2003).&#32;ISO 9001:2000 Quality Management System Design.&#32;Artech House.&#32;p.&#160;14.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781580535960.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FkQB4GRB7uwC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Nanda, V.&#32;(2016).&#32;Quality Management System Handbook for Product Development Companies.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;352.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781420025309.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=guizsuAAyR4C&amp;pg=PA1 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 ISO\/TC 176&#32;(2016).&#32;\"ISO 9001:2015 for Small Enterprises: What to do?\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;ISO.&#32;ISBN&#160;9789267106946.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/files\/live\/sites\/isoorg\/files\/archive\/pdf\/en\/iso_9001_2015_for_small_enterprises-preview.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 5.2 \"What Is A Quality Management System (QMS)? ISO 9001 &amp; Other Quality Management Systems\".&#32;American Society for Quality. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Hendrickson, K.E.&#32;(2014).&#32;\"Quality Assurance and Control\".&#32;The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History.&#32;3.&#32;Rowman &amp; Littlefield.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780810888883.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=EdwsCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA758 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Papp, J.&#32;(2014).&#32;Quality Management in the Imaging Sciences.&#32;Elsevier Health Sciences.&#32;pp.&#160;372.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780323261999.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1akTBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA3 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wood, J.C.; Wood, M.C., ed.&#32;(2003).&#32;Henry Ford: Critical Evaluations in Business and Management.&#32;1.&#32;Taylor and Francis.&#32;pp.&#160;384.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780415248259.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=3XXxhbDU9P4C&amp;pg=PA300 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 9.0 9.1 9.2 Gitlow, H.S.&#32;(2000).&#32;Quality Management Systems: A Practical Guide.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;296.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781574442618.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=O5aq0HMyXOcC&amp;pg=PA1 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Total Quality\".&#32;Learn About Quality.&#32;American Society for Quality.&#32;https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/history-of-quality#development .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 \"ISO 9002 and 9003: Is ISO 9001 a suitable replacement?\".&#32;QMS International.&#32;9 December 2017.&#32;https:\/\/www.qmsuk.com\/news\/iso-9002-and-9003-is-iso-9001-a-suitable-replacement .&#32;Retrieved 02 November 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Cole, R.E.&#32;(1999).&#32;\"Chapter 3: How Much Did You Know and When Did You Know It?\".&#32;Managing Quality Fads: How American Business Learned to Play the Quality Game.&#32;Oxford University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;63\u201381.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780198028604.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=uBN7CYnaT74C&amp;pg=PA67 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Schlickman, J.J.&#32;(2003).&#32;ISO 9001:2000 Quality Management System Design.&#32;Artech House.&#32;p.&#160;xxii.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781580535960.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FkQB4GRB7uwC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 14.0 14.1 14.2 Tranchard, S.&#32;(6 September 2017).&#32;\"ISO\/IEC 17025 moves to final stage of revision\".&#32;ISO News.&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/ref2212.html .&#32;Retrieved 09 November 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 15.0 15.1 \"ISO 9000 2015 Plain English Definitions\".&#32;ISO Standards (In Plain English).&#32;Praxiom Research Group Limited.&#32;4 February 2017.&#32;https:\/\/www.praxiom.com\/iso-definition.htm .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Payne, G.C..&#32;\"ISO 9001 Quality Manual\".&#32;American Society for Quality.&#32;https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/iso-9001-quality-manual .&#32;Retrieved 09 November 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"What is an ISO 9001 Quality Manual?\".&#32;9000 Store.&#32;Standards Stores.&#32;https:\/\/the9000store.com\/articles\/iso-9000-tips-what-is-a-quality-manual\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Meskovska, A.&#32;(23 October 2014).&#32;\"How to structure quality management system documentation\".&#32;ISO 9001 Knowledge Base.&#32;Advisera Expert Solutions Ltd.&#32;https:\/\/advisera.com\/9001academy\/knowledgebase\/how-to-structure-quality-management-system-documentation\/ .&#32;Retrieved 09 November 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Besterfield, D.H.; Besterfield\u2013Michna, C.; Bestefield, G.H. et al.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Chapter 10: Quality Management Systems\".&#32;Total Quality Management&#32;(Revised 3rd ed.).&#32;Pearson Education India.&#32;pp.&#160;205\u2013238.&#32;ISBN&#160;9788131732274. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Lewis, M.&#32;(10 August 2015).&#32;\"Data Quality Management for Better Big Data Analytics\".&#32;Sciente Consulting Pte. Ltd.&#32;https:\/\/www.scienteconsulting.com\/blogs\/785\/data-quality-management-big-data-analytics\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 21.0 21.1 \"ISO 9001 Translated Into Plain English\".&#32;Praxiom Research Group Limited.&#32;16 August 2017.&#32;https:\/\/www.praxiom.com\/iso-9001.htm .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Siskos, Y.; Grigoroudis, E.&#32;(2002).&#32;\"Measuring Customer Satisfaction for Various Services Using Multicriteria Analysis\".&#32;In&#32;Bouyssou, D.; Jacquet-Lagr\u00e8ze, E.; Perny, P. et al..&#32;Aiding Decisions with Multiple Criteria.&#32;International Series in Operations Research &amp; Management Science.&#32;44.&#32;Springer Boston.&#32;doi:10.1007\/978-1-4615-0843-4_20.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781461508434. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 23.0 23.1 Fatima Chiaradia Valad\u00e3o, A. de; Silva Campos, P.H. da; Turrioni, J.B.&#32;(2013).&#32;\"Relationship between the Maturity of Continuous Improvement and the Certification of Quality Management System in Automotive Sector in Brazil\".&#32;Independent Journal of Management &amp; Production&#32;4&#32;(1): 96\u2013110.&#32;doi:10.14807\/ijmp.v4i1.61. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Robins, M.M.; Scarll, S.J.; Key, P.E.&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Quality assurance in research laboratories\".&#32;Accreditation and Quality Assurance&#32;11&#32;(5): 214\u2013223.&#32;doi:10.1007\/s00769-006-0129-5. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Peters, R.H.&#32;(2016).&#32;\"Developing and Maintaining a Laboratory Quality Management System - Version 3.0\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;American Industrial Hygiene Association.&#32;pp. 175.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 09 November 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171109230926\/ttps:\/\/www.aiha.org\/education\/MyCourses\/Lab%20course\/2.%20Student%20Manual.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Flynn, G.J.; Coffey, J.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"ISO 15189 Medical Laboratories: Understanding the Four Components of a Quality Management System\".&#32;In&#32;Michel, R.L.; Khanna, P..&#32;Dark Intelligence Group, Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 09 November 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171110000425\/https:\/\/s3.amazonaws.com\/ppt-download\/iso15189medicallaboratoriesunderstandingthefourcomponentsofaqualitymanagementsystem-110624141711-phpapp01.pdf?response-content-disposition=attachment&amp;Signature=2XEf%2FLP2tfn4tu2TgmX4pUn2X9w%3D&amp;Expires=1510272516&amp;AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ6D6SEMXSASXHDAQ .&#32;Retrieved 09 November 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 World Health Organization&#32;(2011)&#32;(PDF).&#32;Laboratory Quality Management System Handbook.&#32;World Health Organization.&#32;pp.&#160;246.&#32;ISBN&#160;9789241548274.&#32;https:\/\/www.who.int\/ihr\/publications\/lqms_en.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 21 November 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 28.0 28.1 \"Medical Devices: Regulatory Framework\".&#32;European Commission.&#32;11 September 2017.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 25 September 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170925072043\/https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/growth\/sectors\/medical-devices\/regulatory-framework_en .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Arbogast, S.&#32;(7 July 2009).&#32;\"Electronic Quality Management Systems Are Worth The Money\".&#32;Quality Digest.&#32;Quality Circle Institute, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/electronic-quality-management-systems-are-worth-money.html .&#32;Retrieved 21 November 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Ramchandani, H.&#32;(7 October 2014).&#32;\"Embracing an electronic quality management system\".&#32;PharmOut.&#32;PharmOut Pty Ltd.&#32;https:\/\/www.pharmout.net\/embracing-an-electronic-qms\/ .&#32;Retrieved 21 November 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jensen, D.&#32;(25 May 2017).&#32;\"How an Electronic Quality Management System Helps With Cybersecurity\".&#32;MasterControl Blog.&#32;MasterControl, Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 13 July 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170713180729\/http:\/\/mastercontrolinc.blogspot.com\/2017\/05\/how-electronic-quality-management.html .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Olamiji, O.&#32;(February 2016).&#32;\"3.3 Electronic document management software (EDMS) (Literature review)\".&#32;Implementation of an electronic quality management system document management module to support reconfiguration of a district general hospital pathology department quality management system.&#32;University of Portsmouth.&#32;https:\/\/researchportal.port.ac.uk\/portal\/files\/5489195\/Thesis_QMS_2016.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 28 November 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Walsh, C.&#32;(29 January 2015).&#32;\"Why does your organization need an electronic quality management system?\".&#32;QUMAS Limited.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 25 August 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825090231\/http:\/\/www.qumas.com\/why-does-your-organization-need-electronic-quality-management-system .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Lazarte, M.&#32;(23 September 2015).&#32;\"SO 9001:2015 - Just published!\".&#32;ISO News.&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/2015\/09\/Ref2002.html .&#32;Retrieved 21 November 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"How Baldridge Works\".&#32;Baldrige Performance Excellence Program.&#32;National Institute of Standards and Technology.&#32;20 July 2016.&#32;https:\/\/www.nist.gov\/baldrige\/how-baldrige-works .&#32;Retrieved 21 November 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The Alliance for Performance Excellence\".&#32;Baldrige Foundation.&#32;2020.&#32;https:\/\/www.baldrigealliance.org\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Canada Awards for Excellence\".&#32;Excellence Canada.&#32;2016.&#32;https:\/\/excellence.ca\/canada-awards-for-excellence\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The EFQM Model\".&#32;EFQM.&#32;https:\/\/www.efqm.org\/efqm-model\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"About EQUASS\".&#32;European Platform for Rehabilitation.&#32;https:\/\/www.equass.be\/index.php\/about-equass .&#32;Retrieved 21 November 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_management_system<\/a>\nCategories: Quality managementSoftware systemsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 September 2022, at 17:21.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 35,358 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","dfecf3cd6f18d4a5e9ac49ca360b447d_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Quality_management_system rootpage-Quality_management_system skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Quality management system<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Baldrige_Award_Crystal_with_MBNQA_backdrop,_2013_Baldrige_Award_Ceremony,_April_6,_2014_(13887406957).jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5abfb5376214d23b4a3e4754c9c76aa\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e5\/Baldrige_Award_Crystal_with_MBNQA_backdrop%2C_2013_Baldrige_Award_Ceremony%2C_April_6%2C_2014_%2813887406957%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Baldrige_Award_Crystal_with_MBNQA_backdrop,_2013_Baldrige_Award_Ceremony,_April_6,_2014_(13887406957).jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"e5abfb5376214d23b4a3e4754c9c76aa\"><\/a><\/div>The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award is a prestigious National Institute of Standards and Technology-managed award that honors excellence in product and process, customer, workforce, leadership, and financial outcomes that are based on a quality management system.<\/div><\/div><\/div><p>A <b>quality management system<\/b> (<b>QMS<\/b>) represents the collection of documented processes, management models, business strategies, human capital, and information technology that are used to plan, develop, deploy, evaluate, and improve a set of models, methods, and tools across an organization for the purpose of improving quality, particularly in-line with the organization's strategic goals. The successful development and deployment of a QMS requires the assessment of organizational resources, customer needs, industry product cycles, and more.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rocha-LonaBuilding13_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rocha-LonaBuilding13-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> A QMS will attempt to establish organizational policy and objectives for resource management, assign responsibility and authority to personnel, and put into place an organizational structure among personnel.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchlickmanISO09001_03a_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchlickmanISO09001_03a-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The QMS will also be designed to focus on the core elements of quality management: planning, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_control\" title=\"Quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f\">control<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_assurance\" title=\"Quality assurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ede4490f0ea707b14456f44439c0984\">assurance<\/a>, and improvement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NandaQuality16_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NandaQuality16-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, a QMS should not be confused with product and service standards, which tend to give \"explicit requirements that specific products and services should conform to\" rather than broad good management practices applicable to any product or service.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISOISO9001_16_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISOISO9001_16-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A successful quality management system may drive competitiveness in the organization, but competitiveness is not the core goal of a QMS; rather, customer satisfaction and, to a lesser degree, financial performance are tied to a successful QMS implementation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rocha-LonaBuilding13_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rocha-LonaBuilding13-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, a QMS may reduce waste, identify and facilitate training, and improve staff engagement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASQWhatIs_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASQWhatIs-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The concept of \"quality\" as we think of it today first emerged from the Industrial Revolution. Previously, goods had been made from start to finish by the same person or team of people, with handcrafting and tweaking of a product to meet quality criteria. Mass production brought huge teams of people together to work on specific stages of production, where one person would not necessarily complete a product from start to finish. This mass production inevitably led to a decline in quality due to its emphasis on driving down prices rather than quality. This led to \"a neeed for a more regulated system both in ensuring that machines used by manufacturers were not the real problem for substandard goods as well as checking items as they came off the production line.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HendricksonTheEncyclopedia14_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HendricksonTheEncyclopedia14-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the early 1900s, pioneers such as Frederick Winslow Taylor and Henry Ford recognized the limitations of the methods being used in mass production at the time and the subsequent varying quality of output. Taylor, utilizing the concept of scientific management, helped separate production tasks into many simple steps (the assembly line) and limited quality control to a few specific individuals, in turn limiting complexity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PappQuality14_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PappQuality14-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Ford emphasized standardization of design and component standards to ensure a standard product was produced, while quality was the responsibility of machine inspectors, \"placed in each department to cover all operations ... at frequent intervals, so that no faulty operation shall proceed for any great length of time.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WoodHenry03_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WoodHenry03-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Post World War II saw statistician and mathematician William Edwards Deming (after whom the Deming Prize for quality is named), the father of the quality management movement, develop a theory of quality management that focused on the \"joy in work,\" while placing emphasis on quality at each step of a process, not simply on the final inspection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GitlowQuality00_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GitlowQuality00-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This led to several Japanese scientists and engineers inviting Deming to Japan in 1950 to share his ideas on statistical methods towards improved quality, with several companies seeing productivity and profit gains after adoption.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GitlowQuality00_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GitlowQuality00-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In 1951, engineer and management consultant Joseph M. Juran published the first edition of <i>Juran's Quality Handbook<\/i>, an influential guide to quality management that focused on \"fitness for use by the customer\" as a goal of quality. Juran's work, focusing on management's influence on quality, had a similar impact on the Japanese. The combination of Deming's and Juran's influence ultimately led to the Japanese developing their own take on quality management: Japanese Total Quality Control.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GitlowQuality00_9-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GitlowQuality00-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the mid-twentieth century, the focus on quality as a professional and a managerial process saw the quality profession grow from simple engineering controls to systems engineering that took quality into account at its various steps. This was most noticeable in the Japanese strategy to industry, though the U.S. didn't clearly recognize it until the early 1980s. With the decline in price competition and increase in quality competition in the 1970's putting American manufacturing in a difficult position, the early to mid-1980s saw the U.S.' industrial and government leaders recognize Japan's quality strategy<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASQTotal_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASQTotal-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, committing to a renewed emphasis on quality in order to stay relevant in an expanding and competitive world market. The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Malcolm_Baldrige_National_Quality_Improvement_Act_of_1987\" title=\"Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Improvement Act of 1987\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7df67ad4e11beb8588b80fa3edd05365\">Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Improvement Act of 1987<\/a> spawned the associated National Quality Program, commonly referred to as the Baldridge model<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rocha-LonaBuilding13_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rocha-LonaBuilding13-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, and an award program that acted as a standard of excellence to further drive quality innovation in the marketplace. That same year, the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9001, 9002, and 9003<\/a> standards were published; based off work from previous British and U.S. military standards, the standards sought to \"provide organizations with the requirements to create a quality management system (QMS) for a range of different business activities.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QMSIntISO16_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QMSIntISO16-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Other awards like the Deming Prize were set up by the Japanese, and the first non-Japanese company to win the prize was the U.S.'s Florida Light and Power in 1989.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ColeManaging99_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ColeManaging99-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The trend continued into Europe with the introduction of the European Foundation for Quality Management in 1991.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rocha-LonaBuilding13_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rocha-LonaBuilding13-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>By 1994, the ISO 9000 standards saw a new iteration, putting a new focus on preventative action.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QMSIntISO16_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QMSIntISO16-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> At least 150 countries adopted the ISO 9000 standards by the end of 1999, with the associated third-party registration industry having a total economic impact of $4 billion. The number of adopting countries had climbed to 161 by the summer of 2002<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchlickmanISO09001_03b_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchlickmanISO09001_03b-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, after the major update of the ISO 9001:2000 standard, which merged 9002 and 9003 into it and added new process-based changes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QMSIntISO16_11-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QMSIntISO16-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Changes in 2008 were minor, but the 2015 revision saw major revisions in structure and how common requirements were aligned with other relevant standards, with more of a focus on risk-based thinking.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QMSIntISO16_11-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QMSIntISO16-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"QMS_standards_and_elements\">QMS standards and elements<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Many standards are used internationally for designing, implementing, and auditing quality management systems, though ISO 9001:2015 is the most well recognized and used. Other standards include<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASQWhatIs_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASQWhatIs-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000<\/a> and 9004<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_13485\" title=\"ISO 13485\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27e9e00b401ddda3d2c10a91ea0ad936\">ISO 13485<\/a> for medical devices<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_14000\" title=\"ISO 14000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ab61ccf84b43bb050f057e5426c1e2b\">ISO 14001<\/a> for environmental management<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189\" title=\"ISO 15189\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2\">ISO 15189<\/a> for medical laboratories<\/li>\n<li>ISO 19011 for auditing management<\/li>\n<li>ISO\/IEC 17021-1 for bodies auditing and certifying management systems<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a> for laboratories (to be updated at the end of 2017<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TranchardISOIEC17_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TranchardISOIEC17-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/TS_16949\" title=\"ISO\/TS 16949\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98e43baa168925d15899a66e9c9f0b8f\">ISO\/TS 16949<\/a> for automotive manufacturing<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"QMS_elements\">QMS elements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While quality management systems may vary by industry and by company policy, most typically share the same base-level elements, including<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASQWhatIs_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASQWhatIs-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>organizational quality policy and objectives<\/li>\n<li>quality manual<\/li>\n<li>set of procedures, instructions, and records<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management\" title=\"Information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73\">data management<\/a><\/li>\n<li>internal processes<\/li>\n<li>product\/service quality that leads to customer satisfaction<\/li>\n<li>quality analysis<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Continual_improvement_process\" title=\"Continual improvement process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd7b54be3f6cdd0e8ed84d501486d668\">continual improvement<\/a>, including corrective and preventive action<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality_policy_and_objectives\">Quality policy and objectives<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>These items should be an expression of senior management's desire to commit to a QMS, based on the standard(s) used and the company's vision and mission. The policy will largely focus on customers and other interested parties, using a process approach that uses evidence-based decision making and encourages improvement. Quality objectives are derived from the policy and cover all functional levels of the business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO9000PlainEngDefs_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO9000PlainEngDefs-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality_manual\">Quality manual<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>A quality manual is the first set of documentation primary to a QMS, and it's used to communicate management's expectations towards quality, how to conform to them, and how to measure that conformity. The manual typically contains a full description of the QMS, describing the standard-based requirements, quality procedures, exclusions, interactions, and granular quality policies. A successful quality manual further guides a business towards continual improvement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PayneISO9001_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PayneISO9001-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO9000QM_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO9000QM-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Procedures,_instructions,_and_records\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Procedures.2C_instructions.2C_and_records\">Procedures, instructions, and records<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Quality procedures don't have a set format but should include a series of consistent elements, including title, purpose, scope, responsible parties, resulting records, document controls, activity descriptions, and appendices. Any instructions should be similarly structured but also include \"details of activities that need to be realized, focusing on the sequencing of the steps, tools, and methods to be used and required accuracy.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MeskovskaHowTo14_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MeskovskaHowTo14-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup> A record of proofs provide traceability of the various actions taken to comply with those quality procedures and instructions, providing tools for continual improvement and corrective action.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BesterfieldTotal11_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BesterfieldTotal11-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_management\">Data management<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>From creating the policies and procedures to tracking conformance to them, files records of various sorts are inevitably created. Being able to integrate those documents and related data across the enterprise can be tricky but beneficial. Strong data management policies applied to quality data help businesses can not only mitigate risk and determine trends but also help them maintain regulatory compliance. Setting up data management policies and systems requires planning, however, including determining data types, data ownership, data quality, and metadata availability. Additional, any quality data management policy and system should meet organizational goals while identifying what should be included and excluded, and they should include a clear roadmap for how it will be implemented. Quality data management systems should be able to hand normalization, versioning, archiving, and compliance-related security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LewisDataQ15_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LewisDataQ15-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Internal_processes\">Internal processes<\/span><\/h4>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:502px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:UserSatisfaction.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ca9a15204ed83d9a526a12816e45d75\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a5\/UserSatisfaction.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:UserSatisfaction.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"4ca9a15204ed83d9a526a12816e45d75\"><\/a><\/div>Guaging product and service quality through customer satisfaction analysis is another major part of a quality management system.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Keeping a QMS process-based allows the various inputs and outputs of a business stay connected and unified in quality. By recognizing that \"the output of one process becomes the input of another process,\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO9000PlainEngDefs_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO9000PlainEngDefs-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> a single integrated process that depends on quality is revealed. Derived from procedures and instructions, a process map is built, detailing resources, authority, risks, and evaluation methods that are associated with those processes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PraxiomISO9001_17_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PraxiomISO9001_17-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Focus_on_customers\">Focus on customers<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Product and\/or service quality that leads to customer satisfaction is a primary goal of a QMS. This focus often comes down from senior leadership, who encourages personnel to take a similar focus through the management of relevant requirements, the management of relevant risks and opportunities, and the commitment to improving customer satisfaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PraxiomISO9001_17_21-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PraxiomISO9001_17-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Overall company policies should include this focus, which should then make it's way into more effective process management, and by extension, higher customer satisfaction, measured using a set of principles that include data collected directly from customers and an additive formula that aggregates all that data into a global picture of satisfaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SiskosMeasuring02_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SiskosMeasuring02-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality_analysis\">Quality analysis<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>A major part of a QMS is evaluating and improving processes and procedures to improve overall quality. Part of this process may include defect analysis for products, customer satisfaction analysis for services, and corrective action planning. Also included is overall product testing, tests that, for a product, may measure material, electrical, stressed, etc. characteristics to ensure functionality for the end-user. Even the business' own operations may be scrutinized to identify points in the system where physical or economical impact is most negatively felt. \n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Continual_improvement\">Continual improvement<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Continual improvement recognizes that customer needs change over time and that an incremental innovation process should always be in place to address those changing needs. \"Small steps, high frequency and small change cycles seen separately have small impacts but, added up can bring a significant contribution to the company\u2019s performance.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Valad.C3.A3oRelation13_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Valad.C3.A3oRelation13-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Optimally the idea of continual improvement should also be promoted by senior leadership, finding its way not only into the quality manual but ultimately also into the work culture.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Valad.C3.A3oRelation13_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Valad.C3.A3oRelation13-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Special_cases\">Special cases<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laboratories\">Laboratories<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Several guidelines apply to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratories<\/a>, whether they conduct <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Test_method\" title=\"Test method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"637c0275c67ba6d4c04ee8c33d85dd74\">testing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Reference_laboratory#Reference_measurement_and_calibration\" title=\"Reference laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dea835199c0e589eb267c3d162b4d32\">calibration<\/a>, or other activities. The most commonly used standard that discusses the use of a quality management system is ISO\/IEC 17025. Originally focused on calibration and testing activities, a revised version of the standard is set to be published at the end of 2017 with a broader scope of all laboratory activities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TranchardISOIEC17_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TranchardISOIEC17-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The revised standard will also be more inline with the process approach of ISO 9001 (already used in research and development laboratories<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RobinsQuality06_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RobinsQuality06-24\">&#91;24&#93;<\/a><\/sup>), ISO 15189 for medical laboratories, and ISO\/IEC 17021-1 for bodies auditing and certifying management systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TranchardISOIEC17_14-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TranchardISOIEC17-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> ISO\/IEC 17025 essentially lays out the management and technical requirements for a laboratories quality management system and how it should be implemented and assessed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PetersDeveloping16_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PetersDeveloping16-25\">&#91;25&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Additionally, ISO 15189 addresses quality management systems in four major components: management responsibility, resource management, service realization, and continual improvement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FlynnISO11_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FlynnISO11-26\">&#91;26&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Also related is the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute's (CLSI) GP26-A3 and HS1-A2 standards on quality management system models, which offer 12 quality system essentials and are compatible with the associated ISO standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WHOLaboratory11_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WHOLaboratory11-27\">&#91;27&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Medical_device_industry\">Medical device industry<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The two primary guidelines for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Medical_device\" title=\"Medical device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e821122daa731f0fa8782fae57831fa\">medical device<\/a> manufacturer quality management systems in the United States are the ISO 13485 standard and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) 21 CFR Part 820 regulations. The two have a great deal of similarity, and many manufacturers adopt a QMS that is compliant with both guidelines. Outside the U.S., ISO 13485 has synergies with the European Union medical devices directives (93\/42\/EEC and 90\/385\/EEC; superseded by Regulation (EU) 2017\/745 in May 2017<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ECRegFrame17_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ECRegFrame17-28\">&#91;28&#93;<\/a><\/sup>) as well as the in vitro diagnostic medical device directive (98\/79\/EC and 2010\/227\/EU; superseded by Regulation (EU) 2017\/746 in May 2017<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ECRegFrame17_28-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ECRegFrame17-28\">&#91;28&#93;<\/a><\/sup>). The ISO standard is also incorporated in regulations for other jurisdictions such as Japan (JPAL) and Canada (CMDCAS).\n<\/p><p>According to current <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_manufacturing_practice\" title=\"Good manufacturing practice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b520c825b1702be310362c66e0343f\">good manufacturing practice<\/a> (GMP), medical device manufacturers have the responsibility to use good judgment when developing their quality system and apply relevant sections standards, regulations, and guidelines that are applicable to their specific products and operations. As with GMP, operating within this flexibility, it is the responsibility of each manufacturer to establish requirements for each type or family of devices that will result in devices that are safe and effective, and to establish methods and procedures to design, produce, and distribute devices that meet the quality system requirements.\n<\/p><p>Because the FDA's 21 CFR Part 820 regulation covers a broad spectrum of devices and production processes, it allows some leeway in the details of quality system elements. It is left up to manufacturers to determine the necessity for, or extent of, some quality elements and to develop and implement procedures tailored to their particular processes and devices. For example, if it is impossible to mix up labels at a manufacturer because there is only one label to each product, then it's not necessary for the manufacturer to comply with all of the GMP requirements under device labeling.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Electronic_quality_management_system\">Electronic quality management system<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As businesses and organizations have begun converting to digital data management methodologies and bringing data sources together for improved workflow and insights, the quality management system has moved from the paper realm to the electronic realm. This change allows for a more dynamic QMS that can be analyzed and updated more readily while digitally serving up a quality message to everyone in the organization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ArbogastElectronic09_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ArbogastElectronic09-29\">&#91;29&#93;<\/a><\/sup> An electronic QMS (eQMS) also provides more real-time data management, including automatically keeping track of any trend-related metrics that management require, record retention policies, inspection data, training records, and risk analysis data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RamchandaniEbracing14_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RamchandaniEbracing14-30\">&#91;30&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JensenHowAn17_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JensenHowAn17-31\">&#91;31&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The eQMS may also integrate features from other software systems, including<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OlamijiImplement16_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OlamijiImplement16-32\">&#91;32&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WalshWhy15_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WalshWhy15-33\">&#91;33&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>document management, including change control and automated forms\/reports<\/li>\n<li>assignment and scheduling<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Corrective_and_preventive_action\" title=\"Corrective and preventive action\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3024b6238f561499d3be833a49de0406\">corrective and preventive action<\/a> (CAPA)<\/li>\n<li>learning management<\/li>\n<li>audit trail and tracking<\/li>\n<li>customer management<\/li>\n<li>process and workflow management<\/li>\n<li>electronic submission management<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Certifications_and_awards\">Certifications and awards<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Quality_model_(inverted).jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca9cde0e924d7b3756ea2169f53792eb\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/59\/Quality_model_%28inverted%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"282\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Quality_model_(inverted).jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"ca9cde0e924d7b3756ea2169f53792eb\"><\/a><\/div>A visualization of the European Foundation for Quality Management's take on total quality management<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Organizations can participate in a continuing certification process to ISO 9001:2015 to demonstrate their compliance with the standard, which includes a requirement for continual (i.e., planned) improvement of the QMS, as well as more foundational QMS components such as failure mode and effects analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LazarteISO9001_15_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LazarteISO9001_15-34\">&#91;34&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the U.S., the national Baldrige Performance Excellence Program educates organizations in improving their performance and administers the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award. The Baldrige Award recognizes U.S. organizations for performance excellence based on the Baldrige Criteria for Performance Excellence. The Criteria address critical aspects of management that contribute to performance excellence: leadership; strategy; customers; measurement, analysis, and knowledge management; workforce; operations; and results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISTBaldridge16_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISTBaldridge16-35\">&#91;35&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Other state and local Baldrige programs can be found via the non-profit Alliance for Performance Excellence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BaldrigeAPE_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BaldrigeAPE-36\">&#91;36&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Since 1984, Canada's National Quality Institute has presented the Canada Awards for Excellence on an annual basis to organizations that have displayed outstanding performance in the areas of quality and workplace wellness and have met the institute's criteria with documented overall achievements and results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ECCanadaAwards_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ECCanadaAwards-37\">&#91;37&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In Europe, the European Foundation for Quality Management's EFQM Model supports an award scheme similar to the Baldrige Award for European companies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EFQMModel_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EFQMModel-38\">&#91;38&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, the European Quality in Social Services (EQUASS) sector-specific quality system addresses quality principles that are specific to personal services providers in the social and vocational education and training (VET) sectors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QUASSAbout_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QUASSAbout-39\">&#91;39&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">Peters, R.H.&#32;(2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171109230926\/ttps:\/\/www.aiha.org\/education\/MyCourses\/Lab%20course\/2.%20Student%20Manual.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Developing and Maintaining a Laboratory Quality Management System - Version 3.0\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;American Industrial Hygiene Association.&#32;pp. 175.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aiha.org\/education\/MyCourses\/Lab%20course\/2.%20Student%20Manual.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 09 November 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171109230926\/ttps:\/\/www.aiha.org\/education\/MyCourses\/Lab%20course\/2.%20Student%20Manual.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171109230926\/ttps:\/\/www.aiha.org\/education\/MyCourses\/Lab%20course\/2.%20Student%20Manual.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Developing+and+Maintaining+a+Laboratory+Quality+Management+System+-+Version+3.0&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Peters%2C+R.H.&amp;rft.au=Peters%2C+R.H.&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.pages=pp.+175&amp;rft.pub=American+Industrial+Hygiene+Association&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20171109230926%2Fttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.aiha.org%2Feducation%2FMyCourses%2FLab%2520course%2F2.%2520Student%2520Manual.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">Praxiom Research Group Limited&#32;(16 August 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.praxiom.com\/iso-9001.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001 Translated Into Plain English\"<\/a>.&#32;Praxiom Research Group Limited<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.praxiom.com\/iso-9001.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.praxiom.com\/iso-9001.htm<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001+Translated+Into+Plain+English&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Praxiom+Research+Group+Limited&amp;rft.au=Praxiom+Research+Group+Limited&amp;rft.date=16+August+2017&amp;rft.pub=Praxiom+Research+Group+Limited&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.praxiom.com%2Fiso-9001.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">World Health Organization&#32;(2011)&#32;(PDF).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.who.int\/ihr\/publications\/lqms_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Laboratory Quality Management System Handbook<\/i><\/a>.&#32;World Health Organization.&#32;pp.&#160;246.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9789241548274<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.who.int\/ihr\/publications\/lqms_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.who.int\/ihr\/publications\/lqms_en.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Laboratory+Quality+Management+System+Handbook&amp;rft.aulast=World+Health+Organization&amp;rft.au=World+Health+Organization&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B246&amp;rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&amp;rft.isbn=9789241548274&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fihr%2Fpublications%2Flqms_en.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article reuses a few elements from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_management_system\" data-key=\"d64fd726a87573213d8dce6e9f2fe22f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Rocha-LonaBuilding13-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Rocha-LonaBuilding13_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Rocha-LonaBuilding13_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Rocha-LonaBuilding13_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Rocha-LonaBuilding13_1-3\">1.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Rocha-Lona, L.; Garza-Reyes, J.A.; Kumar, V.&#32;(2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=i0sriCb7tLYC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Building Quality Management Systems: Selecting the Right Methods and Tools<\/i><\/a>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;202.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781466564992<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=i0sriCb7tLYC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=i0sriCb7tLYC&amp;pg=PA1<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Building+Quality+Management+Systems%3A+Selecting+the+Right+Methods+and+Tools&amp;rft.aulast=Rocha-Lona%2C+L.%3B+Garza-Reyes%2C+J.A.%3B+Kumar%2C+V.&amp;rft.au=Rocha-Lona%2C+L.%3B+Garza-Reyes%2C+J.A.%3B+Kumar%2C+V.&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B202&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781466564992&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di0sriCb7tLYC%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchlickmanISO09001_03a-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchlickmanISO09001_03a_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Schlickman, J.J.&#32;(2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FkQB4GRB7uwC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>ISO 9001:2000 Quality Management System Design<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Artech House.&#32;p.&#160;14.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781580535960<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FkQB4GRB7uwC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FkQB4GRB7uwC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001%3A2000+Quality+Management+System+Design&amp;rft.aulast=Schlickman%2C+J.J.&amp;rft.au=Schlickman%2C+J.J.&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B14&amp;rft.pub=Artech+House&amp;rft.isbn=9781580535960&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFkQB4GRB7uwC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NandaQuality16-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NandaQuality16_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Nanda, V.&#32;(2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=guizsuAAyR4C&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Quality Management System Handbook for Product Development Companies<\/i><\/a>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;352.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781420025309<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=guizsuAAyR4C&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=guizsuAAyR4C&amp;pg=PA1<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Quality+Management+System+Handbook+for+Product+Development+Companies&amp;rft.aulast=Nanda%2C+V.&amp;rft.au=Nanda%2C+V.&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B352&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781420025309&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DguizsuAAyR4C%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISOISO9001_16-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISOISO9001_16_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">ISO\/TC 176&#32;(2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/files\/live\/sites\/isoorg\/files\/archive\/pdf\/en\/iso_9001_2015_for_small_enterprises-preview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001:2015 for Small Enterprises: What to do?\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;ISO.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9789267106946<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/files\/live\/sites\/isoorg\/files\/archive\/pdf\/en\/iso_9001_2015_for_small_enterprises-preview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/files\/live\/sites\/isoorg\/files\/archive\/pdf\/en\/iso_9001_2015_for_small_enterprises-preview.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001%3A2015+for+Small+Enterprises%3A+What+to+do%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=ISO%2FTC+176&amp;rft.au=ISO%2FTC+176&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.pub=ISO&amp;rft.isbn=9789267106946&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Ffiles%2Flive%2Fsites%2Fisoorg%2Ffiles%2Farchive%2Fpdf%2Fen%2Fiso_9001_2015_for_small_enterprises-preview.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASQWhatIs-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASQWhatIs_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASQWhatIs_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASQWhatIs_5-2\">5.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">\"What Is A Quality Management System (QMS)? ISO 9001 &amp; Other Quality Management Systems\".&#32;American Society for Quality.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+Is+A+Quality+Management+System+%28QMS%29%3F+ISO+9001+%26+Other+Quality+Management+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=American+Society+for+Quality&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HendricksonTheEncyclopedia14-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HendricksonTheEncyclopedia14_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Hendrickson, K.E.&#32;(2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=EdwsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA758\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quality Assurance and Control\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History<\/i>.&#32;<b>3<\/b>.&#32;Rowman &amp; Littlefield.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780810888883<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=EdwsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA758\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=EdwsCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA758<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Quality+Assurance+and+Control&amp;rft.atitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+the+Industrial+Revolution+in+World+History&amp;rft.aulast=Hendrickson%2C+K.E.&amp;rft.au=Hendrickson%2C+K.E.&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&amp;rft.isbn=9780810888883&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEdwsCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA758&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PappQuality14-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PappQuality14_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Papp, J.&#32;(2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1akTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Quality Management in the Imaging Sciences<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Elsevier Health Sciences.&#32;pp.&#160;372.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780323261999<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1akTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1akTBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA3<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Quality+Management+in+the+Imaging+Sciences&amp;rft.aulast=Papp%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Papp%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B372&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier+Health+Sciences&amp;rft.isbn=9780323261999&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1akTBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA3&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WoodHenry03-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WoodHenry03_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Wood, J.C.; Wood, M.C., ed.&#32;(2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=3XXxhbDU9P4C&pg=PA300\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Henry Ford: Critical Evaluations in Business and Management<\/i><\/a>.&#32;<b>1<\/b>.&#32;Taylor and Francis.&#32;pp.&#160;384.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780415248259<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=3XXxhbDU9P4C&pg=PA300\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=3XXxhbDU9P4C&amp;pg=PA300<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Henry+Ford%3A+Critical+Evaluations+in+Business+and+Management&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B384&amp;rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&amp;rft.isbn=9780415248259&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3XXxhbDU9P4C%26pg%3DPA300&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GitlowQuality00-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GitlowQuality00_9-0\">9.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GitlowQuality00_9-1\">9.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GitlowQuality00_9-2\">9.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Gitlow, H.S.&#32;(2000).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=O5aq0HMyXOcC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Quality Management Systems: A Practical Guide<\/i><\/a>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;296.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781574442618<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=O5aq0HMyXOcC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=O5aq0HMyXOcC&amp;pg=PA1<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Quality+Management+Systems%3A+A+Practical+Guide&amp;rft.aulast=Gitlow%2C+H.S.&amp;rft.au=Gitlow%2C+H.S.&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B296&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781574442618&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO5aq0HMyXOcC%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASQTotal-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASQTotal_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#development\">\"Total Quality\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Learn About Quality<\/i>.&#32;American Society for Quality<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#development\">https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/history-of-quality#development<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Total+Quality&amp;rft.atitle=Learn+About+Quality&amp;rft.pub=American+Society+for+Quality&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasq.org%2Fquality-resources%2Fhistory-of-quality%23development&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-QMSIntISO16-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-QMSIntISO16_11-0\">11.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-QMSIntISO16_11-1\">11.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-QMSIntISO16_11-2\">11.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-QMSIntISO16_11-3\">11.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qmsuk.com\/news\/iso-9002-and-9003-is-iso-9001-a-suitable-replacement\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9002 and 9003: Is ISO 9001 a suitable replacement?\"<\/a>.&#32;QMS International.&#32;9 December 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qmsuk.com\/news\/iso-9002-and-9003-is-iso-9001-a-suitable-replacement\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.qmsuk.com\/news\/iso-9002-and-9003-is-iso-9001-a-suitable-replacement<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 02 November 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9002+and+9003%3A+Is+ISO+9001+a+suitable+replacement%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=9+December+2017&amp;rft.pub=QMS+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qmsuk.com%2Fnews%2Fiso-9002-and-9003-is-iso-9001-a-suitable-replacement&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ColeManaging99-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ColeManaging99_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Cole, R.E.&#32;(1999).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=uBN7CYnaT74C&pg=PA67\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 3: How Much Did You Know and When Did You Know It?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Managing Quality Fads: How American Business Learned to Play the Quality Game<\/i>.&#32;Oxford University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;63\u201381.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780198028604<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=uBN7CYnaT74C&pg=PA67\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=uBN7CYnaT74C&amp;pg=PA67<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+3%3A+How+Much+Did+You+Know+and+When+Did+You+Know+It%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Managing+Quality+Fads%3A+How+American+Business+Learned+to+Play+the+Quality+Game&amp;rft.aulast=Cole%2C+R.E.&amp;rft.au=Cole%2C+R.E.&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B63%E2%80%9381&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9780198028604&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuBN7CYnaT74C%26pg%3DPA67&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchlickmanISO09001_03b-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchlickmanISO09001_03b_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Schlickman, J.J.&#32;(2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FkQB4GRB7uwC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>ISO 9001:2000 Quality Management System Design<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Artech House.&#32;p.&#160;xxii.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781580535960<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FkQB4GRB7uwC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FkQB4GRB7uwC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001%3A2000+Quality+Management+System+Design&amp;rft.aulast=Schlickman%2C+J.J.&amp;rft.au=Schlickman%2C+J.J.&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3Bxxii&amp;rft.pub=Artech+House&amp;rft.isbn=9781580535960&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFkQB4GRB7uwC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TranchardISOIEC17-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-TranchardISOIEC17_14-0\">14.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-TranchardISOIEC17_14-1\">14.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-TranchardISOIEC17_14-2\">14.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Tranchard, S.&#32;(6 September 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/ref2212.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025 moves to final stage of revision\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ISO News<\/i>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/ref2212.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/ref2212.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 09 November 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025+moves+to+final+stage+of+revision&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+News&amp;rft.aulast=Tranchard%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Tranchard%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=6+September+2017&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fnews%2Fref2212.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO9000PlainEngDefs-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO9000PlainEngDefs_15-0\">15.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO9000PlainEngDefs_15-1\">15.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.praxiom.com\/iso-definition.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9000 2015 Plain English Definitions\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ISO Standards (In Plain English)<\/i>.&#32;Praxiom Research Group Limited.&#32;4 February 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.praxiom.com\/iso-definition.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.praxiom.com\/iso-definition.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9000+2015+Plain+English+Definitions&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+Standards+%28In+Plain+English%29&amp;rft.date=4+February+2017&amp;rft.pub=Praxiom+Research+Group+Limited&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.praxiom.com%2Fiso-definition.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PayneISO9001-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PayneISO9001_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Payne, G.C..&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/iso-9001-quality-manual\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001 Quality Manual\"<\/a>.&#32;American Society for Quality<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/iso-9001-quality-manual\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/asq.org\/quality-resources\/iso-9001-quality-manual<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 09 November 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001+Quality+Manual&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Payne%2C+G.C.&amp;rft.au=Payne%2C+G.C.&amp;rft.pub=American+Society+for+Quality&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasq.org%2Fquality-resources%2Fiso-9001-quality-manual&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO9000QM-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO9000QM_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/the9000store.com\/articles\/iso-9000-tips-what-is-a-quality-manual\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is an ISO 9001 Quality Manual?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>9000 Store<\/i>.&#32;Standards Stores<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/the9000store.com\/articles\/iso-9000-tips-what-is-a-quality-manual\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/the9000store.com\/articles\/iso-9000-tips-what-is-a-quality-manual\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+an+ISO+9001+Quality+Manual%3F&amp;rft.atitle=9000+Store&amp;rft.pub=Standards+Stores&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthe9000store.com%2Farticles%2Fiso-9000-tips-what-is-a-quality-manual%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MeskovskaHowTo14-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MeskovskaHowTo14_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Meskovska, A.&#32;(23 October 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/advisera.com\/9001academy\/knowledgebase\/how-to-structure-quality-management-system-documentation\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to structure quality management system documentation\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ISO 9001 Knowledge Base<\/i>.&#32;Advisera Expert Solutions Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/advisera.com\/9001academy\/knowledgebase\/how-to-structure-quality-management-system-documentation\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/advisera.com\/9001academy\/knowledgebase\/how-to-structure-quality-management-system-documentation\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 09 November 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+to+structure+quality+management+system+documentation&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+9001+Knowledge+Base&amp;rft.aulast=Meskovska%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Meskovska%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=23+October+2014&amp;rft.pub=Advisera+Expert+Solutions+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fadvisera.com%2F9001academy%2Fknowledgebase%2Fhow-to-structure-quality-management-system-documentation%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BesterfieldTotal11-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BesterfieldTotal11_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Besterfield, D.H.; Besterfield\u2013Michna, C.; Bestefield, G.H. et al.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Chapter 10: Quality Management Systems\".&#32;<i>Total Quality Management<\/i>&#32;(Revised 3rd ed.).&#32;Pearson Education India.&#32;pp.&#160;205\u2013238.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9788131732274.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+10%3A+Quality+Management+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Total+Quality+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Besterfield%2C+D.H.%3B+Besterfield%E2%80%93Michna%2C+C.%3B+Bestefield%2C+G.H.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Besterfield%2C+D.H.%3B+Besterfield%E2%80%93Michna%2C+C.%3B+Bestefield%2C+G.H.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B205%E2%80%93238&amp;rft.edition=Revised+3rd&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&amp;rft.isbn=9788131732274&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LewisDataQ15-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LewisDataQ15_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Lewis, M.&#32;(10 August 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scienteconsulting.com\/blogs\/785\/data-quality-management-big-data-analytics\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Quality Management for Better Big Data Analytics\"<\/a>.&#32;Sciente Consulting Pte. Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scienteconsulting.com\/blogs\/785\/data-quality-management-big-data-analytics\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scienteconsulting.com\/blogs\/785\/data-quality-management-big-data-analytics\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Quality+Management+for+Better+Big+Data+Analytics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Lewis%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Lewis%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=10+August+2015&amp;rft.pub=Sciente+Consulting+Pte.+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scienteconsulting.com%2Fblogs%2F785%2Fdata-quality-management-big-data-analytics%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PraxiomISO9001_17-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PraxiomISO9001_17_21-0\">21.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PraxiomISO9001_17_21-1\">21.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.praxiom.com\/iso-9001.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001 Translated Into Plain English\"<\/a>.&#32;Praxiom Research Group Limited.&#32;16 August 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.praxiom.com\/iso-9001.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.praxiom.com\/iso-9001.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+9001+Translated+Into+Plain+English&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=16+August+2017&amp;rft.pub=Praxiom+Research+Group+Limited&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.praxiom.com%2Fiso-9001.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SiskosMeasuring02-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SiskosMeasuring02_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Siskos, Y.; Grigoroudis, E.&#32;(2002).&#32;\"Measuring Customer Satisfaction for Various Services Using Multicriteria Analysis\".&#32;In&#32;Bouyssou, D.; Jacquet-Lagr\u00e8ze, E.; Perny, P. et al..&#32;<i>Aiding Decisions with Multiple Criteria<\/i>.&#32;International Series in Operations Research &amp; Management Science.&#32;<b>44<\/b>.&#32;Springer Boston.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-1-4615-0843-4_20\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-1-4615-0843-4_20<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781461508434.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Measuring+Customer+Satisfaction+for+Various+Services+Using+Multicriteria+Analysis&amp;rft.atitle=Aiding+Decisions+with+Multiple+Criteria&amp;rft.aulast=Siskos%2C+Y.%3B+Grigoroudis%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Siskos%2C+Y.%3B+Grigoroudis%2C+E.&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.series=International+Series+in+Operations+Research+%26+Management+Science&amp;rft.volume=44&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Boston&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1007%2F978-1-4615-0843-4_20&amp;rft.isbn=9781461508434&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Valad.C3.A3oRelation13-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Valad.C3.A3oRelation13_23-0\">23.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Valad.C3.A3oRelation13_23-1\">23.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Fatima Chiaradia Valad\u00e3o, A. de; Silva Campos, P.H. da; Turrioni, J.B.&#32;(2013).&#32;\"Relationship between the Maturity of Continuous Improvement and the Certification of Quality Management System in Automotive Sector in Brazil\".&#32;<i>Independent Journal of Management &amp; Production<\/i>&#32;<b>4<\/b>&#32;(1): 96\u2013110.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.14807%2Fijmp.v4i1.61\" target=\"_blank\">10.14807\/ijmp.v4i1.61<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Relationship+between+the+Maturity+of+Continuous+Improvement+and+the+Certification+of+Quality+Management+System+in+Automotive+Sector+in+Brazil&amp;rft.jtitle=Independent+Journal+of+Management+%26+Production&amp;rft.aulast=Fatima+Chiaradia+Valad%C3%A3o%2C+A.+de%3B+Silva+Campos%2C+P.H.+da%3B+Turrioni%2C+J.B.&amp;rft.au=Fatima+Chiaradia+Valad%C3%A3o%2C+A.+de%3B+Silva+Campos%2C+P.H.+da%3B+Turrioni%2C+J.B.&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=96%E2%80%93110&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.14807%2Fijmp.v4i1.61&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RobinsQuality06-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RobinsQuality06_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Robins, M.M.; Scarll, S.J.; Key, P.E.&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Quality assurance in research laboratories\".&#32;<i>Accreditation and Quality Assurance<\/i>&#32;<b>11<\/b>&#32;(5): 214\u2013223.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs00769-006-0129-5\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s00769-006-0129-5<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+assurance+in+research+laboratories&amp;rft.jtitle=Accreditation+and+Quality+Assurance&amp;rft.aulast=Robins%2C+M.M.%3B+Scarll%2C+S.J.%3B+Key%2C+P.E.&amp;rft.au=Robins%2C+M.M.%3B+Scarll%2C+S.J.%3B+Key%2C+P.E.&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=214%E2%80%93223&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1007%2Fs00769-006-0129-5&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PetersDeveloping16-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PetersDeveloping16_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Peters, R.H.&#32;(2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171109230926\/ttps:\/\/www.aiha.org\/education\/MyCourses\/Lab%20course\/2.%20Student%20Manual.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Developing and Maintaining a Laboratory Quality Management System - Version 3.0\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;American Industrial Hygiene Association.&#32;pp. 175.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aiha.org\/education\/MyCourses\/Lab%20course\/2.%20Student%20Manual.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 09 November 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171109230926\/ttps:\/\/www.aiha.org\/education\/MyCourses\/Lab%20course\/2.%20Student%20Manual.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171109230926\/ttps:\/\/www.aiha.org\/education\/MyCourses\/Lab%20course\/2.%20Student%20Manual.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Developing+and+Maintaining+a+Laboratory+Quality+Management+System+-+Version+3.0&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Peters%2C+R.H.&amp;rft.au=Peters%2C+R.H.&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.pages=pp.+175&amp;rft.pub=American+Industrial+Hygiene+Association&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20171109230926%2Fttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.aiha.org%2Feducation%2FMyCourses%2FLab%2520course%2F2.%2520Student%2520Manual.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FlynnISO11-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FlynnISO11_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Flynn, G.J.; Coffey, J.&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171110000425\/https:\/\/s3.amazonaws.com\/ppt-download\/iso15189medicallaboratoriesunderstandingthefourcomponentsofaqualitymanagementsystem-110624141711-phpapp01.pdf?response-content-disposition=attachment&Signature=2XEf%2FLP2tfn4tu2TgmX4pUn2X9w%3D&Expires=1510272516&AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ6D6SEMXSASXHDAQ\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 15189 Medical Laboratories: Understanding the Four Components of a Quality Management System\"<\/a>.&#32;In&#32;Michel, R.L.; Khanna, P..&#32;Dark Intelligence Group, Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/s3.amazonaws.com\/ppt-download\/iso15189medicallaboratoriesunderstandingthefourcomponentsofaqualitymanagementsystem-110624141711-phpapp01.pdf?response-content-disposition=attachment&Signature=2XEf%2FLP2tfn4tu2TgmX4pUn2X9w%3D&Expires=1510272516&AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ6D6SEMXSASXHDAQ\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 09 November 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171110000425\/https:\/\/s3.amazonaws.com\/ppt-download\/iso15189medicallaboratoriesunderstandingthefourcomponentsofaqualitymanagementsystem-110624141711-phpapp01.pdf?response-content-disposition=attachment&Signature=2XEf%2FLP2tfn4tu2TgmX4pUn2X9w%3D&Expires=1510272516&AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ6D6SEMXSASXHDAQ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171110000425\/https:\/\/s3.amazonaws.com\/ppt-download\/iso15189medicallaboratoriesunderstandingthefourcomponentsofaqualitymanagementsystem-110624141711-phpapp01.pdf?response-content-disposition=attachment&amp;Signature=2XEf%2FLP2tfn4tu2TgmX4pUn2X9w%3D&amp;Expires=1510272516&amp;AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ6D6SEMXSASXHDAQ<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 09 November 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+15189+Medical+Laboratories%3A+Understanding+the+Four+Components+of+a+Quality+Management+System&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Flynn%2C+G.J.%3B+Coffey%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Flynn%2C+G.J.%3B+Coffey%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pub=Dark+Intelligence+Group%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20171110000425%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fs3.amazonaws.com%2Fppt-download%2Fiso15189medicallaboratoriesunderstandingthefourcomponentsofaqualitymanagementsystem-110624141711-phpapp01.pdf%3Fresponse-content-disposition%3Dattachment%26Signature%3D2XEf%252FLP2tfn4tu2TgmX4pUn2X9w%253D%26Expires%3D1510272516%26AWSAccessKeyId%3DAKIAJ6D6SEMXSASXHDAQ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WHOLaboratory11-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WHOLaboratory11_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">World Health Organization&#32;(2011)&#32;(PDF).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.who.int\/ihr\/publications\/lqms_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Laboratory Quality Management System Handbook<\/i><\/a>.&#32;World Health Organization.&#32;pp.&#160;246.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9789241548274<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.who.int\/ihr\/publications\/lqms_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.who.int\/ihr\/publications\/lqms_en.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 November 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Laboratory+Quality+Management+System+Handbook&amp;rft.aulast=World+Health+Organization&amp;rft.au=World+Health+Organization&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B246&amp;rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&amp;rft.isbn=9789241548274&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fihr%2Fpublications%2Flqms_en.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ECRegFrame17-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ECRegFrame17_28-0\">28.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ECRegFrame17_28-1\">28.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170925072043\/https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/growth\/sectors\/medical-devices\/regulatory-framework_en\" target=\"_blank\">\"Medical Devices: Regulatory Framework\"<\/a>.&#32;European Commission.&#32;11 September 2017.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/growth\/sectors\/medical-devices\/regulatory-framework_en\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 25 September 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170925072043\/https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/growth\/sectors\/medical-devices\/regulatory-framework_en\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170925072043\/https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/growth\/sectors\/medical-devices\/regulatory-framework_en<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Medical+Devices%3A+Regulatory+Framework&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=11+September+2017&amp;rft.pub=European+Commission&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170925072043%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fgrowth%2Fsectors%2Fmedical-devices%2Fregulatory-framework_en&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ArbogastElectronic09-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ArbogastElectronic09_29-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Arbogast, S.&#32;(7 July 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/electronic-quality-management-systems-are-worth-money.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Quality Management Systems Are Worth The Money\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Quality Digest<\/i>.&#32;Quality Circle Institute, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/electronic-quality-management-systems-are-worth-money.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/electronic-quality-management-systems-are-worth-money.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 November 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Electronic+Quality+Management+Systems+Are+Worth+The+Money&amp;rft.atitle=Quality+Digest&amp;rft.aulast=Arbogast%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Arbogast%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=7+July+2009&amp;rft.pub=Quality+Circle+Institute%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qualitydigest.com%2Finside%2Fquality-insider-article%2Felectronic-quality-management-systems-are-worth-money.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RamchandaniEbracing14-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RamchandaniEbracing14_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Ramchandani, H.&#32;(7 October 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pharmout.net\/embracing-an-electronic-qms\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Embracing an electronic quality management system\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>PharmOut<\/i>.&#32;PharmOut Pty Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pharmout.net\/embracing-an-electronic-qms\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.pharmout.net\/embracing-an-electronic-qms\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 November 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Embracing+an+electronic+quality+management+system&amp;rft.atitle=PharmOut&amp;rft.aulast=Ramchandani%2C+H.&amp;rft.au=Ramchandani%2C+H.&amp;rft.date=7+October+2014&amp;rft.pub=PharmOut+Pty+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pharmout.net%2Fembracing-an-electronic-qms%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JensenHowAn17-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-JensenHowAn17_31-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jensen, D.&#32;(25 May 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170713180729\/http:\/\/mastercontrolinc.blogspot.com\/2017\/05\/how-electronic-quality-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"How an Electronic Quality Management System Helps With Cybersecurity\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>MasterControl Blog<\/i>.&#32;MasterControl, Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/mastercontrolinc.blogspot.com\/2017\/05\/how-electronic-quality-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 13 July 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170713180729\/http:\/\/mastercontrolinc.blogspot.com\/2017\/05\/how-electronic-quality-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170713180729\/http:\/\/mastercontrolinc.blogspot.com\/2017\/05\/how-electronic-quality-management.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+an+Electronic+Quality+Management+System+Helps+With+Cybersecurity&amp;rft.atitle=MasterControl+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Jensen%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Jensen%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=25+May+2017&amp;rft.pub=MasterControl%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170713180729%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fmastercontrolinc.blogspot.com%2F2017%2F05%2Fhow-electronic-quality-management.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OlamijiImplement16-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OlamijiImplement16_32-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Olamiji, O.&#32;(February 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/researchportal.port.ac.uk\/portal\/files\/5489195\/Thesis_QMS_2016.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"3.3 Electronic document management software (EDMS) (Literature review)\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Implementation of an electronic quality management system document management module to support reconfiguration of a district general hospital pathology department quality management system<\/i>.&#32;University of Portsmouth<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/researchportal.port.ac.uk\/portal\/files\/5489195\/Thesis_QMS_2016.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/researchportal.port.ac.uk\/portal\/files\/5489195\/Thesis_QMS_2016.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 28 November 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=3.3+Electronic+document+management+software+%28EDMS%29+%28Literature+review%29&amp;rft.atitle=Implementation+of+an+electronic+quality+management+system+document+management+module+to+support+reconfiguration+of+a+district+general+hospital+pathology+department+quality+management+system&amp;rft.aulast=Olamiji%2C+O.&amp;rft.au=Olamiji%2C+O.&amp;rft.date=February+2016&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Portsmouth&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearchportal.port.ac.uk%2Fportal%2Ffiles%2F5489195%2FThesis_QMS_2016.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WalshWhy15-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WalshWhy15_33-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Walsh, C.&#32;(29 January 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825090231\/http:\/\/www.qumas.com\/why-does-your-organization-need-electronic-quality-management-system\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why does your organization need an electronic quality management system?\"<\/a>.&#32;QUMAS Limited.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.qumas.com\/why-does-your-organization-need-electronic-quality-management-system\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 25 August 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825090231\/http:\/\/www.qumas.com\/why-does-your-organization-need-electronic-quality-management-system\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825090231\/http:\/\/www.qumas.com\/why-does-your-organization-need-electronic-quality-management-system<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Why+does+your+organization+need+an+electronic+quality+management+system%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Walsh%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Walsh%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=29+January+2015&amp;rft.pub=QUMAS+Limited&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170825090231%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.qumas.com%2Fwhy-does-your-organization-need-electronic-quality-management-system&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LazarteISO9001_15-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LazarteISO9001_15_34-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Lazarte, M.&#32;(23 September 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/2015\/09\/Ref2002.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"SO 9001:2015 - Just published!\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ISO News<\/i>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/2015\/09\/Ref2002.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/news\/2015\/09\/Ref2002.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 November 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=SO+9001%3A2015+-+Just+published%21&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+News&amp;rft.aulast=Lazarte%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Lazarte%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=23+September+2015&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fnews%2F2015%2F09%2FRef2002.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NISTBaldridge16-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NISTBaldridge16_35-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nist.gov\/baldrige\/how-baldrige-works\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Baldridge Works\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Baldrige Performance Excellence Program<\/i>.&#32;National Institute of Standards and Technology.&#32;20 July 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nist.gov\/baldrige\/how-baldrige-works\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.nist.gov\/baldrige\/how-baldrige-works<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 November 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+Baldridge+Works&amp;rft.atitle=Baldrige+Performance+Excellence+Program&amp;rft.date=20+July+2016&amp;rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fbaldrige%2Fhow-baldrige-works&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BaldrigeAPE-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BaldrigeAPE_36-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.baldrigealliance.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Alliance for Performance Excellence\"<\/a>.&#32;Baldrige Foundation.&#32;2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.baldrigealliance.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.baldrigealliance.org\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Alliance+for+Performance+Excellence&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.pub=Baldrige+Foundation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baldrigealliance.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ECCanadaAwards-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ECCanadaAwards_37-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/excellence.ca\/canada-awards-for-excellence\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Canada Awards for Excellence\"<\/a>.&#32;Excellence Canada.&#32;2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/excellence.ca\/canada-awards-for-excellence\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/excellence.ca\/canada-awards-for-excellence\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Canada+Awards+for+Excellence&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.pub=Excellence+Canada&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fexcellence.ca%2Fcanada-awards-for-excellence%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EFQMModel-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EFQMModel_38-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.efqm.org\/efqm-model\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The EFQM Model\"<\/a>.&#32;EFQM<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.efqm.org\/efqm-model\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.efqm.org\/efqm-model\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+EFQM+Model&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=EFQM&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.efqm.org%2Fefqm-model%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-QUASSAbout-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-QUASSAbout_39-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.equass.be\/index.php\/about-equass\" target=\"_blank\">\"About EQUASS\"<\/a>.&#32;European Platform for Rehabilitation<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.equass.be\/index.php\/about-equass\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.equass.be\/index.php\/about-equass<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 November 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+EQUASS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=European+Platform+for+Rehabilitation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.equass.be%2Findex.php%2Fabout-equass&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Quality_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240109183303\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 1.895 seconds\nReal time usage: 3.355 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 29219\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 198351\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 83742\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 64604\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 476.299 1 -total\n 83.78% 399.049 1 Template:Reflist\n 79.68% 379.530 42 Template:Citation\/core\n 53.80% 256.252 26 Template:Cite_web\n 30.15% 143.625 14 Template:Cite_book\n 10.76% 51.248 21 Template:Date\n 5.03% 23.977 63 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 4.78% 22.766 17 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 4.66% 22.215 2 Template:Cite_journal\n 1.36% 6.495 34 Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10317-0!canonical and timestamp 20240109183300 and revision id 49323. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_management_system<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","dfecf3cd6f18d4a5e9ac49ca360b447d_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e5\/Baldrige_Award_Crystal_with_MBNQA_backdrop%2C_2013_Baldrige_Award_Ceremony%2C_April_6%2C_2014_%2813887406957%29.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a5\/UserSatisfaction.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/59\/Quality_model_%28inverted%29.jpg"],"dfecf3cd6f18d4a5e9ac49ca360b447d_timestamp":1704907012,"1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f_type":"article","1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f_title":"Quality control","1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_control","1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f_plaintext":"\n\nQuality controlFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_control?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_control<\/a>\nCategories: Production standardsQuality managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 September 2022, at 17:19.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 4,838 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Quality_control rootpage-Quality_control skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Quality control<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_control?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_control\" data-key=\"53081160bfedb3363868fc07b231ab5c\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171652\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.094 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.170 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 97\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 165.443 1 wikipedia:Quality_control\n100.00% 165.443 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10354-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171652 and revision id 49322. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_control<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f_images":[],"1e0e0c2eb3e45aff02f5d61799821f0f_timestamp":1704907012,"2ede4490f0ea707b14456f44439c0984_type":"article","2ede4490f0ea707b14456f44439c0984_title":"Quality assurance","2ede4490f0ea707b14456f44439c0984_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_assurance","2ede4490f0ea707b14456f44439c0984_plaintext":"\n\nQuality assuranceFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_assurance?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_assurance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_assurance<\/a>\nCategories: Production standardsQuality managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 September 2022, at 17:18.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 12,124 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","2ede4490f0ea707b14456f44439c0984_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Quality_assurance rootpage-Quality_assurance skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Quality assurance<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_assurance?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_assurance\" data-key=\"680f2f1a2b91429b38fd9a1d2b226d01\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171652\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.109 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.179 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 99\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 174.204 1 wikipedia:Quality_assurance\n100.00% 174.204 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10353-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171652 and revision id 49321. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_assurance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_assurance<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","2ede4490f0ea707b14456f44439c0984_images":[],"2ede4490f0ea707b14456f44439c0984_timestamp":1704907011,"c4ac43430d1c3a3a15d1255257aaea37_type":"article","c4ac43430d1c3a3a15d1255257aaea37_title":"Quality (business)","c4ac43430d1c3a3a15d1255257aaea37_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_(business)","c4ac43430d1c3a3a15d1255257aaea37_plaintext":"\n\nQuality (business)From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_(business)?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_(business)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_(business)<\/a>\nCategory: Quality managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 16 February 2018, at 22:55.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 5,553 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","c4ac43430d1c3a3a15d1255257aaea37_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Quality_business rootpage-Quality_business skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Quality (business)<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_(business)?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_(business)\" data-key=\"93c3fbb1e90ef808bed953ad4e2a10d6\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171651\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.124 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.194 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 100\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 189.613 1 wikipedia:Quality_(business)\n100.00% 189.613 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10437-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171651 and revision id 32581. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_(business)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Quality_(business)<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","c4ac43430d1c3a3a15d1255257aaea37_images":[],"c4ac43430d1c3a3a15d1255257aaea37_timestamp":1704907011,"f287478adb99b62098a59c1208c8af25_type":"article","f287478adb99b62098a59c1208c8af25_title":"Nonconformity (quality)","f287478adb99b62098a59c1208c8af25_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Nonconformity_(quality)","f287478adb99b62098a59c1208c8af25_plaintext":"\n\nNonconformity (quality)From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nonconformity_(quality)?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Nonconformity_(quality)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Nonconformity_(quality)<\/a>\nCategory: Quality managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 22 February 2018, at 23:28.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 1,441 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","f287478adb99b62098a59c1208c8af25_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Nonconformity_quality rootpage-Nonconformity_quality skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Nonconformity (quality)<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nonconformity_(quality)?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nonconformity_(quality)\" data-key=\"9297d098ffb3410c8088e111e55ab761\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171651\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.112 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.183 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 105\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 178.007 1 wikipedia:Nonconformity_(quality)\n100.00% 178.007 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10450-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171651 and revision id 32623. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Nonconformity_(quality)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Nonconformity_(quality)<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","f287478adb99b62098a59c1208c8af25_images":[],"f287478adb99b62098a59c1208c8af25_timestamp":1704907011,"6adad97006cb4eb4cac7dfcf767e3d5c_type":"article","6adad97006cb4eb4cac7dfcf767e3d5c_title":"Lean laboratory","6adad97006cb4eb4cac7dfcf767e3d5c_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Lean_laboratory","6adad97006cb4eb4cac7dfcf767e3d5c_plaintext":"\n\nLean laboratoryFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lean_laboratory?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Lean_laboratory\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Lean_laboratory<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementLaboratory typesHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 17:21.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,918 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","6adad97006cb4eb4cac7dfcf767e3d5c_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Lean_laboratory rootpage-Lean_laboratory skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Lean laboratory<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lean_laboratory?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lean_laboratory\" data-key=\"1101b961e900596792bde0551f441321\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171650\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.122 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.194 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 97\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 187.767 1 wikipedia:Lean_laboratory\n100.00% 187.767 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10661-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171650 and revision id 49445. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Lean_laboratory\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Lean_laboratory<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","6adad97006cb4eb4cac7dfcf767e3d5c_images":[],"6adad97006cb4eb4cac7dfcf767e3d5c_timestamp":1704907010,"a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_type":"article","a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_title":"Good Automated Manufacturing Practice","a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice","a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_plaintext":"\n\nGood Automated Manufacturing PracticeFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search The area of automated pharmaceutical manufacturing is influenced in part by GAMP and its associated guidelines.\nGood Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP) is both a technical subcommittee of the International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE) and a set of guidelines for manufacturers and users of automated systems in the pharmaceutical industry.&#91;1&#93; One of the core principles of GAMP is that quality cannot be tested into a batch of product but must be built into each stage of the manufacturing process. As a result, GAMP covers all aspects of production, from the raw materials, facility, and equipment, to the training and hygiene of staff.\nGAMP is largely about automated system validation. In October 2014, Irish tech company Dataworks Ltd. described it as such&#91;2&#93;:\n\nIt is a formal process of thorough documentation, testing, and logical process steps that validate clients' required specifications. The process begins with a user requirements specification for the machine, from which a functional requirement and a design specification are created. These documents then form the basis for the traceability matrix and for the formal testing of internal acceptance, factory acceptance, and site acceptance. Categorising software is used to support the approach to validation based on the difficulty and individuality of the computerised system.\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Publications \n\n2.1 GAMP 5 \n\n2.1.1 System categorization \n\n\n2.2 Other guides \n\n\n3 External links \n4 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nGAMP's origins can be traced to the United Kingdom in 1988, when software developers David Forrest and Colin Jones, through their company FJ Systems, developed real-time control and production information management control systems for pharmaceutical manufacturers. They worked with ICI Pharmaceuticals' Tony Margetts on the problem of validating systems that were increasingly becoming more software-based than mechanical- and electrical-based. This culminated in a five-page document called VMAN I, mapping the older installation qualification (IQ), operational qualification (OQ), and performance qualification (PQ) phases of equipment validation to a more modern software validation lifecycle. A second version was created upon additional feedback.&#91;3&#93;\nGAMP itself was eventually founded in 1991 (with the previously mentioned Margetts as chairman of the editorial board) to deal with the evolving U.S. Food and Drug Administration expectations for Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) compliance of manufacturing and related systems.&#91;4&#93; GAMP published its first draft guidance in February 1994, with version 1.0 of it arriving in March 1995. Soon afterwards the organization entered into a partnership with ISPE, formally becoming part of ISPE in 2000. GAMP 4 was released a year later, followed by GAMP 5 in 2008.&#91;5&#93; GAMP has enjoyed the support of numerous regulatory authorities over the years spanning the United States, Europe, and Japan and is now a recognized good practice worldwide.&#91;6&#93;\nIn 2017, the leadership of the ISPE GAMP Community of Practice (CoP) began formal review of the GAMP 5 standard, whether its objectives were being met, and what more needs to be done to improve it. \"For each GAMP 5 section and appendix, the team examined the effects of technical and regulatory updates since the original publication, focusing on substantive topics and guidance rather than background, historical, or supporting information.\"&#91;7&#93; That review revealed that while GAMP 5 was still relevant in the changing regulatory atmosphere, improvement was suggested in&#91;7&#93;:\n\nincreasing the ubiquity of third-party service providers;\nupdating methods and approaches to software development; and\nencouraging increased use of more automated tool-based processes.\nPublications \nGAMP 5 \nISPE has published a series of good practice guides for the industry on several topics involved in drug manufacturing. The most well-known is The Good Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP) Guide for Validation of Automated Systems in Pharmaceutical Manufacture. The last major revision (GAMP 5) was released in February 2008.&#91;8&#93;\nThe guidance generally states that pharmaceutical computer systems should be built with several key ideas in mind&#91;9&#93;:\n1. Make product and process understanding clear.\n2. Approach the life cycle from the standpoint of a quality management system.\n3. Make life cycle activities scalable.\n4. Ensure quality risk management is science-based.\n5. Leverage supplier involvement into the system.\n\nSystem categorization \nSoftware systems borne from these principles can be categorized into one of four GAMP 5 categories. (Note: \"Category 2: Firmware\" was removed from GAMP with revision five.) These classifications act as built-in risk and difficulty assessments that support different validation approaches&#91;2&#93;&#91;9&#93;&#91;10&#93;:\nCategory 1: Infrastructure software - This includes \"established or commercially available layered software\" and \"infrastructure software tools\" that are themselves validated from within rather than from the infrastructure.\nCategory 3: Non-configured products - This includes \"software that is used as installed\" and potentially \"software that is configurable (category 4) but is used either unconfigured or with the standard defaults provided by the software supplier.\"\nCategory 4: Configured products - This includes products where \"the user has the means and knowledge to change the functionality of the device in a way that changes the results outputted by the device. As a direct consequence, this triggers increased validation effort.\"\nCategory 5: Custom applications - This includes any \"application, module, user-defined program, or macro\" that has been written in-house or by a third party that \"needs to be specified, version controlled, built, and tested (including integration testing with the commercial application, as applicable) as a minimum to ensure the quality of the software.\"\n\nOther guides \nAs of April 2020, the ISPE has 13 guides, the latest published in May 2019, titled Data Integrity - Manufacturing Records.&#91;11&#93;\n\nExternal links \nInternational Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE) website\nGAMP 4 guide (PDF, archived)\nOverview of GAMP 5 guide\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"ISPE Glossary of Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Terminology - Good Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP)\".&#32;International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering.&#32;https:\/\/ispe.org\/glossary\/g?title_contains=Good+Automated+Manufacturing+Practice&amp;langcode=All .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 \"GAMP 5: Are you up to date with the latest Validation Best Practices?\".&#32;Dataworks Ltd.&#32;15 October 2014.&#32;http:\/\/www.dataworks.ie\/gamp-5-are-you-up-to-date-with-the-latest-validation-best-practices\/ .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Forrest, D.&#32;(1 September 2013).&#32;\"What is GAMP and how did GAMP start?\".&#32;Controlling Compliance Matters.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 09 February 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209215737\/http:\/\/www.controlling-compliance-matters.com\/?p=190 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Smith, P.&#32;(1 December 2008).&#32;\"20th Anniversary Special Feature: Validation and qualification\".&#32;Pharmaceutical Technology Europe&#32;20&#32;(2).&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 04 April 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150404050745\/http:\/\/www.pharmtech.com\/node\/230212 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Maruccia, D.&#32;(21 March 2006).&#32;\"GAMP Guideline &amp; Validation Documentation\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Pharma Quality Europe.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 18 March 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150318190447\/http:\/\/www.ssfa.it\/allegati\/GDL_GIQAR_GCP_GampGuidelineMilano06.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 DeSpautz, J.; Kovacs, K.D.; Werling, G.&#32;(11 March 2008).&#32;\"GAMP Standards For Validation Of Automated Systems\".&#32;Pharmaceutical Processing.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 26 December 2010.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101226195015\/http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/Articles\/2008\/03\/GAMP-Standards-For-Validation-Of-Automated-Systems\/ .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 Wyn, S.&#32;(May\/June 2018).&#32;\"GAMP 5: Ten Years On\".&#32;Pharmaceutical Engineering.&#32;https:\/\/ispe.org\/pharmaceutical-engineering\/may-june-2018\/gamp-5-ten-years .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"GAMP 5: A Risk-Based Approach to Compliant GxP Computerized Systems\".&#32;International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 22 May 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170522232540\/http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/gamp5 .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 9.0 9.1 John, J.&#32;(17 April 2013).&#32;\"Overview of Computerized System Compliance Using the GAMP 5 Guide\".&#32;ProPharma Group.&#32;https:\/\/www.slideshare.net\/ProPharmaGroup\/overview-of-computerized-systems-compliance-using-the-gamp-5-guide .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 McDowall, R. D.&#32;(1 June 2009).&#32;\"Understanding and Interpreting the New GAMP 5 Software Categories\".&#32;SpectroscopyOnline.com.&#32;Advanstar Communications Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 21 June 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150621071044\/http:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/understanding-and-interpreting-new-gamp-5-software-categories .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Guidance Documents\".&#32;International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering.&#32;https:\/\/ispe.org\/publications\/guidance-documents .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice<\/a>\nCategories: Manufacturing and R&amp;D industryProduction standardsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 15:14.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 31,587 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice rootpage-Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Good Automated Manufacturing Practice<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Pharma-production.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"6430d82f38dca1b4aee4ee2c96312a6e\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2b\/Pharma-production.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Pharma-production.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"6430d82f38dca1b4aee4ee2c96312a6e\"><\/a><\/div>The area of automated pharmaceutical manufacturing is influenced in part by GAMP and its associated guidelines.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Good Automated Manufacturing Practice<\/b> (<b>GAMP<\/b>) is both a technical subcommittee of the International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE) and a set of guidelines for manufacturers and users of automated systems in the pharmaceutical industry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISPEGlossary1_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISPEGlossary1-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> One of the core principles of GAMP is that quality cannot be tested into a batch of product but must be built into each stage of the manufacturing process. As a result, GAMP covers all aspects of production, from the raw materials, facility, and equipment, to the training and hygiene of staff.\n<\/p><p>GAMP is largely about automated system validation. In October 2014, Irish tech company Dataworks Ltd. described it as such<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DWDef_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DWDef-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is a formal process of thorough documentation, testing, and logical process steps that validate clients' required specifications. The process begins with a user requirements specification for the machine, from which a functional requirement and a design specification are created. These documents then form the basis for the traceability matrix and for the formal testing of internal acceptance, factory acceptance, and site acceptance. Categorising software is used to support the approach to validation based on the difficulty and individuality of the computerised system.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>GAMP's origins can be traced to the United Kingdom in 1988, when software developers David Forrest and Colin Jones, through their company FJ Systems, developed real-time control and production information management control systems for pharmaceutical manufacturers. They worked with ICI Pharmaceuticals' Tony Margetts on the problem of validating systems that were increasingly becoming more software-based than mechanical- and electrical-based. This culminated in a five-page document called <i>VMAN I<\/i>, mapping the older installation qualification (IQ), operational qualification (OQ), and performance qualification (PQ) phases of equipment validation to a more modern software validation lifecycle. A second version was created upon additional feedback.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Forrest_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Forrest-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>GAMP itself was eventually founded in 1991 (with the previously mentioned Margetts as chairman of the editorial board) to deal with the evolving U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> expectations for Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) compliance of manufacturing and related systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Smith20th_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Smith20th-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> GAMP published its first draft guidance in February 1994, with version 1.0 of it arriving in March 1995. Soon afterwards the organization entered into a partnership with ISPE, formally becoming part of ISPE in 2000. GAMP 4 was released a year later, followed by GAMP 5 in 2008.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GGuide_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GGuide-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> GAMP has enjoyed the support of numerous regulatory authorities over the years spanning the United States, Europe, and Japan and is now a recognized good practice worldwide.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeSpautzGAMP_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeSpautzGAMP-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2017, the leadership of the ISPE GAMP Community of Practice (CoP) began formal review of the GAMP 5 standard, whether its objectives were being met, and what more needs to be done to improve it. \"For each GAMP 5 section and appendix, the team examined the effects of technical and regulatory updates since the original publication, focusing on substantive topics and guidance rather than background, historical, or supporting information.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WynGAMP18_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WynGAMP18-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> That review revealed that while GAMP 5 was still relevant in the changing regulatory atmosphere, improvement was suggested in<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WynGAMP18_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WynGAMP18-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>increasing the ubiquity of third-party service providers;<\/li>\n<li>updating methods and approaches to software development; and<\/li>\n<li>encouraging increased use of more automated tool-based processes.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Publications\">Publications<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"GAMP_5\">GAMP 5<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>ISPE has published a series of good practice guides for the industry on several topics involved in drug manufacturing. The most well-known is <i>The Good Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP) Guide for Validation of Automated Systems in Pharmaceutical Manufacture<\/i>. The last major revision (GAMP 5) was released in February 2008.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GAMP5_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GAMP5-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The guidance generally states that pharmaceutical computer systems should be built with several key ideas in mind<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JohnsPre_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JohnsPre-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p>1. Make product and process understanding clear.\n<\/p><p>2. Approach the life cycle from the standpoint of a quality management system.\n<\/p><p>3. Make life cycle activities scalable.\n<\/p><p>4. Ensure quality risk management is science-based.\n<\/p><p>5. Leverage supplier involvement into the system.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"System_categorization\">System categorization<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Software systems borne from these principles can be categorized into one of four GAMP 5 categories. (<b>Note<\/b>: \"Category 2: Firmware\" was removed from GAMP with revision five.) These classifications act as built-in risk and difficulty assessments that support different validation approaches<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DWDef_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DWDef-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JohnsPre_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JohnsPre-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GAMPCats_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GAMPCats-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p>Category 1: Infrastructure software - This includes \"established or commercially available layered software\" and \"infrastructure software tools\" that are themselves validated from within rather than from the infrastructure.\n<\/p><p>Category 3: Non-configured products - This includes \"software that is used as installed\" and potentially \"software that is configurable (category 4) but is used either unconfigured or with the standard defaults provided by the software supplier.\"\n<\/p><p>Category 4: Configured products - This includes products where \"the user has the means and knowledge to change the functionality of the device in a way that changes the results outputted by the device. As a direct consequence, this triggers increased validation effort.\"\n<\/p><p>Category 5: Custom applications - This includes any \"application, module, user-defined program, or macro\" that has been written in-house or by a third party that \"needs to be specified, version controlled, built, and tested (including integration testing with the commercial application, as applicable) as a minimum to ensure the quality of the software.\"\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_guides\">Other guides<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As of April 2020, the ISPE has 13 guides, the latest published in May 2019, titled <i>Data Integrity - Manufacturing Records<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GAMPPubs_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GAMPPubs-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ispe.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE) website<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150318190447\/http:\/\/www.ssfa.it\/allegati\/GDL_GIQAR_GCP_GampGuidelineMilano06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">GAMP 4 guide<\/a> (PDF, archived)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.slideshare.net\/ProPharmaGroup\/overview-of-computerized-systems-compliance-using-the-gamp-5-guide\" target=\"_blank\">Overview of GAMP 5 guide<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISPEGlossary1-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISPEGlossary1_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ispe.org\/glossary\/g?title_contains=Good+Automated+Manufacturing+Practice&langcode=All\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISPE Glossary of Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Terminology - Good Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP)\"<\/a>.&#32;International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/ispe.org\/glossary\/g?title_contains=Good+Automated+Manufacturing+Practice&langcode=All\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/ispe.org\/glossary\/g?title_contains=Good+Automated+Manufacturing+Practice&amp;langcode=All<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISPE+Glossary+of+Pharmaceutical+and+Biotechnology+Terminology+-+Good+Automated+Manufacturing+Practice+%28GAMP%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Society+for+Pharmaceutical+Engineering&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fispe.org%2Fglossary%2Fg%3Ftitle_contains%3DGood%2BAutomated%2BManufacturing%2BPractice%26langcode%3DAll&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DWDef-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-DWDef_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-DWDef_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dataworks.ie\/gamp-5-are-you-up-to-date-with-the-latest-validation-best-practices\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"GAMP 5: Are you up to date with the latest Validation Best Practices?\"<\/a>.&#32;Dataworks Ltd.&#32;15 October 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dataworks.ie\/gamp-5-are-you-up-to-date-with-the-latest-validation-best-practices\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.dataworks.ie\/gamp-5-are-you-up-to-date-with-the-latest-validation-best-practices\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=GAMP+5%3A+Are+you+up+to+date+with+the+latest+Validation+Best+Practices%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=15+October+2014&amp;rft.pub=Dataworks+Ltd&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dataworks.ie%2Fgamp-5-are-you-up-to-date-with-the-latest-validation-best-practices%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Forrest-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Forrest_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Forrest, D.&#32;(1 September 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209215737\/http:\/\/www.controlling-compliance-matters.com\/?p=190\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is GAMP and how did GAMP start?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Controlling Compliance Matters<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.controlling-compliance-matters.com\/?p=190\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 09 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209215737\/http:\/\/www.controlling-compliance-matters.com\/?p=190\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209215737\/http:\/\/www.controlling-compliance-matters.com\/?p=190<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+GAMP+and+how+did+GAMP+start%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Controlling+Compliance+Matters&amp;rft.aulast=Forrest%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Forrest%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=1+September+2013&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150209215737%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.controlling-compliance-matters.com%2F%3Fp%3D190&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Smith20th-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Smith20th_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Smith, P.&#32;(1 December 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150404050745\/http:\/\/www.pharmtech.com\/node\/230212\" target=\"_blank\">\"20th Anniversary Special Feature: Validation and qualification\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Pharmaceutical Technology Europe<\/i>&#32;<b>20<\/b>&#32;(2).&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pharmtech.com\/node\/230212\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 04 April 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150404050745\/http:\/\/www.pharmtech.com\/node\/230212\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150404050745\/http:\/\/www.pharmtech.com\/node\/230212<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=20th+Anniversary+Special+Feature%3A+Validation+and+qualification&amp;rft.jtitle=Pharmaceutical+Technology+Europe&amp;rft.aulast=Smith%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Smith%2C+P.&amp;rft.date=1+December+2008&amp;rft.volume=20&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150404050745%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.pharmtech.com%2Fnode%2F230212&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GGuide-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GGuide_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Maruccia, D.&#32;(21 March 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150318190447\/http:\/\/www.ssfa.it\/allegati\/GDL_GIQAR_GCP_GampGuidelineMilano06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"GAMP Guideline &amp; Validation Documentation\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Pharma Quality Europe.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ssfa.it\/allegati\/GDL_GIQAR_GCP_GampGuidelineMilano06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 18 March 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150318190447\/http:\/\/www.ssfa.it\/allegati\/GDL_GIQAR_GCP_GampGuidelineMilano06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150318190447\/http:\/\/www.ssfa.it\/allegati\/GDL_GIQAR_GCP_GampGuidelineMilano06.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=GAMP+Guideline+%26+Validation+Documentation&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Maruccia%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Maruccia%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=21+March+2006&amp;rft.pub=Pharma+Quality+Europe&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150318190447%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ssfa.it%2Fallegati%2FGDL_GIQAR_GCP_GampGuidelineMilano06.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DeSpautzGAMP-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DeSpautzGAMP_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">DeSpautz, J.; Kovacs, K.D.; Werling, G.&#32;(11 March 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101226195015\/http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/Articles\/2008\/03\/GAMP-Standards-For-Validation-Of-Automated-Systems\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"GAMP Standards For Validation Of Automated Systems\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Pharmaceutical Processing<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/Articles\/2008\/03\/GAMP-Standards-For-Validation-Of-Automated-Systems\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 26 December 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101226195015\/http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/Articles\/2008\/03\/GAMP-Standards-For-Validation-Of-Automated-Systems\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101226195015\/http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/Articles\/2008\/03\/GAMP-Standards-For-Validation-Of-Automated-Systems\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=GAMP+Standards+For+Validation+Of+Automated+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Pharmaceutical+Processing&amp;rft.aulast=DeSpautz%2C+J.%3B+Kovacs%2C+K.D.%3B+Werling%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=DeSpautz%2C+J.%3B+Kovacs%2C+K.D.%3B+Werling%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=11+March+2008&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20101226195015%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.pharmpro.com%2FArticles%2F2008%2F03%2FGAMP-Standards-For-Validation-Of-Automated-Systems%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WynGAMP18-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-WynGAMP18_7-0\">7.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-WynGAMP18_7-1\">7.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wyn, S.&#32;(May\/June 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ispe.org\/pharmaceutical-engineering\/may-june-2018\/gamp-5-ten-years\" target=\"_blank\">\"GAMP 5: Ten Years On\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Pharmaceutical Engineering<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/ispe.org\/pharmaceutical-engineering\/may-june-2018\/gamp-5-ten-years\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/ispe.org\/pharmaceutical-engineering\/may-june-2018\/gamp-5-ten-years<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=GAMP+5%3A+Ten+Years+On&amp;rft.atitle=Pharmaceutical+Engineering&amp;rft.aulast=Wyn%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Wyn%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=May%2FJune+2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fispe.org%2Fpharmaceutical-engineering%2Fmay-june-2018%2Fgamp-5-ten-years&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GAMP5-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GAMP5_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170522232540\/http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/gamp5\" target=\"_blank\">\"GAMP 5: A Risk-Based Approach to Compliant GxP Computerized Systems\"<\/a>.&#32;International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/gamp5\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 22 May 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170522232540\/http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/gamp5\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170522232540\/http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/gamp5<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=GAMP+5%3A+A+Risk-Based+Approach+to+Compliant+GxP+Computerized+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Society+for+Pharmaceutical+Engineering&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170522232540%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ispe.org%2Fgamp5&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JohnsPre-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-JohnsPre_9-0\">9.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-JohnsPre_9-1\">9.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">John, J.&#32;(17 April 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.slideshare.net\/ProPharmaGroup\/overview-of-computerized-systems-compliance-using-the-gamp-5-guide\" target=\"_blank\">\"Overview of Computerized System Compliance Using the GAMP 5 Guide\"<\/a>.&#32;ProPharma Group<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.slideshare.net\/ProPharmaGroup\/overview-of-computerized-systems-compliance-using-the-gamp-5-guide\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.slideshare.net\/ProPharmaGroup\/overview-of-computerized-systems-compliance-using-the-gamp-5-guide<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Overview+of+Computerized+System+Compliance+Using+the+GAMP+5+Guide&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=John%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=John%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=17+April+2013&amp;rft.pub=ProPharma+Group&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slideshare.net%2FProPharmaGroup%2Foverview-of-computerized-systems-compliance-using-the-gamp-5-guide&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GAMPCats-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GAMPCats_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">McDowall, R. D.&#32;(1 June 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150621071044\/http:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/understanding-and-interpreting-new-gamp-5-software-categories\" target=\"_blank\">\"Understanding and Interpreting the New GAMP 5 Software Categories\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>SpectroscopyOnline.com<\/i>.&#32;Advanstar Communications Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/understanding-and-interpreting-new-gamp-5-software-categories\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 21 June 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150621071044\/http:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/understanding-and-interpreting-new-gamp-5-software-categories\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150621071044\/http:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/understanding-and-interpreting-new-gamp-5-software-categories<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+and+Interpreting+the+New+GAMP+5+Software+Categories&amp;rft.atitle=SpectroscopyOnline.com&amp;rft.aulast=McDowall%2C+R.+D.&amp;rft.au=McDowall%2C+R.+D.&amp;rft.date=1+June+2009&amp;rft.pub=Advanstar+Communications+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150621071044%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.spectroscopyonline.com%2Funderstanding-and-interpreting-new-gamp-5-software-categories&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GAMPPubs-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GAMPPubs_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ispe.org\/publications\/guidance-documents\" target=\"_blank\">\"Guidance Documents\"<\/a>.&#32;International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/ispe.org\/publications\/guidance-documents\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/ispe.org\/publications\/guidance-documents<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Guidance+Documents&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Society+for+Pharmaceutical+Engineering&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fispe.org%2Fpublications%2Fguidance-documents&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171650\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.744 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.253 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 7800\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 57666\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 28479\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 18371\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 196.379 1 Template:Reflist\n100.00% 196.379 1 -total\n 72.09% 141.577 11 Template:Citation\/core\n 72.03% 141.444 10 Template:Cite_web\n 14.99% 29.432 8 Template:Date\n 10.90% 21.408 1 Template:Cite_journal\n 7.26% 14.260 21 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 2.80% 5.491 1 Template:Column-width\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3373-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171649 and revision id 49430. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2b\/Pharma-production.jpg"],"a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_timestamp":1704907009,"bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_type":"article","bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_title":"Good Automated Laboratory Practices","bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices","bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_plaintext":"\n\nGood Automated Laboratory PracticesFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchThe Good Automated Laboratory Practices (GALP) was a U.S. EPA-based conglomeration of \"regulations, policies, and guidance documents establishing a uniform set of procedures to ensure the reliability and credibility of laboratory data.\"&#91;1&#93; GALP is considered an expired policy by the EPA, though the true expiration date is not know.&#91;2&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Impact \n3 Further reading \n4 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nWork on GALP was first started by the EPA in 1989 as an extension of its pre-existing good laboratory practice (GLP) requirements to what they saw as a state of increasing automation in laboratories.&#91;3&#93; An additional revision was released in 1995 by the EPA.&#91;4&#93;\nThe GALP's creation was based on six principles&#91;5&#93;:\n1. The system must provide a method of assuring the integrity of all entered data.\n2. The formulas and decision algorithms employed by the system must be accurate and appropriate.\n3. An audit trail that tracks data entry and modifications to the responsible individual is a critical element in the control process.\n4. A consistent and appropriate change-control procedure capable of tracking the system operation and application software is a critical element in the control process.\n5. Control of even the most carefully designed and implemented system will be thwarted if appropriate user procedures are not followed.\n6. Consistent control of a system requires the development of alternative plans for system failure, disaster recovery, and unauthorized access.\n\nImpact \nGALP had a variable regulatory impact on laboratories and organizations early on. Pharmaceutical and biologics laboratories could practically ignore the regulations while the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and EPA used GALP as a key guiding factor in its standards and contract renewal considerations.&#91;3&#93; The Department of Energy and Superfund programs tightly followed GALP's standards while others viewed GALP as something to be loosely interpreted.&#91;3&#93;\n\nFurther reading \nU.S. Environmental Protection Agency&#32;(10 August 1995).&#32;\"EPA 2185 - Good Automated Laboratory Practices - Principles and Guidance to Regulations for Ensuring Data Integrity in Automated Laboratory Operations\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 21 October 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131021091515\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/2185.pdf . &#160; \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Paszko, Christine; Paszko Turner; Elizabeth Turner&#32;(2001).&#32;\"Chapter 6: Regulatory Requirements\".&#32;Laboratory Information Management Systems.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;59.&#32;ISBN&#160;0824741412.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ycEqnzPl2lYC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Expired Policies\/Directives - Office of Environmental Information - US EPA\".&#32;U.S. EPA.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 01 April 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150401070540\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/index.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 3.2 Weinberg, Spelton &amp; Sax, Inc.&#32;(1994).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Why GALPs???\".&#32;GALP Regulatory Handbook.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;2\u20134.&#32;ISBN&#160;1566700256.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency&#32;(10 August 1995).&#32;\"EPA 2185 - Good Automated Laboratory Practices - Principles and Guidance to Regulations for Ensuring Data Integrity in Automated Laboratory Operations\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 21 October 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131021091515\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/2185.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Weinberg, Spelton &amp; Sax, Inc.&#32;(1994).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Why GALPs???\".&#32;GALP Regulatory Handbook.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;8\u20139.&#32;ISBN&#160;1566700256.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices<\/a>\nCategory: Regulatory informationNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 7 January 2022, at 22:39.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 18,858 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices rootpage-Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Good Automated Laboratory Practices<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>The <b>Good Automated Laboratory Practices<\/b> (<b>GALP<\/b>) was a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"877b052e12328aa52f6f7c3f2d56f99a\">U.S. EPA-based<\/a> conglomeration of \"regulations, policies, and guidance documents establishing a uniform set of procedures to ensure the reliability and credibility of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> data.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSPaszko_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSPaszko-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> GALP is considered an expired policy by the EPA, though the true expiration date is not know.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPAExpired_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPAExpired-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Work on GALP was first started by the EPA in 1989 as an extension of its pre-existing good laboratory practice (GLP) requirements to what they saw as a state of increasing automation in laboratories.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GALPBook1_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GALPBook1-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> An additional revision was released in 1995 by the EPA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPAGALP_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPAGALP-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The GALP's creation was based on six principles<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GALPBook2_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GALPBook2-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p>1. The system must provide a method of assuring the integrity of all entered data.\n<\/p><p>2. The formulas and decision algorithms employed by the system must be accurate and appropriate.\n<\/p><p>3. An <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d184d528c3d8bec99c88b45a9e026379\">audit trail<\/a> that tracks data entry and modifications to the responsible individual is a critical element in the control process.\n<\/p><p>4. A consistent and appropriate change-control procedure capable of tracking the system operation and application software is a critical element in the control process.\n<\/p><p>5. Control of even the most carefully designed and implemented system will be thwarted if appropriate user procedures are not followed.\n<\/p><p>6. Consistent control of a system requires the development of alternative plans for system failure, disaster recovery, and unauthorized access.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Impact\">Impact<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>GALP had a variable regulatory impact on laboratories and organizations early on. Pharmaceutical and biologics laboratories could practically ignore the regulations while the U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> (FDA) and EPA used GALP as a key guiding factor in its standards and contract renewal considerations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GALPBook1_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GALPBook1-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The Department of Energy and Superfund programs tightly followed GALP's standards while others viewed GALP as something to be loosely interpreted.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GALPBook1_3-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GALPBook1-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency&#32;(10 August 1995).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131021091515\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/2185.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"EPA 2185 - Good Automated Laboratory Practices - Principles and Guidance to Regulations for Ensuring Data Integrity in Automated Laboratory Operations\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/2185.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 21 October 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131021091515\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/2185.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131021091515\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/2185.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=EPA+2185+-+Good+Automated+Laboratory+Practices+-+Principles+and+Guidance+to+Regulations+for+Ensuring+Data+Integrity+in+Automated+Laboratory+Operations&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft.au=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft.date=10+August+1995&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20131021091515%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Firmpoli8%2Fexpiredpolicies%2F2185.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-LIMSPaszko-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSPaszko_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Paszko, Christine; Paszko Turner; Elizabeth Turner&#32;(2001).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ycEqnzPl2lYC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 6: Regulatory Requirements\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Laboratory Information Management Systems<\/i>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;59.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0824741412<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ycEqnzPl2lYC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ycEqnzPl2lYC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+6%3A+Regulatory+Requirements&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+Information+Management+Systems&amp;rft.aulast=Paszko%2C+Christine%3B+Paszko+Turner%3B+Elizabeth+Turner&amp;rft.au=Paszko%2C+Christine%3B+Paszko+Turner%3B+Elizabeth+Turner&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B59&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=0824741412&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DycEqnzPl2lYC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPAExpired-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EPAExpired_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150401070540\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Expired Policies\/Directives - Office of Environmental Information - US EPA\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. EPA.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 01 April 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150401070540\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150401070540\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Expired+Policies%2FDirectives+-+Office+of+Environmental+Information+-+US+EPA&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+EPA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150401070540%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Firmpoli8%2Fexpiredpolicies%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GALPBook1-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GALPBook1_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GALPBook1_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GALPBook1_3-2\">3.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Weinberg, Spelton &amp; Sax, Inc.&#32;(1994).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Why GALPs???\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>GALP Regulatory Handbook<\/i>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;2\u20134.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1566700256<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Why+GALPs%3F%3F%3F&amp;rft.atitle=GALP+Regulatory+Handbook&amp;rft.aulast=Weinberg%2C+Spelton+%26+Sax%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.au=Weinberg%2C+Spelton+%26+Sax%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B2%E2%80%934&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=1566700256&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRfzlSKm581EC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPAGALP-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EPAGALP_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency&#32;(10 August 1995).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131021091515\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/2185.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"EPA 2185 - Good Automated Laboratory Practices - Principles and Guidance to Regulations for Ensuring Data Integrity in Automated Laboratory Operations\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/2185.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 21 October 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131021091515\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/2185.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131021091515\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/2185.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=EPA+2185+-+Good+Automated+Laboratory+Practices+-+Principles+and+Guidance+to+Regulations+for+Ensuring+Data+Integrity+in+Automated+Laboratory+Operations&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft.au=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft.date=10+August+1995&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20131021091515%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Firmpoli8%2Fexpiredpolicies%2F2185.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GALPBook2-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GALPBook2_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Weinberg, Spelton &amp; Sax, Inc.&#32;(1994).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Why GALPs???\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>GALP Regulatory Handbook<\/i>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;8\u20139.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1566700256<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Why+GALPs%3F%3F%3F&amp;rft.atitle=GALP+Regulatory+Handbook&amp;rft.aulast=Weinberg%2C+Spelton+%26+Sax%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.au=Weinberg%2C+Spelton+%26+Sax%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B8%E2%80%939&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=1566700256&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRfzlSKm581EC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110143334\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.098 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.125 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4308\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 33143\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 15483\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 8818\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 100.127 1 -total\n 67.86% 67.951 1 Template:Reflist\n 65.89% 65.972 6 Template:Citation\/core\n 43.65% 43.704 3 Template:Cite_web\n 35.71% 35.756 3 Template:Cite_book\n 12.18% 12.194 3 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 8.25% 8.262 2 Template:Date\n 7.01% 7.019 12 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 3.58% 3.581 1 Template:Column-width\n 3.48% 3.486 6 Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3372-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110143333 and revision id 45453. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_images":[],"bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_timestamp":1704907008,"7fe43b05eae4dfa9b5c0547cc8cfcceb_type":"article","7fe43b05eae4dfa9b5c0547cc8cfcceb_title":"Data quality","7fe43b05eae4dfa9b5c0547cc8cfcceb_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_quality","7fe43b05eae4dfa9b5c0547cc8cfcceb_plaintext":"\n\nData qualityFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_quality\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_quality<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementQuality managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 22 September 2022, at 20:39.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,752 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","7fe43b05eae4dfa9b5c0547cc8cfcceb_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_quality rootpage-Data_quality skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data quality<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality\" data-key=\"8771428f8ff5b31246abf8b197186672\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171648\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.133 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.205 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 94\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 199.248 1 wikipedia:Data_quality\n100.00% 199.248 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:11887-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171648 and revision id 49624. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_quality\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_quality<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","7fe43b05eae4dfa9b5c0547cc8cfcceb_images":[],"7fe43b05eae4dfa9b5c0547cc8cfcceb_timestamp":1704907008,"382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_type":"article","382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_title":"Data integrity","382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity","382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_plaintext":"\n\nData integrityFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchMaintenance of data over its entire life-cycle\nData integrity is the maintenance of, and the assurance of, data accuracy and consistency over its entire life-cycle.[1] It is a critical aspect to the design, implementation, and usage of any system that stores, processes, or retrieves data. The term is broad in scope and may have widely different meanings depending on the specific context even under the same general umbrella of computing. It is at times used as a proxy term for data quality,[2] while data validation is a prerequisite for data integrity.[3]\n\n\n\nDefinition \nData integrity is the opposite of data corruption.[4] The overall intent of any data integrity technique is the same: ensure data is recorded exactly as intended (such as a database correctly rejecting mutually exclusive possibilities). Moreover, upon later retrieval, ensure the data is the same as when it was originally recorded. In short, data integrity aims to prevent unintentional changes to information. Data integrity is not to be confused with data security, the discipline of protecting data from unauthorized parties.\nAny unintended changes to data as the result of a storage, retrieval or processing operation, including malicious intent, unexpected hardware failure, and human error, is failure of data integrity. If the changes are the result of unauthorized access, it may also be a failure of data security. Depending on the data involved this could manifest itself as benign as a single pixel in an image appearing a different color than was originally recorded, to the loss of vacation pictures or a business-critical database, to even catastrophic loss of human life in a life-critical system.\n\nIntegrity types \nPhysical integrity \nPhysical integrity deals with challenges which are associated with correctly storing and fetching the data itself. Challenges with physical integrity may include electromechanical faults, design flaws, material fatigue, corrosion, power outages, natural disasters, and other special environmental hazards such as ionizing radiation, extreme temperatures, pressures and g-forces. Ensuring physical integrity includes methods such as redundant hardware, an uninterruptible power supply, certain types of RAID arrays, radiation hardened chips, error-correcting memory, use of a clustered file system, using file systems that employ block level checksums such as ZFS, storage arrays that compute parity calculations such as exclusive or or use a cryptographic hash function and even having a watchdog timer on critical subsystems.\nPhysical integrity often makes extensive use of error detecting algorithms known as error-correcting codes. Human-induced data integrity errors are often detected through the use of simpler checks and algorithms, such as the Damm algorithm or Luhn algorithm. These are used to maintain data integrity after manual transcription from one computer system to another by a human intermediary (e.g. credit card or bank routing numbers). Computer-induced transcription errors can be detected through hash functions.\nIn production systems, these techniques are used together to ensure various degrees of data integrity. For example, a computer file system may be configured on a fault-tolerant RAID array, but might not provide block-level checksums to detect and prevent silent data corruption. As another example, a database management system might be compliant with the ACID properties, but the RAID controller or hard disk drive's internal write cache might not be.\n\nLogical integrity \nSee also: Mutex and Copy-on-write\nThis type of integrity is concerned with the correctness or rationality of a piece of data, given a particular context. This includes topics such as referential integrity and entity integrity in a relational database or correctly ignoring impossible sensor data in robotic systems. These concerns involve ensuring that the data \"makes sense\" given its environment. Challenges include software bugs, design flaws, and human errors. Common methods of ensuring logical integrity include things such as check constraints, foreign key constraints, program assertions, and other run-time sanity checks.\nPhysical and logical integrity often share many challenges such as human errors and design flaws, and both must appropriately deal with concurrent requests to record and retrieve data, the latter of which is entirely a subject on its own.\nIf a data sector only has a logical error, it can be reused by overwriting it with new data. In case of a physical error, the affected data sector is permanently unusable.\n\nDatabases \nData integrity contains guidelines for data retention, specifying or guaranteeing the length of time data can be retained in a particular database (typically a relational database). To achieve data integrity, these rules are consistently and routinely applied to all data entering the system, and any relaxation of enforcement could cause errors in the data. Implementing checks on the data as close as possible to the source of input (such as human data entry), causes less erroneous data to enter the system. Strict enforcement of data integrity rules results in lower error rates, and time saved troubleshooting and tracing erroneous data and the errors it causes to algorithms.\nData integrity also includes rules defining the relations a piece of data can have to other pieces of data, such as a Customer record being allowed to link to purchased Products, but not to unrelated data such as Corporate Assets. Data integrity often includes checks and correction for invalid data, based on a fixed schema or a predefined set of rules. An example being textual data entered where a date-time value is required. Rules for data derivation are also applicable, specifying how a data value is derived based on algorithm, contributors and conditions. It also specifies the conditions on how the data value could be re-derived.\n\nTypes of integrity constraints \nData integrity is normally enforced in a database system by a series of integrity constraints or rules. Three types of integrity constraints are an inherent part of the relational data model: entity integrity, referential integrity and domain integrity.\n\nEntity integrity concerns the concept of a primary key. Entity integrity is an integrity rule which states that every table must have a primary key and that the column or columns chosen to be the primary key should be unique and not null.\nReferential integrity concerns the concept of a foreign key. The referential integrity rule states that any foreign-key value can only be in one of two states. The usual state of affairs is that the foreign-key value refers to a primary key value of some table in the database. Occasionally, and this will depend on the rules of the data owner, a foreign-key value can be null. In this case, we are explicitly saying that either there is no relationship between the objects represented in the database or that this relationship is unknown.\nDomain integrity specifies that all columns in a relational database must be declared upon a defined domain. The primary unit of data in the relational data model is the data item. Such data items are said to be non-decomposable or atomic. A domain is a set of values of the same type. Domains are therefore pools of values from which actual values appearing in the columns of a table are drawn.\nUser-defined integrity refers to a set of rules specified by a user, which do not belong to the entity, domain and referential integrity categories.\nIf a database supports these features, it is the responsibility of the database to ensure data integrity as well as the consistency model for the data storage and retrieval. If a database does not support these features, it is the responsibility of the applications to ensure data integrity while the database supports the consistency model for the data storage and retrieval.\nHaving a single, well-controlled, and well-defined data-integrity system increases:\n\nstability (one centralized system performs all data integrity operations)\nperformance (all data integrity operations are performed in the same tier as the consistency model)\nre-usability (all applications benefit from a single centralized data integrity system)\nmaintainability (one centralized system for all data integrity administration).\nModern databases support these features (see Comparison of relational database management systems), and it has become the de facto responsibility of the database to ensure data integrity. Companies, and indeed many database systems, offer products and services to migrate legacy systems to modern databases.\n\nExamples \nAn example of a data-integrity mechanism is the parent-and-child relationship of related records. If a parent record owns one or more related child records all of the referential integrity processes are handled by the database itself, which automatically ensures the accuracy and integrity of the data so that no child record can exist without a parent (also called being orphaned) and that no parent loses their child records. It also ensures that no parent record can be deleted while the parent record owns any child records. All of this is handled at the database level and does not require coding integrity checks into each application.\n\nFile systems \nVarious research results show that neither widespread filesystems (including UFS, Ext, XFS, JFS and NTFS) nor hardware RAID solutions provide sufficient protection against data integrity problems.[5][6][7][8][9]\nSome filesystems (including Btrfs and ZFS) provide internal data and metadata checksumming that is used for detecting silent data corruption and improving data integrity. If a corruption is detected that way and internal RAID mechanisms provided by those filesystems are also used, such filesystems can additionally reconstruct corrupted data in a transparent way.[10] This approach allows improved data integrity protection covering the entire data paths, which is usually known as end-to-end data protection.[11]\n\nData integrity as applied to various industries \nThe U.S. Food and Drug Administration has created draft guidance on data integrity for the pharmaceutical manufacturers required to adhere to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 21 CFR Parts 210\u2013212.[12] Outside the U.S., similar data integrity guidance has been issued by the United Kingdom (2015), Switzerland (2016), and Australia (2017).[13]\nVarious standards for the manufacture of medical devices address data integrity either directly or indirectly, including ISO 13485, ISO 14155, and ISO 5840.[14]\nIn early 2017, the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA), noting data integrity problems with automated trading and money movement surveillance systems, stated it would make \"the development of a data integrity program to monitor the accuracy of the submitted data\" a priority.[15] In early 2018, FINRA said it would expand its approach on data integrity to firms' \"technology change management policies and procedures\" and Treasury securities reviews.[16]\nOther sectors such as mining[17] and product manufacturing[18] are increasingly focusing on the importance of data integrity in associated automation and production monitoring assets.\nCloud storage providers have long faced significant challenges ensuring the integrity or provenance of customer data and tracking violations.[19][20][21]\nSee also \nEnd-to-end data integrity\nMessage authentication\nNational Information Assurance Glossary\nSingle version of the truth\nReferences \n\n\n^ Boritz, J. \"IS Practitioners' Views on Core Concepts of Information Integrity\". International Journal of Accounting Information Systems. Elsevier. Archived from the original on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 12 August 2011 . \n\n^ What is Data Integrity? Learn How to Ensure Database Data Integrity via Checks, Tests, &amp; Best Practices \n\n^ What is Data Integrity? Data Protection 101 \n\n^ From the book: Uberveillance and the Social Implications of Microchip Implants: Emerging Page 40 \n\n^ \nVijayan Prabhakaran (2006). \"IRON FILE SYSTEMS\" (PDF) . Doctor of Philosophy in Computer Sciences. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 9 June 2012 . \n\n^ \"Parity Lost and Parity Regained\". \n\n^ \n\"An Analysis of Data Corruption in the Storage Stack\" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. \n\n^ \n\"Impact of Disk Corruption on Open-Source DBMS\" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. \n\n^ \n\"Baarf.com\". Baarf.com. Retrieved 4 November 2011 . \n\n^ Bierman, Margaret; Grimmer, Lenz (August 2012). \"How I Use the Advanced Capabilities of Btrfs\". Retrieved 2014-01-02 . \n\n^ Yupu Zhang; Abhishek Rajimwale; Andrea Arpaci-Dusseau; Remzi H. Arpaci-Dusseau (2010). \"End-to-end data integrity for file systems: a ZFS case study\" (PDF) . USENIX Conference on File and Storage Technologies. CiteSeerX&#160;10.1.1.154.3979 . S2CID&#160;5722163. Wikidata&#160;Q111972797. Retrieved 2014-01-02 . \n\n^ \"Data Integrity and Compliance with CGMP: Guidance for Industry\" (PDF) . U.S. Food and Drug Administration. April 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Davidson, J. (18 July 2017). \"Data Integrity Guidance Around the World\". Contract Pharma. Rodman Media. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Scannel, P. (12 May 2015). \"Data Integrity: A perspective from the medical device regulatory and standards framework\" (PDF) . Data Integrity Seminar. Parenteral Drug Association. pp.&#160;10\u201357. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Cook, R. (4 January 2017). \"2017 Regulatory and Examination Priorities Letter\". Financial Industry Regulatory Authority. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Cook, R. (8 January 2018). \"2018 Regulatory and Examination Priorities Letter\". Financial Industry Regulatory Authority. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Data Integrity: Enabling Effective Decisions in Mining Operations\" (PDF) . Accenture. 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Industry 4.0 and Cyber-Physical Systems Raise the Data Integrity Imperative\". Nymi Blog. Nymi, Inc. 24 October 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . Data Integrity \n\n^ Priyadharshini, B.; Parvathi, P. (2012). \"Data integrity in cloud storage\". Proceedings from the 2012 International Conference on Advances in Engineering, Science and Management. ISBN&#160;9788190904223. \n\n^ Zafar, F.; Khan, A.; Malik, S.U.R.; et&#160;al. (2017). \"A survey of cloud computing data integrity schemes: Design challenges, taxonomy and future trends\". Computers &amp; Security. 65 (3): 29\u201349. doi:10.1016\/j.cose.2016.10.006. \n\n^ Imran, M.; Hlavacs, H.; Haq, I.U.I.; et&#160;al. (2017). \"Provenance based data integrity checking and verification in cloud environments\". PLOS ONE. 12 (5): e0177576. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1277576I. doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0177576 . PMC&#160;5435237 . PMID&#160;28545151. \n\n\nAuthority control databases: National \nGermany \nIsrael \nUnited States \n\nvteData\nAugmentation\nAnalysis\nArchaeology\nBig\nCleansing\nCollection\nCompression\nCorruption\nCuration\nDegradation\nEditing\nETL\/ELT\nExtract\nTransform\nLoad\nFarming\nFormat management\nFusion\nIntegration\nIntegrity\nLibrary\nLineage\nLoss\nManagement\nMigration\nMining\nPhilanthropy\nPre-processing\nPreservation\nProcessing\nProtection (privacy)\nPublishing\nRecovery\nReduction\nRetention\nQuality\nScience\nScraping\nScrubbing\nSecurity\nStewardship\nStorage\nSynchronization\nValidation\nWarehouse\nWrangling\/munging\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity<\/a>\nCategories: Computer securityQuality managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 September 2022, at 18:05.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 7,265 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_integrity rootpage-Data_integrity skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data integrity<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Maintenance of data over its entire life-cycle<\/div>\n<p><b>Data integrity<\/b> is the maintenance of, and the assurance of, data accuracy and consistency over its entire <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Lifecycle_Management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information Lifecycle Management\" data-key=\"dbe99bc5fa74e1365e58cc1305b9d74d\">life-cycle<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> It is a critical aspect to the design, implementation, and usage of any system that stores, processes, or retrieves data. The term is broad in scope and may have widely different meanings depending on the specific context even under the same general umbrella of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing\" title=\"Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e2b41b4b3636a02cae6b06d1b0b6378\">computing<\/a>. It is at times used as a proxy term for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8771428f8ff5b31246abf8b197186672\">data quality<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> while <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_validation\" title=\"Data validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b70acbc05ba8da588936d71fece0b0b6\">data validation<\/a> is a prerequisite for data integrity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Definition\">Definition<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Data integrity is the opposite of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_corruption\" title=\"Data corruption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"012248352da338b332ab959566612a39\">data corruption<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> The overall intent of any data integrity technique is the same: ensure data is recorded exactly as intended (such as a database correctly rejecting mutually exclusive possibilities). Moreover, upon later <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retrieval\" title=\"Data retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f3fbd40035be5d3492fe0a88965b6fbc\">retrieval<\/a>, ensure the data is the same as when it was originally recorded. In short, data integrity aims to prevent unintentional changes to information. Data integrity is not to be confused with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">data security<\/a>, the discipline of protecting data from unauthorized parties.\n<\/p><p>Any unintended changes to data as the result of a storage, retrieval or processing operation, including malicious intent, unexpected hardware failure, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_error\" title=\"Human error\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d94e570446fdfe0dcc32a73ee1b0b99\">human error<\/a>, is failure of data integrity. If the changes are the result of unauthorized access, it may also be a failure of data security. Depending on the data involved this could manifest itself as benign as a single pixel in an image appearing a different color than was originally recorded, to the loss of vacation pictures or a business-critical database, to even catastrophic loss of human life in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Life-critical_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Life-critical system\" data-key=\"2603917bb7ea0b7cb7a4effdca5b8491\">life-critical system<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Integrity_types\">Integrity types<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Physical_integrity\">Physical integrity<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Physical integrity deals with challenges which are associated with correctly storing and fetching the data itself. Challenges with physical integrity may include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromechanics\" title=\"Electromechanics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"680b6ba6889288caf430f5c6694fea2f\">electromechanical<\/a> faults, design flaws, material <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fatigue_(material)\" title=\"Fatigue (material)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b960ac412e712a7eb66b9966f2a93448\">fatigue<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corrosion\" title=\"Corrosion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b8d580adb5d690afdf1b28a52a8c537\">corrosion<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Power_outage\" title=\"Power outage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1bb5c96396913f75c9077eab17031ac\">power outages<\/a>, natural disasters, and other special environmental hazards such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ionizing_radiation\" title=\"Ionizing radiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9c8a741f44f97c559457fd8f300751b\">ionizing radiation<\/a>, extreme temperatures, pressures and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/G-force\" title=\"G-force\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f84425b70e4916a159d8300aa79b73a\">g-forces<\/a>. Ensuring physical integrity includes methods such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Redundancy_(engineering)\" title=\"Redundancy (engineering)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10c20f7afc75b8f06f4b512f1c90883b\">redundant<\/a> hardware, an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uninterruptible_power_supply\" title=\"Uninterruptible power supply\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9530180297ed0f137cb7fcfd0495066\">uninterruptible power supply<\/a>, certain types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RAID\" title=\"RAID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bd07ba03e098130175fc03ba5b0c752\">RAID<\/a> arrays, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radiation_hardened\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Radiation hardened\" data-key=\"e13b6ab2318d978e0335b7d381132af7\">radiation hardened<\/a> chips, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ECC_memory\" title=\"ECC memory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37d46a7baeeedd5fe9af76f735afa59d\">error-correcting memory<\/a>, use of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clustered_file_system\" title=\"Clustered file system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b3e631c8b7c5a86535ae7f02021b834\">clustered file system<\/a>, using file systems that employ block level <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Checksum\" title=\"Checksum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0062da8a4cedf924c709cab7d64dc84\">checksums<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZFS\" title=\"ZFS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"046554aee95a51fea56799723643d698\">ZFS<\/a>, storage arrays that compute parity calculations such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exclusive_or\" title=\"Exclusive or\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"adc928df737b564d488b2c7a84b9864d\">exclusive or<\/a> or use a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptographic_hash_function\" title=\"Cryptographic hash function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"676bb20eaff859ca784b738f7e8c856f\">cryptographic hash function<\/a> and even having a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Watchdog_timer\" title=\"Watchdog timer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6aa657a1da6236c1b95776cd47865c7\">watchdog timer<\/a> on critical subsystems.\n<\/p><p>Physical integrity often makes extensive use of error detecting algorithms known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Error-correcting_codes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Error-correcting codes\" data-key=\"d051935bcbf562131f9cc6982dbe22e3\">error-correcting codes<\/a>. Human-induced data integrity errors are often detected through the use of simpler checks and algorithms, such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Damm_algorithm\" title=\"Damm algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a42d43757d1b3df6345758329c6b1df\">Damm algorithm<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Luhn_algorithm\" title=\"Luhn algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"963140e9eee3c95a83b0633a478fcc61\">Luhn algorithm<\/a>. These are used to maintain data integrity after manual transcription from one computer system to another by a human intermediary (e.g. credit card or bank routing numbers). Computer-induced transcription errors can be detected through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hash_functions\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hash functions\" data-key=\"f644758d9a60687c62b958e47565ced0\">hash functions<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In production systems, these techniques are used together to ensure various degrees of data integrity. For example, a computer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_system\" title=\"File system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7687f830dfdbe09200697ca00721f7b3\">file system<\/a> may be configured on a fault-tolerant RAID array, but might not provide block-level checksums to detect and prevent <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Silent_data_corruption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Silent data corruption\" data-key=\"221828daaca144f57cce23fd9890ca56\">silent data corruption<\/a>. As another example, a database management system might be compliant with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ACID\" title=\"ACID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49a2ed92a6f8e7d2959db4830195557a\">ACID<\/a> properties, but the RAID controller or hard disk drive's internal write cache might not be.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Logical_integrity\">Logical integrity<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mutex\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mutex\" data-key=\"2268147e2723b1ca8828e969a876a43f\">Mutex<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copy-on-write\" title=\"Copy-on-write\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"871d5491fe70cf36e1f3dabe66eb4f77\">Copy-on-write<\/a><\/div>\n<p>This type of integrity is concerned with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Correctness_(computer_science)\" title=\"Correctness (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"450677ad62db7462acf89e86b679fac7\">correctness<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rationality\" title=\"Rationality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f15d35c691d55f5fb8751cf607135a2\">rationality<\/a> of a piece of data, given a particular context. This includes topics such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Referential_integrity\" title=\"Referential integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff357b46cedfef3587d99400e530e6c5\">referential integrity<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entity_integrity\" title=\"Entity integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7e53b7a5b8c1428918918e7b20bfde8\">entity integrity<\/a> in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relational_database\" title=\"Relational database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86b6b5174c671988f4e5dba65702a9c0\">relational database<\/a> or correctly ignoring impossible sensor data in robotic systems. These concerns involve ensuring that the data \"makes sense\" given its environment. Challenges include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_bugs\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software bugs\" data-key=\"0975923b1072a199f0a0c00a83c897a2\">software bugs<\/a>, design flaws, and human errors. Common methods of ensuring logical integrity include things such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Check_constraint\" title=\"Check constraint\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1553efecc5b2ee82136f2436a594af3\">check constraints<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Foreign_key_constraint\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Foreign key constraint\" data-key=\"2ba4284892205198b2cda772f73be379\">foreign key constraints<\/a>, program <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Assertion_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Assertion (computing)\" data-key=\"611b3901356183fadc414edee31a4891\">assertions<\/a>, and other run-time sanity checks.\n<\/p><p>Physical and logical integrity often share many challenges such as human errors and design flaws, and both must appropriately deal with concurrent requests to record and retrieve data, the latter of which is entirely a subject on its own.\n<\/p><p>If a data sector only has a logical error, it can be reused by overwriting it with new data. In case of a physical error, the affected data sector is permanently unusable.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Databases\">Databases<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Data integrity contains guidelines for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retention\" title=\"Data retention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7319085a4f0e9c849d3614b6d796cdb5\">data retention<\/a>, specifying or guaranteeing the length of time data can be retained in a particular database (typically a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relational_database\" title=\"Relational database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86b6b5174c671988f4e5dba65702a9c0\">relational database<\/a>). To achieve data integrity, these rules are consistently and routinely applied to all data entering the system, and any relaxation of enforcement could cause errors in the data. Implementing checks on the data as close as possible to the source of input (such as human data entry), causes less erroneous data to enter the system. Strict enforcement of data integrity rules results in lower error rates, and time saved troubleshooting and tracing erroneous data and the errors it causes to algorithms.\n<\/p><p>Data integrity also includes rules defining the relations a piece of data can have to other pieces of data, such as a <i>Customer<\/i> record being allowed to link to purchased <i>Products<\/i>, but not to unrelated data such as <i>Corporate Assets<\/i>. Data integrity often includes checks and correction for invalid data, based on a fixed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_schema\" title=\"Database schema\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab20ee150e597eb5a9db99cd7836853a\">schema<\/a> or a predefined set of rules. An example being textual data entered where a date-time value is required. Rules for data derivation are also applicable, specifying how a data value is derived based on algorithm, contributors and conditions. It also specifies the conditions on how the data value could be re-derived.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_integrity_constraints\">Types of integrity constraints<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data integrity is normally enforced in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Database system\" data-key=\"63057083b6ce09afef9c50cc7e4db112\">database system<\/a> by a series of integrity constraints or rules. Three types of integrity constraints are an inherent part of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relational_model\" title=\"Relational model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1954637d69478593063d8eafae3bb8f4\">relational data model<\/a>: entity integrity, referential integrity and domain integrity.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entity_integrity\" title=\"Entity integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7e53b7a5b8c1428918918e7b20bfde8\">Entity integrity<\/a><\/i> concerns the concept of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Primary_key\" title=\"Primary key\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"663375fdcf0ab4795c1708a1139466c4\">primary key<\/a>. Entity integrity is an integrity rule which states that every table must have a primary key and that the column or columns chosen to be the primary key should be unique and not null.<\/li>\n<li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Referential_integrity\" title=\"Referential integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff357b46cedfef3587d99400e530e6c5\">Referential integrity<\/a><\/i> concerns the concept of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Foreign_key\" title=\"Foreign key\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dea78614f1bac12f4f8dd4b5e9c5fafc\">foreign key<\/a>. The referential integrity rule states that any foreign-key value can only be in one of two states. The usual state of affairs is that the foreign-key value refers to a primary key value of some table in the database. Occasionally, and this will depend on the rules of the data owner, a foreign-key value can be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Null_(SQL)\" title=\"Null (SQL)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4fd063e6f7c59d9df2eb4df462a4105\">null<\/a>. In this case, we are explicitly saying that either there is no relationship between the objects represented in the database or that this relationship is unknown.<\/li>\n<li><i>Domain integrity<\/i> specifies that all columns in a relational database must be declared upon a defined domain. The primary unit of data in the relational data model is the data item. Such data items are said to be non-decomposable or atomic. A domain is a set of values of the same type. Domains are therefore pools of values from which actual values appearing in the columns of a table are drawn.<\/li>\n<li><i>User-defined integrity<\/i> refers to a set of rules specified by a user, which do not belong to the entity, domain and referential integrity categories.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>If a database supports these features, it is the responsibility of the database to ensure data integrity as well as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consistency_model\" title=\"Consistency model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf5049f32eeb38be04873ce364df79df\">consistency model<\/a> for the data storage and retrieval. If a database does not support these features, it is the responsibility of the applications to ensure data integrity while the database supports the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consistency_model\" title=\"Consistency model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf5049f32eeb38be04873ce364df79df\">consistency model<\/a> for the data storage and retrieval.\n<\/p><p>Having a single, well-controlled, and well-defined data-integrity system increases:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>stability (one centralized system performs all data integrity operations)<\/li>\n<li>performance (all data integrity operations are performed in the same tier as the consistency model)<\/li>\n<li>re-usability (all applications benefit from a single centralized data integrity system)<\/li>\n<li>maintainability (one centralized system for all data integrity administration).<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Modern <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">databases<\/a> support these features (see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comparison_of_relational_database_management_systems\" title=\"Comparison of relational database management systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"869fd5b98f9a2eee5df7cb710d282b91\">Comparison of relational database management systems<\/a>), and it has become the de facto responsibility of the database to ensure data integrity. Companies, and indeed many database systems, offer products and services to migrate legacy systems to modern databases.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Examples\">Examples<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An example of a data-integrity mechanism is the parent-and-child relationship of related records. If a parent record owns one or more related child records all of the referential integrity processes are handled by the database itself, which automatically ensures the accuracy and integrity of the data so that no child record can exist without a parent (also called being orphaned) and that no parent loses their child records. It also ensures that no parent record can be deleted while the parent record owns any child records. All of this is handled at the database level and does not require coding integrity checks into each application.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"File_systems\">File systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Various research results show that neither widespread <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Filesystem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Filesystem\" data-key=\"3e6deaedcc75e6750225d3f33c437041\">filesystems<\/a> (including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unix_File_System\" title=\"Unix File System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f162f992c95b59e9e0d4b1b914a89ca2\">UFS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extended_file_system\" title=\"Extended file system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d76a8a611d078c430da636c9aee2b8d\">Ext<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XFS\" title=\"XFS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b424f48e3d95320f85857a5fed87f15\">XFS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JFS_(file_system)\" title=\"JFS (file system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a65194a3848c75957950b6a55809a25\">JFS<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NTFS\" title=\"NTFS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3485d6f1f578f7bbc9ccae4f6b46ef2f\">NTFS<\/a>) nor <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RAID#Weaknesses\" title=\"RAID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a540457a9b2d4b872f8d2d7beffb96f7\">hardware RAID<\/a> solutions provide sufficient protection against data integrity problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Some filesystems (including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Btrfs\" title=\"Btrfs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"747184c282ee8e73331b500203199ab7\">Btrfs<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZFS\" title=\"ZFS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"046554aee95a51fea56799723643d698\">ZFS<\/a>) provide internal data and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">metadata<\/a> checksumming that is used for detecting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Silent_data_corruption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Silent data corruption\" data-key=\"221828daaca144f57cce23fd9890ca56\">silent data corruption<\/a> and improving data integrity. If a corruption is detected that way and internal RAID mechanisms provided by those filesystems are also used, such filesystems can additionally reconstruct corrupted data in a transparent way.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> This approach allows improved data integrity protection covering the entire data paths, which is usually known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/End-to-end_data_protection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"End-to-end data protection\" data-key=\"d7181d72ab54288dd0a8c79d9e459d2f\">end-to-end data protection<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Zhang2010_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Zhang2010-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_integrity_as_applied_to_various_industries\">Data integrity as applied to various industries<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>The U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> has created draft guidance on data integrity for the pharmaceutical manufacturers required to adhere to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 21 CFR Parts 210\u2013212.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSData16_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSData16-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Outside the U.S., similar data integrity guidance has been issued by the United Kingdom (2015), Switzerland (2016), and Australia (2017).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DavidsonData17_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DavidsonData17-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Various standards for the manufacture of medical devices address data integrity either directly or indirectly, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_13485\" title=\"ISO 13485\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8248b26d81c246c0a6cbc320d1670e01\">ISO 13485<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_14155\" title=\"ISO 14155\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85eb5d0b2148e0b3ee66704673e50928\">ISO 14155<\/a>, and ISO 5840.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PDAData15_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PDAData15-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In early 2017, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_Industry_Regulatory_Authority\" title=\"Financial Industry Regulatory Authority\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16081d6ada712e5fdfbfac26edfa5710\">Financial Industry Regulatory Authority<\/a> (FINRA), noting data integrity problems with automated trading and money movement surveillance systems, stated it would make \"the development of a data integrity program to monitor the accuracy of the submitted data\" a priority.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cook2017_17_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cook2017_17-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> In early 2018, FINRA said it would expand its approach on data integrity to firms' \"technology change management policies and procedures\" and Treasury securities reviews.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cook2018_18_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cook2018_18-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Other sectors such as mining<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AccentureDataInt16_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AccentureDataInt16-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> and product manufacturing<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NymiIndustry17_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NymiIndustry17-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> are increasingly focusing on the importance of data integrity in associated automation and production monitoring assets.<\/li>\n<li>Cloud storage providers have long faced significant challenges ensuring the integrity or provenance of customer data and tracking violations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PriyadharshiniData12_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PriyadharshiniData12-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ZafarASurv17_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ZafarASurv17-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ImranProvenance17_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ImranProvenance17-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/End-to-end_data_integrity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"End-to-end data integrity\" data-key=\"ce379022f24eefec3e496f78962f396f\">End-to-end data integrity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_authentication\" title=\"Message authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a87737191933230fe0fd06e9592b706\">Message authentication<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Information_Assurance_Glossary\" title=\"National Information Assurance Glossary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d5749a4045ccff94134bd96fccf47d7\">National Information Assurance Glossary<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Single_version_of_the_truth\" title=\"Single version of the truth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2f022bfca63f9fc2efdd9d2e90a7196\">Single version of the truth<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBoritz\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Boritz, J. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111005085820\/http:\/\/www.fdewb.unimaas.nl\/marc\/ecais_new\/files\/boritz.doc\" target=\"_blank\">\"IS Practitioners' Views on Core Concepts of Information Integrity\"<\/a>. <i>International Journal of Accounting Information Systems<\/i>. Elsevier. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fdewb.unimaas.nl\/marc\/ecais_new\/files\/boritz.doc\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 5 October 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 August<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Accounting+Information+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=IS+Practitioners%27+Views+on+Core+Concepts+of+Information+Integrity&amp;rft.aulast=Boritz&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fdewb.unimaas.nl%2Fmarc%2Fecais_new%2Ffiles%2Fboritz.doc&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.veracode.com\/blog\/2012\/05\/what-is-data-integrity\" target=\"_blank\">What is Data Integrity? Learn How to Ensure Database Data Integrity via Checks, Tests, &amp; Best Practices<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/digitalguardian.com\/blog\/what-data-integrity-data-protection-101\" target=\"_blank\">What is Data Integrity? Data Protection 101<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=oI2GAgAAQBAJ&dq=data+integrity+opposite+data+corruption&pg=PA40\" target=\"_blank\">From the book: Uberveillance and the Social Implications of Microchip Implants: Emerging Page 40<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVijayan_Prabhakaran2006\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Vijayan Prabhakaran (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pages.cs.wisc.edu\/~vijayan\/vijayan-thesis.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"IRON FILE SYSTEMS\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Doctor of Philosophy in Computer Sciences<\/i>. University of Wisconsin-Madison. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ghostarchive.org\/archive\/20221009\/http:\/\/pages.cs.wisc.edu\/~vijayan\/vijayan-thesis.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2022-10-09<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 June<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Doctor+of+Philosophy+in+Computer+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=IRON+FILE+SYSTEMS&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.au=Vijayan+Prabhakaran&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpages.cs.wisc.edu%2F~vijayan%2Fvijayan-thesis.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cs.wisc.edu\/adsl\/Publications\/parity-fast08.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Parity Lost and Parity Regained\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Parity+Lost+and+Parity+Regained&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.wisc.edu%2Fadsl%2FPublications%2Fparity-fast08.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cs.wisc.edu\/adsl\/Publications\/corruption-fast08.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"An Analysis of Data Corruption in the Storage Stack\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ghostarchive.org\/archive\/20221009\/http:\/\/www.cs.wisc.edu\/adsl\/Publications\/corruption-fast08.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2022-10-09.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=An+Analysis+of+Data+Corruption+in+the+Storage+Stack&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.wisc.edu%2Fadsl%2FPublications%2Fcorruption-fast08.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cs.wisc.edu\/adsl\/Publications\/corrupt-mysql-icde10.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Impact of Disk Corruption on Open-Source DBMS\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ghostarchive.org\/archive\/20221009\/http:\/\/www.cs.wisc.edu\/adsl\/Publications\/corrupt-mysql-icde10.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2022-10-09.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Impact+of+Disk+Corruption+on+Open-Source+DBMS&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.wisc.edu%2Fadsl%2FPublications%2Fcorrupt-mysql-icde10.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.baarf.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Baarf.com\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Baarf.com&amp;rft.pub=Baarf.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.baarf.com%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBiermanGrimmer2012\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Bierman, Margaret; Grimmer, Lenz (August 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.oracle.com\/technetwork\/articles\/servers-storage-admin\/advanced-btrfs-1734952.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"How I Use the Advanced Capabilities of Btrfs\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2012). \"Data integrity in cloud storage\". <i>Proceedings from the 2012 International Conference on Advances in Engineering, Science and Management<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9788190904223<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+from+the+2012+International+Conference+on+Advances+in+Engineering%2C+Science+and+Management&amp;rft.atitle=Data+integrity+in+cloud+storage&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9788190904223&amp;rft.au=Priyadharshini%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Parvathi%2C+P.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ZafarASurv17-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ZafarASurv17_20-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZafar,_F.Khan,_A.Malik,_S.U.R.2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Zafar, F.; Khan, A.; Malik, S.U.R.; et&#160;al. (2017). \"A survey of cloud computing data integrity schemes: Design challenges, taxonomy and future trends\". <i>Computers &amp; Security<\/i>. <b>65<\/b> (3): 29\u201349. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.cose.2016.10.006\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.cose.2016.10.006<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Computers+%26+Security&amp;rft.atitle=A+survey+of+cloud+computing+data+integrity+schemes%3A+Design+challenges%2C+taxonomy+and+future+trends&amp;rft.volume=65&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=29-49&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cose.2016.10.006&amp;rft.au=Zafar%2C+F.&amp;rft.au=Khan%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Malik%2C+S.U.R.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ImranProvenance17-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ImranProvenance17_21-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFImran,_M.Hlavacs,_H.Haq,_I.U.I.2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Imran, M.; Hlavacs, H.; Haq, I.U.I.; et&#160;al. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5435237\" target=\"_blank\">\"Provenance based data integrity checking and verification in cloud environments\"<\/a>. <i>PLOS ONE<\/i>. <b>12<\/b> (5): e0177576. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2017PLoSO..1277576I\" target=\"_blank\">2017PLoSO..1277576I<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0177576\" target=\"_blank\">10.1371\/journal.pone.0177576<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5435237\" target=\"_blank\">5435237<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/28545151\" target=\"_blank\">28545151<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&amp;rft.atitle=Provenance+based+data+integrity+checking+and+verification+in+cloud+environments&amp;rft.volume=12&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=e0177576&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5435237%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28545151&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0177576&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017PLoSO..1277576I&amp;rft.au=Imran%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Hlavacs%2C+H.&amp;rft.au=Haq%2C+I.U.I.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5435237&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1496\nCached time: 20240108173714\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.371 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.486 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1320\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 49123\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 832\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 6\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 68231\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.271\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 7915213\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 4\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 440.098 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>57.75% 254.149 1 Template:Reflist\n27.40% 120.593 14 Template:Cite_web\n22.46% 98.831 1 Template:Cite_q\n20.66% 90.915 1 Template:Authority_control\n11.69% 51.441 1 Template:Short_description\n 6.50% 28.594 2 Template:Pagetype\n 4.08% 17.970 1 Template:See_also\n 3.67% 16.159 1 Template:Data\n 3.17% 13.952 1 Template:Navbox\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:40995-0!canonical and timestamp 20240108173714 and revision id 1194370463. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110154328\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.110 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.309 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 63723\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 288.224 1 wikipedia:Data_integrity\n100.00% 288.224 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10406-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110154328 and revision id 49349. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_images":[],"382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_timestamp":1704907008,"3024b6238f561499d3be833a49de0406_type":"article","3024b6238f561499d3be833a49de0406_title":"Corrective and preventive action","3024b6238f561499d3be833a49de0406_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Corrective_and_preventive_action","3024b6238f561499d3be833a49de0406_plaintext":"\n\nCorrective and preventive actionFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corrective_and_preventive_action?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Corrective_and_preventive_action\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Corrective_and_preventive_action<\/a>\nCategories: Quality managementProduction standardsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 September 2022, at 17:38.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 5,381 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","3024b6238f561499d3be833a49de0406_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Corrective_and_preventive_action rootpage-Corrective_and_preventive_action skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Corrective and preventive action<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corrective_and_preventive_action?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corrective_and_preventive_action\" data-key=\"ddb9d7cedcf1f2545b6c88a6a9dc5757\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171647\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.126 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.197 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 114\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 187.640 1 wikipedia:Corrective_and_preventive_action\n100.00% 187.640 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10355-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171647 and revision id 49331. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Corrective_and_preventive_action\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Corrective_and_preventive_action<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","3024b6238f561499d3be833a49de0406_images":[],"3024b6238f561499d3be833a49de0406_timestamp":1704907007,"76ef12d39e6f75b8863a25a3aaeafded_type":"article","76ef12d39e6f75b8863a25a3aaeafded_title":"Control chart","76ef12d39e6f75b8863a25a3aaeafded_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Control_chart","76ef12d39e6f75b8863a25a3aaeafded_plaintext":"\n\nControl chartFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_chart?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Control_chart\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Control_chart<\/a>\nCategory: Quality managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 17 December 2022, at 17:25.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 338 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","76ef12d39e6f75b8863a25a3aaeafded_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Control_chart rootpage-Control_chart skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Control chart<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_chart?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_chart\" data-key=\"779020f7361a6f16693090d1945f5441\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171647\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.137 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.226 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 95\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 1220.087 1 wikipedia:Control_chart\n100.00% 1220.087 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:13862-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171646 and revision id 50540. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Control_chart\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Control_chart<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","76ef12d39e6f75b8863a25a3aaeafded_images":[],"76ef12d39e6f75b8863a25a3aaeafded_timestamp":1704907006,"05ec29f890a3aee9fc1fc9ff4942e634_type":"article","05ec29f890a3aee9fc1fc9ff4942e634_title":"Conformance testing","05ec29f890a3aee9fc1fc9ff4942e634_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Conformance_testing","05ec29f890a3aee9fc1fc9ff4942e634_plaintext":"\n\nConformance testingFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conformance_testing?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Conformance_testing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Conformance_testing<\/a>\nCategory: Quality managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 22 February 2018, at 23:28.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 1,879 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","05ec29f890a3aee9fc1fc9ff4942e634_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Conformance_testing rootpage-Conformance_testing skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Conformance testing<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conformance_testing?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conformance\" data-key=\"f1116fc64396735a5ed15615dd0914ed\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171645\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.126 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.241 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 101\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 234.317 1 wikipedia:Conformance_testing\n100.00% 234.317 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10448-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171645 and revision id 32624. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Conformance_testing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Conformance_testing<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","05ec29f890a3aee9fc1fc9ff4942e634_images":[],"05ec29f890a3aee9fc1fc9ff4942e634_timestamp":1704907005,"5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_type":"article","5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_title":"Web application security","5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Web_application_security","5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_plaintext":"\n\nWeb application securityFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_application_security?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Web_application_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Web_application_security<\/a>\nCategories: Computer securityData securitySoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 10 August 2016, at 17:43.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,395 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Web_application_security rootpage-Web_application_security skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Web application security<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_application_security?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_application_security\" data-key=\"30b6d52e634fbfa0356365b751a5802e\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171645\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.125 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.200 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 106\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 194.857 1 wikipedia:Web_application_security\n100.00% 194.857 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:9014-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171645 and revision id 26856. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Web_application_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Web_application_security<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_images":[],"5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_timestamp":1704907005,"a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_type":"article","a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_title":"Single sign-on","a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Single_sign-on","a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_plaintext":"\n\nSingle sign-onFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchAuthentication scheme\nSingle sign-on (SSO) is an authentication scheme that allows a user to log in with a single ID to any of several related, yet independent, software systems.\nTrue single sign-on allows the user to log in once and access services without re-entering authentication factors.\nIt should not be confused with same-sign on (Directory Server Authentication), often accomplished by using the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) and stored LDAP databases on (directory) servers.[1][2]\nA simple version of single sign-on can be achieved over IP networks using cookies but only if the sites share a common DNS parent domain.[3]\nFor clarity, a distinction is made between Directory Server Authentication (same-sign on) and single sign-on: Directory Server Authentication refers to systems requiring authentication for each application but using the same credentials from a directory server, whereas single sign-on refers to systems where a single authentication provides access to multiple applications by passing the authentication token seamlessly to configured applications.\nConversely, single sign-off or single log-out (SLO) is the property whereby a single action of signing out terminates access to multiple software systems.\nAs different applications and resources support different authentication mechanisms, single sign-on must internally store the credentials used for initial authentication and translate them to the credentials required for the different mechanisms.\nOther shared authentication schemes, such as OpenID and OpenID Connect, offer other services that may require users to make choices during a sign-on to a resource, but can be configured for single sign-on if those other services (such as user consent) are disabled.[4] An increasing number of federated social logons, like Facebook Connect, do require the user to enter consent choices upon first registration with a new resource, and so are not always single sign-on in the strictest sense.\n\n\n\nBenefits \nBenefits of using single sign-on include:\n\nMitigate risk for access to 3rd-party sites (\"federated authentication\")[5] because user passwords are not stored or managed externally\nReduce password fatigue from different username and password combinations\nReduce time spent re-entering passwords for the same identity[5]\nReduce IT costs due to lower number of IT help desk calls about passwords[6]\nSimpler administration. SSO-related tasks are performed transparently as part of normal maintenance, using the same tools that are used for other administrative tasks.\nBetter administrative control. All network management information is stored in a single repository. This means that there is a single, authoritative listing of each user's rights and privileges. This allows the administrator to change a user's privileges and know that the results will propagate network wide.\nImproved user productivity. Users are no longer bogged down by multiple logons, nor are they required to remember multiple passwords in order to access network resources. This is also a benefit to Help desk personnel, who need to field fewer requests for forgotten passwords.\nBetter network security. Eliminating multiple passwords also reduces a common source of security breaches\u2014users writing down their passwords. Finally, because of the consolidation of network management information, the administrator can know with certainty that when he disables a user's account, the account is fully disabled.\nConsolidation of heterogeneous networks. By joining disparate networks, administrative efforts can be consolidated, ensuring that administrative best practices and corporate security policies are being consistently enforced.\nSSO shares centralized authentication servers that all other applications and systems use for authentication purposes and combines this with techniques to ensure that users do not have to actively enter their credentials more than once.\n\nCriticism \nThe term reduced sign-on (RSO) has been used by some to reflect the fact that single sign-on is impractical in addressing the need for different levels of secure access in the enterprise, and as such more than one authentication server may be necessary.[7]\nAs single sign-on provides access to many resources once the user is initially authenticated (\"keys to the castle\"), it increases the negative impact in case the credentials are available to other people and misused. Therefore, single sign-on requires an increased focus on the protection of the user credentials, and should ideally be combined with strong authentication methods like smart cards and one-time password tokens.[7]\nSingle sign-on also increases dependence on highly-available authentication systems; a loss of their availability can result in denial of access to all systems unified under the SSO. SSO can be configured with session failover capabilities in order to maintain the system operation.[8] Nonetheless, the risk of system failure may make single sign-on undesirable for systems to which access must be guaranteed at all times, such as security or plant-floor systems.\nFurthermore, the use of single-sign-on techniques utilizing social networking services such as Facebook may render third party websites unusable within libraries, schools, or workplaces that block social media sites for productivity reasons. It can also cause difficulties in countries with active censorship regimes, such as China and its \"Golden Shield Project\", where the third party website may not be actively censored, but is effectively blocked if a user's social login is blocked.[9][10]\n\nSecurity \nIn March 2012,[11] a research paper reported an extensive study on the security of social login mechanisms. The authors found 8 serious logic flaws in high-profile ID providers and relying party websites, such as OpenID (including Google ID and PayPal Access), Facebook, Janrain, Freelancer, FarmVille, and Sears.com. Because the researchers informed ID providers and relying party websites prior to public announcement of the discovery of the flaws, the vulnerabilities were corrected, and there have been no security breaches reported.[12]\nIn May 2014, a vulnerability named Covert Redirect was disclosed.[13] It was first reported \"Covert Redirect Vulnerability Related to OAuth 2.0 and OpenID\" by its discoverer Wang Jing, a Mathematical PhD student from Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.[14][15][16] In fact, almost all[weasel&#160;words ] Single sign-on protocols are affected. Covert Redirect takes advantage of third-party clients susceptible to an XSS or Open Redirect.[17]\nIn December 2020, flaws in federated authentication systems were discovered to have been utilized by attackers during the 2020 United States federal government data breach.[18][19]\nDue to how single sign-on works, by sending a request to the logged-in website to get a SSO token and sending a request with the token to the logged-out website, the token cannot be protected with the HttpOnly cookie flag and thus can be stolen by an attacker if there is an XSS vulnerability on the logged-out website, in order to do session hijacking. Another security issue is that if the session used for SSO is stolen (which can be protected with the HttpOnly cookie flag unlike the SSO token), the attacker can access all the websites that are using the SSO system.[20]\n\nPrivacy \nAs originally implemented in Kerberos and SAML, single sign-on did not give users any choices about releasing their personal information to each new resource that the user visited. This worked well enough within a single enterprise, like MIT where Kerberos was invented, or major corporations where all of the resources were internal sites. However, as federated services like Active Directory Federation Services proliferated, the user's private information was sent out to affiliated sites not under control of the enterprise that collected the data from the user. Since privacy regulations are now tightening with legislation like the GDPR, the newer methods like OpenID Connect have started to become more attractive; for example MIT, the originator of Kerberos, now supports OpenID Connect.[21]\n\nEmail address \nSingle sign-on in theory can work without revealing identifying information such as email addresses to the relying party (credential consumer), but many credential providers do not allow users to configure what information is passed on to the credential consumer. As of 2019, Google and Facebook sign-in do not require users to share email addresses with the credential consumer. \"Sign in with Apple\" introduced in iOS 13 allows a user to request a unique relay email address each time the user signs up for a new service, thus reducing the likelihood of account linking by the credential consumer.[22]\n\nCommon configurations \nKerberos-based \nInitial sign-on prompts the user for credentials, and gets a Kerberos ticket-granting ticket (TGT).\nAdditional software applications requiring authentication, such as email clients, wikis, and revision-control systems, use the ticket-granting ticket to acquire service tickets, proving the user's identity to the mail-server \/ wiki server \/ etc. without prompting the user to re-enter credentials.\nWindows environment - Windows login fetches TGT. Active Directory-aware applications fetch service tickets, so the user is not prompted to re-authenticate.\nUnix\/Linux environment - Login via Kerberos PAM modules fetches TGT. Kerberized client applications such as Evolution, Firefox, and SVN use service tickets, so the user is not prompted to re-authenticate.\n\nSmart-card-based \nInitial sign-on prompts the user for the smart card. Additional software applications also use the smart card, without prompting the user to re-enter credentials. Smart-card-based single sign-on can either use certificates or passwords stored on the smart card.\n\nIntegrated Windows Authentication \nIntegrated Windows Authentication is a term associated with Microsoft products and refers to the SPNEGO, Kerberos, and NTLMSSP authentication protocols with respect to SSPI functionality introduced with Microsoft Windows 2000 and included with later Windows NT-based operating systems. The term is most commonly used to refer to the automatically authenticated connections between Microsoft Internet Information Services and Internet Explorer. Cross-platform Active Directory integration vendors have extended the Integrated Windows Authentication paradigm to Unix (including Mac) and Linux systems.\n\nSecurity Assertion Markup Language \nSecurity Assertion Markup Language (SAML) is an XML-based method for exchanging user security information between an SAML identity provider and a SAML service provider. SAML 2.0 supports W3C XML encryption and service-provider\u2013initiated web browser single sign-on exchanges.[23] A user wielding a user agent (usually a web browser) is called the subject in SAML-based single sign-on. The user requests a web resource protected by a SAML service provider. The service provider, wishing to know the identity of the user, issues an authentication request to a SAML identity provider through the user agent. The identity provider is the one that provides the user credentials. The service provider trusts the user information from the identity provider to provide access to its services or resources.\n\nEmerging configurations \nMobile devices as access credentials \nA newer variation of single-sign-on authentication has been developed using mobile devices as access credentials. Users' mobile devices can be used to automatically log them onto multiple systems, such as building-access-control systems and computer systems, through the use of authentication methods which include OpenID Connect and SAML,[24] in conjunction with an X.509 ITU-T cryptography certificate used to identify the mobile device to an access server.\nA mobile device is \"something you have,\" as opposed to a password which is \"something you know,\" or biometrics (fingerprint, retinal scan, facial recognition, etc.) which is \"something you are.\" Security experts recommend using at least two out of these three factors (multi-factor authentication) for best protection.\n\nSee also \nAccount pre-hijacking\nCentral Authentication Service\nIdentity management\nIdentity management systems\nList of single sign-on implementations\nPassword manager\nSecurity Assertion Markup Language\nUsability of web authentication systems\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"What's the Difference b\/w SSO (Single Sign On) &amp; LDAP?\". JumpCloud. 2019-05-14. Retrieved 2020-10-27 . \n\n^ \"SSO and LDAP Authentication\". Authenticationworld.com. Archived from the original on 2014-05-23. Retrieved 2014-05-23 . \n\n^ \"OpenID versus Single-Sign-On Server\". alleged.org.uk. 2007-08-13. Retrieved 2014-05-23 . \n\n^ \"OpenID Connect Provider - OpenID Connect Single Sign-On (SSO) - OIDC OAuth Authentication\". OneLogin. \n\n^ a b \"Single sign-on and federated authentication\". kb.iu.edu. \n\n^ \"Benefits of SSO\". University of Guelph. Retrieved 2014-05-23 . \n\n^ a b \"Single Sign On Authentication\". Authenticationworld.com. Archived from the original on 2014-03-15. Retrieved 2013-05-28 . \n\n^ \"Sun GlassFish Enterprise Server v2.1.1 High Availability Administration Guide\". Oracle.com. Retrieved 2013-05-28 . \n\n^ Laurenson, Lydia (3 May 2014). \"The Censorship Effect\". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on August 7, 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2015 . \n\n^ Chester, Ken (12 August 2013). \"Censorship, external authentication, and other social media lessons from China's Great Firewall\". Tech in Asia. Archived from the original on March 26, 2014. Retrieved 9 March 2016 . \n\n^ Wang, Rui; Chen, Shuo; Wang, XiaoFeng (2012). \"Signing Me onto Your Accounts through Facebook and Google: A Traffic-Guided Security Study of Commercially Deployed Single-Sign-On Web Services\". 2012 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. pp.&#160;365\u2013379. doi:10.1109\/SP.2012.30. ISBN&#160;978-1-4673-1244-8. S2CID&#160;1679661. \n\n^ \"OpenID: Vulnerability report, Data confusion\" - OpenID Foundation, March 14, 2012 \n\n^ \"Facebook, Google Users Threatened by New Security Flaw\". Tom's Guide. 2 May 2014. Retrieved 11 November 2014 . \n\n^ \"Covert Redirect Vulnerability Related to OAuth 2.0 and OpenID\". Tetraph. 1 May 2014. Retrieved 10 November 2014 . \n\n^ \"Math student detects OAuth, OpenID security vulnerability\". Tech Xplore. 3 May 2014. Retrieved 10 November 2014 . \n\n^ \"Facebook, Google Users Threatened by New Security Flaw\". Yahoo. 2 May 2014. Retrieved 10 November 2014 . \n\n^ \"Covert Redirect Flaw in OAuth is Not the Next Heartbleed\". Symantec. 3 May 2014. Retrieved 10 November 2014 . \n\n^ \"VMware Flaw a Vector in SolarWinds Breach? \u2014 Krebs on Security\". 19 December 2020. \n\n^ Kovacs, Eduard (15 December 2020). \"Group Behind SolarWinds Hack Bypassed MFA to Access Emails at US Think Tank\". Security Week. Retrieved 19 December 2020 . \n\n^ \"What Is Session Hijacking?\". 22 August 2019. \n\n^ MIT IST. \"OpenID Connect Authorization\". \n\n^ Goode, Lauren (2019-06-15). \"App Makers Are Mixed on 'Sign In With Apple' \". Wired. ISSN&#160;1059-1028. Retrieved 2019-06-15 . \n\n^ Armando, Alessandro; Carbone, Roberto; Compagna, Luca; Cu\u00e9llar, Jorge; Pellegrino, Giancarlo; Sorniotti, Alessandro (2013-03-01). \"An authentication flaw in browser-based Single Sign-On protocols: Impact and remediations\". Computers &amp; Security. 33: 41\u201358. doi:10.1016\/j.cose.2012.08.007. \n\n^ \"MicroStrategy's office of the future includes mobile identity and cybersecurity\". The Washington Post. 2014-04-14. Retrieved 2014-03-30 . \n\n\nExternal links \nSingle sign-on intro with diagrams\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Single_sign-on\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Single_sign-on<\/a>\nCategory: Computer securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 27 April 2018, at 16:27.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,521 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Single_sign-on rootpage-Single_sign-on skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Single sign-on<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Authentication scheme<\/div>\n<p><b>Single sign-on<\/b> (<b>SSO<\/b>) is an authentication scheme that allows a user to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Login\" title=\"Login\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe1ebc3f735c762d152d8b1bcc2c758f\">log in<\/a> with a single ID to any of several related, yet independent, software systems.\n<\/p><p>True single sign-on allows the user to log in once and access services without re-entering authentication factors.\n<\/p><p>It should not be confused with same-sign on (Directory Server Authentication), often accomplished by using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lightweight_Directory_Access_Protocol\" title=\"Lightweight Directory Access Protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73614b88ebb944abb2b190b96ec0d478\">Lightweight Directory Access Protocol<\/a> (LDAP) and stored LDAP databases on (directory) servers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A simple version of single sign-on can be achieved over <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_protocol_suite\" title=\"Internet protocol suite\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a0e6b6ef689177f389dc4aac28dcb90\">IP networks<\/a> using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTTP_cookie\" title=\"HTTP cookie\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68e90a52d43ec5e9ce8291f91349f229\">cookies<\/a> but only if the sites share a common DNS parent domain.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>For clarity, a distinction is made between Directory Server Authentication (same-sign on) and single sign-on: Directory Server Authentication refers to systems requiring authentication for each application but using the same credentials from a directory server, whereas single sign-on refers to systems where a single authentication provides access to multiple applications by passing the authentication token seamlessly to configured applications.\n<\/p><p>Conversely, <b>single sign-off<\/b> or <b>single log-out<\/b> (<b>SLO<\/b>) is the property whereby a single action of signing out terminates access to multiple software systems.\n<\/p><p>As different applications and resources support different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication_in_web\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Authentication in web\" data-key=\"b78616be9c16d37fce43fca79fc27026\">authentication<\/a> mechanisms, single sign-on must internally store the credentials used for initial authentication and translate them to the credentials required for the different mechanisms.\n<\/p><p>Other shared authentication schemes, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenID\" title=\"OpenID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8694e9b5461b0474442387b7a47c3e5e\">OpenID<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenID_Connect\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OpenID Connect\" data-key=\"8a2a99cff3aecdceb217701f42bc1ab3\">OpenID Connect<\/a>, offer other services that may require users to make choices during a sign-on to a resource, but can be configured for single sign-on if those other services (such as user consent) are disabled.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> An increasing number of federated social logons, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook_Connect\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Facebook Connect\" data-key=\"f675b93a97d80231497f9ca7861ed346\">Facebook Connect<\/a>, do require the user to enter consent choices upon first registration with a new resource, and so are not always single sign-on in the strictest sense.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Benefits\">Benefits<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Benefits of using single sign-on include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Mitigate risk for access to 3rd-party sites (\"federated authentication\")<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-iukb_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-iukb-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> because user passwords are not stored or managed externally<\/li>\n<li>Reduce <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password_fatigue\" title=\"Password fatigue\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c480057eb5d30be8ddf9c91d154ab39\">password fatigue<\/a> from different username and password combinations<\/li>\n<li>Reduce time spent re-entering passwords for the same identity<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-iukb_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-iukb-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Reduce IT costs due to lower number of IT <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help_desk\" title=\"Help desk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b4905e2a4ec00c3bea97ea9a8d4033d\">help desk<\/a> calls about passwords<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Simpler administration.<\/b> SSO-related tasks are performed transparently as part of normal maintenance, using the same tools that are used for other administrative tasks.<\/li>\n<li><b>Better administrative control.<\/b> All network management information is stored in a single repository. This means that there is a single, authoritative listing of each user's rights and privileges. This allows the administrator to change a user's privileges and know that the results will propagate network wide.<\/li>\n<li><b>Improved user productivity.<\/b> Users are no longer bogged down by multiple logons, nor are they required to remember multiple passwords in order to access network resources. This is also a benefit to Help desk personnel, who need to field fewer requests for forgotten passwords.<\/li>\n<li><b>Better network security.<\/b> Eliminating multiple passwords also reduces a common source of security breaches\u2014users writing down their passwords. Finally, because of the consolidation of network management information, the administrator can know with certainty that when he disables a user's account, the account is fully disabled.<\/li>\n<li><b>Consolidation of heterogeneous networks.<\/b> By joining disparate networks, administrative efforts can be consolidated, ensuring that administrative best practices and corporate security policies are being consistently enforced.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>SSO shares centralized <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication_server\" title=\"Authentication server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1c856103ae294782a7b0fdfd61d99e0\">authentication servers<\/a> that all other applications and systems use for authentication purposes and combines this with techniques to ensure that users do not have to actively enter their credentials more than once.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Criticism\">Criticism<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The term <i>reduced sign-on<\/i> (RSO) has been used by some to reflect the fact that <i>single sign-on<\/i> is impractical in addressing the need for different levels of secure access in the enterprise, and as such more than one authentication server may be necessary.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-authenticationworld_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-authenticationworld-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As single sign-on provides access to many resources once the user is initially authenticated (\"keys to the castle\"), it increases the negative impact in case the credentials are available to other people and misused. Therefore, single sign-on requires an increased focus on the protection of the user credentials, and should ideally be combined with strong authentication methods like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_card\" title=\"Smart card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56ccf00b9c7f1e26ad9be79e414f12d5\">smart cards<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/One-time_password\" title=\"One-time password\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7d69152501d416e36750921b7530fd9\">one-time password<\/a> tokens.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-authenticationworld_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-authenticationworld-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Single sign-on also increases dependence on highly-available authentication systems; a loss of their availability can result in denial of access to all systems unified under the SSO. SSO can be configured with session failover capabilities in order to maintain the system operation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Nonetheless, the risk of system failure may make single sign-on undesirable for systems to which access must be guaranteed at all times, such as security or plant-floor systems.\n<\/p><p>Furthermore, the use of single-sign-on techniques utilizing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_networking_service\" title=\"Social networking service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85bf74e31808d6c6d4a202089bf28318\">social networking services<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook\" title=\"Facebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"452f745387ec551ed04005e53e079973\">Facebook<\/a> may render third party websites unusable within libraries, schools, or workplaces that block social media sites for productivity reasons. It can also cause difficulties in countries with active <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Censorship\" title=\"Censorship\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77ef0462dd42b52caca5cac4aa977c6b\">censorship<\/a> regimes, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/China\" title=\"China\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"31a299e4bd7efa2c7ceb9c96eaad6510\">China<\/a> and its \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Golden_Shield_Project\" title=\"Golden Shield Project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14d6d079e143324606793dd164cae052\">Golden Shield Project<\/a>\", where the third party website may not be actively censored, but is effectively blocked if a user's social login is blocked.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security\">Security<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In March 2012,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> a research paper reported an extensive study on the security of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_login\" title=\"Social login\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68f9506981b9992f14638fcf260e6073\">social login<\/a> mechanisms. The authors found 8 serious logic flaws in high-profile ID providers and relying party websites, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenID\" title=\"OpenID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8694e9b5461b0474442387b7a47c3e5e\">OpenID<\/a> (including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Account\" title=\"Google Account\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f095b731873cecb3db445a9abccbb665\">Google ID<\/a> and PayPal Access), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook\" title=\"Facebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"452f745387ec551ed04005e53e079973\">Facebook<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Janrain\" title=\"Janrain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3eb96c33cf3a1de7e82d9aaabfc8bc66\">Janrain<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freelancer.com\" title=\"Freelancer.com\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a2638f4125ca8419076d419bb378e1c7\">Freelancer<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FarmVille\" title=\"FarmVille\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"115ebe0b6c03182937a95405451eed15\">FarmVille<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sears.com\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sears.com\" data-key=\"0b08805b454b4011c5e5954e3f61e183\">Sears.com<\/a>. Because the researchers informed ID providers and relying party websites prior to public announcement of the discovery of the flaws, the vulnerabilities were corrected, and there have been no security breaches reported.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In May 2014, a vulnerability named <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Covert_Redirect\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Covert Redirect\" data-key=\"e7f68aca0927bcb4c747d753abaf0424\">Covert Redirect<\/a> was disclosed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TomsGuid_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TomsGuid-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> It was first reported \"Covert Redirect Vulnerability Related to OAuth 2.0 and OpenID\" by its discoverer Wang Jing, a Mathematical PhD student from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nanyang_Technological_University\" title=\"Nanyang Technological University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bce98a5827ce5b84aa68c4a9a3e9f02f\">Nanyang Technological University<\/a>, Singapore.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Covert_Redirect_OAuth_OpenID_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Covert_Redirect_OAuth_OpenID-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TechXplore_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TechXplore-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Yahoo_Report_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Yahoo_Report-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> In fact, almost all<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words\" data-key=\"3c3e3e3bd5e8c5c41bbedf61159040c1\"><span title=\"Who says this? (July 2020)\">weasel&#160;words<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Single sign-on protocols are affected. Covert Redirect takes advantage of third-party clients susceptible to an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross-site_scripting\" title=\"Cross-site scripting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"391f7d8887d885507dda342a5e19632b\">XSS<\/a> or Open Redirect.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Symantec_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Symantec-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In December 2020, flaws in federated authentication systems were discovered to have been utilized by attackers during the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2020_United_States_federal_government_data_breach\" title=\"2020 United States federal government data breach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"441964ba623b5c9deb60654601f739f2\">2020 United States federal government data breach<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Due to how single sign-on works, by sending a request to the logged-in website to get a SSO token and sending a request with the token to the logged-out website, the token cannot be protected with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HttpOnly\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HttpOnly\" data-key=\"e3217ffb70a762210bf866a024f43a27\">HttpOnly<\/a> cookie flag and thus can be stolen by an attacker if there is an XSS vulnerability on the logged-out website, in order to do <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Session_hijacking\" title=\"Session hijacking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1fb8399adbf2360bf5f1687ca566aa2\">session hijacking<\/a>. Another security issue is that if the session used for SSO is stolen (which can be protected with the HttpOnly cookie flag unlike the SSO token), the attacker can access all the websites that are using the SSO system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Privacy\">Privacy<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As originally implemented in Kerberos and SAML, single sign-on did not give users any choices about releasing their personal information to each new resource that the user visited. This worked well enough within a single enterprise, like MIT where Kerberos was invented, or major corporations where all of the resources were internal sites. However, as federated services like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_Directory_Federation_Services\" title=\"Active Directory Federation Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a8445a1c63543e1825a300fb143b7b8\">Active Directory Federation Services<\/a> proliferated, the user's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_data\" title=\"Personal data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7578f12e531b6ffa6c1b5fc457c37a53\">private information<\/a> was sent out to affiliated sites not under control of the enterprise that collected the data from the user. Since <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_regulations\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Privacy regulations\" data-key=\"4b941eaedde63ab70c3d0899d70e12f9\">privacy regulations<\/a> are now tightening with legislation like the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GDPR\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GDPR\" data-key=\"5c2e34e187a6edc9ec86f5667866a311\">GDPR<\/a>, the newer methods like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenID_Connect\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OpenID Connect\" data-key=\"8a2a99cff3aecdceb217701f42bc1ab3\">OpenID Connect<\/a> have started to become more attractive; for example MIT, the originator of Kerberos, now supports <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenID_Connect\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OpenID Connect\" data-key=\"8a2a99cff3aecdceb217701f42bc1ab3\">OpenID Connect<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Email_address\">Email address<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Single sign-on in theory can work without revealing identifying information such as email addresses to the relying party (credential consumer), but many credential providers do not allow users to configure what information is passed on to the credential consumer. As of 2019, Google and Facebook sign-in do not require users to share email addresses with the credential consumer. \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sign_in_with_Apple\" title=\"Sign in with Apple\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10489fb82a8f03114855cd92430ff7e2\">Sign in with Apple<\/a>\" introduced in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IOS_13\" title=\"IOS 13\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7234fa797c3a0046260105417551dffa\">iOS 13<\/a> allows a user to request a unique relay email address each time the user signs up for a new service, thus reducing the likelihood of account linking by the credential consumer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Common_configurations\">Common configurations<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Kerberos-based\">Kerberos-based<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Initial sign-on prompts the user for credentials, and gets a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kerberos_(protocol)\" title=\"Kerberos (protocol)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d030e1836409d375c5fd53ae3dd36e88\">Kerberos<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ticket-granting_ticket\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ticket-granting ticket\" data-key=\"8bb816a85b25508ee4d3f9daa13a1dde\">ticket-granting ticket<\/a> (TGT).<\/li>\n<li>Additional software applications requiring authentication, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Email_client\" title=\"Email client\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36bc6a6cc2ea3fb1b7e25a7db7520406\">email clients<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wiki\" title=\"Wiki\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41ffec41add635185ad1721682b0022b\">wikis<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Revision_control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Revision control\" data-key=\"f5187cd78a5d0dd95b9723a2743cf831\">revision-control<\/a> systems, use the ticket-granting ticket to acquire service tickets, proving the user's identity to the mail-server \/ wiki server \/ etc. without prompting the user to re-enter credentials.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Windows\" title=\"Microsoft Windows\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c181121bacd156ee0ddefde38acdb60a\">Windows<\/a> environment - Windows login fetches TGT. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_Directory\" title=\"Active Directory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e74fcba4266b0a53c31cf405f03edef7\">Active Directory<\/a>-aware applications fetch service tickets, so the user is not prompted to re-authenticate.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unix\" title=\"Unix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09c40606dbe75e9e93fcb36cd2d16c5f\">Unix<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linux\" title=\"Linux\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccfb1826b029961cb72ef84704ee2bcb\">Linux<\/a> environment - Login via Kerberos <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pluggable_Authentication_Modules\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Pluggable Authentication Modules\" data-key=\"be4909f57ca3ba25787788801708c3c1\">PAM<\/a> modules fetches TGT. Kerberized client applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolution_(software)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Evolution (software)\" data-key=\"610c1c13d1f52e130d4253d0c6129724\">Evolution<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firefox\" title=\"Firefox\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faddc701654bbaec75f792e20fd8f498\">Firefox<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Subversion\" title=\"Apache Subversion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78161ad4b768b1dea94d76267e014319\">SVN<\/a> use service tickets, so the user is not prompted to re-authenticate.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Smart-card-based\">Smart-card-based<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Initial sign-on prompts the user for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_card\" title=\"Smart card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56ccf00b9c7f1e26ad9be79e414f12d5\">smart card<\/a>. Additional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">software applications<\/a> also use the smart card, without prompting the user to re-enter credentials. Smart-card-based single sign-on can either use certificates or passwords stored on the smart card.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Integrated_Windows_Authentication\">Integrated Windows Authentication<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integrated_Windows_Authentication\" title=\"Integrated Windows Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee13b3c6f7d6f2241ce58bbec8f87b07\">Integrated Windows Authentication<\/a><\/i> is a term associated with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a> products and refers to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SPNEGO\" title=\"SPNEGO\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30d1a4f84ae141daf779ea180cc208c3\">SPNEGO<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kerberos_protocol\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Kerberos protocol\" data-key=\"9b2d9e82bada42ac53161c74a0dd286a\">Kerberos<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NTLMSSP\" title=\"NTLMSSP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3a35f1370f998f9f57efdb2b322f70f\">NTLMSSP<\/a> authentication protocols with respect to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_Support_Provider_Interface\" title=\"Security Support Provider Interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d56aad577b6bd6d9148a15d2b4083f90\">SSPI<\/a> functionality introduced with Microsoft <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Windows_2000\" title=\"Windows 2000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1403f2262204cbff6c14250aed552177\">Windows 2000<\/a> and included with later <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Windows_NT\" title=\"Windows NT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d55692c37f652187a051ae51b695e93\">Windows NT<\/a>-based operating systems. The term is most commonly used to refer to the automatically authenticated connections between Microsoft <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Information_Services\" title=\"Internet Information Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7cf4ad2a27df39e4d0f2030768ac42d9\">Internet Information Services<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Explorer\" title=\"Internet Explorer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"265a6a3d4765b4ac8ebc406cd1494033\">Internet Explorer<\/a>. Cross-platform <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_Directory\" title=\"Active Directory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e74fcba4266b0a53c31cf405f03edef7\">Active Directory<\/a> integration vendors have extended the Integrated Windows Authentication paradigm to Unix (including Mac) and Linux systems.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_Assertion_Markup_Language\">Security Assertion Markup Language<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_Assertion_Markup_Language\" title=\"Security Assertion Markup Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76dbc3c383a7818c1ac299c4626346a4\">Security Assertion Markup Language<\/a> (SAML) is an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a>-based method for exchanging user security information between an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_provider_(SAML)\" title=\"Identity provider (SAML)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b824aa3d0bf5bafe015b9fa7f2e86397\">SAML identity provider<\/a> and a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Service_provider_(SAML)\" title=\"Service provider (SAML)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a465e2365f3f59a14e4373ba3e5c8cfd\">SAML service provider<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAML_2.0\" title=\"SAML 2.0\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f8372d8ef107d62a1200dffdc7b46f9\">SAML 2.0<\/a> supports <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Wide_Web_Consortium\" title=\"World Wide Web Consortium\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a7d6573e2fcfc286d41eac96c275923\">W3C<\/a> XML encryption and service-provider\u2013initiated web browser single sign-on exchanges.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> A user wielding a user agent (usually a web browser) is called the subject in SAML-based single sign-on. The user requests a web resource protected by a SAML service provider. The service provider, wishing to know the identity of the user, issues an authentication request to a SAML identity provider through the user agent. The identity provider is the one that provides the user credentials. The service provider trusts the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_information\" title=\"User information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8dbe4f17bf62b07b9a57429b4ec3c604\">user information<\/a> from the identity provider to provide access to its services or resources.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Emerging_configurations\">Emerging configurations<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Mobile_devices_as_access_credentials\">Mobile devices as access credentials<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A newer variation of single-sign-on authentication has been developed using mobile devices as access credentials. Users' mobile devices can be used to automatically log them onto multiple systems, such as building-access-control systems and computer systems, through the use of authentication methods which include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenID_Connect\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OpenID Connect\" data-key=\"8a2a99cff3aecdceb217701f42bc1ab3\">OpenID Connect<\/a> and SAML,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> in conjunction with an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/X.509\" title=\"X.509\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f648e2c64d3015fa6683a02f43b03087\">X.509<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITU-T\" title=\"ITU-T\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66989984f04c650ca9f0770e4833a5d6\">ITU-T<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptography<\/a> certificate used to identify the mobile device to an access server.\n<\/p><p>A mobile device is \"something you have,\" as opposed to a password which is \"something you know,\" or biometrics (fingerprint, retinal scan, facial recognition, etc.) which is \"something you are.\" Security experts recommend using at least two out of these three factors (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multi-factor_authentication\" title=\"Multi-factor authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8996db25854dcfe00700d6e8a0f4193c\">multi-factor authentication<\/a>) for best protection.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Account_pre-hijacking\" title=\"Account pre-hijacking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c6b6859e83c61b9d68df3930f7a80f4\">Account pre-hijacking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Central_Authentication_Service\" title=\"Central Authentication Service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b1e7e7008ed32de7dee9c6baa33c84d\">Central Authentication Service<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_management\" title=\"Identity management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"139badee1fd59ef4622f94b49bf5228e\">Identity management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_management_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Identity management systems\" data-key=\"499cfbff179ba934adbd6064374ac8ed\">Identity management systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_single_sign-on_implementations\" title=\"List of single sign-on implementations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c5490140086ca31113eda1884207d14\">List of single sign-on implementations<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password_manager\" title=\"Password manager\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32f4aa2ecda697c868491ea461b9b3b0\">Password manager<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_Assertion_Markup_Language\" title=\"Security Assertion Markup Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76dbc3c383a7818c1ac299c4626346a4\">Security Assertion Markup Language<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Usability_of_web_authentication_systems\" title=\"Usability of web authentication systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e44265b92a5fef0aaabba52baff25d5f\">Usability of web authentication systems<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/jumpcloud.com\/blog\/sso-vs-ldap\" target=\"_blank\">\"What's the Difference b\/w SSO (Single Sign On) &amp; LDAP?\"<\/a>. <i>JumpCloud<\/i>. 2019-05-14<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2020-10-27<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=JumpCloud&amp;rft.atitle=What%27s+the+Difference+b%2Fw+SSO+%28Single+Sign+On%29+%26+LDAP%3F&amp;rft.date=2019-05-14&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjumpcloud.com%2Fblog%2Fsso-vs-ldap&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.today\/20140523114521\/http:\/\/www.authenticationworld.com\/Single-Sign-On-Authentication\/SSOandLDAP.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"SSO and LDAP Authentication\"<\/a>. Authenticationworld.com. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.authenticationworld.com\/Single-Sign-On-Authentication\/SSOandLDAP.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2014-05-23<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-05-23<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=SSO+and+LDAP+Authentication&amp;rft.pub=Authenticationworld.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.authenticationworld.com%2FSingle-Sign-On-Authentication%2FSSOandLDAP.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/alleged.org.uk\/pdc\/2007\/08\/13.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"OpenID versus Single-Sign-On Server\"<\/a>. alleged.org.uk. 2007-08-13<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-05-23<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=OpenID+versus+Single-Sign-On+Server&amp;rft.pub=alleged.org.uk&amp;rft.date=2007-08-13&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falleged.org.uk%2Fpdc%2F2007%2F08%2F13.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onelogin.com\/pages\/openid-connect\" target=\"_blank\">\"OpenID Connect Provider - OpenID Connect Single Sign-On (SSO) - OIDC OAuth Authentication\"<\/a>. <i>OneLogin<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=OneLogin&amp;rft.atitle=OpenID+Connect+Provider+-+OpenID+Connect+Single+Sign-On+%28SSO%29+-+OIDC+OAuth+Authentication&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.onelogin.com%2Fpages%2Fopenid-connect&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-iukb-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-iukb_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-iukb_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/kb.iu.edu\/d\/bbrl\" target=\"_blank\">\"Single sign-on and federated authentication\"<\/a>. <i>kb.iu.edu<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=kb.iu.edu&amp;rft.atitle=Single+sign-on+and+federated+authentication&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkb.iu.edu%2Fd%2Fbbrl&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.uoguelph.ca\/ccs\/security\/internet\/single-sign-sso\/benefits\" target=\"_blank\">\"Benefits of SSO\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-05-23<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Benefits+of+SSO&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Guelph&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uoguelph.ca%2Fccs%2Fsecurity%2Finternet%2Fsingle-sign-sso%2Fbenefits&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-authenticationworld-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-authenticationworld_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-authenticationworld_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.today\/20140315095827\/http:\/\/www.authenticationworld.com\/Single-Sign-On-Authentication\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Single Sign On Authentication\"<\/a>. Authenticationworld.com. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.authenticationworld.com\/Single-Sign-On-Authentication\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2014-03-15<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-05-28<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Single+Sign+On+Authentication&amp;rft.pub=Authenticationworld.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.authenticationworld.com%2FSingle-Sign-On-Authentication%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/docs.oracle.com\/cd\/E19879-01\/821-0182\/abdln\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sun GlassFish Enterprise Server v2.1.1 High Availability Administration Guide\"<\/a>. Oracle.com<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 December<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Security+Week&amp;rft.atitle=Group+Behind+SolarWinds+Hack+Bypassed+MFA+to+Access+Emails+at+US+Think+Tank&amp;rft.date=2020-12-15&amp;rft.aulast=Kovacs&amp;rft.aufirst=Eduard&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.securityweek.com%2Fgroup-behind-solarwinds-hack-bypassed-mfa-access-emails-us-think-tank&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.netsparker.com\/blog\/web-security\/session-hijacking\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is Session Hijacking?\"<\/a>. 22 August 2019.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=What+Is+Session+Hijacking%3F&amp;rft.date=2019-08-22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.netsparker.com%2Fblog%2Fweb-security%2Fsession-hijacking%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMIT_IST\" class=\"citation web cs1\">MIT IST. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ist.mit.edu\/oidc\" target=\"_blank\">\"OpenID Connect Authorization\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=OpenID+Connect+Authorization&amp;rft.au=MIT+IST&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fist.mit.edu%2Foidc&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoode2019\" class=\"citation magazine cs1\">Goode, Lauren (2019-06-15). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/sign-in-with-apple-mixed-reactions\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"App Makers Are Mixed on 'Sign In With Apple'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wired_(magazine)\" title=\"Wired (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9af447c1535878dbe66a0916e938b0d\">Wired<\/a><\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1059-1028\" target=\"_blank\">1059-1028<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2019-06-15<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Wired&amp;rft.atitle=App+Makers+Are+Mixed+on+%27Sign+In+With+Apple%27&amp;rft.date=2019-06-15&amp;rft.issn=1059-1028&amp;rft.aulast=Goode&amp;rft.aufirst=Lauren&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fstory%2Fsign-in-with-apple-mixed-reactions%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFArmandoCarboneCompagnaCu\u00e9llar2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Armando, Alessandro; Carbone, Roberto; Compagna, Luca; Cu\u00e9llar, Jorge; Pellegrino, Giancarlo; Sorniotti, Alessandro (2013-03-01). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0167404812001356\" target=\"_blank\">\"An authentication flaw in browser-based Single Sign-On protocols: Impact and remediations\"<\/a>. <i>Computers &amp; Security<\/i>. <b>33<\/b>: 41\u201358. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.cose.2012.08.007\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.cose.2012.08.007<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Computers+%26+Security&amp;rft.atitle=An+authentication+flaw+in+browser-based+Single+Sign-On+protocols%3A+Impact+and+remediations&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.pages=41-58&amp;rft.date=2013-03-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cose.2012.08.007&amp;rft.aulast=Armando&amp;rft.aufirst=Alessandro&amp;rft.au=Carbone%2C+Roberto&amp;rft.au=Compagna%2C+Luca&amp;rft.au=Cu%C3%A9llar%2C+Jorge&amp;rft.au=Pellegrino%2C+Giancarlo&amp;rft.au=Sorniotti%2C+Alessandro&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0167404812001356&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/business\/capitalbusiness\/microstrategys-office-of-the-future-includes-mobile-identity-and-cybersecurity\/2013\/04\/13\/eb82e074-a1e3-11e2-be47-b44febada3a8_story.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"MicroStrategy's office of the future includes mobile identity and cybersecurity\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Washington_Post\" title=\"The Washington Post\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a752ef3dddeb493eda94d684a46f5e46\">The Washington Post<\/a><\/i>. 2014-04-14<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-03-30<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&amp;rft.atitle=MicroStrategy%27s+office+of+the+future+includes+mobile+identity+and+cybersecurity&amp;rft.date=2014-04-14&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fbusiness%2Fcapitalbusiness%2Fmicrostrategys-office-of-the-future-includes-mobile-identity-and-cybersecurity%2F2013%2F04%2F13%2Feb82e074-a1e3-11e2-be47-b44febada3a8_story.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubs.opengroup.org\/onlinepubs\/008329799\/chap1.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Single sign-on intro with diagrams<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw2401\nCached time: 20240105201420\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.235 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.298 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1323\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 38774\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 943\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 64898\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.137\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6069784\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 257.341 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>64.92% 167.072 1 Template:Reflist\n43.19% 111.141 17 Template:Cite_web\n19.03% 48.978 1 Template:Short_description\n11.24% 28.915 1 Template:Weasel_inline\n11.15% 28.687 2 Template:Pagetype\n 9.56% 24.605 1 Template:Fix-span\n 6.96% 17.911 1 Template:Category_handler\n 4.90% 12.613 3 Template:Cite_news\n 4.25% 10.949 3 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:927470-0!canonical and timestamp 20240105201420 and revision id 1193816139. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Single_sign-on\" data-key=\"ff6ef9321be5735b208f36c02bfe8450\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110090934\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.119 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.327 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 53408\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 309.506 1 wikipedia:Single_sign-on\n100.00% 309.506 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10542-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110090934 and revision id 33014. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Single_sign-on\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Single_sign-on<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_images":[],"a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_timestamp":1704907004,"af13240044bd9d2af38147be005dff00_type":"article","af13240044bd9d2af38147be005dff00_title":"Security as a service","af13240044bd9d2af38147be005dff00_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Security_as_a_service","af13240044bd9d2af38147be005dff00_plaintext":"\n\nSecurity as a serviceFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/COBIT?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Security_as_a_service\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Security_as_a_service<\/a>\nCategories: Cloud computingComputer securityData securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 September 2022, at 21:11.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,461 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","af13240044bd9d2af38147be005dff00_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Security_as_a_service rootpage-Security_as_a_service skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Security as a service<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/COBIT?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/COBIT\" data-key=\"9d26ff34a68e7a0ff8c85cde8e7fde21\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171644\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.083 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.152 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 87\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 148.562 1 wikipedia:COBIT\n100.00% 148.562 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8860-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171644 and revision id 49380. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Security_as_a_service\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Security_as_a_service<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","af13240044bd9d2af38147be005dff00_images":[],"af13240044bd9d2af38147be005dff00_timestamp":1704907004,"c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_type":"article","c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_title":"Retention period","c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Retention_period","c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_plaintext":"\n\nRetention periodFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retention_period?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Retention_period\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Retention_period<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 May 2018, at 19:52.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 1,860 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Retention_period rootpage-Retention_period skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Retention period<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retention_period?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retention_period\" data-key=\"65492e79712d1788f3eba5d53c601619\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171644\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.085 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.158 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 98\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 154.142 1 wikipedia:Retention_period\n100.00% 154.142 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10591-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171644 and revision id 33264. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Retention_period\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Retention_period<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_images":[],"c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_timestamp":1704907004,"8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_type":"article","8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_title":"Network security","8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Network_security","8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_plaintext":"\n\nNetwork securityFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_security?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Network_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Network_security<\/a>\nCategories: Computer securitySoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 21 June 2016, at 21:15.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 5,747 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Network_security rootpage-Network_security skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Network security<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_security?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_security\" data-key=\"bd28fe06f1e45ea385d35225e5d4effc\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171644\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.110 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.180 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 98\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 176.582 1 wikipedia:Network_security\n100.00% 176.582 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8857-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171643 and revision id 25936. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Network_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Network_security<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_images":[],"8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_timestamp":1704907003,"f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_type":"article","f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_title":"Metadata","f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata","f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_plaintext":"\n\nMetadataFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchData about data\n\n\nIn the 21st century, metadata typically refers to digital forms, but traditional card catalogs contain metadata, with cards holding information about books in a library (author, title, subject, etc.).\nMetadata can come in different layers: This physical herbarium record of Cenchrus ciliaris consists of the specimens as well as metadata about them, while the barcode points to a digital record with metadata about the physical record.\nMetadata for a Sphagnum papillosum pot that is part of a common garden experiment at Universit\u00e4t Greifswald\n\nMetadata (or metainformation) is \"data that provides information about other data\",[1] but not the content of the data itself, such as the text of a message or the image itself.[2] There are many distinct types of metadata, including:\n\nDescriptive metadata \u2013 the descriptive information about a resource. It is used for discovery and identification. It includes elements such as title, abstract, author, and keywords.\nStructural metadata \u2013 metadata about containers of data and indicates how compound objects are put together, for example, how pages are ordered to form chapters. It describes the types, versions, relationships, and other characteristics of digital materials.[3]\nAdministrative metadata[4] \u2013 the information to help manage a resource, like resource type, permissions, and when and how it was created.[5]\nReference metadata \u2013 the information about the contents and quality of statistical data.\nStatistical metadata[6] \u2013 also called process data, may describe processes that collect, process, or produce statistical data.[7]\nLegal metadata \u2013 provides information about the creator, copyright holder, and public licensing, if provided.\nMetadata is not strictly bound to one of these categories, as it can describe a piece of data in many other ways.\n\n\n\nHistory \nMetadata has various purposes. It can help users find relevant information and discover resources. It can also help organize electronic resources, provide digital identification, and archive and preserve resources. Metadata allows users to access resources by \"allowing resources to be found by relevant criteria, identifying resources, bringing similar resources together, distinguishing dissimilar resources, and giving location information\".[8] Metadata of telecommunication activities including Internet traffic is very widely collected by various national governmental organizations. This data is used for the purposes of traffic analysis and can be used for mass surveillance.[9]\nMetadata was traditionally used in the card catalogs of libraries until the 1980s when libraries converted their catalog data to digital databases.[10] In the 2000s, as data and information were increasingly stored digitally, this digital data was described using metadata standards.[11]\nThe first description of \"meta data\" for computer systems is purportedly noted by MIT's Center for International Studies experts David Griffel and Stuart McIntosh in 1967: \"In summary then, we have statements in an object language about subject descriptions of data and token codes for the data. We also have statements in a meta language describing the data relationships and transformations, and ought\/is relations between norm and data.\"[12]\nUnique metadata standards exist for different disciplines (e.g., museum collections, digital audio files, websites, etc.). Describing the contents and context of data or data files increases its usefulness. For example, a web page may include metadata specifying what software language the page is written in (e.g., HTML), what tools were used to create it, what subjects the page is about, and where to find more information about the subject. This metadata can automatically improve the reader's experience and make it easier for users to find the web page online.[13] A CD may include metadata providing information about the musicians, singers, and songwriters whose work appears on the disc.\nIn many countries, government organizations routinely store metadata about emails, telephone calls, web pages, video traffic, IP connections, and cell phone locations.[citation needed ]\n\nDefinition \nMetadata means \"data about data\". Metadata is defined as the data providing information about one or more aspects of the data; it is used to summarize basic information about data that can make tracking and working with specific data easier.[14] Some examples include:\n\nMeans of creation of the data\nPurpose of the data\nTime and date of creation\nCreator or author of the data\nLocation on a computer network where the data was created\nStandards used\nFile size\nData quality\nSource of the data\nProcess used to create the data\nFor example, a digital image may include metadata that describes the size of the image, its color depth, resolution, when it was created, the shutter speed, and other data.[15] A text document's metadata may contain information about how long the document is, who the author is, when the document was written, and a short summary of the document. Metadata within web pages can also contain descriptions of page content, as well as key words linked to the content.[16] These links are often called \"Metatags\", which were used as the primary factor in determining order for a web search until the late 1990s.[16] The reliance on metatags in web searches was decreased in the late 1990s because of \"keyword stuffing\",[16] whereby metatags were being largely misused to trick search engines into thinking some websites had more relevance in the search than they really did.[16]\nMetadata can be stored and managed in a database, often called a metadata registry or metadata repository.[17] However, without context and a point of reference, it might be impossible to identify metadata just by looking at it.[18] For example: by itself, a database containing several numbers, all 13 digits long could be the results of calculations or a list of numbers to plug into an equation\u200a&#160;\u2013 \u200awithout any other context, the numbers themselves can be perceived as the data. But if given the context that this database is a log of a book collection, those 13-digit numbers may now be identified as ISBNs\u200a&#160;\u2013 \u200ainformation that refers to the book, but is not itself the information within the book. The term \"metadata\" was coined in 1968 by Philip Bagley, in his book \"Extension of Programming Language Concepts\" where it is clear that he uses the term in the ISO 11179 \"traditional\" sense, which is \"structural metadata\" i.e. \"data about the containers of data\"; rather than the alternative sense \"content about individual instances of data content\" or metacontent, the type of data usually found in library catalogs.[19][20] Since then the fields of information management, information science, information technology, librarianship, and GIS have widely adopted the term. In these fields, the word metadata is defined as \"data about data\".[21] While this is the generally accepted definition, various disciplines have adopted their own more specific explanations and uses of the term.\nSlate reported in 2013 that the United States government's interpretation of \"metadata\" could be broad, and might include message content such as the subject lines of emails.[22]\n\nTypes \nWhile the metadata application is manifold, covering a large variety of fields, there are specialized and well-accepted models to specify types of metadata. Bretherton &amp; Singley (1994) distinguish between two distinct classes: structural\/control metadata and guide metadata.[23] Structural metadata describes the structure of database objects such as tables, columns, keys and indexes. Guide metadata helps humans find specific items and is usually expressed as a set of keywords in a natural language. According to Ralph Kimball, metadata can be divided into three categories: technical metadata (or internal metadata), business metadata (or external metadata), and process metadata.\nNISO distinguishes three types of metadata: descriptive, structural, and administrative.[21] Descriptive metadata is typically used for discovery and identification, as information to search and locate an object, such as title, authors, subjects, keywords, and publisher. Structural metadata describes how the components of an object are organized. An example of structural metadata would be how pages are ordered to form chapters of a book. Finally, administrative metadata gives information to help manage the source. Administrative metadata refers to the technical information, such as file type, or when and how the file was created. Two sub-types of administrative metadata are rights management metadata and preservation metadata. Rights management metadata explains intellectual property rights, while preservation metadata contains information to preserve and save a resource.[8]\nStatistical data repositories have their own requirements for metadata in order to describe not only the source and quality of the data[6] but also what statistical processes were used to create the data, which is of particular importance to the statistical community in order to both validate and improve the process of statistical data production.[7]\nAn additional type of metadata beginning to be more developed is accessibility metadata. Accessibility metadata is not a new concept to libraries; however, advances in universal design have raised its profile.[24]:\u200a213\u2013214\u200a Projects like Cloud4All and GPII identified the lack of common terminologies and models to describe the needs and preferences of users and information that fits those needs as a major gap in providing universal access solutions.[24]:\u200a210\u2013211\u200a Those types of information are accessibility metadata.[24]:\u200a214\u200a Schema.org has incorporated several accessibility properties based on IMS Global Access for All Information Model Data Element Specification.[24]:\u200a214\u200a The Wiki page WebSchemas\/Accessibility lists several properties and their values. While the efforts to describe and standardize the varied accessibility needs of information seekers are beginning to become more robust, their adoption into established metadata schemas has not been as developed. For example, while Dublin Core (DC)'s \"audience\" and MARC 21's \"reading level\" could be used to identify resources suitable for users with dyslexia and DC's \"format\" could be used to identify resources available in braille, audio, or large print formats, there is more work to be done.[24]:\u200a214\u200a \n\nStructures \nMetadata (metacontent) or, more correctly, the vocabularies used to assemble metadata (metacontent) statements, is typically structured according to a standardized concept using a well-defined metadata scheme, including metadata standards and metadata models. Tools such as controlled vocabularies, taxonomies, thesauri, data dictionaries, and metadata registries can be used to apply further standardization to the metadata. Structural metadata commonality is also of paramount importance in data model development and in database design.\n\nSyntax \nMetadata (metacontent) syntax refers to the rules created to structure the fields or elements of metadata (metacontent).[25] A single metadata scheme may be expressed in a number of different markup or programming languages, each of which requires a different syntax. For example, Dublin Core may be expressed in plain text, HTML, XML, and RDF.[26]\nA common example of (guide) metacontent is the bibliographic classification, the subject, the Dewey Decimal class number. There is always an implied statement in any \"classification\" of some object. To classify an object as, for example, Dewey class number 514 (Topology) (i.e. books having the number 514 on their spine) the implied statement is: \"&lt;book&gt;&lt;subject heading&gt;&lt;514&gt;\". This is a subject-predicate-object triple, or more importantly, a class-attribute-value triple. The first 2 elements of the triple (class, attribute) are pieces of some structural metadata having a defined semantic. The third element is a value, preferably from some controlled vocabulary, some reference (master) data. The combination of the metadata and master data elements results in a statement which is a metacontent statement i.e. \"metacontent = metadata + master data\". All of these elements can be thought of as \"vocabulary\". Both metadata and master data are vocabularies that can be assembled into metacontent statements. There are many sources of these vocabularies, both meta and master data: UML, EDIFACT, XSD, Dewey\/UDC\/LoC, SKOS, ISO-25964, Pantone, Linnaean Binomial Nomenclature, etc. Using controlled vocabularies for the components of metacontent statements, whether for indexing or finding, is endorsed by ISO 25964: \"If both the indexer and the searcher are guided to choose the same term for the same concept, then relevant documents will be retrieved.\"[27] This is particularly relevant when considering search engines of the internet, such as Google. The process indexes pages and then matches text strings using its complex algorithm; there is no intelligence or \"inferencing\" occurring, just the illusion thereof.\n\n Hierarchical, linear, and planar schemata \nMetadata schemata can be hierarchical in nature where relationships exist between metadata elements and elements are nested so that parent-child relationships exist between the elements.\nAn example of a hierarchical metadata schema is the IEEE LOM schema, in which metadata elements may belong to a parent metadata element.\nMetadata schemata can also be one-dimensional, or linear, where each element is completely discrete from other elements and classified according to one dimension only.\nAn example of a linear metadata schema is the Dublin Core schema, which is one-dimensional.\nMetadata schemata are often 2 dimensional, or planar, where each element is completely discrete from other elements but classified according to 2 orthogonal dimensions.[28]\n\nGranularity \nThe degree to which the data or metadata is structured is referred to as \"granularity\". \"Granularity\" refers to how much detail is provided. Metadata with a high granularity allows for deeper, more detailed, and more structured information and enables a greater level of technical manipulation. A lower level of granularity means that metadata can be created for considerably lower costs but will not provide as detailed information. The major impact of granularity is not only on creation and capture, but moreover on maintenance costs. As soon as the metadata structures become outdated, so too is the access to the referred data. Hence granularity must take into account the effort to create the metadata as well as the effort to maintain it.\n\nHypermapping \nIn all cases where the metadata schemata exceed the planar depiction, some type of hypermapping is required to enable display and view of metadata according to chosen aspect and to serve special views. Hypermapping frequently applies to layering of geographical and geological information overlays.[29]\n\nStandards \nInternational standards apply to metadata. Much work is being accomplished in the national and international standards communities, especially ANSI (American National Standards Institute) and ISO (International Organization for Standardization) to reach a consensus on standardizing metadata and registries. The core metadata registry standard is ISO\/IEC 11179 Metadata Registries (MDR), the framework for the standard is described in ISO\/IEC 11179-1:2004.[30] A new edition of Part 1 is in its final stage for publication in 2015 or early 2016. It has been revised to align with the current edition of Part 3, ISO\/IEC 11179-3:2013[31] which extends the MDR to support the registration of Concept Systems.\n(see ISO\/IEC 11179). This standard specifies a schema for recording both the meaning and technical structure of the data for unambiguous usage by humans and computers. ISO\/IEC 11179 standard refers to metadata as information objects about data, or \"data about data\". In ISO\/IEC 11179 Part-3, the information objects are data about Data Elements, Value Domains, and other reusable semantic and representational information objects that describe the meaning and technical details of a data item. This standard also prescribes the details for a metadata registry, and for registering and administering the information objects within a Metadata Registry. ISO\/IEC 11179 Part 3 also has provisions for describing compound structures that are derivations of other data elements, for example through calculations, collections of one or more data elements, or other forms of derived data. While this standard describes itself originally as a \"data element\" registry, its purpose is to support describing and registering metadata content independently of any particular application, lending the descriptions to being discovered and reused by humans or computers in developing new applications, databases, or for analysis of data collected in accordance with the registered metadata content. This standard has become the general basis for other kinds of metadata registries, reusing and extending the registration and administration portion of the standard.\nThe Geospatial community has a tradition of specialized geospatial metadata standards, particularly building on traditions of map- and image-libraries and catalogs. Formal metadata is usually essential for geospatial data, as common text-processing approaches are not applicable.\nThe Dublin Core metadata terms are a set of vocabulary terms that can be used to describe resources for the purposes of discovery. The original set of 15 classic[32] metadata terms, known as the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set[33] are endorsed in the following standards documents:\n\nIETF RFC 5013[34]\nISO Standard 15836-2009[35]\nNISO Standard Z39.85.[36]\nThe W3C Data Catalog Vocabulary (DCAT)[37] is an RDF vocabulary that supplements Dublin Core with classes for Dataset, Data Service, Catalog, and Catalog Record. DCAT also uses elements from FOAF, PROV-O, and OWL-Time. DCAT provides an RDF model to support the typical structure of a catalog that contains records, each describing a dataset or service.\n\nAlthough not a standard, Microformat (also mentioned in the section metadata on the internet below) is a web-based approach to semantic markup which seeks to re-use existing HTML\/XHTML tags to convey metadata. Microformat follows XHTML and HTML standards but is not a standard in itself. One advocate of microformats, Tantek \u00c7elik, characterized a problem with alternative approaches: Here's a new language we want you to learn, and now you need to output these additional files on your server. It's a hassle. (Microformats) lower the barrier to entry.[38]\nUse \nPhotographs \nMetadata may be written into a digital photo file that will identify who owns it, copyright and contact information, what brand or model of camera created the file, along with exposure information (shutter speed, f-stop, etc.) and descriptive information, such as keywords about the photo, making the file or image searchable on a computer and\/or the Internet. Some metadata is created by the camera such as, color space, color channels, exposure time, and aperture (EXIF), while some is input by the photographer and\/or software after downloading to a computer.[39] Most digital cameras write metadata about the model number, shutter speed, etc., and some enable you to edit it;[40] this functionality has been available on most Nikon DSLRs since the Nikon D3, on most new Canon cameras since the Canon EOS 7D, and on most Pentax DSLRs since the Pentax K-3. Metadata can be used to make organizing in post-production easier with the use of key-wording. Filters can be used to analyze a specific set of photographs and create selections on criteria like rating or capture time. On devices with geolocation capabilities like GPS (smartphones in particular), the location the photo was taken from may also be included.\nPhotographic Metadata Standards are governed by organizations that develop the following standards. They include, but are not limited to:\n\nIPTC Information Interchange Model IIM (International Press Telecommunications Council)\nIPTC Core Schema for XMP\nXMP \u2013 Extensible Metadata Platform (an ISO standard)\nExif \u2013 Exchangeable image file format, Maintained by CIPA (Camera &amp; Imaging Products Association) and published by JEITA (Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association)\nDublin Core (Dublin Core Metadata Initiative \u2013 DCMI)\nPLUS (Picture Licensing Universal System)\nVRA Core (Visual Resource Association)[41]\nTelecommunications \nInformation on the times, origins and destinations of phone calls, electronic messages, instant messages, and other modes of telecommunication, as opposed to message content, is another form of metadata. Bulk collection of this call detail record metadata by intelligence agencies has proven controversial after disclosures by Edward Snowden of the fact that certain Intelligence agencies such as the NSA had been (and perhaps still are) keeping online metadata on millions of internet users for up to a year, regardless of whether or not they [ever] were persons of interest to the agency.\n\nVideo \nMetadata is particularly useful in video, where information about its contents (such as transcripts of conversations and text descriptions of its scenes) is not directly understandable by a computer, but where an efficient search of the content is desirable. This is particularly useful in video applications such as Automatic Number Plate Recognition and Vehicle Recognition Identification software, wherein license plate data is saved and used to create reports and alerts.[42] There are 2 sources in which video metadata is derived: (1) operational gathered metadata, that is information about the content produced, such as the type of equipment, software, date, and location; (2) human-authored metadata, to improve search engine visibility, discoverability, audience engagement, and providing advertising opportunities to video publishers.[43] Avid's MetaSync and Adobe's Bridge are examples of professional video editing software with access to metadata.[44]\n\nGeospatial metadata \nMain article: Geospatial metadata\nGeospatial metadata relates to Geographic Information Systems (GIS) files, maps, images, and other data that is location-based. Metadata is used in GIS to document the characteristics and attributes of geographic data, such as database files and data that is developed within a GIS. It includes details like who developed the data, when it was collected, how it was processed, and what formats it's available in, and then delivers the context for the data to be used effectively.[45]\n\nCreation \nMetadata can be created either by automated information processing or by manual work. Elementary metadata captured by computers can include information about when an object was created, who created it, when it was last updated, file size, and file extension. In this context an object refers to any of the following:\n\nA physical item such as a book, CD, DVD, a paper map, chair, table, flower pot, etc.\nAn electronic file such as a digital image, digital photo, electronic document, program file, database table, etc.\nA metadata engine collects, stores and analyzes information about data and metadata in use within a domain.[46]\n\nData virtualization \nMain article: Data virtualization\nData virtualization emerged in the 2000s as the new software technology to complete the virtualization \"stack\" in the enterprise. Metadata is used in data virtualization servers which are enterprise infrastructure components, alongside database and application servers. Metadata in these servers is saved as persistent repository and describe business objects in various enterprise systems and applications. Structural metadata commonality is also important to support data virtualization.\n\nStatistics and census services \nStandardization and harmonization work has brought advantages to industry efforts to build metadata systems in the statistical community.[47][48] Several metadata guidelines and standards such as the European Statistics Code of Practice[49] and ISO 17369:2013 (Statistical Data and Metadata Exchange or SDMX)[47] provide key principles for how businesses, government bodies, and other entities should manage statistical data and metadata. Entities such as Eurostat,[50] European System of Central Banks,[50] and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency[51] have implemented these and other such standards and guidelines with the goal of improving \"efficiency when managing statistical business processes\".[50]\n\nLibrary and information science \nPart of a series onLibrary and information science \nOutline\nGlossary\nHistoriesLibraries - Information\n\nFocusArchives management - Collections management (Preservation) - Data management - Information management (cataloguing) - Knowledge management - Library management\n\nCurationData - Metadata - Information - Documents - Artefacts - Knowledge\n\nInterdisciplinary fieldsArchival science - Communication studies - Computer science - Data science - Documentation science - Epistemology - Library science - Information science - Science and technology studies\n\nAreasAcademic - Archival - Legal - Health - Private - Public - School - Special\n\nWikiProject\n &#160;Category vte\nMetadata has been used in various ways as a means of cataloging items in libraries in both digital and analog formats. Such data helps classify, aggregate, identify, and locate a particular book, DVD, magazine, or any object a library might hold in its collection.[52] Until the 1980s, many library catalogs used 3x5 inch cards in file drawers to display a book's title, author, subject matter, and an abbreviated alpha-numeric string (call number) which indicated the physical location of the book within the library's shelves. The Dewey Decimal System employed by libraries for the classification of library materials by subject is an early example of metadata usage. The early paper catalog had information regarding whichever item was described on said card: title, author, subject, and a number as to where to find said item.[53] Beginning in the 1980s and 1990s, many libraries replaced these paper file cards with computer databases. These computer databases make it much easier and faster for users to do keyword searches. Another form of older metadata collection is the use by the US Census Bureau of what is known as the \"Long Form\". The Long Form asks questions that are used to create demographic data to find patterns of distribution.[54] Libraries employ metadata in library catalogues, most commonly as part of an Integrated Library Management System. Metadata is obtained by cataloging resources such as books, periodicals, DVDs, web pages or digital images. This data is stored in the integrated library management system, ILMS, using the MARC metadata standard. The purpose is to direct patrons to the physical or electronic location of items or areas they seek as well as to provide a description of the item\/s in question.\nMore recent and specialized instances of library metadata include the establishment of digital libraries including e-print repositories and digital image libraries. While often based on library principles, the focus on non-librarian use, especially in providing metadata, means they do not follow traditional or common cataloging approaches. Given the custom nature of included materials, metadata fields are often specially created e.g. taxonomic classification fields, location fields, keywords, or copyright statement. Standard file information such as file size and format are usually automatically included.[55] Library operation has for decades been a key topic in efforts toward international standardization. Standards for metadata in digital libraries include Dublin Core, METS, MODS, DDI, DOI, URN, PREMIS schema, EML, and OAI-PMH. Leading libraries in the world give hints on their metadata standards strategies.[56][57] The use and creation of metadata in library and information science also include scientific publications:\n\nScience \nFurther information: Metascience\n An introduction to FAIR data and persistent identifiers\n\nMetadata for scientific publications is often created by journal publishers and citation databases such as PubMed and Web of Science. The data contained within manuscripts or accompanying them as supplementary material is less often subject to metadata creation,[58][59] though they may be submitted to e.g. biomedical databases after publication. The original authors and database curators then become responsible for metadata creation, with the assistance of automated processes. Comprehensive metadata for all experimental data is the foundation of the FAIR Guiding Principles, or the standards for ensuring research data are findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable.[60]\nSuch metadata can then be utilized, complemented, and made accessible in useful ways. OpenAlex is a free online index of over 200 million scientific documents that integrates and provides metadata such as sources, citations, author information, scientific fields, and research topics. Its API and open source website can be used for metascience, scientometrics, and novel tools that query this semantic web of papers.[61][62][63] Another project under development, Scholia, uses the metadata of scientific publications for various visualizations and aggregation features such as providing a simple user interface summarizing literature about a specific feature of the SARS-CoV-2 virus using Wikidata's \"main subject\" property.[64]\nIn research labor, transparent metadata about authors' contributions to works have been proposed \u2013 e.g. the role played in the production of the paper, the level of contribution and the responsibilities.[65][66]\nMoreover, various metadata about scientific outputs can be created or complemented \u2013 for instance, scite.ai attempts to track and link citations of papers as 'Supporting', 'Mentioning' or 'Contrasting' the study.[67] Other examples include developments of alternative metrics[68] \u2013 which, beyond providing help for assessment and findability, also aggregate many of the public discussions about a scientific paper on social media such as Reddit, citations on Wikipedia, and reports about the study in the news media[69] \u2013 and a call for showing whether or not the original findings are confirmed or could get reproduced.[70][71]\n\nMuseums \nMetadata in a museum context is the information that trained cultural documentation specialists, such as archivists, librarians, museum registrars and curators, create to index, structure, describe, identify, or otherwise specify works of art, architecture, cultural objects and their images.[72][73][74] Descriptive metadata is most commonly used in museum contexts for object identification and resource recovery purposes.[73]\n\nUsage \nMetadata is developed and applied within collecting institutions and museums in order to:\n\nFacilitate resource discovery and execute search queries.[74]\nCreate digital archives that store information relating to various aspects of museum collections and cultural objects, and serve archival and managerial purposes.[74]\nProvide public audiences access to cultural objects through publishing digital content online.[73][74]\nStandards \nMany museums and cultural heritage centers recognize that given the diversity of artworks and cultural objects, no single model or standard suffices to describe and catalog cultural works.[72][73][74] For example, a sculpted Indigenous artifact could be classified as an artwork, an archaeological artifact, or an Indigenous heritage item. The early stages of standardization in archiving, description and cataloging within the museum community began in the late 1990s with the development of standards such as Categories for the Description of Works of Art (CDWA), Spectrum, CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CRM), Cataloging Cultural Objects (CCO) and the CDWA Lite XML schema.[73] These standards use HTML and XML markup languages for machine processing, publication and implementation.[73] The Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules (AACR), originally developed for characterizing books, have also been applied to cultural objects, works of art and architecture.[74] Standards, such as the CCO, are integrated within a Museum's Collections Management System (CMS), a database through which museums are able to manage their collections, acquisitions, loans and conservation.[74] Scholars and professionals in the field note that the \"quickly evolving landscape of standards and technologies\" creates challenges for cultural documentarians, specifically non-technically trained professionals.[75][page&#160;needed ] Most collecting institutions and museums use a relational database to categorize cultural works and their images.[74] Relational databases and metadata work to document and describe the complex relationships amongst cultural objects and multi-faceted works of art, as well as between objects and places, people, and artistic movements.[73][74] Relational database structures are also beneficial within collecting institutions and museums because they allow for archivists to make a clear distinction between cultural objects and their images; an unclear distinction could lead to confusing and inaccurate searches.[74]\n\nCultural objects \nAn object's materiality, function, and purpose, as well as the size (e.g., measurements, such as height, width, weight), storage requirements (e.g., climate-controlled environment), and focus of the museum and collection, influence the descriptive depth of the data attributed to the object by cultural documentarians.[74] The established institutional cataloging practices, goals, and expertise of cultural documentarians and database structure also influence the information ascribed to cultural objects and the ways in which cultural objects are categorized.[72][74] Additionally, museums often employ standardized commercial collection management software that prescribes and limits the ways in which archivists can describe artworks and cultural objects.[75] As well, collecting institutions and museums use Controlled Vocabularies to describe cultural objects and artworks in their collections.[73][74] Getty Vocabularies and the Library of Congress Controlled Vocabularies are reputable within the museum community and are recommended by CCO standards.[74] Museums are encouraged to use controlled vocabularies that are contextual and relevant to their collections and enhance the functionality of their digital information systems.[73][74] Controlled Vocabularies are beneficial within databases because they provide a high level of consistency, improving resource retrieval.[73][74] Metadata structures, including controlled vocabularies, reflect the ontologies of the systems from which they were created. Often the processes through which cultural objects are described and categorized through metadata in museums do not reflect the perspectives of the maker communities.[72][76]\n\nOnline content \nMetadata has been instrumental in the creation of digital information systems and archives within museums and has made it easier for museums to publish digital content online. This has enabled audiences who might not have had access to cultural objects due to geographic or economic barriers to have access to them.[73] In the 2000s, as more museums have adopted archival standards and created intricate databases, discussions about Linked Data between museum databases have come up in the museum, archival, and library science communities.[75] Collection Management Systems (CMS) and Digital Asset Management tools can be local or shared systems.[74] Digital Humanities scholars note many benefits of interoperability between museum databases and collections, while also acknowledging the difficulties of achieving such interoperability.[75]\n\nLaw \n The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (March 2015 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nUnited States \nProblems involving metadata in litigation in the United States are becoming widespread.[when? ] Courts have looked at various questions involving metadata, including the discoverability of metadata by parties. The Federal Rules of Civil Procedure have specific rules for discovery of electronically stored information, and subsequent case law applying those rules has elucidated on the litigant's duty to produce metadata when litigating in federal court.[77] In October 2009, the Arizona Supreme Court has ruled that metadata records are public record.[78] Document metadata have proven particularly important in legal environments in which litigation has requested metadata, that can include sensitive information detrimental to a certain party in court. Using metadata removal tools to \"clean\" or redact documents can mitigate the risks of unwittingly sending sensitive data. This process partially (see data remanence) protects law firms from potentially damaging leaking of sensitive data through electronic discovery.\nOpinion polls have shown that 45% of Americans are \"not at all confident\" in the ability of social media sites to ensure their personal data is secure and 40% say that social media sites should not be able to store any information on individuals. 76% of Americans say that they are not confident that the information advertising agencies collect on them is secure and 50% say that online advertising agencies should not be allowed to record any of their information at all.[79]\n\nAustralia \nIn Australia, the need to strengthen national security has resulted in the introduction of a new metadata storage law.[80] This new law means that both security and policing agencies will be allowed to access up to 2 years of an individual's metadata, with the aim of making it easier to stop any terrorist attacks and serious crimes from happening.\n\nLegislation \nLegislative metadata has been the subject of some discussion in law.gov forums such as workshops held by the Legal Information Institute at the Cornell Law School on 22 and 23 March 2010. The documentation for these forums is titled, \"Suggested metadata practices for legislation and regulations\".[81]\nA handful of key points have been outlined by these discussions, section headings of which are listed as follows:\n\nGeneral Considerations\nDocument Structure\nDocument Contents\nMetadata (elements of)\nLayering\nPoint-in-time versus post-hoc\nHealthcare \nAustralian medical research pioneered the definition of metadata for applications in health care. That approach offers the first recognized attempt to adhere to international standards in medical sciences instead of defining a proprietary standard under the World Health Organization (WHO) umbrella. The medical community yet did not approve of the need to follow metadata standards despite research that supported these standards.[82]\n\nBiomedical researches \nResearch studies in the fields of biomedicine and molecular biology frequently yield large quantities of data, including results of genome or meta-genome sequencing, proteomics data, and even notes or plans created during the course of research itself.[83] Each data type involves its own variety of metadata and the processes necessary to produce these metadata. General metadata standards, such as ISA-Tab,[84] allow researchers to create and exchange experimental metadata in consistent formats. Specific experimental approaches frequently have their own metadata standards and systems: metadata standards for mass spectrometry include mzML[85] and SPLASH,[86] while XML-based standards such as PDBML[87] and SRA XML[88] serve as standards for macromolecular structure and sequencing data, respectively.\nThe products of biomedical research are generally realized as peer-reviewed manuscripts and these publications are yet another source of data (see #Science) .\n\nData warehousing \nA data warehouse (DW) is a repository of an organization's electronically stored data. Data warehouses are designed to manage and store the data. Data warehouses differ from business intelligence (BI) systems because BI systems are designed to use data to create reports and analyze the information, to provide strategic guidance to management.[89] Metadata is an important tool in how data is stored in data warehouses. The purpose of a data warehouse is to house standardized, structured, consistent, integrated, correct, \"cleaned\" and timely data, extracted from various operational systems in an organization. The extracted data are integrated in the data warehouse environment to provide an enterprise-wide perspective. Data are structured in a way to serve the reporting and analytic requirements. The design of structural metadata commonality using a data modeling method such as entity-relationship model diagramming is important in any data warehouse development effort. They detail metadata on each piece of data in the data warehouse. An essential component of a data warehouse\/business intelligence system is the metadata and tools to manage and retrieve the metadata. Ralph Kimball[90] describes metadata as the DNA of the data warehouse as metadata defines the elements of the data warehouse and how they work together.\nKimball et al.[91] refers to 3 main categories of metadata: Technical metadata, business metadata and process metadata. Technical metadata is primarily definitional, while business metadata and process metadata is primarily descriptive. The categories sometimes overlap.\n\nTechnical metadata defines the objects and processes in a DW\/BI system, as seen from a technical point of view. The technical metadata includes the system metadata, which defines the data structures such as tables, fields, data types, indexes, and partitions in the relational engine, as well as databases, dimensions, measures, and data mining models. Technical metadata defines the data model and the way it is displayed for the users, with the reports, schedules, distribution lists, and user security rights.\nBusiness metadata is content from the data warehouse described in more user-friendly terms. The business metadata tells you what data you have, where they come from, what they mean and what their relationship is to other data in the data warehouse. Business metadata may also serve as documentation for the DW\/BI system. Users who browse the data warehouse are primarily viewing the business metadata.\nProcess metadata is used to describe the results of various operations in the data warehouse. Within the ETL process, all key data from tasks is logged on execution. This includes start time, end time, CPU seconds used, disk reads, disk writes, and rows processed. When troubleshooting the ETL or query process, this sort of data becomes valuable. Process metadata is the fact measurement when building and using a DW\/BI system. Some organizations make a living out of collecting and selling this sort of data to companies \u2013 in that case, the process metadata becomes the business metadata for the fact and dimension tables. Collecting process metadata is in the interest of business people who can use the data to identify the users of their products, which products they are using, and what level of service they are receiving.\nInternet \nThe HTML format used to define web pages allows for the inclusion of a variety of types of metadata, from basic descriptive text, dates and keywords to further advanced metadata schemes such as the Dublin Core, e-GMS, and AGLS[92] standards. Pages and files can also be geotagged with coordinates, categorized or tagged, including collaboratively such as with folksonomies.\nWhen media has identifiers set or when such can be generated, information such as file tags and descriptions can be pulled or scraped from the Internet \u2013 for example about movies.[93] Various online databases are aggregated and provide metadata for various data. The collaboratively built Wikidata has identifiers not just for media but also abstract concepts, various objects, and other entities, that can be looked up by humans and machines to retrieve useful information and to link knowledge in other knowledge bases and databases.[64]\nMetadata may be included in the page's header or in a separate file. Microformats allow metadata to be added to on-page data in a way that regular web users do not see, but computers, web crawlers and search engines can readily access. Many search engines are cautious about using metadata in their ranking algorithms because of exploitation of metadata and the practice of search engine optimization, SEO, to improve rankings. See the Meta element article for further discussion. This cautious attitude may be justified as people, according to Doctorow,[94] are not executing care and diligence when creating their own metadata and that metadata is part of a competitive environment where the metadata is used to promote the metadata creators own purposes. Studies show that search engines respond to web pages with metadata implementations,[95] and Google has an announcement on its site showing the meta tags that its search engine understands.[96] Enterprise search startup Swiftype recognizes metadata as a relevance signal that webmasters can implement for their website-specific search engine, even releasing their own extension, known as Meta Tags 2.[97]\n\nBroadcast industry \nIn the broadcast industry, metadata is linked to audio and video broadcast media to:\n\nidentify the media: clip or playlist names, duration, timecode, etc.\ndescribe the content: notes regarding the quality of video content, rating, description (for example, during a sport event, keywords like goal, red card will be associated to some clips)\nclassify media: metadata allows producers to sort the media or to easily and quickly find a video content (a TV news could urgently need some archive content for a subject). For example, the BBC has a large subject classification system, Lonclass, a customized version of the more general-purpose Universal Decimal Classification.\nThis metadata can be linked to the video media thanks to the video servers. Most major broadcast sporting events like FIFA World Cup or the Olympic Games use this metadata to distribute their video content to TV stations through keywords. It is often the host broadcaster[98] who is in charge of organizing metadata through its International Broadcast Centre and its video servers. This metadata is recorded with the images and entered by metadata operators (loggers) who associate in live metadata available in metadata grids through software (such as Multicam(LSM) or IPDirector used during the FIFA World Cup or Olympic Games).[99][100]\n\nGeography \nMetadata that describes geographic objects in electronic storage or format (such as datasets, maps, features, or documents with a geospatial component) has a history dating back to at least 1994. This class of metadata is described more fully on the geospatial metadata article.\n\nEcology and environment \nSee also: Standardization \u00a7&#160;Environmental protection\nEcological and environmental metadata is intended to document the \"who, what, when, where, why, and how\" of data collection for a particular study. This typically means which organization or institution collected the data, what type of data, which date(s) the data was collected, the rationale for the data collection, and the methodology used for the data collection. Metadata should be generated in a format commonly used by the most relevant science community, such as Darwin Core, Ecological Metadata Language,[101] or Dublin Core. Metadata editing tools exist to facilitate metadata generation (e.g. Metavist,[102] Mercury, Morpho[103]). Metadata should describe the provenance of the data (where they originated, as well as any transformations the data underwent) and how to give credit for (cite) the data products.\n\nDigital music \nSee also: \u00a7&#160;On the Internet\nWhen first released in 1982, Compact Discs only contained a Table Of Contents (TOC) with the number of tracks on the disc and their length in samples.[104][105] Fourteen years later in 1996, a revision of the CD Red Book standard added CD-Text to carry additional metadata.[106] But CD-Text was not widely adopted. Shortly thereafter, it became common for personal computers to retrieve metadata from external sources (e.g. CDDB, Gracenote) based on the TOC.\nDigital audio formats such as digital audio files superseded music formats such as cassette tapes and CDs in the 2000s. Digital audio files could be labeled with more information than could be contained in just the file name. That descriptive information is called the audio tag or audio metadata in general. Computer programs specializing in adding or modifying this information are called tag editors. Metadata can be used to name, describe, catalog, and indicate ownership or copyright for a digital audio file, and its presence makes it much easier to locate a specific audio file within a group, typically through use of a search engine that accesses the metadata. As different digital audio formats were developed, attempts were made to standardize a specific location within the digital files where this information could be stored.\nAs a result, almost all digital audio formats, including mp3, broadcast wav, and AIFF files, have similar standardized locations that can be populated with metadata. The metadata for compressed and uncompressed digital music is often encoded in the ID3 tag. Common editors such as TagLib support MP3, Ogg Vorbis, FLAC, MPC, Speex, WavPack TrueAudio, WAV, AIFF, MP4, and ASF file formats.\n\nCloud applications \nWith the availability of cloud applications, which include those to add metadata to content, metadata is increasingly available over the Internet.\n\nAdministration and management \nStorage \nMetadata can be stored either internally,[107] in the same file or structure as the data (this is also called embedded metadata), or externally, in a separate file or field from the described data. A data repository typically stores the metadata detached from the data but can be designed to support embedded metadata approaches. Each option has advantages and disadvantages:\n\nInternal storage means metadata always travels as part of the data they describe; thus, metadata is always available with the data, and can be manipulated locally. This method creates redundancy (precluding normalization), and does not allow managing all of a system's metadata in one place. It arguably increases consistency, since the metadata is readily changed whenever the data is changed.\nExternal storage allows collocating metadata for all the contents, for example in a database, for more efficient searching and management. Redundancy can be avoided by normalizing the metadata's organization. In this approach, metadata can be united with the content when information is transferred, for example in Streaming media; or can be referenced (for example, as a web link) from the transferred content. On the downside, the division of the metadata from the data content, especially in standalone files that refer to their source metadata elsewhere, increases the opportunities for misalignments between the two, as changes to either may not be reflected in the other.\nMetadata can be stored in either human-readable or binary form. Storing metadata in a human-readable format such as XML can be useful because users can understand and edit it without specialized tools.[108] However, text-based formats are rarely optimized for storage capacity, communication time, or processing speed. A binary metadata format enables efficiency in all these respects, but requires special software to convert the binary information into human-readable content.\n\nDatabase management \nEach relational database system has its own mechanisms for storing metadata. Examples of relational-database metadata include:\n\nTables of all tables in a database, their names, sizes, and number of rows in each table.\nTables of columns in each database, what tables they are used in, and the type of data stored in each column.\nIn database terminology, this set of metadata is referred to as the catalog. The SQL standard specifies a uniform means to access the catalog, called the information schema, but not all databases implement it, even if they implement other aspects of the SQL standard. For an example of database-specific metadata access methods, see Oracle metadata. Programmatic access to metadata is possible using APIs such as JDBC, or SchemaCrawler.[109]\n\nPopular culture \nOne of the first satirical examinations of the concept of Metadata as we understand it today is American science fiction author Hal Draper's short story, \"MS Fnd in a Lbry\" (1961). Here, the knowledge of all Mankind is condensed into an object the size of a desk drawer, however, the magnitude of the metadata (e.g. catalog of catalogs of... , as well as indexes and histories) eventually leads to dire yet humorous consequences for the human race. The story prefigures the modern consequences of allowing metadata to become more important than the real data it is concerned with, and the risks inherent in that eventuality as a cautionary tale.\n\nSee also \n\nAGRIS&#160;\u2013 Global public domain database\nBibliographic record&#160;\u2013 Metadata describing a particular resource\nClassification scheme&#160;\u2013 system of descriptive information for an arrangement or division of objects into groups based on characteristics, which the objects have in commonPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback \nCrosswalk (metadata)&#160;\u2013 in databases, a table that shows equivalent elements in more than one schemaPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback \nDataONE&#160;\u2013 International federation of data repositories\nData dictionary&#160;\u2013 Set of metadata that contains definitions and representations of data elements\nDublin Core&#160;\u2013 Standardized set of metadata elements\nFolksonomy&#160;\u2013 Classification based on users' tags\nGEOMS \u2013 Generic Earth Observation Metadata Standard\nGeospatial metadata&#160;\u2013 Metadata used for describing geospatial data\nIPDirector&#160;\u2013 A suite of content management software\nISO\/IEC 11179&#160;\u2013 Standard for metadata registries\nKnowledge tag&#160;\u2013 Keyword assigned to informationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nThe medium is the message&#160;\u2013 Communication theory phrase\nMercury: Metadata Search System&#160;\u2013 Metadata management, data discovery and access systemPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nMeta element&#160;\u2013 HTML Metadata\nMetadata Access Point Interface&#160;\u2013 Specification for a client\/server protocol\nMetadata discovery\nMetadata facility for Java\nMetadata from Wikiversity\nMetadata publishing\nMetadata registry&#160;\u2013 Central location to store metadata\nMetamathematics&#160;\u2013 Study of mathematics itself\nMETAFOR&#160;\u2013 metadata model for climate sciencePages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback \nMicrocontent&#160;\u2013 Website content providing a clear overview\nMicroformat&#160;\u2013 Metadata standard for webpages\nMulticam (LSM)&#160;\u2013 Software for broadcasting\nObservations and Measurements&#160;\u2013 information model and data transfer standardPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback \nOntology (computer science)&#160;\u2013 Specification of a conceptualizationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nOfficial statistics&#160;\u2013 Statistics published by government agencies\nParatext&#160;\u2013 Term in literary criticism\nPreservation Metadata&#160;\u2013 Information that supports and documents acts of preservation on digital materialsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nSDMX&#160;\u2013 An international standard for exchanging statistical data\nSemantic Web&#160;\u2013 Extension of the Web to facilitate data exchange\nSGML&#160;\u2013 Markup languagePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nThe Metadata Company\nUniversal Data Element Framework&#160;\u2013 controlled vocabularyPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback \nVocabulary OneSource&#160;\u2013 Data analysis tool for controlled vocabulary management and exploration.\nXSD&#160;\u2013 W3C XML schema languagePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \n\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"Merriam Webster\". 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Metadata: Shaping Knowledge from Antiquity to the Semantic Web . Springer. ISBN&#160;9783319408910.\nZeng, Marcia &amp; Qin, Jian. 2016. Metadata . Facet. ISBN&#160;9781783300525.\nExternal links \n Media related to Metadata at Wikimedia Commons\n The dictionary definition of metadata at Wiktionary\nUnderstanding Metadata: What is metadata, and what is it for? \u2013 NISO, 2017\n\"A Guardian guide to your metadata\" \u2013 The Guardian, Wednesday 12 June 2013.\nMetacrap: Putting the torch to 7 straw-men of the meta-utopia \u2013 Cory Doctorow's opinion on the limitations of metadata on the Internet, 2001\nDataONE Investigator Toolkit\nJournal of Library Metadata, Routledge, Taylor &amp; Francis Group, ISSN 1937-5034\nInternational Journal of Metadata, Semantics and Ontologies (IJMSO), Inderscience Publishers, ISSN 1744-263X\n\"Metadata and metacontent\" (PDF) . Retrieved 25 June 2011 . (PDF)\nLPR Standards (PDF), Department of Homeland Security (October 2012)\nvteSoftware engineeringFields\nComputer programming\nDevOps\nFormal methods\nRequirements engineering\nSite reliability engineering\nSoftware deployment\nSoftware design\nSoftware maintenance\nSoftware testing\nSystems analysis\nConcepts\nData modeling\nEnterprise architecture\nFunctional specification\nModeling language\nProgramming paradigm\nSoftware\nSoftware archaeology\nSoftware architecture\nSoftware configuration management\nSoftware development process\/methodology\nSoftware quality\nSoftware quality assurance\nSoftware verification and validation\nStructured analysis\nEssential analysis\nCI\/CD\nOrientations\nAgile\nAspect-oriented\nObject orientation\nOntology\nService orientation\nSDLC\nModelsDevelopmental\nAgile\nEUP\nExecutable UML\nIncremental model\nIterative model\nPrototype model\nRAD\nUP\nScrum\nSpiral model\nV-model\nWaterfall model\nXP\nModel-driven engineering\nRound-trip engineering\nOther\nSPICE\nCMMI\nData model\nER model\nFunction model\nInformation model\nMetamodeling\nObject model\nSystems model\nView model\nLanguages\nIDEF\nUML\nUSL\nSysML\nRelated fields\nComputer science\nComputer engineering\nInformation science\nProject management\nRisk management\nSystems engineering\n\n Commons\n Category\n\nvteData warehousesCreating a data warehouseConcepts\nDatabase\nDimension\nDimensional modeling\nFact\nOLAP\nStar schema\nSnowflake schema\nReverse star schema\nAggregate\nSingle version of the truth\nVariants\nColumn-oriented DBMS\nData hub\nData mesh\nEnsemble modeling patterns\nAnchor modeling\nData vault modeling\nFocal point modeling\nHOLAP\nMOLAP\nROLAP\nOperational data store\nElements\nData dictionary\/Metadata\nData mart\nSixth normal form\nSurrogate key\nFact\nFact table\nEarly-arriving fact\nMeasure\nDimension\nDimension table\nDegenerate\nSlowly changing\nFilling\nExtract, transform, load (ETL)\nExtract, load, transform (ELT)\nExtract\nTransform\nLoad\nUsing a data warehouseConcepts\nBusiness intelligence\nDashboard\nData mining\nDecision support system (DSS)\nOLAP cube\nData warehouse automation\nLanguages\nData Mining Extensions (DMX)\nMultiDimensional eXpressions (MDX)\nXML for Analysis (XMLA)\nTools\nBusiness intelligence software\nReporting software\nSpreadsheet\nRelatedPeople\nBill Inmon\nInformation factory\nRalph Kimball\nEnterprise bus\nDan Linstedt\nLars R\u00f6nnb\u00e4ck\nProducts\nComparison of OLAP servers\nData warehousing products and their producers\n\nvteSemantic WebBackground\nDatabases\nHypertext\nInternet\nOntologies\nSemantics\nSemantic networks\nWorld Wide Web\nSub-topics\nDataspaces\nHyperdata\nLinked data\nRule-based systems\nApplications\nSemantic analytics\nSemantic broker\nSemantic computing\nSemantic mapper\nSemantic matching\nSemantic publishing\nSemantic reasoner\nSemantic search\nSemantic service-oriented architecture\nSemantic wiki\nSolid\nRelated topics\nCollective intelligence\nDescription logic\nFolksonomy\nGeotagging\nInformation architecture\nKnowledge extraction\nKnowledge management\nKnowledge representation and reasoning\nLibrary 2.0\nDigital library\nDigital humanities\nMetadata\nReferences\nTopic map\nWeb 2.0\nWeb engineering\nWeb Science Trust\nStandardsSyntax and supporting technologies\nHTTP\nIRI\nURI\nRDF\ntriples\nRDF\/XML\nJSON-LD\nTurtle\nTriG\nNotation3\nN-Triples\nTriX (no W3C standard)\nRRID\nSPARQL\nXML\nSemantic HTML\nSchemas, ontologies and rules\nCommon Logic\nOWL\nRDFS\nRule Interchange Format\nSemantic Web Rule Language\nALPS\nSHACL\nSemantic annotation\neRDF\nGRDDL\nMicrodata\nMicroformats\nRDFa\nSAWSDL\nFacebook Platform\nCommon vocabularies\nDOAP\nDublin Core\nFOAF\nSchema.org\nSIOC\nSKOS\nMicroformat vocabularies\nhAtom\nhCalendar\nhCard\nhProduct\nhRecipe\nhReview\n\nvteMetaDomains and methods\nMeta-analysis\nMetabibliography\nMetaclass\nSemantic Web\nMetacognition\nMeta-learning\nMetamemory\nMeta-communication\nMetacomputing\nMetadata\nMetadesign\nMetadiscourse\nMeta-emotion\nMetamood\nMetafiction\nMetagaming\nMetagenomics\nMetaheuristic\nMetahistory\nMetahumor\nMeta-knowledge\nMeta-language\nMetapragmatics\nMetasemantics\nMetamaterials\nMetamathematics\nMetamedia\nMetamodeling\nMetamodernism\nMetamotivation\nMetanarrative\nMeta-object\nMeta-optimization\nMeta-organization\nMetaphenomics\nMetaphilosophy\nMetaepistemology\nMetaethics\nMetalogic\nMeta-ontology\nMetaphysics\nMetametaphysics\nMetapolitics\nMetapopulation\nMetaprogramming\nMetapsychiatry\nMetapsychology\nMetapuzzle\nMeta-reference\nMeta-regulation\nMetascience\nMetasociology\nMeta-system\nMetatheorem\nMetatheory\nMetaverse\n\nAuthority control databases National\nSpain \nGermany \nIsrael \nUnited States \nLatvia \nJapan \nCzech Republic \nArtists\nKulturNav \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 May 2018, at 17:00.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 5,695 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Metadata rootpage-Metadata skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Metadata<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Data about data<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Schlagwortkatalog.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"99e567c1d29e437ad0800cc3a8752be0\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7e\/Schlagwortkatalog.jpg\/220px-Schlagwortkatalog.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"186\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>In the 21st century, metadata typically refers to digital forms, but traditional card catalogs contain metadata, with cards holding <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a> about books in a library (author, title, subject, etc.).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cenchrus_ciliaris_L._438045083.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"341130bc7e44be860a1ab90f1c27e228\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/87\/Cenchrus_ciliaris_L._438045083.jpg\/220px-Cenchrus_ciliaris_L._438045083.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"337\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Metadata can come in different layers: This physical <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbarium\" title=\"Herbarium\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48e40268634e515f153e286fbbd8082f\">herbarium<\/a> record of <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cenchrus_ciliaris\" title=\"Cenchrus ciliaris\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5a81f2137ee116519ca73b2ac38b96a\">Cenchrus ciliaris<\/a><\/i> consists of the specimens as well as metadata about them, while the barcode points to a digital record with metadata about the physical record.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sphagnum_papillosum_at_Sphagnum_cultivation_at_Universit%C3%A4t_Greifswald_2023-06-11_01.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"197140616c2a81bd59f0ed5a1b607dea\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/bf\/Sphagnum_papillosum_at_Sphagnum_cultivation_at_Universit%C3%A4t_Greifswald_2023-06-11_01.jpg\/220px-Sphagnum_papillosum_at_Sphagnum_cultivation_at_Universit%C3%A4t_Greifswald_2023-06-11_01.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Metadata for a <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sphagnum_papillosum\" title=\"Sphagnum papillosum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26a8c347e8f91c0196c7c35791959058\">Sphagnum papillosum<\/a><\/i> pot that is part of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_garden_experiment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Common garden experiment\" data-key=\"1fdfa11b14fa9bbc22fd5fecee690e5b\">common garden experiment<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universit%C3%A4t_Greifswald\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Universit\u00e4t Greifswald\" data-key=\"26e0c165636b503492921ed91ebabf05\">Universit\u00e4t Greifswald<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><b>Metadata<\/b> (or <b>metainformation<\/b>) is \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> that provides information about other data\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> but not the content of the data itself, such as the text of a message or the image itself.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gonzalez-Perez_(2018)_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gonzalez-Perez_(2018)-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> There are many distinct types of metadata, including:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>Descriptive metadata<\/b> \u2013 the descriptive information about a resource. It is used for discovery and identification. It includes elements such as title, abstract, author, and keywords.<\/li>\n<li><b>Structural metadata<\/b> \u2013 metadata about containers of data and indicates how compound objects are put together, for example, how pages are ordered to form chapters. It describes the types, versions, relationships, and other characteristics of digital materials.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Administrative metadata<\/b><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Metadata_Basics_Outline_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Metadata_Basics_Outline-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> \u2013 the information to help manage a resource, like resource type, permissions, and when and how it was created.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Understanding_Metadata_(2)_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Understanding_Metadata_(2)-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Reference metadata<\/b> \u2013 the information about the contents and quality of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_data_type\" title=\"Statistical data type\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2db2ac57a4618c9c49a1d4bb05f81915\">statistical data<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><b>Statistical metadata<\/b><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> \u2013 also called process data, may describe processes that collect, process, or produce statistical data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:5_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:5-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Legal metadata<\/b> \u2013 provides information about the creator, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copyright\" title=\"Copyright\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ef460b28868f59cbfee46fb1e18f034\">copyright<\/a> holder, and public licensing, if provided.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Metadata is not strictly bound to one of these categories, as it can describe a piece of data in many other ways.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Metadata has various purposes. It can help users <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Findability\" title=\"Findability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb369826db29d66dd50fbc3a923c6f5f\">find relevant information<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discoverability\" title=\"Discoverability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11b3baf954adad79afe4517678a2b070\">discover resources<\/a>. It can also help organize electronic resources, provide digital identification, and archive and preserve resources. Metadata allows users to access resources by \"allowing resources to be found by relevant criteria, identifying resources, bringing similar resources together, distinguishing dissimilar resources, and giving location information\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Understanding_Metadata_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Understanding_Metadata-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Metadata of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telecommunications\" title=\"Telecommunications\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c6b66a3f44e091a8ccba63659266923\">telecommunication<\/a> activities including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a> traffic is very widely collected by various national governmental organizations. This data is used for the purposes of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic_analysis\" title=\"Traffic analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5302f8a0d0efa33a738b78b9adbf6cbc\">traffic analysis<\/a> and can be used for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_surveillance\" title=\"Mass surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"061b28bcb7c5d34d04d8c26d44ca3916\">mass surveillance<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Metadata was traditionally used in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_catalog\" title=\"Library catalog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e26503cbecc7eda19e2fa96ced322175\">card catalogs<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library\" title=\"Library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6f9d51f03e247e6e5f8f741be45c8f0\">libraries<\/a> until the 1980s when libraries converted their catalog data to digital <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">databases<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> In the 2000s, as data and information were increasingly stored digitally, this digital data was described using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_standards\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Metadata standards\" data-key=\"e5c0aeaab6e5bb13a707297a255738ee\">metadata standards<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The first description of \"meta data\" for computer systems is purportedly noted by MIT's Center for International Studies experts David Griffel and Stuart McIntosh in 1967: \"In summary then, we have statements in an object language about subject descriptions of data and token codes for the data. We also have statements in a meta language describing the data relationships and transformations, and ought\/is relations between norm and data.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Unique metadata standards exist for different disciplines (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Museum\" title=\"Museum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9e253e162292da1ee5c0531983c8c4a\">museum<\/a> collections, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_audio_file\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital audio file\" data-key=\"0e8399d0df4324ccfe75b3b8613cbc63\">digital audio files<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Website\" title=\"Website\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baaafe699fb6fda8b6611a6b03e9f889\">websites<\/a>, etc.). Describing the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_(media)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Content (media)\" data-key=\"0d0f50e5a295a66f4c4760b949412bb1\">contents<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Context_(computing)\" title=\"Context (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de08d527fbee4bdc5a785c8148b3f739\">context<\/a> of data or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_file\" title=\"Computer file\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99bce4432f1e311013bdcb5d3fb6c834\">data files<\/a> increases its usefulness. For example, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTML_editor\" title=\"HTML editor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5afc7edf0b90a5703d5b13e008581920\">web page<\/a> may include metadata specifying what software language the page is written in (e.g., HTML), what tools were used to create it, what subjects the page is about, and where to find more information about the subject. This metadata can automatically improve the reader's experience and make it easier for users to find the web page online.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Practices_in_Using_Metadata_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Practices_in_Using_Metadata-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CD\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CD\" data-key=\"a330c9220c2eb94384c4d2a7defde593\">CD<\/a> may include metadata providing information about the musicians, singers, and songwriters whose work appears on the disc.\n<\/p><p>In many countries, government organizations routinely store metadata about emails, telephone calls, web pages, video traffic, IP connections, and cell phone locations.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Definition\">Definition<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Metadata means \"data about data\". Metadata is defined as the data providing information about one or more aspects of the data; it is used to summarize basic information about data that can make tracking and working with specific data easier.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Some examples include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Means of creation of the data<\/li>\n<li>Purpose of the data<\/li>\n<li>Time and date of creation<\/li>\n<li>Creator or author of the data<\/li>\n<li>Location on a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">computer network<\/a> where the data was created<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technical_standard\" title=\"Technical standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"236f27b5a7367b86d988d1a879dbd6e6\">Standards<\/a> used<\/li>\n<li>File size<\/li>\n<li>Data quality<\/li>\n<li>Source of the data<\/li>\n<li>Process used to create the data<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>For example, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_image\" title=\"Digital image\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f694e632607071fbc71b2bc6131540a\">digital image<\/a> may include metadata that describes the size of the image, its color depth, resolution, when it was created, the shutter speed, and other data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> A text document's metadata may contain information about how long the document is, who the author is, when the document was written, and a short summary of the document. Metadata within web pages can also contain descriptions of page content, as well as key words linked to the content.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rouse,_M_(2014)-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> These links are often called \"Metatags\", which were used as the primary factor in determining order for a web search until the late 1990s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rouse,_M_(2014)-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> The reliance on metatags in web searches was decreased in the late 1990s because of \"keyword stuffing\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rouse,_M_(2014)-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> whereby metatags were being largely misused to trick search engines into thinking some websites had more relevance in the search than they really did.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_16-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rouse,_M_(2014)-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Metadata can be stored and managed in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">database<\/a>, often called a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_registry\" title=\"Metadata registry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b38acec4b504b2af8989879e047734\">metadata registry<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_repository\" title=\"Metadata repository\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"138c154e19783ae812a1395683ea5fc2\">metadata repository<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> However, without context and a point of reference, it might be impossible to identify metadata just by looking at it.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> For example: by itself, a database containing several numbers, all 13 digits long could be the results of calculations or a list of numbers to plug into an <span class=\"nowrap\">equation\u200a&#160;\u2013 <\/span>\u200awithout any other context, the numbers themselves can be perceived as the data. But if given the context that this database is a log of a book collection, those 13-digit numbers may now be identified as <span class=\"nowrap\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN\" title=\"ISBN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f44f284ae4bdc3af0ca0e21675d6ce70\">ISBNs<\/a>\u200a&#160;\u2013 <\/span>\u200ainformation that refers to the book, but is not itself the information within the book. The term \"metadata\" was coined in 1968 by Philip Bagley, in his book \"Extension of Programming Language Concepts\" where it is clear that he uses the term in the ISO 11179 \"traditional\" sense, which is \"structural metadata\" i.e. \"data about the containers of data\"; rather than the alternative sense \"content about individual instances of data content\" or metacontent, the type of data usually found in library catalogs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bagley_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bagley-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> Since then the fields of information management, information science, information technology, librarianship, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GIS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GIS\" data-key=\"8430f29443a6416c1992fb723a86c49c\">GIS<\/a> have widely adopted the term. In these fields, the word <i>metadata<\/i> is defined as \"data about data\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISO_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISO-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> While this is the generally accepted definition, various disciplines have adopted their own more specific explanations and uses of the term.\n<\/p><p><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Slate_(magazine)\" title=\"Slate (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec9ab97bb4989fea40383480fe86dc99\">Slate<\/a><\/i> reported in 2013 that the United States government's interpretation of \"metadata\" could be broad, and might include message content such as the subject lines of emails.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types\">Types<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>While the metadata application is manifold, covering a large variety of fields, there are specialized and well-accepted models to specify types of metadata. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Francis_Bretherton\" title=\"Francis Bretherton\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bb87c42eedf35c39c5716aa68aae71b\">Bretherton<\/a> &amp; Singley (1994) distinguish between two distinct classes: structural\/control metadata and guide metadata.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> <i>Structural metadata<\/i> describes the structure of database objects such as tables, columns, keys and indexes. <i>Guide metadata<\/i> helps humans find specific items and is usually expressed as a set of keywords in a natural language. According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ralph_Kimball\" title=\"Ralph Kimball\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d99c9d22163377aa0674e688ecc15d4\">Ralph Kimball<\/a>, metadata can be divided into three categories: <i>technical metadata<\/i> (or internal metadata), <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_metadata\" title=\"Business metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d81447d8854492a7979f308e0ca9ae3d\">business metadata<\/a><\/i> (or external metadata), and <i>process metadata<\/i>.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NISO\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NISO\" data-key=\"2b517e1d3bc8256f665a695a501a6356\">NISO<\/a> distinguishes three types of metadata: descriptive, structural, and administrative.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISO_21-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISO-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> <i>Descriptive metadata<\/i> is typically used for discovery and identification, as information to search and locate an object, such as title, authors, subjects, keywords, and publisher. <i>Structural metadata<\/i> describes how the components of an object are organized. An example of structural metadata would be how pages are ordered to form chapters of a book. Finally, <i>administrative metadata<\/i> gives information to help manage the source. Administrative metadata refers to the technical information, such as file type, or when and how the file was created. Two sub-types of administrative metadata are rights management metadata and preservation metadata. <i>Rights management metadata<\/i> explains <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intellectual_Property_Rights\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intellectual Property Rights\" data-key=\"1ecac30351bf50d6b44ce45912d96b99\">intellectual property rights<\/a>, while <i>preservation metadata<\/i> contains information to preserve and save a resource.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Understanding_Metadata_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Understanding_Metadata-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Statistical data repositories have their own requirements for metadata in order to describe not only the source and quality of the data<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> but also what statistical processes were used to create the data, which is of particular importance to the statistical community in order to both validate and improve the process of statistical data production.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:5_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:5-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An additional type of metadata beginning to be more developed is <i>accessibility metadata<\/i>. Accessibility metadata is not a new concept to libraries; however, advances in universal design have raised its profile.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Beyene_(2017)-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 213\u2013214\">:\u200a213\u2013214\u200a<\/span><\/sup> Projects like Cloud4All and GPII identified the lack of common terminologies and models to describe the needs and preferences of users and information that fits those needs as a major gap in providing universal access solutions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_24-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Beyene_(2017)-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 210\u2013211\">:\u200a210\u2013211\u200a<\/span><\/sup> Those types of information are accessibility metadata.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_24-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Beyene_(2017)-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 214\">:\u200a214\u200a<\/span><\/sup> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/schema.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Schema.org<\/a> has incorporated several accessibility properties based on IMS Global Access for All Information Model Data Element Specification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_24-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Beyene_(2017)-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 214\">:\u200a214\u200a<\/span><\/sup> The Wiki page <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/wiki\/WebSchemas\/Accessibility\" target=\"_blank\">WebSchemas\/Accessibility<\/a> lists several properties and their values. While the efforts to describe and standardize the varied accessibility needs of information seekers are beginning to become more robust, their adoption into established metadata schemas has not been as developed. For example, while Dublin Core (DC)'s \"audience\" and MARC 21's \"reading level\" could be used to identify resources suitable for users with dyslexia and DC's \"format\" could be used to identify resources available in braille, audio, or large print formats, there is more work to be done.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_24-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Beyene_(2017)-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 214\">:\u200a214\u200a<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structures\">Structures<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Metadata (metacontent) or, more correctly, the vocabularies used to assemble metadata (metacontent) statements, is typically structured according to a standardized concept using a well-defined metadata scheme, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_standards\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Metadata standards\" data-key=\"e5c0aeaab6e5bb13a707297a255738ee\">metadata standards<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_modeling\" title=\"Metadata modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ea0c8090c02582c862632ece255375d\">metadata models<\/a>. Tools such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Controlled_vocabulary\" title=\"Controlled vocabulary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9aaec0a3d6e34a485af7fe68d68f39bf\">controlled vocabularies<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taxonomy_(general)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Taxonomy (general)\" data-key=\"4aaa26205adafdaaad56521acf7bbfb6\">taxonomies<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thesaurus_(information_retrieval)\" title=\"Thesaurus (information retrieval)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"358978c9f7b608e7474b34e385fbb88f\">thesauri<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Dictionary\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data Dictionary\" data-key=\"b67e6d368edeb74d4c4a7dc6bcea568f\">data dictionaries<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_registry\" title=\"Metadata registry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b38acec4b504b2af8989879e047734\">metadata registries<\/a> can be used to apply further standardization to the metadata. Structural metadata commonality is also of paramount importance in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_model\" title=\"Data model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0d92c5cb69a9ec47cdd2ea65f864bf1\">data model<\/a> development and in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_design\" title=\"Database design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c0410b04d546f1cc2a149e14a76f2ee\">database design<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Syntax\">Syntax<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata (metacontent) syntax refers to the rules created to structure the fields or elements of metadata (metacontent).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> A single metadata scheme may be expressed in a number of different markup or programming languages, each of which requires a different syntax. For example, Dublin Core may be expressed in plain text, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTML\" title=\"HTML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2129f27a9bbb49d279dab0e89f49c23c\">HTML<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource_Description_Framework\" title=\"Resource Description Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84df3c8186c49293d7c93180e1489de\">RDF<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A common example of (guide) metacontent is the bibliographic classification, the subject, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_Dewey_Decimal_classes\" title=\"List of Dewey Decimal classes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e00f6fd2bfeadb7a755edfa1231bf53d\">Dewey Decimal class number<\/a>. There is always an implied statement in any \"classification\" of some object. To classify an object as, for example, Dewey class number 514 (Topology) (i.e. books having the number 514 on their spine) the implied statement is: \"&lt;book&gt;&lt;subject heading&gt;&lt;514&gt;\". This is a subject-predicate-object triple, or more importantly, a class-attribute-value triple. The first 2 elements of the triple (class, attribute) are pieces of some structural metadata having a defined semantic. The third element is a value, preferably from some controlled vocabulary, some reference (master) data. The combination of the metadata and master data elements results in a statement which is a metacontent statement i.e. \"metacontent = metadata + master data\". All of these elements can be thought of as \"vocabulary\". Both metadata and master data are vocabularies that can be assembled into metacontent statements. There are many sources of these vocabularies, both meta and master data: UML, EDIFACT, XSD, Dewey\/UDC\/LoC, SKOS, ISO-25964, Pantone, Linnaean Binomial Nomenclature, etc. Using controlled vocabularies for the components of metacontent statements, whether for indexing or finding, is endorsed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_25964\" title=\"ISO 25964\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8163b48e8190ce2d86440c5bb5be502\">ISO 25964<\/a>: \"If both the indexer and the searcher are guided to choose the same term for the same concept, then relevant documents will be retrieved.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> This is particularly relevant when considering search engines of the internet, such as Google. The process indexes pages and then matches text strings using its complex algorithm; there is no intelligence or \"inferencing\" occurring, just the illusion thereof.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Hierarchical.2C_linear.2C_and_planar_schemata\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hierarchical,_linear,_and_planar_schemata\">Hierarchical, linear, and planar schemata<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata schemata can be hierarchical in nature where relationships exist between metadata elements and elements are nested so that parent-child relationships exist between the elements.\nAn example of a hierarchical metadata schema is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_object_metadata\" title=\"Learning object metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b983c01cbde102df6f24cfc3789a7c\">IEEE LOM<\/a> schema, in which metadata elements may belong to a parent metadata element.\nMetadata schemata can also be one-dimensional, or linear, where each element is completely discrete from other elements and classified according to one dimension only.\nAn example of a linear metadata schema is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core_Metadata_Initiative\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dublin Core Metadata Initiative\" data-key=\"1e40c8a639d5522c07628e92f7bc3a78\">Dublin Core<\/a> schema, which is one-dimensional.\nMetadata schemata are often 2 dimensional, or planar, where each element is completely discrete from other elements but classified according to 2 orthogonal dimensions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Granularity\">Granularity<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The degree to which the data or metadata is structured is referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_granularity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data granularity\" data-key=\"3ec70872bcdd2f76c61a4f2c2507c1e3\">\"granularity\"<\/a>. \"Granularity\" refers to how much detail is provided. Metadata with a high granularity allows for deeper, more detailed, and more structured information and enables a greater level of technical manipulation. A lower level of granularity means that metadata can be created for considerably lower costs but will not provide as detailed information. The major impact of granularity is not only on creation and capture, but moreover on maintenance costs. As soon as the metadata structures become outdated, so too is the access to the referred data. Hence granularity must take into account the effort to create the metadata as well as the effort to maintain it.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hypermapping\">Hypermapping<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In all cases where the metadata schemata exceed the planar depiction, some type of hypermapping is required to enable display and view of metadata according to chosen aspect and to serve special views. Hypermapping frequently applies to layering of geographical and geological information overlays.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards\">Standards<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>International standards apply to metadata. Much work is being accomplished in the national and international standards communities, especially <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ANSI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ANSI\" data-key=\"9c4a01098b2145ef6236aac9daf871c0\">ANSI<\/a> (American National Standards Institute) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">ISO<\/a> (International Organization for Standardization) to reach a consensus on standardizing metadata and registries. The core metadata registry standard is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">ISO<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Electrotechnical_Commission\" title=\"International Electrotechnical Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3365d94c8fd167fc59737ebfcb686d3e\">IEC<\/a> 11179 Metadata Registries (MDR), the framework for the standard is described in ISO\/IEC 11179-1:2004.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> A new edition of Part 1 is in its final stage for publication in 2015 or early 2016. It has been revised to align with the current edition of Part 3, ISO\/IEC 11179-3:2013<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> which extends the MDR to support the registration of Concept Systems.\n(see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_11179\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 11179\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77c34eea440c5f765f97188bdc095b23\">ISO\/IEC 11179<\/a>). This standard specifies a schema for recording both the meaning and technical structure of the data for unambiguous usage by humans and computers. ISO\/IEC 11179 standard refers to metadata as information objects about data, or \"data about data\". In ISO\/IEC 11179 Part-3, the information objects are data about Data Elements, Value Domains, and other reusable semantic and representational information objects that describe the meaning and technical details of a data item. This standard also prescribes the details for a metadata registry, and for registering and administering the information objects within a Metadata Registry. ISO\/IEC 11179 Part 3 also has provisions for describing compound structures that are derivations of other data elements, for example through calculations, collections of one or more data elements, or other forms of derived data. While this standard describes itself originally as a \"data element\" registry, its purpose is to support describing and registering metadata content independently of any particular application, lending the descriptions to being discovered and reused by humans or computers in developing new applications, databases, or for analysis of data collected in accordance with the registered metadata content. This standard has become the general basis for other kinds of metadata registries, reusing and extending the registration and administration portion of the standard.\n<\/p><p>The Geospatial community has a tradition of specialized <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geospatial_metadata\" title=\"Geospatial metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f0c6da59cd230a351a5b21b8c86209a\">geospatial metadata<\/a> standards, particularly building on traditions of map- and image-libraries and catalogs. Formal metadata is usually essential for geospatial data, as common text-processing approaches are not applicable.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a> metadata terms are a set of vocabulary terms that can be used to describe resources for the purposes of discovery. The original set of 15 classic<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> metadata terms, known as the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> are endorsed in the following standards documents:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>IETF RFC 5013<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ISO Standard 15836-2009<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>NISO Standard Z39.85.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The W3C Data Catalog Vocabulary (DCAT)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> is an RDF vocabulary that supplements Dublin Core with classes for Dataset, Data Service, Catalog, and Catalog Record. DCAT also uses elements from FOAF, PROV-O, and OWL-Time. DCAT provides an RDF model to support the typical structure of a catalog that contains records, each describing a dataset or service.\n<\/p><p>\nAlthough not a standard, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microformat\" title=\"Microformat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b6d5559fae3fc79eac015bff6addd9c\">Microformat<\/a> (also mentioned in the section <a href=\"#Internet\">metadata on the internet<\/a> below) is a web-based approach to semantic markup which seeks to re-use existing HTML\/XHTML tags to convey metadata. Microformat follows XHTML and HTML standards but is not a standard in itself. One advocate of microformats, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tantek_%C3%87elik\" title=\"Tantek \u00c7elik\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8668ca6eadd3aab04998fc5cb911c05\">Tantek \u00c7elik<\/a>, characterized a problem with alternative approaches: <\/p><blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>Here's a new language we want you to learn, and now you need to output these additional files on your server. It's a hassle. (Microformats) lower the barrier to entry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Wharton000_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Wharton000-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Use\">Use<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Photographs\">Photographs<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata may be written into a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_photo\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital photo\" data-key=\"13526837dbc130748a96003eb45b1f87\">digital photo<\/a> file that will identify who owns it, copyright and contact information, what brand or model of camera created the file, along with exposure information (shutter speed, f-stop, etc.) and descriptive information, such as keywords about the photo, making the file or image searchable on a computer and\/or the Internet. Some metadata is created by the camera such as, color space, color channels, exposure time, and aperture (EXIF), while some is input by the photographer and\/or software after downloading to a computer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> Most digital cameras write metadata about the model number, shutter speed, etc., and some enable you to edit it;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup> this functionality has been available on most Nikon DSLRs since the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nikon_D3\" title=\"Nikon D3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e755ff9ede2b84c87454856fd5b5c28d\">Nikon D3<\/a>, on most new Canon cameras since the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canon_EOS_7D\" title=\"Canon EOS 7D\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9568e9ed06a29c707064fdafbc535b28\">Canon EOS 7D<\/a>, and on most Pentax DSLRs since the Pentax K-3. Metadata can be used to make organizing in post-production easier with the use of key-wording. Filters can be used to analyze a specific set of photographs and create selections on criteria like rating or capture time. On devices with geolocation capabilities like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_Positioning_System\" title=\"Global Positioning System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09edeece3c3764dbb35831ac0389f87d\">GPS<\/a> (smartphones in particular), the location the photo was taken from may also be included.\n<\/p><p>Photographic Metadata Standards are governed by organizations that develop the following standards. They include, but are not limited to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPTC_Information_Interchange_Model\" title=\"IPTC Information Interchange Model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd357ba66e2f5a65d5c3caadc6f02639\">IPTC Information Interchange Model<\/a> IIM (International Press Telecommunications Council)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Press_Telecommunications_Council\" title=\"International Press Telecommunications Council\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e17d69654fa44f17fbd43ab1ba370c4d\">IPTC<\/a> Core Schema for XMP<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extensible_Metadata_Platform\" title=\"Extensible Metadata Platform\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91b2ab6baaa7d6dd1fcd63c4759da6e5\">XMP<\/a> \u2013 Extensible Metadata Platform (an ISO standard)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exchangeable_image_file_format\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Exchangeable image file format\" data-key=\"8c2853d49843e0a19582156bc13e1c2b\">Exif<\/a> \u2013 Exchangeable image file format, Maintained by CIPA (Camera &amp; Imaging Products Association) and published by JEITA (Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a> (Dublin Core Metadata Initiative \u2013 DCMI)<\/li>\n<li>PLUS (Picture Licensing Universal System)<\/li>\n<li>VRA Core (Visual Resource Association)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Telecommunications\">Telecommunications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Information on the times, origins and destinations of phone calls, electronic messages, instant messages, and other modes of telecommunication, as opposed to message content, is another form of metadata. Bulk collection of this <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Call_detail_record\" title=\"Call detail record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b71156ae806906621fc5bd9b039ec40c\">call detail record<\/a> metadata by intelligence agencies has proven controversial after disclosures by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Snowden\" title=\"Edward Snowden\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e534e33ca161d9c70f94325947d8166\">Edward Snowden<\/a> of the fact that certain Intelligence agencies such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NSA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NSA\" data-key=\"9b5e14932437b8748821c59253100707\">NSA<\/a> had been (and perhaps still are) keeping online metadata on millions of internet users for up to a year, regardless of whether or not they [ever] were persons of interest to the agency.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Video\">Video<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata is particularly useful in video, where information about its contents (such as transcripts of conversations and text descriptions of its scenes) is not directly understandable by a computer, but where an efficient search of the content is desirable. This is particularly useful in video applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_number-plate_recognition\" title=\"Automatic number-plate recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"860d42b705d4c083b5c1b300f0d6ddb2\">Automatic Number Plate Recognition<\/a> and Vehicle Recognition Identification software, wherein license plate data is saved and used to create reports and alerts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> There are 2 sources in which video metadata is derived: (1) operational gathered metadata, that is information about the content produced, such as the type of equipment, software, date, and location; (2) human-authored metadata, to improve search engine visibility, discoverability, audience engagement, and providing advertising opportunities to video publishers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> Avid's MetaSync and Adobe's Bridge are examples of professional video editing software with access to metadata.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Geospatial_metadata\">Geospatial metadata<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geospatial_metadata\" title=\"Geospatial metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f0c6da59cd230a351a5b21b8c86209a\">Geospatial metadata<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Geospatial metadata relates to Geographic Information Systems (GIS) files, maps, images, and other data that is location-based. Metadata is used in GIS to document the characteristics and attributes of geographic data, such as database files and data that is developed within a GIS. It includes details like who developed the data, when it was collected, how it was processed, and what formats it's available in, and then delivers the context for the data to be used effectively.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Creation\">Creation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Metadata can be created either by automated information processing or by manual work. Elementary metadata captured by computers can include information about when an object was created, who created it, when it was last updated, file size, and file extension. In this context an <i>object<\/i> refers to any of the following:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>A physical item such as a book, CD, DVD, a paper map, chair, table, flower pot, etc.<\/li>\n<li>An electronic file such as a digital image, digital photo, electronic document, program file, database table, etc.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_engine\" title=\"Metadata engine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f85d952f101695f1c24628bfd0bf6c04\">metadata engine<\/a> collects, stores and analyzes information about data and metadata in use within a domain.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_virtualization\">Data virtualization<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_virtualization\" title=\"Data virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b1db2c4812e3fe3eaa9cf97ae016468\">Data virtualization<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Data virtualization emerged in the 2000s as the new software technology to complete the virtualization \"stack\" in the enterprise. Metadata is used in data virtualization servers which are enterprise infrastructure components, alongside database and application servers. Metadata in these servers is saved as persistent repository and describe <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_object\" title=\"Business object\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e5efc2e6e3957227d145190a31b8017\">business objects<\/a> in various enterprise systems and applications. Structural metadata commonality is also important to support data virtualization.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Statistics_and_census_services\">Statistics and census services<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Standardization and harmonization work has brought advantages to industry efforts to build metadata systems in the statistical community.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gl\u00f8ersenImprov11_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gl\u00f8ersenImprov11-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LaurilaMetadata12_48-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LaurilaMetadata12-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup> Several metadata guidelines and standards such as the European Statistics Code of Practice<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ECEuropeanStat_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ECEuropeanStat-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup> and ISO 17369:2013 (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SDMX\" title=\"SDMX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d50a8fc8177e4138aac708f790c7d060\">Statistical Data and Metadata Exchange<\/a> or SDMX)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gl\u00f8ersenImprov11_47-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gl\u00f8ersenImprov11-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> provide key principles for how businesses, government bodies, and other entities should manage statistical data and metadata. Entities such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eurostat\" title=\"Eurostat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93646c0d14de583cee01e360061fdc50\">Eurostat<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UNReportOn15_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UNReportOn15-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_System_of_Central_Banks\" title=\"European System of Central Banks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"807d7543902b1b0d9c2ac2467fc7c11a\">European System of Central Banks<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UNReportOn15_50-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UNReportOn15-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3e4c58eca1cdd38b19280e2fe2ec728\">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPAMetadata17_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPAMetadata17-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> have implemented these and other such standards and guidelines with the goal of improving \"efficiency when managing statistical business processes\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UNReportOn15_50-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UNReportOn15-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Library_and_information_science\">Library and information science<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a series on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_and_information_science\" title=\"Library and information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c387b78ad018343e5d9e46eb5a8a8330\">Library and information science<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Frameless\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:LIS_SidebarPicture.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d15d1cd809b741cfd8245df325ddc64\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/3a\/LIS_SidebarPicture.png\/250px-LIS_SidebarPicture.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"162\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-above\" style=\"padding-bottom:0.35em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outline_of_library_and_information_science\" title=\"Outline of library and information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f1cf11802040a148658b27cf9650e66\">Outline<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science\" title=\"Glossary of library and information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce7f51484ea232e9d7e4fc7ced3f0a72\">Glossary<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.2em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#ddddff; text-align:center;\">Histories<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_libraries\" title=\"History of libraries\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4223fe33a5f679114258889a2ed322fc\">Libraries<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_history\" title=\"Information history\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fcfd1655d35a399238e3c8dc8526a6a\">Information<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.2em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#ddddff; text-align:center;\">Focus<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archives_management\" title=\"Archives management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebdcbc4609cd50c90423333bf2d5d6bb\">Archives management<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collections_management\" title=\"Collections management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7753af158886c956a59db980e8dc1e7\">Collections management<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Preservation_(library_and_archive)\" title=\"Preservation (library and archive)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7e3434721012a1b823e3d1c25e8a518d\">Preservation<\/a>) - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_management\" title=\"Data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c54f822d2961a56b862b2fe07cff86\">Data management<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_management\" title=\"Information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eb7b16b6cf9e903b35914f058a684c1\">Information management<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cataloging_(library_science)\" title=\"Cataloging (library science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6283661fd7148549382799406d400fe\">cataloguing<\/a>) - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_management\" title=\"Library management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f9d5e99004c6b63a341ece0c5e351d26\">Library management<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.2em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#ddddff; text-align:center;\">Curation<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">Data<\/a> - <a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Metadata<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">Information<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document\" title=\"Document\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f0fd03f08b691946949dcab005c763f\">Documents<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural_artifact\" title=\"Cultural artifact\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"091e242a2559c53a1dc4b1f61f473eae\">Artefacts<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge\" title=\"Knowledge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01c4b58d0351b823f87d6660469ca11a\">Knowledge<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.2em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#ddddff; text-align:center;\">Interdisciplinary fields<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archival_science\" title=\"Archival science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e58a0935d059aaf989cac9434a0e150e\">Archival science<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communication_studies\" title=\"Communication studies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d216ca4c9742a97b988069f3e8004be5\">Communication studies<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">Computer science<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_science\" title=\"Data science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ca3033a747d64b89d986a08df1bf310\">Data science<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Documentation_science\" title=\"Documentation science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acaa5b2cdab99786fc25aa0a1a13d33a\">Documentation science<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epistemology\" title=\"Epistemology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9006d5326ea15b9a744ad2d5c794fbfd\">Epistemology<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_science\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Library science\" data-key=\"d0008364809b9d88fca31ad1d366db7b\">Library science<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_science\" title=\"Information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d03d37d20fd3931e86c370316d1a14a\">Information science<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science_and_technology_studies\" title=\"Science and technology studies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"253de26211601f822a50376feac76bb1\">Science and technology studies<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.2em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#ddddff; text-align:center;\">Areas<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Academic_library\" title=\"Academic library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b960ec836a6c35c2a7b606b18dcbf0ff\">Academic<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archive\" title=\"Archive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0616d0287fea30e581df809e4fd9aaa1\">Archival<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Law_library\" title=\"Law library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"15c2c3540bc144de8ae30c67cc4c02ed\">Legal<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_library\" title=\"Medical library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01af92e63a359f71b190de7dff43b5e0\">Health<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Private_library\" title=\"Private library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3b58c27ef17efedd5496a95f9301e41\">Private<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_library\" title=\"Public library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d7110032249d23a67727507c295cd33\">Public<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/School_library\" title=\"School library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa1c7885f7934146826f07d8d3ba9065\">School<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special_library\" title=\"Special library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfb0322df43c5527779537171e657669\">Special<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-below\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Libraries\" title=\"Wikipedia:WikiProject Libraries\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d8c6dff4e2c8fcc94ad844837fefcc4\">WikiProject<\/a><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"nowrap\"><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Category\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/9\/96\/Symbol_category_class.svg\/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/span><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Library_and_information_science\" title=\"Category:Library and information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c6e0985265d857a9753f91e128e9474\">Category<\/a><\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Metadata has been used in various ways as a means of cataloging items in libraries in both digital and analog formats. Such data helps classify, aggregate, identify, and locate a particular book, DVD, magazine, or any object a library might hold in its collection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup> Until the 1980s, many library catalogs used 3x5 inch cards in file drawers to display a book's title, author, subject matter, and an abbreviated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alphanumeric\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Alphanumeric\" data-key=\"44e729f30e613afcbd2b5f31c5d11505\">alpha-numeric<\/a> string (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Call_number\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Call number\" data-key=\"9ae0fde14dca4d4eafdb2b1c718795bf\">call number<\/a>) which indicated the physical location of the book within the library's shelves. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dewey_Decimal_Classification\" title=\"Dewey Decimal Classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3700197890027de04a6dc3560744c5bb\">Dewey Decimal System<\/a> employed by libraries for the classification of library materials by subject is an early example of metadata usage. The early paper catalog had information regarding whichever item was described on said card: title, author, subject, and a number as to where to find said item.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup> Beginning in the 1980s and 1990s, many libraries replaced these paper file cards with computer databases. These computer databases make it much easier and faster for users to do keyword searches. Another form of older metadata collection is the use by the US Census Bureau of what is known as the \"Long Form\". The Long Form asks questions that are used to create demographic data to find patterns of distribution.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library\" title=\"Library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6f9d51f03e247e6e5f8f741be45c8f0\">Libraries<\/a> employ metadata in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_catalog\" title=\"Library catalog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e26503cbecc7eda19e2fa96ced322175\">library catalogues<\/a>, most commonly as part of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Library management system\" data-key=\"e6f25816de04157d6c0a56e1f02c8d54\">Integrated Library Management System<\/a>. Metadata is obtained by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_cataloging#Cataloging_rules\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Library cataloging\" data-key=\"34e060bc8b9a5dcceb34cf4cff04f469\">cataloging<\/a> resources such as books, periodicals, DVDs, web pages or digital images. This data is stored in the integrated library management system, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Library management system\" data-key=\"e6f25816de04157d6c0a56e1f02c8d54\">ILMS<\/a>, using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MARC_standards\" title=\"MARC standards\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a4b4f70cec8e9f63c4ec567e0d51387\">MARC<\/a> metadata standard. The purpose is to direct patrons to the physical or electronic location of items or areas they seek as well as to provide a description of the item\/s in question.\n<\/p><p>More recent and specialized instances of library metadata include the establishment of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_library\" title=\"Digital library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a9dd2517ea26d96e7c2e68d6e58bf13\">digital libraries<\/a> including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eprint\" title=\"Eprint\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d90aaa07dd2396a3ce5936b368b7dc2\">e-print<\/a> repositories and digital image libraries. While often based on library principles, the focus on non-librarian use, especially in providing metadata, means they do not follow traditional or common cataloging approaches. Given the custom nature of included materials, metadata fields are often specially created e.g. taxonomic classification fields, location fields, keywords, or copyright statement. Standard file information such as file size and format are usually automatically included.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-solodovnik_55-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-solodovnik-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup> Library operation has for decades been a key topic in efforts toward <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_standardization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"International standardization\" data-key=\"f0c92e579f6a0a268fd513e742c3e12a\">international standardization<\/a>. Standards for metadata in digital libraries include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_Encoding_and_Transmission_Standard\" title=\"Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab0ff82392b259711fae69792838d294\">METS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_Object_Description_Schema\" title=\"Metadata Object Description Schema\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d11a843c0ef7ce10409ed3a3d9ffd1d\">MODS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Documentation_Initiative\" title=\"Data Documentation Initiative\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99efa5a332e211fedcd0b94e6a3cc897\">DDI<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">DOI<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uniform_Resource_Name\" title=\"Uniform Resource Name\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a9bebacade1cd9237191437b15a1f50\">URN<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Preservation_Metadata:_Implementation_Strategies\" title=\"Preservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a5816518b3dccc1bbacc2be89414049\">PREMIS<\/a> schema, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecological_Metadata_Language\" title=\"Ecological Metadata Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5acb3b52d6c44549fa46c257c6666e3c\">EML<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protocol_for_Metadata_Harvesting\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Protocol for Metadata Harvesting\" data-key=\"a7f865bc685b073a3a9f663fc9856130\">OAI-PMH<\/a>. Leading libraries in the world give hints on their metadata standards strategies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> The use and creation of metadata in library and information science also include scientific publications:\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Science\">Science<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metascience\" title=\"Metascience\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a5ab93ec0a820d8cd4330b3c8ded532\">Metascience<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><span><video id=\"rdp-ebb-mwe_player_0\" poster=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a9\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm\/220px-seek%3D30-FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm.jpg\" controls=\"\" preload=\"none\" class=\"mw-file-element\" width=\"220\" height=\"124\" data-durationhint=\"217\" data-mwtitle=\"FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm\" data-mwprovider=\"wikimediacommons\" resource=\"\/wiki\/File:FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm\"><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a9\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm.480p.vp9.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"480p.vp9.webm\" data-width=\"854\" data-height=\"480\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a9\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm.720p.vp9.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"720p.vp9.webm\" data-width=\"1280\" data-height=\"720\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a9\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm.1080p.vp9.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"1080p.vp9.webm\" data-width=\"1920\" data-height=\"1080\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a9\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;\" data-width=\"1920\" data-height=\"1080\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a9\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm.m3u8\" type=\"application\/vnd.apple.mpegurl\" data-transcodekey=\"m3u8\" data-width=\"0\" data-height=\"0\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a9\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm.240p.vp9.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"240p.vp9.webm\" data-width=\"426\" data-height=\"240\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a9\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm.360p.vp9.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"360p.vp9.webm\" data-width=\"640\" data-height=\"360\" \/><source src=\"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a9\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm\/FREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm.360p.webm\" type=\"video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;\" data-transcodekey=\"360p.webm\" data-width=\"640\" data-height=\"360\" \/><track src=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/api.php?action=timedtext&amp;title=File%3AFREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm&amp;lang=en&amp;trackformat=vtt&amp;origin=%2A\" kind=\"subtitles\" type=\"text\/vtt\" srclang=\"en\" label=\"English \u202a(en)\u202c\" data-dir=\"ltr\" \/><track src=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/api.php?action=timedtext&amp;title=File%3AFREYA-The-power-of-PIDs-V05-1.webm&amp;lang=he&amp;trackformat=vtt&amp;origin=%2A\" kind=\"subtitles\" type=\"text\/vtt\" srclang=\"he\" label=\"\u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea \u202a(he)\u202c\" data-dir=\"rtl\" \/><\/video><\/span><figcaption>An introduction to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FAIR_data\" title=\"FAIR data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f576cfd143cdd45d80212c2bd22e303\">FAIR data<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Persistent_identifier\" title=\"Persistent identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"468cc9256405970a0b9c7145314f15fb\">persistent identifiers<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Metadata for scientific publications is often created by journal publishers and citation databases such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed\" title=\"PubMed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64d682816c7aa9858110cad79e07e0cb\">PubMed<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_of_Science\" title=\"Web of Science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebd947fd855b4cddc0b0248413d4aff1\">Web of Science<\/a>. The data contained within manuscripts or accompanying them as supplementary material is less often subject to metadata creation,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup> though they may be submitted to e.g. biomedical databases after publication. The original authors and database curators then become responsible for metadata creation, with the assistance of automated processes. Comprehensive metadata for all experimental data is the foundation of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FAIR_data\" title=\"FAIR data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f576cfd143cdd45d80212c2bd22e303\">FAIR Guiding Principles<\/a>, or the standards for ensuring research data are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Findability\" title=\"Findability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb369826db29d66dd50fbc3a923c6f5f\">findable<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accessibility\" title=\"Accessibility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b03a29f12fb22a58105751f50b00570\">accessible<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interoperability\" title=\"Interoperability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38415d24cde633d18de0c69db5a6d400\">interoperable<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reusability\" title=\"Reusability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3258fed5130db609bae052faf30587c0\">reusable<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Such metadata can then be utilized, complemented, and made accessible in useful ways. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Our_Research#OpenAlex\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Our Research\" data-key=\"96ae8041773057bb3d10c272a8fb7537\">OpenAlex<\/a> is a free online index of over 200 million scientific documents that integrates and provides metadata such as sources, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_citation\" title=\"Scientific citation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"563fd890cd237e6e78f76eba63597c55\">citations<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Academic_authorship\" title=\"Academic authorship\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"83f1c45686c01c58d372f6ebf6b81da7\">author information<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_field\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Scientific field\" data-key=\"fd31030a436eaad1bc0a6141c16a8515\">scientific fields<\/a>, and research topics. Its <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/API\" title=\"API\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf35ff5bc89a7836d172e0daec66b5db\">API<\/a> and open source website can be used for metascience, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientometrics\" title=\"Scientometrics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55472645e628a3d4e45ec00e761ec59a\">scientometrics<\/a>, and novel tools that query this <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_Web\" title=\"Semantic Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9ae7ad3bff2f083332c721eff5ad88f\">semantic<\/a> web of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Academic_paper\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Academic paper\" data-key=\"e79cafc3a979c6e13e5d4c00a6dafa2c\">papers<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup> Another project under development, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scholia\" title=\"Scholia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cc50346cfe7da0e46b0df449da82bda\">Scholia<\/a>, uses the metadata of scientific publications for various visualizations and aggregation features such as providing a simple user interface summarizing literature about a specific feature of the SARS-CoV-2 virus using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikidata\" title=\"Wikidata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7de94d89fd1f728198b97a16eadfaf9\">Wikidata<\/a>'s \"main subject\" property.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10.1186\/s12915-020-00940-y_64-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10.1186\/s12915-020-00940-y-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In research labor, transparent metadata about authors' contributions to works have been proposed \u2013 e.g. the role played in the production of the paper, the level of contribution and the responsibilities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Moreover, various metadata about scientific outputs can be created or complemented \u2013 for instance, scite.ai attempts to track and link citations of papers as 'Supporting', 'Mentioning' or 'Contrasting' the study.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup> Other examples include developments of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Altmetrics\" title=\"Altmetrics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2ea516e22519e2b5733788e94a1c3ef\">alternative metrics<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10.1126\/science.aao0185_68-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10.1126\/science.aao0185-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup> \u2013 which, beyond providing help for assessment and findability, also aggregate many of the public discussions about a scientific paper on social media such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reddit\" title=\"Reddit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef6576bb1ba01c2f6eb4249af1dd880d\">Reddit<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science_information_on_Wikipedia\" title=\"Science information on Wikipedia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faf8cd93759a172b5c5d2fe141df43fc\">citations on Wikipedia<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science_communication\" title=\"Science communication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23e74ccd582ec08ebdadbdfd94a672b8\">reports about the study<\/a> in the news media<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup> \u2013 and a call for showing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reproducibility\" title=\"Reproducibility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c559b05dff7a50c1a66ea0f71ea8052d\">whether or not the original findings are confirmed or could get reproduced<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Museums\">Museums<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata in a museum context is the information that trained cultural documentation specialists, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archivist\" title=\"Archivist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de87e6c610ddf4bedcd5be1afca682ea\">archivists<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Librarian\" title=\"Librarian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee8c37c6d1882b6f84a685c43f28a0ea\">librarians<\/a>, museum <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Registrar_(museum)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Registrar (museum)\" data-key=\"2252de0b46194353ef74af37daccf1ff\">registrars<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curator\" title=\"Curator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe3d2c0edd5c9c03c2055d921f42d324\">curators<\/a>, create to index, structure, describe, identify, or otherwise specify works of art, architecture, cultural objects and their images.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_72-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_73-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> Descriptive metadata is most commonly used in museum contexts for object identification and resource recovery purposes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_73-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Usage\">Usage<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Metadata is developed and applied within collecting institutions and museums in order to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Facilitate resource discovery and execute search queries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Create digital archives that store information relating to various aspects of museum collections and cultural objects, and serve archival and managerial purposes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Provide public audiences access to cultural objects through publishing digital content online.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_73-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards_2\">Standards<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Many museums and cultural heritage centers recognize that given the diversity of artworks and cultural objects, no single model or standard suffices to describe and catalog cultural works.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_72-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_73-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> For example, a sculpted Indigenous artifact could be classified as an artwork, an archaeological artifact, or an Indigenous heritage item. The early stages of standardization in archiving, description and cataloging within the museum community began in the late 1990s with the development of standards such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Categories_for_the_Description_of_Works_of_Art\" title=\"Categories for the Description of Works of Art\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1182fd619d81e3c3fae450a30e5d5f69\">Categories for the Description of Works of Art<\/a> (CDWA), Spectrum, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CIDOC_Conceptual_Reference_Model\" title=\"CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a2969ef1b21d71ff7961262d470a7fe\">CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model<\/a> (CRM), Cataloging Cultural Objects (CCO) and the CDWA Lite XML schema.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_73-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> These standards use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTML\" title=\"HTML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2129f27a9bbb49d279dab0e89f49c23c\">HTML<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a> markup languages for machine processing, publication and implementation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_73-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anglo-American_Cataloguing_Rules\" title=\"Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27f1dd8e6860c5b14aceb442a17fb017\">Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules<\/a> (AACR), originally developed for characterizing books, have also been applied to cultural objects, works of art and architecture.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> Standards, such as the CCO, are integrated within a Museum's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collections_Management_System\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Collections Management System\" data-key=\"c2ff5eac796ba98acc66dce259bb6364\">Collections Management System<\/a> (CMS), a database through which museums are able to manage their collections, acquisitions, loans and conservation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> Scholars and professionals in the field note that the \"quickly evolving landscape of standards and technologies\" creates challenges for cultural documentarians, specifically non-technically trained professionals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_75-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citing_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citing sources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27db2d557ba5b9a353b953f4b640a66d\"><span title=\"This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2016)\">page&#160;needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Most collecting institutions and museums use a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relational_database\" title=\"Relational database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86b6b5174c671988f4e5dba65702a9c0\">relational database<\/a> to categorize cultural works and their images.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> Relational databases and metadata work to document and describe the complex relationships amongst cultural objects and multi-faceted works of art, as well as between objects and places, people, and artistic movements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_73-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> Relational database structures are also beneficial within collecting institutions and museums because they allow for archivists to make a clear distinction between cultural objects and their images; an unclear distinction could lead to confusing and inaccurate searches.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cultural_objects\">Cultural objects<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>An object's materiality, function, and purpose, as well as the size (e.g., measurements, such as height, width, weight), storage requirements (e.g., climate-controlled environment), and focus of the museum and collection, influence the descriptive depth of the data attributed to the object by cultural documentarians.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> The established institutional cataloging practices, goals, and expertise of cultural documentarians and database structure also influence the information ascribed to cultural objects and the ways in which cultural objects are categorized.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_72-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, museums often employ standardized commercial collection management software that prescribes and limits the ways in which archivists can describe artworks and cultural objects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_75-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup> As well, collecting institutions and museums use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Controlled_vocabulary\" title=\"Controlled vocabulary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9aaec0a3d6e34a485af7fe68d68f39bf\">Controlled Vocabularies<\/a> to describe cultural objects and artworks in their collections.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_73-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> Getty Vocabularies and the Library of Congress Controlled Vocabularies are reputable within the museum community and are recommended by CCO standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> Museums are encouraged to use controlled vocabularies that are contextual and relevant to their collections and enhance the functionality of their digital information systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_73-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> Controlled Vocabularies are beneficial within databases because they provide a high level of consistency, improving resource retrieval.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_73-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> Metadata structures, including controlled vocabularies, reflect the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(information_science)\" title=\"Ontology (information science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6cd018caae9a0c95e80b08c71758343\">ontologies<\/a> of the systems from which they were created. Often the processes through which cultural objects are described and categorized through metadata in museums do not reflect the perspectives of the maker communities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_72-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-76\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Online_content\">Online content<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Metadata has been instrumental in the creation of digital information systems and archives within museums and has made it easier for museums to publish digital content online. This has enabled audiences who might not have had access to cultural objects due to geographic or economic barriers to have access to them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_73-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> In the 2000s, as more museums have adopted archival standards and created intricate databases, discussions about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linked_data\" title=\"Linked data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c04964a561b87834172a8168ec27872\">Linked Data<\/a> between museum databases have come up in the museum, archival, and library science communities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_75-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup> Collection Management Systems (CMS) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_asset_management\" title=\"Digital asset management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67180976fc37adbd3f686b6a21e67f2b\">Digital Asset Management<\/a> tools can be local or shared systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_74-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_humanities\" title=\"Digital humanities\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa7f30bb428277818a54387b7073ee63\">Digital Humanities<\/a> scholars note many benefits of interoperability between museum databases and collections, while also acknowledging the difficulties of achieving such interoperability.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_75-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Law\">Law<\/span><\/h3>\n\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"United_States\">United States<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Problems involving metadata in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Litigation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Litigation\" data-key=\"ec89ff8d369ad0a09102201e9096abf6\">litigation<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States\" title=\"United States\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f44266ab2da9382e3764bac08cfb4076\">United States<\/a> are becoming widespread.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style\/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items\" title=\"Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Dates and numbers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4cfbab771e1d842adb00b68f8cdf8bd\"><span title=\"The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (February 2011)\">when?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Courts have looked at various questions involving metadata, including the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discovery_(law)\" title=\"Discovery (law)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a161cfaa1cf6ececce7a2d8647437aa6\">discoverability<\/a> of metadata by parties. The Federal Rules of Civil Procedure have specific rules for discovery of electronically stored information, and subsequent case law applying those rules has elucidated on the litigant's duty to produce metadata when litigating in federal court.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup> In October 2009, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arizona_Supreme_Court\" title=\"Arizona Supreme Court\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fec63848f94739942409e5237d40a263\">Arizona Supreme Court<\/a> has ruled that metadata records are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_record\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Public record\" data-key=\"d522e1c17ffc14b157396fab9ef8e8ad\">public record<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup> Document metadata have proven particularly important in legal environments in which litigation has requested metadata, that can include sensitive information detrimental to a certain party in court. Using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_removal_tool\" title=\"Metadata removal tool\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58b6ca2a90d25d5133d9df580f5156b5\">metadata removal tools<\/a> to \"clean\" or redact documents can mitigate the risks of unwittingly sending sensitive data. This process partially (see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_remanence\" title=\"Data remanence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37d1b875138cd143379a52d3b4f0af3c\">data remanence<\/a>) protects law firms from potentially damaging leaking of sensitive data through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_discovery\" title=\"Electronic discovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"941a35e9aad4a891b5fbe4cfecc213bd\">electronic discovery<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Opinion polls have shown that 45% of Americans are \"not at all confident\" in the ability of social media sites to ensure their personal data is secure and 40% say that social media sites should not be able to store any information on individuals. 76% of Americans say that they are not confident that the information advertising agencies collect on them is secure and 50% say that online advertising agencies should not be allowed to record any of their information at all.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Australia\">Australia<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In Australia, the need to strengthen national security has resulted in the introduction of a new metadata storage law.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup> This new law means that both security and policing agencies will be allowed to access up to 2 years of an individual's metadata, with the aim of making it easier to stop any terrorist attacks and serious crimes from happening.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Legislation\">Legislation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Legislative metadata has been the subject of some discussion in <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/public.resource.org\/law.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\">law.gov<\/a> forums such as workshops held by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legal_Information_Institute\" title=\"Legal Information Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e448049901f396ec1b9dbc4ca75dbb2\">Legal Information Institute<\/a> at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cornell_Law_School\" title=\"Cornell Law School\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7da1ed986d87191652fd14265f5aa742\">Cornell Law School<\/a> on 22 and 23 March 2010. The documentation for these forums is titled, \"Suggested metadata practices for legislation and regulations\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-81\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A handful of key points have been outlined by these discussions, section headings of which are listed as follows:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>General Considerations<\/li>\n<li>Document Structure<\/li>\n<li>Document Contents<\/li>\n<li>Metadata (elements of)<\/li>\n<li>Layering<\/li>\n<li>Point-in-time versus post-hoc<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Healthcare\">Healthcare<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Australian medical research pioneered the definition of metadata for applications in health care. That approach offers the first recognized attempt to adhere to international standards in medical sciences instead of defining a proprietary standard under the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Health_Organization\" title=\"World Health Organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a894d3a42428adfbcd4eec3f8ecabd8a\">World Health Organization<\/a> (WHO) umbrella. The medical community yet did not approve of the need to follow metadata standards despite research that supported these standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-82\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Biomedical_researches\">Biomedical researches<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Research studies in the fields of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biomedicine\" title=\"Biomedicine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e76c3e327cbb5b73df8cfa0127dcf96c\">biomedicine<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_biology\" title=\"Molecular biology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"270ee524191aa1e43ece5b545558882c\">molecular biology<\/a> frequently yield large quantities of data, including results of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome\" title=\"Genome\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3323eb7c4073b3dcc6a1275242b3881e\">genome<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metagenomics\" title=\"Metagenomics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e08963531a6386bb7e17818647b7630\">meta-genome<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sequencing\" title=\"Sequencing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba664aa2138569abe3c9dc1702822339\">sequencing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proteomics\" title=\"Proteomics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6bf4355d03d35ee0cf147a6c0ab2cf16\">proteomics<\/a> data, and even notes or plans created during the course of research itself.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup> Each data type involves its own variety of metadata and the processes necessary to produce these metadata. General metadata standards, such as ISA-Tab,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-84\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup> allow researchers to create and exchange experimental metadata in consistent formats. Specific experimental approaches frequently have their own metadata standards and systems: metadata standards for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9e8497cbfaef220fa14d9ab192c29a9\">mass spectrometry<\/a> include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MzML\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MzML\" data-key=\"0a4ae540f2eff571d13df28f63308ce8\">mzML<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-85\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup> and SPLASH,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-86\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup> while <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a>-based standards such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protein_Data_Bank\" title=\"Protein Data Bank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55c1ff4cd4dad4b10c7bf8a3b133d61a\">PDBML<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup> and SRA XML<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-88\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup> serve as standards for macromolecular structure and sequencing data, respectively.\n<\/p><p>The products of biomedical research are generally realized as peer-reviewed manuscripts and these publications are yet another source of data <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><span role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference selfref\">(see <a href=\"#Science\">#Science<\/a>)<\/span>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_warehousing\">Data warehousing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">data warehouse<\/a> (DW) is a repository of an organization's electronically stored data. Data warehouses are designed to manage and store the data. Data warehouses differ from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">business intelligence<\/a> (BI) systems because BI systems are designed to use data to create reports and analyze the information, to provide strategic guidance to management.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-89\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-89\">[89]<\/a><\/sup> Metadata is an important tool in how data is stored in data warehouses. The purpose of a data warehouse is to house standardized, structured, consistent, integrated, correct, \"cleaned\" and timely data, extracted from various operational systems in an organization. The extracted data are integrated in the data warehouse environment to provide an enterprise-wide perspective. Data are structured in a way to serve the reporting and analytic requirements. The design of structural metadata commonality using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_modeling\" title=\"Data modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeb367af0f28dde6b5d2b55e69b02ddb\">data modeling<\/a> method such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entity-relationship_model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Entity-relationship model\" data-key=\"5995c00d38259f6e453c0bbbbc01b04b\">entity-relationship model<\/a> diagramming is important in any data warehouse development effort. They detail metadata on each piece of data in the data warehouse. An essential component of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">data warehouse<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">business intelligence<\/a> system is the metadata and tools to manage and retrieve the metadata. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ralph_Kimball\" title=\"Ralph Kimball\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d99c9d22163377aa0674e688ecc15d4\">Ralph Kimball<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-90\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup> describes metadata as the DNA of the data warehouse as metadata defines the elements of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">data warehouse<\/a> and how they work together.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ralph_Kimball\" title=\"Ralph Kimball\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d99c9d22163377aa0674e688ecc15d4\">Kimball<\/a> et al.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-91\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-91\">[91]<\/a><\/sup> refers to 3 main categories of metadata: Technical metadata, business metadata and process metadata. Technical metadata is primarily <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Definition\" title=\"Definition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fb93132b899f961f7a6c699fe159f32\">definitional<\/a>, while business metadata and process metadata is primarily <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Description\" title=\"Description\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9f1f72b0f96de39ff9d1fd5afa2c1ba\">descriptive<\/a>. The categories sometimes overlap.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>Technical metadata<\/b> defines the objects and processes in a DW\/BI system, as seen from a technical point of view. The technical metadata includes the system metadata, which defines the data structures such as tables, fields, data types, indexes, and partitions in the relational engine, as well as databases, dimensions, measures, and data mining models. Technical metadata defines the data model and the way it is displayed for the users, with the reports, schedules, distribution lists, and user security rights.<\/li>\n<li><b>Business metadata<\/b> is content from the data warehouse described in more user-friendly terms. The business metadata tells you what data you have, where they come from, what they mean and what their relationship is to other data in the data warehouse. Business metadata may also serve as documentation for the DW\/BI system. Users who browse the data warehouse are primarily viewing the business metadata.<\/li>\n<li><b>Process metadata<\/b> is used to describe the results of various operations in the data warehouse. Within the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extract,_transform,_load\" title=\"Extract, transform, load\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dd08fd33b5feacc8f3e7d140a4ab5d7\">ETL<\/a> process, all key data from tasks is logged on execution. This includes start time, end time, CPU seconds used, disk reads, disk writes, and rows processed. When troubleshooting the ETL or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">query<\/a> process, this sort of data becomes valuable. Process metadata is the fact measurement when building and using a DW\/BI system. Some organizations make a living out of collecting and selling this sort of data to companies \u2013 in that case, the process metadata becomes the business metadata for the fact and dimension tables. Collecting process metadata is in the interest of business people who can use the data to identify the users of their products, which products they are using, and what level of service they are receiving.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Internet\">Internet<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTML\" title=\"HTML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2129f27a9bbb49d279dab0e89f49c23c\">HTML<\/a> format used to define web pages allows for the inclusion of a variety of types of metadata, from basic descriptive text, dates and keywords to further advanced metadata schemes such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-GMS\" title=\"E-GMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd70c20f0ac7b13ef6e43aa03bd4cef0\">e-GMS<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australian_Government_Locator_Service\" title=\"Australian Government Locator Service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"caddaa9031b1861446f392b56b8bc1a9\">AGLS<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-92\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-92\">[92]<\/a><\/sup> standards. Pages and files can also be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geotagging\" title=\"Geotagging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4d3405781f1b70b25c8f7941519b1ac\">geotagged<\/a> with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geographic_coordinate_system\" title=\"Geographic coordinate system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcc7344c097211de68af846da8ea8eef\">coordinates<\/a>, categorized or tagged, including collaboratively such as with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Folksonomy\" title=\"Folksonomy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09248b03e8b25b20864a817008f5975e\">folksonomies<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>When media has <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identifier\" title=\"Identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13703cbb128e47888d8a4a075f5e6e19\">identifiers<\/a> set or when such can be generated, information such as file tags and descriptions can be pulled or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_scraping\" title=\"Web scraping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13cfc98ddfe0fd340fbccd298ada8c17\">scraped<\/a> from the Internet \u2013 for example about movies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">[93]<\/a><\/sup> Various online databases are aggregated and provide metadata for various data. The collaboratively built <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikidata\" title=\"Wikidata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7de94d89fd1f728198b97a16eadfaf9\">Wikidata<\/a> has identifiers not just for media but also abstract concepts, various objects, and other entities, that can be looked up by humans and machines to retrieve useful information and to link knowledge in other knowledge bases and databases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10.1186\/s12915-020-00940-y_64-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10.1186\/s12915-020-00940-y-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Metadata may be included in the page's header or in a separate file. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microformat\" title=\"Microformat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b6d5559fae3fc79eac015bff6addd9c\">Microformats<\/a> allow metadata to be added to on-page data in a way that regular web users do not see, but computers, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_crawler\" title=\"Web crawler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9282c25312a2624cec349b1e23f26e1\">web crawlers<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_engine\" title=\"Search engine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a7410cc9fe974d160ffa9f497903732\">search engines<\/a> can readily access. Many search engines are cautious about using metadata in their ranking algorithms because of exploitation of metadata and the practice of search engine optimization, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_engine_optimization\" title=\"Search engine optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f4336c3fdfe3a47308f1dc757f88840\">SEO<\/a>, to improve rankings. See the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meta_element\" title=\"Meta element\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"078272c5f5f336d51994bedb0e7bdc0b\">Meta element<\/a> article for further discussion. This cautious attitude may be justified as people, according to Doctorow,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-94\">[94]<\/a><\/sup> are not executing care and diligence when creating their own metadata and that metadata is part of a competitive environment where the metadata is used to promote the metadata creators own purposes. Studies show that search engines respond to web pages with metadata implementations,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-95\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-95\">[95]<\/a><\/sup> and Google has an announcement on its site showing the meta tags that its search engine understands.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-96\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-96\">[96]<\/a><\/sup> Enterprise search startup <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swiftype\" title=\"Swiftype\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79a9ffeed1735184cff047ff7c493c20\">Swiftype<\/a> recognizes metadata as a relevance signal that webmasters can implement for their website-specific search engine, even releasing their own extension, known as Meta Tags 2.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-97\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-97\">[97]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Broadcast_industry\">Broadcast industry<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Broadcast\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Broadcast\" data-key=\"96e5ae5b1e98be639cc426cce796dad6\">broadcast<\/a> industry, metadata is linked to audio and video <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Broadcast_media\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Broadcast media\" data-key=\"7d220cf0b7ad1a4650a78598e14ce75a\">broadcast media<\/a> to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>identify<\/i> the media: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Media_clip\" title=\"Media clip\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4123f5d68ef3b43d0d6add50846ef2e4\">clip<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Playlist\" title=\"Playlist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96cef2de11f7afd96d4d6cd4216f555b\">playlist<\/a> names, duration, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timecode\" title=\"Timecode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00eadd0f20beb64bae71da15dde8cad2\">timecode<\/a>, etc.<\/li>\n<li><i>describe<\/i> the content: notes regarding the quality of video content, rating, description (for example, during a sport event, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Index_term\" title=\"Index term\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49092377d14bd41f1d14eff9ec9b843d\">keywords<\/a> like <i>goal<\/i>, <i>red card<\/i> will be associated to some clips)<\/li>\n<li><i>classify<\/i> media: metadata allows producers to sort the media or to easily and quickly find a video content (a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TV_news\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"TV news\" data-key=\"40ee8dc876e303a854ebeb45df3ef4aa\">TV news<\/a> could urgently need some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archiving\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Archiving\" data-key=\"4fbc6dd4e1d2a702dfc0937b9d8e302e\">archive content<\/a> for a subject). For example, the BBC has a large subject classification system, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lonclass\" title=\"Lonclass\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea914c4091a7c543a2a4791fccb2ed54\">Lonclass<\/a>, a customized version of the more general-purpose <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Decimal_Classification\" title=\"Universal Decimal Classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ff5ef9691825896e7e71d080bd59f19\">Universal Decimal Classification<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>This metadata can be linked to the video media thanks to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Video_server#Broadcast_automation\" title=\"Video server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"165393f450e57f667347bd1b34d21f03\">video servers<\/a>. Most major broadcast sporting events like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FIFA_World_Cup\" title=\"FIFA World Cup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca9914b8300d7884858c6d17c95c5ff\">FIFA World Cup<\/a> or the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Olympic_Games\" title=\"Olympic Games\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b78b2cae20965a63966cc3bcd8d8b2d2\">Olympic Games<\/a> use this metadata to distribute their video content to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TV_station\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"TV station\" data-key=\"bcd1ba0cd840f31119106c6d54c856f1\">TV stations<\/a> through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Index_term\" title=\"Index term\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49092377d14bd41f1d14eff9ec9b843d\">keywords<\/a>. It is often the host broadcaster<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-98\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-98\">[98]<\/a><\/sup> who is in charge of organizing metadata through its <i>International Broadcast Centre<\/i> and its video servers. This metadata is recorded with the images and entered by metadata operators (<i>loggers<\/i>) who associate in live metadata available in <i>metadata grids<\/i> through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a> (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multicam(LSM)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Multicam(LSM)\" data-key=\"02a62971d9d2da4f07cf9aa1e3e1f04a\">Multicam(LSM)<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPDirector\" title=\"IPDirector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4acb49bba25410c15968e65614f1422\">IPDirector<\/a> used during the FIFA World Cup or Olympic Games).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-99\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-99\">[99]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-100\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-100\">[100]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata that describes geographic objects in electronic storage or format (such as datasets, maps, features, or documents with a geospatial component) has a history dating back to at least 1994. This class of metadata is described more fully on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geospatial_metadata\" title=\"Geospatial metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f0c6da59cd230a351a5b21b8c86209a\">geospatial metadata<\/a> article.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ecology_and_environment\">Ecology and environment<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standardization#Environmental_protection\" title=\"Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d07567d737b4eec408ceaf3ec04159b4\">Standardization \u00a7&#160;Environmental protection<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Ecological and environmental metadata is intended to document the \"who, what, when, where, why, and how\" of data collection for a particular study. This typically means which organization or institution collected the data, what type of data, which date(s) the data was collected, the rationale for the data collection, and the methodology used for the data collection. Metadata should be generated in a format commonly used by the most relevant science community, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Darwin_Core\" title=\"Darwin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df19fa34d93481e102978e66d87d7566\">Darwin Core<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecological_Metadata_Language\" title=\"Ecological Metadata Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5acb3b52d6c44549fa46c257c6666e3c\">Ecological Metadata Language<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-101\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-101\">[101]<\/a><\/sup> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a>. Metadata editing tools exist to facilitate metadata generation (e.g. Metavist,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-102\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-102\">[102]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mercury_(metadata_search_system)\" title=\"Mercury (metadata search system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6eb31915ef2d0c159a49a3ebc8f6b54\">Mercury<\/a>, Morpho<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-103\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-103\">[103]<\/a><\/sup>). Metadata should describe the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_provenance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data provenance\" data-key=\"d6ba0933dc2d8772ad315631a28361bd\">provenance<\/a> of the data (where they originated, as well as any transformations the data underwent) and how to give credit for (cite) the data products.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Digital_music\">Digital music<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"#On_the_Internet\">\u00a7&#160;On the Internet<\/a><\/div>\n<p>When first released in 1982, Compact Discs only contained a Table Of Contents (TOC) with the number of tracks on the disc and their length in samples.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-104\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-104\">[104]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pohlmann1989_105-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pohlmann1989-105\">[105]<\/a><\/sup> Fourteen years later in 1996, a revision of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio\" title=\"Compact Disc Digital Audio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4775d95061c9a46ebb372a75427a2d30\">CD Red Book<\/a> standard added <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CD-Text\" title=\"CD-Text\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a616a9ea7c4d1d28ab28ae02a97da16\">CD-Text<\/a> to carry additional metadata.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-106\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-106\">[106]<\/a><\/sup> But CD-Text was not widely adopted. Shortly thereafter, it became common for personal computers to retrieve metadata from external sources (e.g. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CDDB\" title=\"CDDB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8ae30c48a4e3f94a174aaff22576a37\">CDDB<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gracenote\" title=\"Gracenote\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec3512f4bfdd249cead56cb255db46c8\">Gracenote<\/a>) based on the TOC.\n<\/p><p>Digital <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sound_recording_and_reproduction\" title=\"Sound recording and reproduction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6437ea68777dd3874056d684502c87e4\">audio<\/a> formats such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_audio_file\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital audio file\" data-key=\"0e8399d0df4324ccfe75b3b8613cbc63\">digital audio files<\/a> superseded music formats such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cassette_tape\" title=\"Cassette tape\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c657cb8af60cc87ab4654fc25befca74\">cassette tapes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CDs\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CDs\" data-key=\"52adaad1d6c55e98d32a70650acc70f1\">CDs<\/a> in the 2000s. Digital audio files could be labeled with more information than could be contained in just the file name. That descriptive information is called the <b>audio tag<\/b> or audio metadata in general. Computer programs specializing in adding or modifying this information are called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tag_editor\" title=\"Tag editor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04d27790eff35cadfcfa141f28238860\">tag editors<\/a>. Metadata can be used to name, describe, catalog, and indicate ownership or copyright for a digital audio file, and its presence makes it much easier to locate a specific audio file within a group, typically through use of a search engine that accesses the metadata. As different digital audio formats were developed, attempts were made to standardize a specific location within the digital files where this information could be stored.\n<\/p><p>As a result, almost all digital audio formats, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mp3\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mp3\" data-key=\"16a15ddf3addf1aa5c468ac8597e77ad\">mp3<\/a>, broadcast wav, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AIFF\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AIFF\" data-key=\"1fa832e08907db4059323d2adfc46678\">AIFF<\/a> files, have similar standardized locations that can be populated with metadata. The metadata for compressed and uncompressed digital music is often encoded in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ID3\" title=\"ID3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b2fb908d9529d25cd06376ff7e1e7077\">ID3<\/a> tag. Common editors such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TagLib\" title=\"TagLib\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5df6869a3b1f7e78bebfa5e1dee52d22\">TagLib<\/a> support MP3, Ogg Vorbis, FLAC, MPC, Speex, WavPack TrueAudio, WAV, AIFF, MP4, and ASF file formats.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cloud_applications\">Cloud applications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>With the availability of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">cloud<\/a> applications, which include those to add metadata to content, metadata is increasingly available over the Internet.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Administration_and_management\">Administration and management<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Storage\">Storage<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata can be stored either <i>internally<\/i>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-id3_107-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-id3-107\">[107]<\/a><\/sup> in the same file or structure as the data (this is also called <i>embedded metadata<\/i>), or <i>externally<\/i>, in a separate file or field from the described data. A data repository typically stores the metadata <i>detached<\/i> from the data but can be designed to support embedded metadata approaches. Each option has advantages and disadvantages:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Internal storage means metadata always travels as part of the data they describe; thus, metadata is always available with the data, and can be manipulated locally. This method creates redundancy (precluding normalization), and does not allow managing all of a system's metadata in one place. It arguably increases consistency, since the metadata is readily changed whenever the data is changed.<\/li>\n<li>External storage allows collocating metadata for all the contents, for example in a database, for more efficient searching and management. Redundancy can be avoided by normalizing the metadata's organization. In this approach, metadata can be united with the content when information is transferred, for example in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Streaming_media\" title=\"Streaming media\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"676ba674185beed3120116af75bec9d8\">Streaming media<\/a>; or can be referenced (for example, as a web link) from the transferred content. On the downside, the division of the metadata from the data content, especially in standalone files that refer to their source metadata elsewhere, increases the opportunities for misalignments between the two, as changes to either may not be reflected in the other.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Metadata can be stored in either human-readable or binary form. Storing metadata in a human-readable format such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a> can be useful because users can understand and edit it without specialized tools.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sutter_108-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sutter-108\">[108]<\/a><\/sup> However, text-based formats are rarely optimized for storage capacity, communication time, or processing speed. A binary metadata format enables efficiency in all these respects, but requires special software to convert the binary information into human-readable content.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Database_management\">Database management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Each relational database system has its own mechanisms for storing metadata. Examples of relational-database metadata include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Tables of all tables in a database, their names, sizes, and number of rows in each table.<\/li>\n<li>Tables of columns in each database, what tables they are used in, and the type of data stored in each column.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In database terminology, this set of metadata is referred to as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_catalog\" title=\"Database catalog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a819f889f6be9701d8be898613ef6d13\">catalog<\/a>. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SQL\" title=\"SQL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f35b2b4bc8a913c4c71802a7c2f39b88\">SQL<\/a> standard specifies a uniform means to access the catalog, called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_schema\" title=\"Information schema\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfa1d4a4ce7a17fcc02dcb6eded57dc0\">information schema<\/a>, but not all databases implement it, even if they implement other aspects of the SQL standard. For an example of database-specific metadata access methods, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_metadata\" title=\"Oracle metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7cedd619d814b47d46b93f139bf6b487\">Oracle metadata<\/a>. Programmatic access to metadata is possible using APIs such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JDBC\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JDBC\" data-key=\"6e82fa8ca5eccab74b65438504682dad\">JDBC<\/a>, or SchemaCrawler.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-schemacrawler_109-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-schemacrawler-109\">[109]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Popular_culture\">Popular culture<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>One of the first satirical examinations of the concept of Metadata as we understand it today is American science fiction author <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hal_Draper\" title=\"Hal Draper\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ff514a53dea1c9b6fe222e5240db851\">Hal Draper<\/a>'s short story, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MS_Fnd_in_a_Lbry\" title=\"MS Fnd in a Lbry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c850642e92192c69de4a56c9e3028040\">MS Fnd in a Lbry<\/a>\" (1961). Here, the knowledge of all Mankind is condensed into an object the size of a desk drawer, however, the magnitude of the metadata (e.g. catalog of catalogs of... , as well as indexes and histories) eventually leads to dire yet humorous consequences for the human race. The story prefigures the modern consequences of allowing metadata to become more important than the real data it is concerned with, and the risks inherent in that eventuality as a cautionary tale.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 25em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AGRIS\" title=\"AGRIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e815eb2bd91b9842b244011690c677c\">AGRIS<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Global public domain database<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibliographic_record\" title=\"Bibliographic record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"683effd388d29bf68dc33d49695216cf\">Bibliographic record<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Metadata describing a particular resource<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classification_scheme\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Classification scheme\" data-key=\"f22d27a7236314222ba55139794bab33\">Classification scheme<\/a>&#160;\u2013 system of descriptive information for an arrangement or division of objects into groups based on characteristics, which the objects have in common<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-wikidata-fallback-annotation\">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crosswalk_(metadata)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Crosswalk (metadata)\" data-key=\"4458d6a0ad1d3607e4cf112f0603ec5d\">Crosswalk (metadata)<\/a>&#160;\u2013 in databases, a table that shows equivalent elements in more than one schema<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-wikidata-fallback-annotation\">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DataONE\" title=\"DataONE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c120436503fc6b486657feca51fa48ec\">DataONE<\/a>&#160;\u2013 International federation of data repositories<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_dictionary\" title=\"Data dictionary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c726667d93ac2e691c3202af4aa8040\">Data dictionary<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Set of metadata that contains definitions and representations of data elements<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Standardized set of metadata elements<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Folksonomy\" title=\"Folksonomy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09248b03e8b25b20864a817008f5975e\">Folksonomy<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Classification based on users' tags<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GEOMS_%E2%80%93_Generic_Earth_Observation_Metadata_Standard\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GEOMS \u2013 Generic Earth Observation Metadata Standard\" data-key=\"e1bc27cced3669c7dfe089930842087b\">GEOMS \u2013 Generic Earth Observation Metadata Standard<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geospatial_metadata\" title=\"Geospatial metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f0c6da59cd230a351a5b21b8c86209a\">Geospatial metadata<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Metadata used for describing geospatial data<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPDirector\" title=\"IPDirector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4acb49bba25410c15968e65614f1422\">IPDirector<\/a>&#160;\u2013 A suite of content management software<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_11179\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 11179\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77c34eea440c5f765f97188bdc095b23\">ISO\/IEC 11179<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Standard for metadata registries<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_tag\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge tag\" data-key=\"8b3e50f8b2919cd9d09abb023f1766bc\">Knowledge tag<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Keyword assigned to information<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_medium_is_the_message\" title=\"The medium is the message\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b48419e5c2f91dfcf8d22b1f82867344\">The medium is the message<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Communication theory phrase<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mercury:_Metadata_Search_System\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mercury: Metadata Search System\" data-key=\"30c09904faa4ca8b07844a400d985bbb\">Mercury: Metadata Search System<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Metadata management, data discovery and access system<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meta_element\" title=\"Meta element\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"078272c5f5f336d51994bedb0e7bdc0b\">Meta element<\/a>&#160;\u2013 HTML Metadata<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IF-MAP\" title=\"IF-MAP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30810d5d8f1be099e85d5f535c3f4bcf\">Metadata Access Point Interface<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Specification for a client\/server protocol<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_discovery\" title=\"Metadata discovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fed34f88435997072bf8d8b7b511606b\">Metadata discovery<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_facility_for_Java\" title=\"Metadata facility for Java\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10bb01c6c0328cc66493365fb916bfdb\">Metadata facility for Java<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikiversity.org\/wiki\/4-b:_Metadata\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"v:4-b: Metadata\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Metadata from Wikiversity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_publishing\" title=\"Metadata publishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71c50092f3be4d2c99c0ba1fadad5e1d\">Metadata publishing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_registry\" title=\"Metadata registry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b38acec4b504b2af8989879e047734\">Metadata registry<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Central location to store metadata<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metamathematics\" title=\"Metamathematics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ce8a5edcca7778773a375d89919bd27\">Metamathematics<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Study of mathematics itself<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/METAFOR\" title=\"METAFOR\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df38c6023bde2bbac8459e86da1463c5\">METAFOR<\/a>&#160;\u2013 metadata model for climate science<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-wikidata-fallback-annotation\">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microcontent\" title=\"Microcontent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c863292b4cf70cdf4cbc773975ae830d\">Microcontent<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Website content providing a clear overview<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microformat\" title=\"Microformat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b6d5559fae3fc79eac015bff6addd9c\">Microformat<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Metadata standard for webpages<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multicam_(LSM)\" title=\"Multicam (LSM)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49e09c4faa243503a374e495d1907cee\">Multicam (LSM)<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Software for broadcasting<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Observations_and_Measurements\" title=\"Observations and Measurements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f160e567567a995bd2f1f55a33f731a\">Observations and Measurements<\/a>&#160;\u2013 information model and data transfer standard<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-wikidata-fallback-annotation\">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ontology (computer science)\" data-key=\"2cf14c9076764ffc3f7426754d3c4730\">Ontology (computer science)<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Specification of a conceptualization<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Official_statistics\" title=\"Official statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b1fc443ae7872061849451da549e768\">Official statistics<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Statistics published by government agencies<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paratext\" title=\"Paratext\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6da79e232afa6e17272a4eb730f7d81\">Paratext<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Term in literary criticism<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Preservation_Metadata\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Preservation Metadata\" data-key=\"462eb2a0fd8182fdc547d7cf33d15961\">Preservation Metadata<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Information that supports and documents acts of preservation on digital materials<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SDMX\" title=\"SDMX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d50a8fc8177e4138aac708f790c7d060\">SDMX<\/a>&#160;\u2013 An international standard for exchanging statistical data<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_Web\" title=\"Semantic Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9ae7ad3bff2f083332c721eff5ad88f\">Semantic Web<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Extension of the Web to facilitate data exchange<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SGML\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SGML\" data-key=\"6fa72787891c8e22713dd6da7ae205be\">SGML<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Markup language<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Metadata_Company\" title=\"The Metadata Company\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1fdca66ac3974488aaf63da9dbf9792\">The Metadata Company<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Data_Element_Framework\" title=\"Universal Data Element Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68b721c8f6c07880b1d1f4b1cf155122\">Universal Data Element Framework<\/a>&#160;\u2013 controlled vocabulary<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-wikidata-fallback-annotation\">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vocabulary_OneSource\" title=\"Vocabulary OneSource\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f75b6071bc0af7bef4993dd64f9e885d\">Vocabulary OneSource<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Data analysis tool for controlled vocabulary management and exploration.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XSD\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"XSD\" data-key=\"22e51e1546ca112b175a724f0e9ef252\">XSD<\/a>&#160;\u2013 W3C XML schema language<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/metadata\" target=\"_blank\">\"Merriam Webster\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150227084709\/http:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/metadata\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 February 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 October<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Merriam+Webster&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fmetadata&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Gonzalez-Perez_(2018)-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Gonzalez-Perez_(2018)_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGonzalez-Perez2018\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Gonzalez-Perez C (2018). \"Metainformation\". In Gonzalez-Perez C (ed.). <i>Information modelling for archaeology and anthropology: software engineering principles for cultural heritage<\/i> (1st&#160;ed.). Springer Cham. pp.&#160;181\u2013189. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-319-72652-6<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Metainformation&amp;rft.btitle=Information+modelling+for+archaeology+and+anthropology%3A+software+engineering+principles+for+cultural+heritage&amp;rft.pages=181-189&amp;rft.edition=1st&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Cham&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-319-72652-6&amp;rft.aulast=Gonzalez-Perez&amp;rft.aufirst=C&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dlib.org\/dlib\/february97\/cnri\/02arms1.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"An Architecture for Information in Digital Libraries\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170327015501\/http:\/\/www.dlib.org\/dlib\/february97\/cnri\/02arms1.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 March 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 May<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=An+Architecture+for+Information+in+Digital+Libraries&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dlib.org%2Fdlib%2Ffebruary97%2Fcnri%2F02arms1.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Metadata_Basics_Outline-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Metadata_Basics_Outline_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZeng,_Marcia2004\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Zeng, Marcia (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/marciazeng.slis.kent.edu\/metadatabasics\/types.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata Types and Functions\"<\/a>. NISO. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161007120833\/http:\/\/marciazeng.slis.kent.edu\/metadatabasics\/types.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 October 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 October<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Metadata+Types+and+Functions&amp;rft.pub=NISO&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.au=Zeng%2C+Marcia&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmarciazeng.slis.kent.edu%2Fmetadatabasics%2Ftypes.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Understanding_Metadata_(2)-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Understanding_Metadata_(2)_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNational_Information_Standards_Organization_(NISO)2001\" class=\"citation book cs1\">National Information Standards Organization (NISO) (2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141107022958\/http:\/\/www.niso.org\/publications\/press\/UnderstandingMetadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding Metadata<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. NISO Press. p.&#160;1. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-880124-62-8<\/bdi>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.niso.org\/publications\/press\/UnderstandingMetadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 7 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 June<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+Metadata&amp;rft.pages=1&amp;rft.pub=NISO+Press&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-880124-62-8&amp;rft.au=National+Information+Standards+Organization+%28NISO%29&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.niso.org%2Fpublications%2Fpress%2FUnderstandingMetadata.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:4-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:4_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:4_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDirectorate\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Directorate, OECD Statistics. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/stats.oecd.org\/glossary\/detail.asp?ID=7076\" target=\"_blank\">\"OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms \u2013 Reference metadata Definition\"<\/a>. <i>stats.oecd.org<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210711201158\/https:\/\/stats.oecd.org\/glossary\/detail.asp?ID=7076\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 July 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=stats.oecd.org&amp;rft.atitle=OECD+Glossary+of+Statistical+Terms+%E2%80%93+Reference+metadata+Definition&amp;rft.aulast=Directorate&amp;rft.aufirst=OECD+Statistics&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstats.oecd.org%2Fglossary%2Fdetail.asp%3FID%3D7076&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:5-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:5_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:5_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDippoSundgren\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cathryn_S._Dippo\" title=\"Cathryn S. Dippo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72be55e6ba43bcb58ddd2ab1c8583f31\">Dippo, Cathryn<\/a>; Sundgren, Bo. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bls.gov\/osmr\/research-papers\/2000\/pdf\/st000040.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Role of Metadata in Statistics\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Bureau of Labor Statistics<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210714090220\/https:\/\/www.bls.gov\/osmr\/research-papers\/2000\/pdf\/st000040.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 14 July 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 February<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Bureau+of+Labor+Statistics&amp;rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Metadata+in+Statistics&amp;rft.aulast=Dippo&amp;rft.aufirst=Cathryn&amp;rft.au=Sundgren%2C+Bo&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bls.gov%2Fosmr%2Fresearch-papers%2F2000%2Fpdf%2Fst000040.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Understanding_Metadata-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Understanding_Metadata_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Understanding_Metadata_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNational_Information_Standards_OrganizationRebecca_GuentherJaqueline_Radebaugh2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">National Information Standards Organization; Rebecca Guenther; Jaqueline Radebaugh (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141107022958\/http:\/\/www.niso.org\/publications\/press\/UnderstandingMetadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding Metadata<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Bethesda, MD: NISO Press. p.&#160;15. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-880124-62-8<\/bdi>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.niso.org\/publications\/press\/UnderstandingMetadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 7 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 July<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+Metadata&amp;rft.place=Bethesda%2C+MD&amp;rft.pages=15&amp;rft.pub=NISO+Press&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-880124-62-8&amp;rft.au=National+Information+Standards+Organization&amp;rft.au=Rebecca+Guenther&amp;rft.au=Jaqueline+Radebaugh&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.niso.org%2Fpublications%2Fpress%2FUnderstandingMetadata.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.schneier.com\/essays\/archives\/2014\/03\/metadata_surveillanc.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata = Surveillance\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160621225840\/https:\/\/www.schneier.com\/essays\/archives\/2014\/03\/metadata_surveillanc.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 21 June 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Metadata+%3D+Surveillance&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.schneier.com%2Fessays%2Farchives%2F2014%2F03%2Fmetadata_surveillanc.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHollyScott2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Holly, Yu; Scott, Breivold (28 February 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=aZGyjL3uatIC&pg=PA4\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Electronic Resource Management in Libraries: Research and Practice: Research and Practice<\/i><\/a>. IGI Global. p.&#160;4. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-59904-892-5<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20221126135426\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=aZGyjL3uatIC&pg=PA4\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 November 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 November<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Electronic+Resource+Management+in+Libraries%3A+Research+and+Practice%3A+Research+and+Practice&amp;rft.pages=4&amp;rft.pub=IGI+Global&amp;rft.date=2008-02-28&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-59904-892-5&amp;rft.aulast=Holly&amp;rft.aufirst=Yu&amp;rft.au=Scott%2C+Breivold&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaZGyjL3uatIC%26pg%3DPA4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTeddLarge2005\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Tedd, Lucy A.; Large, J. Andrew (4 April 2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=u_Gi1CPuP3kC&pg=PA90\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Digital Libraries: Principles and Practice in a Global Environment<\/i><\/a>. Walter de Gruyter. p.&#160;90. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-598-44005-2<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20221126140825\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=u_Gi1CPuP3kC&pg=PA90\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 November 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 November<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Digital+Libraries%3A+Principles+and+Practice+in+a+Global+Environment&amp;rft.pages=90&amp;rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&amp;rft.date=2005-04-04&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-598-44005-2&amp;rft.aulast=Tedd&amp;rft.aufirst=Lucy+A.&amp;rft.au=Large%2C+J.+Andrew&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du_Gi1CPuP3kC%26pg%3DPA90&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSteiner2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">Steiner, Tobias (23 November 2017). \"Metadaten und OER: Geschichte einer Beziehung (Metadata and OER: [hi]story of a relationship)\". <i>Synergie. Fachmagazin f\u00fcr Digitalisierung in der Lehre<\/i> (in German). <b>04<\/b>: 54. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17613%2Fm6p81g\" target=\"_blank\">10.17613\/m6p81g<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2509-3096\" target=\"_blank\">2509-3096<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Synergie.+Fachmagazin+f%C3%BCr+Digitalisierung+in+der+Lehre&amp;rft.atitle=Metadaten+und+OER%3A+Geschichte+einer+Beziehung+%28Metadata+and+OER%3A+%5Bhi%5Dstory+of+a+relationship%29&amp;rft.volume=04&amp;rft.pages=54&amp;rft.date=2017-11-23&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17613%2Fm6p81g&amp;rft.issn=2509-3096&amp;rft.aulast=Steiner&amp;rft.aufirst=Tobias&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Practices_in_Using_Metadata-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Practices_in_Using_Metadata_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.library.illinois.edu\/dcc\/bestpractices\/chapter_11_structuralmetadata.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Best Practices for Structural Metadata\"<\/a>. University of Illinois. 15 December 2010. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160624011712\/http:\/\/www.library.illinois.edu\/dcc\/bestpractices\/chapter_11_structuralmetadata.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 June 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Best+Practices+for+Structural+Metadata&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Illinois&amp;rft.date=2010-12-15&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.library.illinois.edu%2Fdcc%2Fbestpractices%2Fchapter_11_structuralmetadata.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#meta=0000000\">\"A Guardian Guide to your Metadata\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theguardian.com\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Theguardian.com\" data-key=\"5fecf9bd16c376c3e2d6dd92a04f2eef\">theguardian.com<\/a><\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Guardian_News_and_Media_Limited\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Guardian News and Media Limited\" data-key=\"d7002d9586eb017917e3de76bd9db72a\">Guardian News and Media Limited<\/a>. 12 June 2013. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#meta=0000000\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 March 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=theguardian.com&amp;rft.atitle=A+Guardian+Guide+to+your+Metadata&amp;rft.date=2013-06-12&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2Finteractive%2F2013%2Fjun%2F12%2Fwhat-is-metadata-nsa-surveillance%23meta%3D0000000&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.adeoimaging.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ADEO Imaging: TIFF Metadata\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130517055358\/http:\/\/www.adeoimaging.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 May 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 May<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=ADEO+Imaging%3A+TIFF+Metadata&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adeoimaging.com%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Rouse,_M_(2014)-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_16-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_16-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRouse2014\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Rouse, Margaret (July 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/whatis.techtarget.com\/definition\/metadata\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata\"<\/a>. <i>WhatIs<\/i>. TechTarget. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151029154730\/http:\/\/whatis.techtarget.com\/definition\/metadata\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 October 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=WhatIs&amp;rft.atitle=Metadata&amp;rft.date=2014-07&amp;rft.aulast=Rouse&amp;rft.aufirst=Margaret&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhatis.techtarget.com%2Fdefinition%2Fmetadata&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">H\u00fcner, K.; Otto, B.; \u00d6sterle, H.: Collaborative management of business metadata, in: <i>International Journal of Information Management<\/i>, 2011<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bls.gov\/ore\/pdf\/st000010.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata Standards And Metadata Registries: An Overview\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110629082434\/http:\/\/www.bls.gov\/ore\/pdf\/st000010.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 29 June 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 December<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Metadata+Standards+And+Metadata+Registries%3A+An+Overview&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bls.gov%2Fore%2Fpdf%2Fst000010.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bagley-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bagley_19-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBagley1968\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Bagley, Philip (November 1968). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/apps.dtic.mil\/dtic\/tr\/fulltext\/u2\/680815.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Extension of programming language concepts\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Philadelphia: University City Science Center. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121130091053\/http:\/\/www.dtic.mil\/dtic\/tr\/fulltext\/u2\/680815.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 30 November 2012.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Extension+of+programming+language+concepts&amp;rft.place=Philadelphia&amp;rft.pub=University+City+Science+Center&amp;rft.date=1968-11&amp;rft.aulast=Bagley&amp;rft.aufirst=Philip&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fdtic%2Ftr%2Ffulltext%2Fu2%2F680815.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\"The notion of \"metadata\" introduced by Bagley\". <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSolntseffYezerski1974\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Solntseff, N+1; Yezerski, A (1974). \"A survey of extensible programming languages\". Annual Review in Automatic Programming. Vol.&#160;7. Elsevier Science Ltd. pp.&#160;267\u2013307. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2F0066-4138%2874%2990001-9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/0066-4138(74)90001-9<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=A+survey+of+extensible+programming+languages&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.pages=267-307&amp;rft.date=1974&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0066-4138%2874%2990001-9&amp;rft.aulast=Solntseff&amp;rft.aufirst=N%2B1&amp;rft.au=Yezerski%2C+A&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_news\" title=\"Template:Cite news\">cite news<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c038bc1c366392c430552d4d7ede182e\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NISO-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-NISO_21-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-NISO_21-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNISO2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NISO\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NISO\" data-key=\"2b517e1d3bc8256f665a695a501a6356\">NISO<\/a> (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141107022958\/http:\/\/www.niso.org\/publications\/press\/UnderstandingMetadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding Metadata<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. NISO Press. p.&#160;1. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-880124-62-8<\/bdi>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.niso.org\/publications\/press\/UnderstandingMetadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 7 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 January<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+Metadata&amp;rft.pages=1&amp;rft.pub=NISO+Press&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-880124-62-8&amp;rft.au=NISO&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.niso.org%2Fpublications%2Fpress%2FUnderstandingMetadata.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWolff2013\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Wolff, Josephine (20 November 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/slate.com\/technology\/2013\/11\/dni-patriot-act-section-215-documents-show-how-government-inflated-metadata-definition.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Newly Released Documents Show How Government Inflated the Definition of Metadata\"<\/a>. <i>Slate Magazine<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210615151742\/https:\/\/slate.com\/technology\/2013\/11\/dni-patriot-act-section-215-documents-show-how-government-inflated-metadata-definition.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 15 June 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 June<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Slate+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Newly+Released+Documents+Show+How+Government+Inflated+the+Definition+of+Metadata&amp;rft.date=2013-11-20&amp;rft.aulast=Wolff&amp;rft.aufirst=Josephine&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fslate.com%2Ftechnology%2F2013%2F11%2Fdni-patriot-act-section-215-documents-show-how-government-inflated-metadata-definition.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrethertonSingley1994\" class=\"citation conference cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Francis_Bretherton\" title=\"Francis Bretherton\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bb87c42eedf35c39c5716aa68aae71b\">Bretherton, F. P.<\/a>; Singley, P.T. (1994). <i>Metadata: A User's View, Proceedings of the International Conference on Very Large Data Bases (VLDB)<\/i>. pp.&#160;1091\u20131094.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=Metadata%3A+A+User%27s+View%2C+Proceedings+of+the+International+Conference+on+Very+Large+Data+Bases+%28VLDB%29&amp;rft.pages=1091-1094&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.aulast=Bretherton&amp;rft.aufirst=F.+P.&amp;rft.au=Singley%2C+P.T.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Beyene_(2017)-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_24-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_24-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_24-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_24-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_24-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBeyene2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Beyene, Wondwossen Mulualem (2017). \"Metadata and universal access in digital library environments\". <i>Library Hi Tech<\/i>. <b>35<\/b> (2): 210\u2013221. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108%2FLHT-06-2016-0074\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/LHT-06-2016-0074<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/10642%2F5994\" target=\"_blank\">10642\/5994<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Library+Hi+Tech&amp;rft.atitle=Metadata+and+universal+access+in+digital+library+environments&amp;rft.volume=35&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=210-221&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10642%2F5994&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2FLHT-06-2016-0074&amp;rft.aulast=Beyene&amp;rft.aufirst=Wondwossen+Mulualem&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCathro1997\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warwick_Cathro\" title=\"Warwick Cathro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee6bc6176d993fb5afdec3933722e02f\">Cathro, Warwick<\/a> (1997). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nla.gov.au\/nla\/staffpaper\/cathro3.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata: an overview\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091222232625\/http:\/\/www.nla.gov.au\/nla\/staffpaper\/cathro3.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 December 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 January<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Metadata%3A+an+overview&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.aulast=Cathro&amp;rft.aufirst=Warwick&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nla.gov.au%2Fnla%2Fstaffpaper%2Fcathro3.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDCMI2009\" class=\"citation web cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core_Metadata_Initiative\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dublin Core Metadata Initiative\" data-key=\"1e40c8a639d5522c07628e92f7bc3a78\">DCMI<\/a> (5 October 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dublincore.org\/specifications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Semantic Recommendations\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091231035647\/http:\/\/dublincore.org\/specifications\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 31 December 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 January<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Semantic+Recommendations&amp;rft.date=2009-10-05&amp;rft.au=DCMI&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdublincore.org%2Fspecifications%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160617031837\/https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 25964-1:2011(en)\"<\/a>. ISO.org. Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#iso:std:iso:25964:-1:ed-1:v1:en\">the original<\/a> on 17 June 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+25964-1%3A2011%28en%29&amp;rft.pub=ISO.org&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fobp%2Fui%2F%23iso%3Astd%3Aiso%3A25964%3A-1%3Aed-1%3Av1%3Aen&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091024112353\/http:\/\/www.infodiv.unimelb.edu.au\/metadata\/add_info.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Types of Metadata\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Melbourne\" title=\"University of Melbourne\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"132a866a46f61be4f7e64d057d3eaeff\">University of Melbourne<\/a>. 15 August 2006. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infodiv.unimelb.edu.au\/metadata\/add_info.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 24 October 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 January<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Types+of+Metadata&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Melbourne&amp;rft.date=2006-08-15&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infodiv.unimelb.edu.au%2Fmetadata%2Fadd_info.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFK\u00fcblerSkalaVoisard\" class=\"citation web cs1\">K\u00fcbler, Stefanie; Skala, Wolfdietrich; Voisard, Agn\u00e8s. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.isprs.org\/proceedings\/XXXII\/part4\/kuebler51.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Design and Development of a Geologic Hypermap Prototype\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131003182157\/http:\/\/www.isprs.org\/proceedings\/XXXII\/part4\/kuebler51.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 3 October 2013.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Design+and+Development+of+a+Geologic+Hypermap+Prototype&amp;rft.aulast=K%C3%BCbler&amp;rft.aufirst=Stefanie&amp;rft.au=Skala%2C+Wolfdietrich&amp;rft.au=Voisard%2C+Agn%C3%A8s&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isprs.org%2Fproceedings%2FXXXII%2Fpart4%2Fkuebler51.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=39438\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 11179-1:2004 Information technology \u2013 Metadata registries (MDR) \u2013 Part 1: Framework\"<\/a>. Iso.org. 18 March 2009. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120117154947\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=39438\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 January 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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International Organization for Standardization. 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170705111711\/http:\/\/standards.iso.org\/ittf\/PubliclyAvailableStandards\/c050340_ISO_IEC_11179-3_2013.zip\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 5 July 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 August<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+11179-3%3A2013+Information+technology-Metadata+registries+%E2%80%93+Part+3%3A+Registry+metamodel+and+basic+attributes&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstandards.iso.org%2Fittf%2FPubliclyAvailableStandards%2Fc050340_ISO_IEC_11179-3_2013.zip&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dublincore.org\/specifications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"DCMI Specifications\"<\/a>. 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Baker (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ietf.org\/rfc\/rfc5013.txt\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Dublin Core Metadata Element Set\"<\/a>. <i>ietf.org<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130804180251\/http:\/\/www.ietf.org\/rfc\/rfc5013.txt\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 August 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 November<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Catalog+Vocabulary+%28DCAT%29+%E2%80%93+Version+2&amp;rft.pub=w3.org&amp;rft.date=2020-02-04&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2FTR%2Fvocab-dcat%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Wharton000-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Wharton000_38-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu\/index.cfm?fa=printArticle&ID=1247\" target=\"_blank\">\"What's the Next Big Thing on the Web? It May Be a Small, Simple Thing \u2013 Microformats\"<\/a>. <i>Knowledge@Wharton<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wharton_School_of_the_University_of_Pennsylvania\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania\" data-key=\"93ba06ee0e0772b68ce5a030c51f68fa\">Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania<\/a>. 27 July 2005. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130806143629\/http:\/\/knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu\/article.cfm?articleid=1247\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 August 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 May<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=IONOS+Digitalguide&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+metadata%3F&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ionos.com%2Fdigitalguide%2Fwebsites%2Fweb-development%2Fwhat-is-metadata%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/gurucamera.com\/copyright-photos-metadata\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How To Copyright Your Photos With Metadata\"<\/a>. <i>Guru Camera<\/i>. gurucamera.com. 21 May 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160630023616\/https:\/\/gurucamera.com\/copyright-photos-metadata\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 June 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Guru+Camera&amp;rft.atitle=How+To+Copyright+Your+Photos+With+Metadata&amp;rft.date=2016-05-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgurucamera.com%2Fcopyright-photos-metadata%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/core.vraweb.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"VRA Core Support Pages\"<\/a>. <i>Visual Resource Association Foundation<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160409191705\/http:\/\/core.vraweb.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 9 April 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=System+Assessment+and+Validation+for+Emergency+Responders+%28SAVER%29&amp;rft.date=2012-10&amp;rft.au=Homeland+Security&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhs.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2FLPRStandards-TN_1012-508.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWebcase2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Webcase, Weblog (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/veresoftware.com\/blog\/?p=364\" target=\"_blank\">\"Examining video file metadata\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151126114622\/http:\/\/veresoftware.com\/blog\/?p=364\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 November 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 November<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Metadata+for+Video&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.au=Oak+Tree+Press&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fveresoftware.com%2Fblog%2F%3Fp%3D364&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fgdc.gov\/metadata\" target=\"_blank\">\"Geospatial Metadata \u2013 Federal Geographic Data Committee\"<\/a>. <i>www.fgdc.gov<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190927034722\/https:\/\/www.fgdc.gov\/metadata\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 September 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dnb.de\/DE\/Netzpublikationen\/Ablieferung\/MetadatenKernset\/metadatenkernset_node.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 24 October 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 October<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Deutsche+Nationalbibliothek+Frankfurt+on+metadata&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dnb.de%2FDE%2FNetzpublikationen%2FAblieferung%2FMetadatenKernset%2Fmetadatenkernset_node.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-58\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEvangelouTrikalinosIoannidis2005\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Evangelou, Evangelos; Trikalinos, Thomas A.; Ioannidis, John P.A. (2005). \"Unavailability of online supplementary scientific information from articles published in major journals\". <i>The FASEB Journal<\/i>. <b>19<\/b> (14): 1943\u20131944. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1096%2Ffj.05-4784lsf\" target=\"_blank\">10.1096\/fj.05-4784lsf<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0892-6638\" target=\"_blank\">0892-6638<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/16319137\" target=\"_blank\">16319137<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:24245004\" target=\"_blank\">24245004<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+FASEB+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Unavailability+of+online+supplementary+scientific+information+from+articles+published+in+major+journals&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=14&amp;rft.pages=1943-1944&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.issn=0892-6638&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24245004%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16319137&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1096%2Ffj.05-4784lsf&amp;rft.aulast=Evangelou&amp;rft.aufirst=Evangelos&amp;rft.au=Trikalinos%2C+Thomas+A.&amp;rft.au=Ioannidis%2C+John+P.A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-59\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAlQuraishiSorger2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">AlQuraishi, Mohammed; Sorger, Peter K. (18 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5084089\" target=\"_blank\">\"Reproducibility will only come with data liberation\"<\/a>. <i>Science Translational Medicine<\/i>. <b>8<\/b> (339): 339ed7. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscitranslmed.aaf0968\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/scitranslmed.aaf0968<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1946-6234\" target=\"_blank\">1946-6234<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5084089\" target=\"_blank\">5084089<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/27194726\" target=\"_blank\">27194726<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science+Translational+Medicine&amp;rft.atitle=Reproducibility+will+only+come+with+data+liberation&amp;rft.volume=8&amp;rft.issue=339&amp;rft.pages=339ed7&amp;rft.date=2016-05-18&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5084089%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=1946-6234&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27194726&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscitranslmed.aaf0968&amp;rft.aulast=AlQuraishi&amp;rft.aufirst=Mohammed&amp;rft.au=Sorger%2C+Peter+K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5084089&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWilkinsonDumontierAalbersbergAppleton2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wilkinson, Mark D.; Dumontier, Michel; Aalbersberg, IJsbrand Jan; Appleton, Gabrielle; Axton, Myles; Baak, Arie; Blomberg, Niklas; Boiten, Jan-Willem; da Silva Santos, Luiz Bonino (15 March 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4792175\" target=\"_blank\">\"The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific Data<\/i>. <b>3<\/b>: 160018. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2016NatSD...360018W\" target=\"_blank\">2016NatSD...360018W<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fsdata.2016.18\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/sdata.2016.18<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2052-4463\" target=\"_blank\">2052-4463<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4792175\" target=\"_blank\">4792175<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/26978244\" target=\"_blank\">26978244<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+Data&amp;rft.atitle=The+FAIR+Guiding+Principles+for+scientific+data+management+and+stewardship&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.pages=160018&amp;rft.date=2016-03-15&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4792175%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NatSD...360018W&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26978244&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsdata.2016.18&amp;rft.issn=2052-4463&amp;rft.aulast=Wilkinson&amp;rft.aufirst=Mark+D.&amp;rft.au=Dumontier%2C+Michel&amp;rft.au=Aalbersberg%2C+IJsbrand+Jan&amp;rft.au=Appleton%2C+Gabrielle&amp;rft.au=Axton%2C+Myles&amp;rft.au=Baak%2C+Arie&amp;rft.au=Blomberg%2C+Niklas&amp;rft.au=Boiten%2C+Jan-Willem&amp;rft.au=da+Silva+Santos%2C+Luiz+Bonino&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4792175&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-61\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSingh_Chawla2022\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Singh Chawla, Dalmeet (24 January 2022). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/d41586-022-00138-y\" target=\"_blank\">\"Massive open index of scholarly papers launches\"<\/a>. <i>Nature<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fd41586-022-00138-y\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/d41586-022-00138-y<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220207140943\/https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/d41586-022-00138-y\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 February 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 February<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=Massive+open+index+of+scholarly+papers+launches&amp;rft.date=2022-01-24&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fd41586-022-00138-y&amp;rft.aulast=Singh+Chawla&amp;rft.aufirst=Dalmeet&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fd41586-022-00138-y&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/library.smu.edu.sg\/topics-insights\/openalex-promising-alternative-microsoft-academic-graph\" target=\"_blank\">\"OpenAlex: The Promising Alternative to Microsoft Academic Graph\"<\/a>. <i>Singapore Management University (SMU)<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220214174827\/https:\/\/library.smu.edu.sg\/topics-insights\/openalex-promising-alternative-microsoft-academic-graph\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 February 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 February<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Singapore+Management+University+%28SMU%29&amp;rft.atitle=OpenAlex%3A+The+Promising+Alternative+to+Microsoft+Academic+Graph&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.smu.edu.sg%2Ftopics-insights%2Fopenalex-promising-alternative-microsoft-academic-graph&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-63\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/docs.openalex.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"OpenAlex Documentation\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220202002019\/https:\/\/docs.openalex.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 February 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 February<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=OpenAlex+Documentation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocs.openalex.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10.1186\/s12915-020-00940-y-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-10.1186\/s12915-020-00940-y_64-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-10.1186\/s12915-020-00940-y_64-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWaagmeesterWillighagenSuKutmon2021\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Waagmeester, Andra; Willighagen, Egon L.; Su, Andrew I.; Kutmon, Martina; Gayo, Jose Emilio Labra; Fern\u00e1ndez-\u00c1lvarez, Daniel; Groom, Quentin; Schaap, Peter J.; Verhagen, Lisa M.; Koehorst, Jasper J. (22 January 2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7820539\" target=\"_blank\">\"A protocol for adding knowledge to Wikidata: aligning resources on human coronaviruses\"<\/a>. <i>BMC Biology<\/i>. <b>19<\/b> (1): 12. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186%2Fs12915-020-00940-y\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/s12915-020-00940-y<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1741-7007\" target=\"_blank\">1741-7007<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7820539\" target=\"_blank\">7820539<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33482803\" target=\"_blank\">33482803<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BMC+Biology&amp;rft.atitle=A+protocol+for+adding+knowledge+to+Wikidata%3A+aligning+resources+on+human+coronaviruses&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=12&amp;rft.date=2021-01-22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7820539%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=1741-7007&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33482803&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12915-020-00940-y&amp;rft.aulast=Waagmeester&amp;rft.aufirst=Andra&amp;rft.au=Willighagen%2C+Egon+L.&amp;rft.au=Su%2C+Andrew+I.&amp;rft.au=Kutmon%2C+Martina&amp;rft.au=Gayo%2C+Jose+Emilio+Labra&amp;rft.au=Fern%C3%A1ndez-%C3%81lvarez%2C+Daniel&amp;rft.au=Groom%2C+Quentin&amp;rft.au=Schaap%2C+Peter+J.&amp;rft.au=Verhagen%2C+Lisa+M.&amp;rft.au=Koehorst%2C+Jasper+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7820539&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-65\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-65\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMcNuttBradfordDrazenHanson2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">McNutt, Marcia K.; Bradford, Monica; Drazen, Jeffrey M.; Hanson, Brooks; Howard, Bob; Jamieson, Kathleen Hall; Kiermer, V\u00e9ronique; Marcus, Emilie; Pope, Barbara Kline; Schekman, Randy; Swaminathan, Sowmya; Stang, Peter J.; Verma, Inder M. (13 March 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5856527\" target=\"_blank\">\"Transparency in authors' contributions and responsibilities to promote integrity in scientific publication\"<\/a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences<\/i>. <b>115<\/b> (11): 2557\u20132560. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2018PNAS..115.2557M\" target=\"_blank\">2018PNAS..115.2557M<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073%2Fpnas.1715374115\" target=\"_blank\">10.1073\/pnas.1715374115<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0027-8424\" target=\"_blank\">0027-8424<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5856527\" target=\"_blank\">5856527<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29487213\" target=\"_blank\">29487213<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=Transparency+in+authors%27+contributions+and+responsibilities+to+promote+integrity+in+scientific+publication&amp;rft.volume=115&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=2557-2560&amp;rft.date=2018-03-13&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5856527%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018PNAS..115.2557M&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29487213&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1715374115&amp;rft.issn=0027-8424&amp;rft.aulast=McNutt&amp;rft.aufirst=Marcia+K.&amp;rft.au=Bradford%2C+Monica&amp;rft.au=Drazen%2C+Jeffrey+M.&amp;rft.au=Hanson%2C+Brooks&amp;rft.au=Howard%2C+Bob&amp;rft.au=Jamieson%2C+Kathleen+Hall&amp;rft.au=Kiermer%2C+V%C3%A9ronique&amp;rft.au=Marcus%2C+Emilie&amp;rft.au=Pope%2C+Barbara+Kline&amp;rft.au=Schekman%2C+Randy&amp;rft.au=Swaminathan%2C+Sowmya&amp;rft.au=Stang%2C+Peter+J.&amp;rft.au=Verma%2C+Inder+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5856527&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-66\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrandAllenAltmanHlava2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Brand, Amy; Allen, Liz; Altman, Micah; Hlava, Marjorie; Scott, Jo (1 April 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/274098676\" target=\"_blank\">\"Beyond authorship: attribution, contribution, collaboration, and credit\"<\/a>. <i>Learned Publishing<\/i>. <b>28<\/b> (2): 151\u2013155. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1087%2F20150211\" target=\"_blank\">10.1087\/20150211<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:45167271\" target=\"_blank\">45167271<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Learned+Publishing&amp;rft.atitle=Beyond+authorship%3A+attribution%2C+contribution%2C+collaboration%2C+and+credit&amp;rft.volume=28&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=151-155&amp;rft.date=2015-04-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1087%2F20150211&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A45167271%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Brand&amp;rft.aufirst=Amy&amp;rft.au=Allen%2C+Liz&amp;rft.au=Altman%2C+Micah&amp;rft.au=Hlava%2C+Marjorie&amp;rft.au=Scott%2C+Jo&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F274098676&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-67\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-67\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKhamsi2020\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Khamsi, Roxanne (1 May 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/d41586-020-01324-6\" target=\"_blank\">\"Coronavirus in context: Scite.ai tracks positive and negative citations for COVID-19 literature\"<\/a>. <i>Nature<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fd41586-020-01324-6\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/d41586-020-01324-6<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220219212737\/https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/d41586-020-01324-6\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 February 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 February<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=Coronavirus+in+context%3A+Scite.ai+tracks+positive+and+negative+citations+for+COVID-19+literature&amp;rft.date=2020-05-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fd41586-020-01324-6&amp;rft.aulast=Khamsi&amp;rft.aufirst=Roxanne&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fd41586-020-01324-6&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10.1126\/science.aao0185-68\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10.1126\/science.aao0185_68-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFortunatoBergstromB\u00f6rnerEvans2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Fortunato, Santo; Bergstrom, Carl T.; B\u00f6rner, Katy; Evans, James A.; Helbing, Dirk; Milojevi\u0107, Sta\u0161a; Petersen, Alexander M.; Radicchi, Filippo; Sinatra, Roberta; Uzzi, Brian; Vespignani, Alessandro; Waltman, Ludo; Wang, Dashun; Barab\u00e1si, Albert-L\u00e1szl\u00f3 (2 March 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/323502497\" target=\"_blank\">\"Science of science\"<\/a>. <i>Science<\/i>. <b>359<\/b> (6379): eaao0185. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.aao0185\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.aao0185<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5949209\" target=\"_blank\">5949209<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29496846\" target=\"_blank\">29496846<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 November<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Science+of+science&amp;rft.volume=359&amp;rft.issue=6379&amp;rft.pages=eaao0185&amp;rft.date=2018-03-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5949209%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29496846&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aao0185&amp;rft.aulast=Fortunato&amp;rft.aufirst=Santo&amp;rft.au=Bergstrom%2C+Carl+T.&amp;rft.au=B%C3%B6rner%2C+Katy&amp;rft.au=Evans%2C+James+A.&amp;rft.au=Helbing%2C+Dirk&amp;rft.au=Milojevi%C4%87%2C+Sta%C5%A1a&amp;rft.au=Petersen%2C+Alexander+M.&amp;rft.au=Radicchi%2C+Filippo&amp;rft.au=Sinatra%2C+Roberta&amp;rft.au=Uzzi%2C+Brian&amp;rft.au=Vespignani%2C+Alessandro&amp;rft.au=Waltman%2C+Ludo&amp;rft.au=Wang%2C+Dashun&amp;rft.au=Barab%C3%A1si%2C+Albert-L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F323502497&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-69\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-69\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBaykoucheva2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Baykoucheva, Svetla (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/280568406\" target=\"_blank\">\"Measuring attention\"<\/a>. <i>Managing Scientific Information and Research Data<\/i>: 127\u2013136. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-100195-0.00014-7\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/B978-0-08-100195-0.00014-7<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-08-100195-0<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Managing+Scientific+Information+and+Research+Data&amp;rft.atitle=Measuring+attention&amp;rft.pages=127-136&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-100195-0.00014-7&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-08-100195-0&amp;rft.aulast=Baykoucheva&amp;rft.aufirst=Svetla&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F280568406&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-70\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-70\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/phys.org\/news\/2021-05-replication-crisis-true-cited.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A new replication crisis: Research that is less likely to be true is cited more\"<\/a>. <i>phys.org<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210613043457\/https:\/\/phys.org\/news\/2021-05-replication-crisis-true-cited.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 June 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 June<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=phys.org&amp;rft.atitle=A+new+replication+crisis%3A+Research+that+is+less+likely+to+be+true+is+cited+more&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2021-05-replication-crisis-true-cited.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-71\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-71\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSerra-GarciaGneezy2021\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Serra-Garcia, Marta; Gneezy, Uri (1 May 2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8139580\" target=\"_blank\">\"Nonreplicable publications are cited more than replicable ones\"<\/a>. <i>Science Advances<\/i>. <b>7<\/b> (21): eabd1705. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fsciadv.abd1705\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/sciadv.abd1705<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2375-2548\" target=\"_blank\">2375-2548<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8139580\" target=\"_blank\">8139580<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/34020944\" target=\"_blank\">34020944<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science+Advances&amp;rft.atitle=Nonreplicable+publications+are+cited+more+than+replicable+ones&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=21&amp;rft.pages=eabd1705&amp;rft.date=2021-05-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8139580%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=2375-2548&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34020944&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fsciadv.abd1705&amp;rft.aulast=Serra-Garcia&amp;rft.aufirst=Marta&amp;rft.au=Gneezy%2C+Uri&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8139580&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-72\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_72-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_72-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_72-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_72-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZange2015\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Zange, Charles S. (31 January 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/mw2015.museumsandtheweb.com\/paper\/community-makers-major-museums-and-the-keet-saaxw-learning-about-the-role-of-museums-in-interpreting-cultural-objects\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Community makers, major museums, and the Keet S'aaxw: Learning about the role of museums in interpreting cultural objects\"<\/a>. Museums and the Web. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161104005603\/http:\/\/mw2015.museumsandtheweb.com\/paper\/community-makers-major-museums-and-the-keet-saaxw-learning-about-the-role-of-museums-in-interpreting-cultural-objects\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 November 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Community+makers%2C+major+museums%2C+and+the+Keet+S%27aaxw%3A+Learning+about+the+role+of+museums+in+interpreting+cultural+objects&amp;rft.pub=Museums+and+the+Web&amp;rft.date=2015-01-31&amp;rft.aulast=Zange&amp;rft.aufirst=Charles+S.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmw2015.museumsandtheweb.com%2Fpaper%2Fcommunity-makers-major-museums-and-the-keet-saaxw-learning-about-the-role-of-museums-in-interpreting-cultural-objects%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:1-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_73-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_73-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_73-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_73-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_73-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_73-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_73-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_73-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_73-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_73-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_73-10\"><sup><i><b>k<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBaca2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Baca, Murtha (2006). <i>Cataloging cultural objects: a guide to describing cultural works and their images. Visual Resources Association<\/i>. Visual Resources Association. p.&#160;4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Cataloging+cultural+objects%3A+a+guide+to+describing+cultural+works+and+their+images.+Visual+Resources+Association&amp;rft.pages=4&amp;rft.pub=Visual+Resources+Association&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.aulast=Baca&amp;rft.aufirst=Murtha&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:2-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-10\"><sup><i><b>k<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-11\"><sup><i><b>l<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-12\"><sup><i><b>m<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-13\"><sup><i><b>n<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-14\"><sup><i><b>o<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-15\"><sup><i><b>p<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_74-16\"><sup><i><b>q<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBaca2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Baca, Murtha (2008). <i>Introduction to Metadata: Second Edition. Los Angeles: Getty Information Institute<\/i>. Los Angeles: Getty Information Institute. p.&#160;11.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Metadata%3A+Second+Edition.+Los+Angeles%3A+Getty+Information+Institute&amp;rft.place=Los+Angeles&amp;rft.pages=11&amp;rft.pub=Getty+Information+Institute&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.aulast=Baca&amp;rft.aufirst=Murtha&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:3-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_75-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_75-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_75-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_75-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHoolandVerborgh2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hooland, Seth Van; Verborgh, Ruben (2014). <i>Linked Data for Libraries, Archives and Museums: How to Clean, Link and Publish Your Metadata<\/i>. London: Facet.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Linked+Data+for+Libraries%2C+Archives+and+Museums%3A+How+to+Clean%2C+Link+and+Publish+Your+Metadata&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=Facet&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.aulast=Hooland&amp;rft.aufirst=Seth+Van&amp;rft.au=Verborgh%2C+Ruben&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-76\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSrinivasan2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Srinivasan, Ramesh (December 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.escholarship.org\/uc\/item\/40p4k54t\" target=\"_blank\">\"Indigenous, ethnic and cultural articulations of new media\"<\/a>. <i>International Journal of Cultural Studies<\/i>. <b>9<\/b> (4): 497\u2013518. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F1367877906069899\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/1367877906069899<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:145278668\" target=\"_blank\">145278668<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201109215925\/https:\/\/escholarship.org\/uc\/item\/40p4k54t\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 9 November 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 December<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Cultural+Studies&amp;rft.atitle=Indigenous%2C+ethnic+and+cultural+articulations+of+new+media&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=497-518&amp;rft.date=2006-12&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1367877906069899&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145278668%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Srinivasan&amp;rft.aufirst=Ramesh&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.escholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F40p4k54t&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-77\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGelzer2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Gelzer, Reed D. (February 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/library.ahima.org\/xpedio\/groups\/public\/documents\/ahima\/bok1_036537.hcsp?dDocName=bok1_036537\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata, Law, and the Real World: Slowly, the Three Are Merging\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of AHIMA<\/i>. American Health Information Management Association. <b>79<\/b> (2): 56\u201357, 64. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100913081849\/http:\/\/library.ahima.org\/xpedio\/groups\/public\/documents\/ahima\/bok1_036537.hcsp?dDocName=bok1_036537\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 September 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 January<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+AHIMA&amp;rft.atitle=Metadata%2C+Law%2C+and+the+Real+World%3A+Slowly%2C+the+Three+Are+Merging&amp;rft.volume=79&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=56-57%2C+64&amp;rft.date=2008-02&amp;rft.aulast=Gelzer&amp;rft.aufirst=Reed+D.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.ahima.org%2Fxpedio%2Fgroups%2Fpublic%2Fdocuments%2Fahima%2Fbok1_036537.hcsp%3FdDocName%3Dbok1_036537&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWalsh2009\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Walsh, Jim (30 October 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.azcentral.com\/arizonarepublic\/local\/articles\/2009\/10\/30\/20091030metadata1030.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ariz. Supreme Court rules electronic data is public record\"<\/a>. <i>The Arizona Republic<\/i>. Phoenix, Arizona<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 January<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Arizona+Republic&amp;rft.atitle=Ariz.+Supreme+Court+rules+electronic+data+is+public+record&amp;rft.date=2009-10-30&amp;rft.aulast=Walsh&amp;rft.aufirst=Jim&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.azcentral.com%2Farizonarepublic%2Flocal%2Farticles%2F2009%2F10%2F30%2F20091030metadata1030.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pewinternet.org\/2015\/05\/20\/americans-attitudes-about-privacy-security-and-surveillance\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Americans' Attitudes About Privacy, Security and Surveillance | Pew Research Center\"<\/a>. <i>Pew Research Center: Internet, Science &amp; Tech<\/i>. 20 May 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181025071051\/http:\/\/www.pewinternet.org\/2015\/05\/20\/americans-attitudes-about-privacy-security-and-surveillance\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 25 October 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 October<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center%3A+Internet%2C+Science+%26+Tech&amp;rft.atitle=Americans%27+Attitudes+About+Privacy%2C+Security+and+Surveillance+%7C+Pew+Research+Center&amp;rft.date=2015-05-20&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewinternet.org%2F2015%2F05%2F20%2Famericans-attitudes-about-privacy-security-and-surveillance%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Senate passes controversial metadata laws<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-81\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/wiki\/lexcraft\/suggested_metadata_practices_for_legislation_and_regulations\" target=\"_blank\">\"Suggested metadata practices for legislation and regulations\"<\/a>. <i>Legal Information Institute<\/i>. 27 March 2010. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161009080703\/https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/wiki\/lexcraft\/suggested_metadata_practices_for_legislation_and_regulations\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 9 October 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Legal+Information+Institute&amp;rft.atitle=Suggested+metadata+practices+for+legislation+and+regulations&amp;rft.date=2010-03-27&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwiki%2Flexcraft%2Fsuggested_metadata_practices_for_legislation_and_regulations&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-82\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">M. L\u00f6be, M. Knuth, R. M\u00fccke <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ceur-ws.org\/Vol-559\/Paper1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">TIM: A Semantic Web Application for the Specification of Metadata Items in Clinical Research<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120511114907\/http:\/\/ceur-ws.org\/Vol-559\/Paper1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 11 May 2012 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, CEUR-WS.org, <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free wiki-link\" href=\"urn:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/nbn:de:0074-559-9\" data-key=\"1c8f26411301cee8c0ddf9f3bd94d40c\">urn:nbn:de:0074-559-9<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-83\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMyneniPatel2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Myneni, Sahiti; Patel, Vimla L. (1 June 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2882303\" target=\"_blank\">\"Organization of Biomedical Data for Collaborative Scientific Research: A Research Information Management System\"<\/a>. <i>International Journal of Information Management<\/i>. <b>30<\/b> (3): 256\u2013264. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.ijinfomgt.2009.09.005\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.ijinfomgt.2009.09.005<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0268-4012\" target=\"_blank\">0268-4012<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2882303\" target=\"_blank\">2882303<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/20543892\" target=\"_blank\">20543892<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Information+Management&amp;rft.atitle=Organization+of+Biomedical+Data+for+Collaborative+Scientific+Research%3A+A+Research+Information+Management+System&amp;rft.volume=30&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=256-264&amp;rft.date=2010-06-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2882303%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=0268-4012&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20543892&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijinfomgt.2009.09.005&amp;rft.aulast=Myneni&amp;rft.aufirst=Sahiti&amp;rft.au=Patel%2C+Vimla+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2882303&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-84\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSansoneRocca-SerraFieldMaguire2012\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Sansone, Susanna-Assunta; Rocca-Serra, Philippe; Field, Dawn; Maguire, Eamonn; Taylor, Chris; Hofmann, Oliver; Fang, Hong; Neumann, Steffen; Tong, Weida (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3428019\" target=\"_blank\">\"Toward interoperable bioscience data\"<\/a>. <i>Nature Genetics<\/i>. <b>44<\/b> (2): 121\u2013126. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fng.1054\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/ng.1054<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1061-4036\" target=\"_blank\">1061-4036<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3428019\" target=\"_blank\">3428019<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/22281772\" target=\"_blank\">22281772<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Genetics&amp;rft.atitle=Toward+interoperable+bioscience+data&amp;rft.volume=44&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=121-126&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3428019%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=1061-4036&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22281772&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fng.1054&amp;rft.aulast=Sansone&amp;rft.aufirst=Susanna-Assunta&amp;rft.au=Rocca-Serra%2C+Philippe&amp;rft.au=Field%2C+Dawn&amp;rft.au=Maguire%2C+Eamonn&amp;rft.au=Taylor%2C+Chris&amp;rft.au=Hofmann%2C+Oliver&amp;rft.au=Fang%2C+Hong&amp;rft.au=Neumann%2C+Steffen&amp;rft.au=Tong%2C+Weida&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3428019&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-85\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMartensChambersSturmKessner2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Martens, Lennart; Chambers, Matthew; Sturm, Marc; Kessner, Darren; Levander, Fredrik; Shofstahl, Jim; Tang, Wilfred H.; R\u00f6mpp, Andreas; Neumann, Steffen (1 January 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3013463\" target=\"_blank\">\"mzML&#160;\u2013 a Community Standard for Mass Spectrometry Data\"<\/a>. <i>Molecular &amp; Cellular Proteomics<\/i>. <b>10<\/b> (1): R110.000133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1074%2Fmcp.R110.000133\" target=\"_blank\">10.1074\/mcp.R110.000133<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1535-9476\" target=\"_blank\">1535-9476<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3013463\" target=\"_blank\">3013463<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/20716697\" target=\"_blank\">20716697<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Molecular+%26+Cellular+Proteomics&amp;rft.atitle=mzML+%E2%80%93+a+Community+Standard+for+Mass+Spectrometry+Data&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=R110.000133&amp;rft.date=2011-01-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3013463%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=1535-9476&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20716697&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1074%2Fmcp.R110.000133&amp;rft.aulast=Martens&amp;rft.aufirst=Lennart&amp;rft.au=Chambers%2C+Matthew&amp;rft.au=Sturm%2C+Marc&amp;rft.au=Kessner%2C+Darren&amp;rft.au=Levander%2C+Fredrik&amp;rft.au=Shofstahl%2C+Jim&amp;rft.au=Tang%2C+Wilfred+H.&amp;rft.au=R%C3%B6mpp%2C+Andreas&amp;rft.au=Neumann%2C+Steffen&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3013463&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-86\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWohlgemuthMehtaMejiaNeumann2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wohlgemuth, Gert; 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2007<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Metacrap%3A+Putting+the+torch+to+7+straw-men+of+the+meta-utopia&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.well.com%2F~doctorow%2Fmetacrap.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-95\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-95\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The impact of webpage content characteristics on webpage visibility in search engine results <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120907012709\/http:\/\/web.simmons.edu\/~braun\/467\/part_1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The impact of webpage content characteristics on webpage visibility in search engine results (Part I)\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 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Swiftype. 3 October 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141006113157\/https:\/\/swiftype.com\/documentation\/meta_tags2\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 October 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Swiftype+Documentation&amp;rft.atitle=Swiftype-specific+Meta+Tags&amp;rft.date=2014-10-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fswiftype.com%2Fdocumentation%2Fmeta_tags2&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-98\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-98\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120117194534\/http:\/\/www.hbs.tv\/hostbroadcasting\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"HBS is the FIFA host broadcaster\"<\/a>. 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A-R Editions, Inc. pp.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/compactdischandb0000pohl\/page\/48\" target=\"_blank\">48<\/a>\u2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-89579-228-0<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Compact+Disc%3A+A+Handbook+of+Theory+and+Use&amp;rft.pages=48-&amp;rft.pub=A-R+Editions%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-89579-228-0&amp;rft.aulast=Pohlmann&amp;rft.aufirst=Ken+C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompactdischandb0000pohl&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-106\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-106\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220408075911\/http:\/\/web.ncf.ca\/aa571\/cdtext.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Unofficial CD Text FAQ\"<\/a>. <i>Computall Services<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 April<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=ID3.org&amp;rft.aulast=O%27Neill&amp;rft.aufirst=Dan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fid3.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Sutter-108\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Sutter_108-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDe_SutterNotebaertVan_de_Walle2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">De Sutter, Robbie; Notebaert, Stijn; Van de Walle, Rik (September 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=kU7Lqqowp54C&pg=PA226\" target=\"_blank\">\"Evaluation of Metadata Standards in the Context of Digital Audio-Visual Libraries\"<\/a>. In Gonzalo, Julio; Thanos, Constantino; Verdejo, M. Felisa; Carrasco, Rafael (eds.). <i>Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries: 10th European Conference, EDCL 2006<\/i>. Springer. p.&#160;226. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-540-44636-1<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160427061113\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=kU7Lqqowp54C&pg=PA226&cad=4\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 April 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Evaluation+of+Metadata+Standards+in+the+Context+of+Digital+Audio-Visual+Libraries&amp;rft.btitle=Research+and+Advanced+Technology+for+Digital+Libraries%3A+10th+European+Conference%2C+EDCL+2006&amp;rft.pages=226&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2006-09&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-540-44636-1&amp;rft.aulast=De+Sutter&amp;rft.aufirst=Robbie&amp;rft.au=Notebaert%2C+Stijn&amp;rft.au=Van+de+Walle%2C+Rik&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkU7Lqqowp54C%26pg%3DPA226&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-schemacrawler-109\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-schemacrawler_109-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFatehi\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Fatehi, Sualeh. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/schemacrawler.sourceforge.net\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"SchemaCrawler\"<\/a>. <i>SourceForge<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090903054127\/http:\/\/schemacrawler.sourceforge.net\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 3 September 2009.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=SourceForge&amp;rft.atitle=SchemaCrawler&amp;rft.aulast=Fatehi&amp;rft.aufirst=Sualeh&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fschemacrawler.sourceforge.net%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><cite class=\"citation wikicite\" id=\"rdp-ebb-\">Gartner, Richard. 2016. <i>Metadata: Shaping Knowledge from Antiquity to the Semantic Web<\/i> . Springer. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9783319408910.<\/cite><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562\" \/><cite class=\"citation wikicite\" id=\"rdp-ebb-\">Zeng, Marcia &amp; Qin, Jian. 2016. <i>Metadata<\/i> . Facet. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781783300525.<\/cite><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Commons-logo.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"56c1eee72d1be207b2a9d9bcedb4ef6f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> Media related to <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Metadata\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Metadata\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Metadata<\/a> at Wikimedia Commons<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d73474a3374a758c1347a5185b1e4ad6\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/99\/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg\/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> The dictionary definition of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/metadata\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wiktionary:metadata\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><i>metadata<\/i><\/a> at Wiktionary<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170201234427\/http:\/\/www.niso.org\/apps\/group_public\/download.php\/17446\/Understanding%20Metadata\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding Metadata: What is metadata, and what is it for?<\/i><\/a> \u2013 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NISO\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NISO\" data-key=\"2b517e1d3bc8256f665a695a501a6356\">NISO<\/a>, 2017<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140522165110\/http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/interactive\/2013\/jun\/12\/what-is-metadata-nsa-surveillance#meta=1111111\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Guardian guide to your metadata\"<\/a> \u2013 <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Guardian\" title=\"The Guardian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c1524bb31f0ee6ff14f8f44c7f3595d\">The Guardian<\/a><\/i>, Wednesday 12 June 2013.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.well.com\/~doctorow\/metacrap.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Metacrap: Putting the torch to 7 straw-men of the meta-utopia<\/a> \u2013 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cory_Doctorow\" title=\"Cory Doctorow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e75764cddf6ed5998cf4a9745facf2fb\">Cory Doctorow<\/a>'s opinion on the limitations of metadata on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a>, 2001<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dataone.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">DataONE<\/a> Investigator Toolkit<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informaworld.com\/openurl?genre=journal&issn=1938-6389\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Journal of Library Metadata<\/i><\/a>, Routledge, Taylor &amp; Francis Group, ISSN 1937-5034<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.inderscience.com\/ijmso\" target=\"_blank\"><i>International Journal of Metadata, Semantics and Ontologies<\/i> (<i>IJMSO<\/i>)<\/a>, Inderscience Publishers, ISSN 1744-263X<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/washingtonindependent.com\/_literature_52579\/Stephen_Machin_\u2013_ON_METADATA_AND_METACONTENT.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata and metacontent\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 June<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Metadata+and+metacontent&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwashingtonindependent.com%2F_literature_52579%2FStephen_Machin_%E2%80%93_ON_METADATA_AND_METACONTENT.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> (PDF)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dhs.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/publications\/LPRStandards-TN_1012-508.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">LPR Standards<\/a> (PDF), Department of Homeland Security (October 2012)<\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1419\nCached time: 20240108070052\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 1.446 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.819 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 15201\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 344264\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 5783\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 17\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 17\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 379585\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.942\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 26823616\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 1597.236 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>43.10% 688.478 1 Template:Reflist\n22.65% 361.716 39 Template:Annotated_link\n18.80% 300.295 63 Template:Cite_web\n 8.77% 140.127 22 Template:Cite_journal\n 4.70% 75.067 1 Template:LibraryandInformation-TopicSidebar\n 4.58% 73.087 1 Template:Harvnb\n 4.53% 72.368 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists\n 3.63% 57.951 12 Template:Cite_book\n 3.55% 56.744 1 Template:Short_description\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:18933632-0!canonical and timestamp 20240108070050 and revision id 1192770007. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240109223804\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.338 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.698 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 337377\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 546.021 1 wikipedia:Metadata\n100.00% 546.021 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10588-0!canonical and timestamp 20240109223803 and revision id 33261. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_images":[],"f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_timestamp":1704907003,"451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_type":"article","451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_title":"Master data","451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Master_data","451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_plaintext":"\n\nMaster dataFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master_data?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Master_data\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Master_data<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 2 March 2019, at 21:54.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,195 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Master_data rootpage-Master_data skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Master data<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master_data?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master_data\" data-key=\"b30fdf975abae63ec9e339747f34a146\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171643\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.085 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.155 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 93\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 151.913 1 wikipedia:Master_data\n100.00% 151.913 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10925-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171643 and revision id 35078. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Master_data\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Master_data<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_images":[],"451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_timestamp":1704907003,"e1ad6dda9336bc9948bb36a6d5f75b03_type":"article","e1ad6dda9336bc9948bb36a6d5f75b03_title":"IT risk management","e1ad6dda9336bc9948bb36a6d5f75b03_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/IT_risk_management","e1ad6dda9336bc9948bb36a6d5f75b03_plaintext":"\n\nIT risk managementFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_risk_management?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/IT_risk_management\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/IT_risk_management<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementComputer securityInformation technologyHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 16:12.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,153 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e1ad6dda9336bc9948bb36a6d5f75b03_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-IT_risk_management rootpage-IT_risk_management skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">IT risk management<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_risk_management?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_risk_management\" data-key=\"a6858ce8f0824db4ea3e85b51fabdbbd\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171643\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.099 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.169 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 100\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 164.509 1 wikipedia:IT_risk_management\n100.00% 164.509 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8875-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171642 and revision id 49436. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/IT_risk_management\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/IT_risk_management<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e1ad6dda9336bc9948bb36a6d5f75b03_images":[],"e1ad6dda9336bc9948bb36a6d5f75b03_timestamp":1704907002,"aca6d664bdd7690b6fbb176859ed0652_type":"article","aca6d664bdd7690b6fbb176859ed0652_title":"Information technology security audit","aca6d664bdd7690b6fbb176859ed0652_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_technology_security_audit","aca6d664bdd7690b6fbb176859ed0652_plaintext":"\n\nInformation technology security auditFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchIndependent examination of knowledge protection mechanisms\nAn information security audit is an audit of the level of information security in an organization. It is an independent review and examination of system records, activities, and related documents. These audits are intended to improve the level of information security, avoid improper information security designs, and optimize the efficiency of the security safeguards and security processes.[1] Within the broad scope of auditing information security there are multiple types of audits, multiple objectives for different audits, etc. Most commonly the controls being audited can be categorized as technical, physical and administrative. Auditing information security covers topics from auditing the physical security of data centers to auditing the logical security of databases, and highlights key components to look for and different methods for auditing these areas.\nWhen centered on the Information technology (IT) aspects of information security, it can be seen as a part of an information technology audit. It is often then referred to as an information technology security audit or a computer security audit. However, information security encompasses much more than IT.\n\n\n\nThe audit process \n This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2021 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nStep 1: Preliminary audit assessment \nThe auditor is responsible for assessing the current technological maturity level of a company during the first stage of the audit. This stage is used to assess the current status of the company and helps identify the required time, cost and scope of an audit. First, you need to identify the minimum security requirements:[2]\n\nSecurity policy and standards\nOrganizational and Personal security\nCommunication, Operation and Asset management\nPhysical and environmental security\nAccess control and Compliance\nIT systems development and maintenance\nIT security incident management\nDisaster recovery and business continuity management\nRisk management\n Step 2: Planning &amp; preparation \nThe auditor should plan a company's audit based on the information found in the previous step. Planning an audit helps the auditor obtain sufficient and appropriate evidence for each company's specific circumstances. It helps predict audit costs at a reasonable level, assign the proper manpower and time line and avoid misunderstandings with clients.[3]\nAn auditor should be adequately educated about the company and its critical business activities before conducting a data center review. The objective of the data center is to align data center activities with the goals of the business while maintaining the security and integrity of critical information and processes. To adequately determine whether the client's goal is being achieved, the auditor should perform the following before conducting the review:\n\nMeet with IT management to determine possible areas of concern\nReview the current IT organization chart\nReview job descriptions of data center employees\nResearch all operating systems, software applications, and data center equipment operating within the data center\nReview the company's IT policies and procedures\nEvaluate the company's IT budget and systems planning documentation\nReview the data center's disaster recovery plan\nStep 3: Establishing audit objectives \nIn the next step, the auditor outlines the objectives of the audit after that conducting a review of a corporate data center takes place. Auditors consider multiple factors that relate to data center procedures and activities that potentially identify audit risks in the operating environment and assess the controls in place that mitigate those risks. After thorough testing and analysis, the auditor is able to adequately determine if the data center maintains proper controls and is operating efficiently and effectively.\nFollowing is a list of objectives the auditor should review:\n\nPersonnel procedures and responsibilities, including systems and cross-functional training\nChange management processes are in place and followed by IT and management personnel\nAppropriate backup procedures are in place to minimize downtime and prevent the loss of important data\nThe data center has adequate physical security controls to prevent unauthorized access to the data center\nAdequate environmental controls are in place to ensure equipment is protected from fire and flooding\nStep 4: Performing the review \nThe next step is collecting evidence to satisfy data center audit objectives. This involves traveling to the data center location and observing processes and within the data center. The following review procedures should be conducted to satisfy the pre-determined audit objectives:\n\nData centre personnel \u2013 All data center personnel should be authorized to access the data center (key cards, login ID's, secure passwords, etc.). Datacenter employees are adequately educated about data center equipment and properly perform their jobs. Vendor service personnel are supervised when doing work on data center equipment. The auditor should observe and interview data center employees to satisfy their objectives.\nEquipment \u2013 The auditor should verify that all data center equipment is working properly and effectively. Equipment utilization reports, equipment inspection for damage and functionality, system downtime records and equipment performance measurements all help the auditor determine the state of data center equipment. Additionally, the auditor should interview employees to determine if preventative maintenance policies are in place and performed.\nPolicies and Procedures \u2013 All data center policies and procedures should be documented and located at the data center. Important documented procedures include data center personnel job responsibilities, back up policies, security policies, employee termination policies, system operating procedures and an overview of operating systems.\nPhysical security \/ environmental controls \u2013 The auditor should assess the security of the client's data center. Physical security includes bodyguards, locked cages, man traps, single entrances, bolted-down equipment, and computer monitoring systems. Additionally, environmental controls should be in place to ensure the security of data center equipment. These include Air conditioning units, raised floors, humidifiers and an uninterruptible power supply.\nBackup procedures \u2013 The auditor should verify that the client has backup procedures in place in the case of system failure. Clients may maintain a backup data center at a separate location that allows them to instantaneously continue operations in the instance of system failure\nStep 5: Preparing the Audit Report \nAfter the audit examination is completed, the audit findings and suggestions for corrective actions can be communicated to responsible stakeholders in a formal meeting. This ensures better understanding and support of the audit recommendations. It also gives the audited organization an opportunity to express its views on the issues raised.\nWriting a report after such a meeting and describing where agreements have been reached on all audit issues can greatly enhance audit effectiveness. Exit conferences also help finalize recommendations that are practical and feasible.[4]\n\nStep 6: Issuing the review report \nThe data center review report should summarize the auditor's findings and be similar in format to a standard review report. The review report should be dated as of the completion of the auditor's inquiry and procedures. It should state what the review entailed and explain that a review provides only \"limited assurance\" to third parties.\nTypically, a data center review report consolidates the entirety of the audit. It also offers recommendations surrounding proper implementation of physical safeguards and advises the client on appropriate roles and responsibilities of its personnel. Its contents may include:[5]\n\nThe auditors\u2019 procedures and findings\nThe auditors\u2019 recommendations\nObjective, scope, and methodologies\nOverview\/conclusions\nThe report may optionally include rankings of the security vulnerabilities identified throughout the performance of the audit and the urgency of the tasks necessary to address them. Rankings like \u201chigh\u201d, \u201clow\u201d, and \u201cmedium\u201d can be used to describe the imperativeness of the tasks.[6]\n\nWho performs audits \n This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2021 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nGenerally, computer security audits are performed by:\n\nFederal or State Regulators\nInformation security audits would primarily be prepared by the partners of these regulators.\nExamples include: Certified accountants, Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA), Federal Office of Thrift Supervision (OTS), Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), etc.\nCorporate Internal Auditors [7]\nIf the information security audit is an internal audit, it may be performed by internal auditors employed by the organization.\nExamples include: Certificated accountants, Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA), and Certified Internet Audit Professional (CIAP)\nExternal Auditors\nTypically, third-party experts employed by an independent organization and specializing in the field of data security are hired when state or federal auditors are not accessible.\nConsultants\nOutsourcing the technology auditing where the organization lacks the specialized skill set.\nJobs and certifications in information security \n Information Security Officer (ISO) \nInformation Security Officer (ISO) is a relatively new position, which has emerged in organizations to deal in the aftermath of chaotic growth in information technology and network communication. The role of the ISO has been very nebulous since the problem that they were created to address was not defined clearly. The role of an ISO has become one of following the dynamics of the security environment and keeping the risk posture balanced for the organization.[8]\n\nCertifications \nInformation systems audits combine the efforts and skill sets from the accounting and technology fields. Professionals from both fields rely on one another to ensure the security of the information and data.With this collaboration, the security of the information system has proven to increase over time. In relation to the information systems audit, the role of the auditor is to examine the company\u2019s controls of the security program. Furthermore, the auditor discloses the operating effectiveness of these controls in an audit report. The Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA), an Information Technology professional organization, promotes gaining expertise through various certifications.[9] The benefits of these certifications are applicable to external and internal personnel of the system. Examples of certifications that are relevant to information security audits include:\n\nCertified Information Systems Manager (CISM)\nCertified in Risk and Information Systems Control (CRISC)\nCertified in the Governance of Enterprise IT (CGEIT)\nCertified Information System Auditor (CISA)\nCSX (Cybersecurity Nexus Fundamentals)\nCSXP (Cybersecurity Nexus Practitioner)\nThe audited systems \n This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.\r\nFind sources:&#160;\"Information security audit\"&#160;\u2013&#160;news&#160;\u00b7 newspapers&#160;\u00b7 books&#160;\u00b7 scholar&#160;\u00b7 JSTOR (June 2016 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nNetwork vulnerabilities \nInterception: Data that is being transmitted over the network is vulnerable to being intercepted by an unintended third party who could put the data to harmful use.\nAvailability: Networks have become wide-spanning, crossing hundreds or thousands of miles which many rely on to access company information, and lost connectivity could cause business interruption.\nAccess\/entry point: Networks are vulnerable to unwanted access. A weak point in the network can make that information available to intruders. It can also provide an entry point for viruses and Trojan horses.[10]\nControls \nInterception controls: Interception can be partially deterred by physical access controls at data centers and offices, including where communication links terminate and where the network wiring and distributions are located. Encryption also helps to secure wireless networks.\nAvailability controls: The best control for this is to have excellent network architecture and monitoring. The network should have redundant paths between every resource and an access point and automatic routing to switch the traffic to the available path without loss of data or time.\nAccess\/entry point controls: Most network controls are put at the point where the network connects with an external network. These controls limit the traffic that passes through the network. These can include firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and antivirus software.\nThe auditor should ask certain questions to better understand the network and its vulnerabilities. The auditor should first assess the extent of the network is and how it is structured. A network diagram can assist the auditor in this process. The next question an auditor should ask is what critical information this network must protect. Things such as enterprise systems, mail servers, web servers, and host applications accessed by customers are typically areas of focus. It is also important to know who has access and to what parts. Do customers and vendors have access to systems on the network? Can employees access information from home? Lastly, the auditor should assess how the network is connected to external networks and how it is protected. Most networks are at least connected to the internet, which could be a point of vulnerability. These are critical questions in protecting networks.\n\nSegregation of duties \nWhen you have a function that deals with money either incoming or outgoing it is very important to make sure that duties are segregated to minimize and hopefully prevent fraud. One of the key ways to ensure proper segregation of duties (SoD) from a systems perspective is to review individuals\u2019 access authorizations. Certain systems such as SAP claim to come with the capability to perform SoD tests, but the functionality provided is elementary, requiring very time-consuming queries to be built and is limited to the transaction level only with little or no use of the object or field values assigned to the user through the transaction, which often produces misleading results. For complex systems such as SAP, it is often preferred to use tools developed specifically to assess and analyze SoD conflicts and other types of system activity. For other systems or for multiple system formats you should monitor which users may have superuser access to the system giving them unlimited access to all aspects of the system. Also, developing a matrix for all functions highlighting the points where proper segregation of duties has been breached will help identify potential material weaknesses by cross-checking each employee's available accesses. This is as important if not more so in the development function as it is in production. Ensuring that people who develop the programs are not the ones who are authorized to pull it into production is key to preventing unauthorized programs into the production environment where they can be used to perpetrate fraud.\n\nTypes of audits \nEncryption and IT audit \nIn assessing the need for a client to implement encryption policies for their organization, the Auditor should conduct an analysis of the client's risk and data value. Companies with multiple external users, e-commerce applications, and sensitive customer\/employee information should maintain rigid encryption policies aimed at encrypting the correct data at the appropriate stage in the data collection process.[11]\nAuditors should continually evaluate their client's encryption policies and procedures. Companies that are heavily reliant on e-commerce systems and wireless networks are extremely vulnerable to theft and loss of critical information in transmission. Policies and procedures should be documented and carried out to ensure that all transmitted data is protected.\nThe auditor should verify that management has controls in place over the data encryption management process. Access to keys should require dual control, keys should be composed of two separate components and should be maintained on a computer that is not accessible to programmers or outside users. Furthermore, management should attest that encryption policies ensure data protection at the desired level and verify that the cost of encrypting the data does not exceed the value of the information itself. All data that is required to be maintained for an extensive amount of time should be encrypted and transported to a remote location. Procedures should be in place to guarantee that all encrypted sensitive information arrives at its location and is stored properly. Finally, the auditor should attain verification from management that the encryption system is strong, not attackable, and compliant with all local and international laws and regulations.\n\nLogical security audit \nJust as it sounds, a logical security audit follows a format in an organized procedure. The first step in an audit of any system is to seek to understand its components and its structure. When auditing logical security the auditor should investigate what security controls are in place, and how they work. In particular, the following areas are key points in auditing logical security:\n\nPasswords: Every company should have written policies regarding passwords, and employees' use of them. Passwords should not be shared and employees should have mandatory scheduled changes. Employees should have user rights that are in line with their job functions. They should also be aware of proper log on\/ log off procedures. Also helpful are security tokens, small devices that authorized users of computer programs or networks carry to assist in identity confirmation. They can also store cryptographic keys and biometric data. The most popular type of security token (RSA's SecurID) displays a number that changes every minute. Users are authenticated by entering a personal identification number and the number on the token.[12]\nTermination Procedures: Proper termination procedures so that, old employees can no longer access the network. This can be done by changing passwords and codes. Also, all id cards and badges that are in circulation should be documented and accounted for.\nSpecial User Accounts: Special User Accounts and other privileged accounts should be monitored and have proper controls in place.\nRemote Access: Remote access is often a point where intruders can enter a system. The logical security tools used for remote access should be very strict. Remote access should be logged.\nSpecific tools used in network security \nNetwork security is achieved by various tools including firewalls and proxy servers, encryption, logical security and access controls, anti-virus software, and auditing systems such as log management.\nFirewalls are a very basic part of network security. They are often placed between the private local network and the internet. Firewalls provide a flow-through for traffic in which it can be authenticated, monitored, logged, and reported. Some different types of firewalls include network layer firewalls, screened subnet firewalls, packet filter firewalls, dynamic packet filtering firewalls, hybrid firewalls, transparent firewalls, and application-level firewalls.\nThe process of encryption involves converting plain text into a series of unreadable characters known as the ciphertext. If the encrypted text is stolen or attained while in transit, the content is unreadable to the viewer. This guarantees secure transmission and is extremely useful to companies sending\/receiving critical information. Once encrypted information arrives at its intended recipient, the decryption process is deployed to restore the ciphertext back to plaintext.\nProxy servers hide the true address of the client workstation and can also act as a firewall. Proxy server firewalls have special software to enforce authentication. Proxy server firewalls act as a middle man for user requests.\nAntivirus software programs such as McAfee and Symantec software locate and dispose of malicious content. These virus protection programs run live updates to ensure they have the latest information about known computer viruses.\nLogical security includes software safeguards for an organization's systems, including user ID and password access, authentication, access rights and authority levels. These measures are to ensure that only authorized users are able to perform actions or access information in a network or a workstation.\n\nBehavioral audit \nVulnerabilities in an organization's&#160; IT systems are often not attributed to technical weaknesses, but rather related to individual behavior of employees within the organization. A simple example of this is users leaving their computers unlocked or being vulnerable to phishing attacks. As a result, a thorough InfoSec audit will frequently include a penetration test in which auditors attempt to gain access to as much of the system as possible, from both the perspective of a typical employee as well as an outsider.[13] A behavioral audit ensures preventative measures are in place such as a phishing webinar, where employees are made aware of what phishing is and how to detect it.\nSystem and process assurance audits combine elements from IT infrastructure and application\/information security audits and use diverse controls in categories such as Completeness, Accuracy, Validity (V) and Restricted access (CAVR).[14]\n\nAuditing application security \n This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2021 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nApplication security \nApplication Security centers on three main functions:\n\nProgramming\nProcessing\nAccess\nWhen it comes to programming it is important to ensure proper physical and password protection exists around servers and mainframes for the development and update of key systems. Having physical access security at one's data center or office such as electronic badges and badge readers, security guards, choke points, and security cameras is vitally important to ensuring the security of applications and data. Then one needs to have security around changes to the system. Those usually have to do with proper security access to make the changes and having proper authorization procedures in place for pulling programming changes from development through test and finally into production.\nWith processing, it is important that procedures and monitoring of a few different aspects such as the input of falsified or erroneous data, incomplete processing, duplicate transactions and untimely processing are in place. Making sure that input is randomly reviewed or that all processing has proper approval is a way to ensure this. It is important to be able to identify incomplete processing and ensure that proper procedures are in place for either completing it or deleting it from the system if it was in error. There should also be procedures to identify and correct duplicate entries. Finally, when it comes to processing that is not being done on a timely basis one should back-track the associated data to see where the delay is coming from and identify whether or not this delay creates any control concerns.\nFinally, access, it is important to realize that maintaining network security against unauthorized access is one of the major focuses for companies as threats can come from a few sources. First, one have internal unauthorized access. It is very important to have system access passwords that must be changed regularly and that there is a way to track access and changes so one is able to identify who made what changes. All activity should be logged. The second arena to be concerned with is remote access, people accessing one's system from the outside through the internet. Setting up firewalls and password protection to on-line data changes are key to protecting against unauthorized remote access. One way to identify weaknesses in access controls is to bring in a hacker to try and crack one's system by either gaining entry to the building and using an internal terminal or hacking in from the outside through remote access.\n\nSummary \nAn information security audit can be defined by examining the different aspects of information security. External and internal professionals within an institution&#160; have the responsibility of maintaining and inspecting the adequacy and effectiveness of information security. As in any institution, there are various controls to be implemented and maintained. To secure the information, an institution is expected to apply security measures to circumvent outside intervention. By and large, the two concepts of application security and segregation of duties are both in many ways connected and they both have the same goal, to protect the integrity of the companies\u2019 data and to prevent fraud. For application security, it has to do with preventing unauthorized access to hardware and software through having proper security measures both physical and electronic in place. With segregation of duties, it is primarily a physical review of individuals\u2019 access to the systems and processing and ensuring that there are no overlaps that could lead to fraud. The type of audit the individual performs determines the specific procedures and tests to be executed throughout the audit process.\n\nSee also \nComputer security\nDefensive computing\nDirective 95\/46\/EC on the protection of personal data (European Union)\nEthical hack\nInformation security\nPenetration test\nSecurity breach\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"Effective Governance Risk Management | ISACA Journal\". ISACA. Retrieved 2022-04-21 . \n\n^ \"Information Systems Security Audit | ISACA Journal\". ISACA. Retrieved 2022-04-21 . \n\n^ \"Effective Governance Risk Management | ISACA Journal\". ISACA. Retrieved 2022-04-21 . \n\n^ \"Information Systems Security Audit | ISACA Journal\". ISACA. Retrieved 2022-04-21 . \n\n^ Legislative Audit Division - State of Montana. (2006, June). \"Data Center Review\". PDF. Helena, MT. \n\n^ Privacy Technical Assistance Center. \"Responding to IT Security Audits: Improving Data Security Practices\". PDF. \n\n^ Certified Internet Audit Professional (CIAP), International Computer Auditing Education Association (ICAEA), http:\/\/www.iacae.org\/English\/Certification\/CIAP.php \n\n^ Security Audit for Compliance with Policies. albany.edu \n\n^ Stafford, Thomas; Gal, Graham; Poston, Robin; Crossler, Robert E.; Jiang, Randi; Lyons, Robin (2018). \"The Role of Accounting and Professional Associations in IT Security Auditing: An AMCIS Panel Report\". Communications of the Association for Information Systems. 43 (1): 482\u2013493. doi:10.17705\/1CAIS.04327 . \n\n^ \"Cyber Security Guide\". Wednesday, 2 December 2020 \n\n^ Liu, Lei; Cao, Mingwei; Sun, Yeguo (2021-12-15). \"A fusion data security protection scheme for sensitive E-documents in the open network environment\". PLOS ONE. 16 (12): e0258464. doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0258464 . ISSN&#160;1932-6203. PMC&#160;8673604 . PMID&#160;34910722. \n\n^ Abu-Jassar, Amer Tahseen; Attar, Hani; Yevsieiev, Vladyslav; Amer, Ayman; Demska, Nataliia; Luhach, Ashish Kr.; Lyashenko, Vyacheslav (2022-04-13). Ning, Xin (ed.). \"Electronic User Authentication Key for Access to HMI\/SCADA via Unsecured Internet Networks\". Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience. 2022: 1\u201313. doi:10.1155\/2022\/5866922 . ISSN&#160;1687-5273. PMC&#160;9020904 . PMID&#160;35463229. \n\n^ \"10 Pieces of Advice That Will Help You Protect Your Data\". 360ict. Retrieved 24 June 2016 . \n\n^ K. Julisch et al., Compliance by design - Bridging the chasm between auditors and IT architects Computers &amp; Security 30(6-7): 410-426 (2011) \n\n\nBibliography \nGallegos, Frederick; Senft, Sandra; Manson, Daniel P.; Gonzales, Carol (2004). Technology Control and Audit (2nd ed.). Auerbach Publications. ISBN&#160;0-8493-2032-1. \nExternal links \nExamining Data Centers\nNetwork Auditing\nThe OpenXDAS project\nInformation Systems and Audit Control Association (ISACA) Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine\nThe Institute of Internal Auditors\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_technology_security_audit\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_technology_security_audit<\/a>\nCategories: Computer securityData securitySoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 21 June 2016, at 21:55.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,718 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","aca6d664bdd7690b6fbb176859ed0652_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Information_technology_security_audit rootpage-Information_technology_security_audit skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Information technology security audit<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Independent examination of knowledge protection mechanisms<\/div>\n<p>An <b>information security audit<\/b> is an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Audit\" title=\"Audit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee71ac41bc47437c62c140a7ec1ebdbe\">audit<\/a> of the level of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" title=\"Information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">information security<\/a> in an organization. It is an independent review and examination of system records, activities, and related documents. These audits are intended to improve the level of information security, avoid improper information security designs, and optimize the efficiency of the security safeguards and security processes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Within the broad scope of auditing information security there are multiple types of audits, multiple objectives for different audits, etc. Most commonly the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internal_control\" title=\"Internal control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc2b13bf63f62b6536496273c99540b7\">controls<\/a> being audited can be categorized as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technology\" title=\"Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"826a00bce65740132769609e46bf6515\">technical<\/a>, physical and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_administration\" title=\"Business administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afab518c5ddf262ef4313681f22ca944\">administrative<\/a>. Auditing information security covers topics from auditing the physical security of data centers to auditing the logical security of databases, and highlights key components to look for and different methods for auditing these areas.\n<\/p><p>When centered on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">Information technology<\/a> (IT) aspects of information security, it can be seen as a part of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology_audit\" title=\"Information technology audit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73cc451bbda159f450fed912409dfa8b\">information technology audit<\/a>. It is often then referred to as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology_security_audit\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information technology security audit\" data-key=\"7135277757379a18b0456060e566c670\">information technology security audit<\/a> or a computer security audit. However, information security encompasses much more than IT.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_audit_process\">The audit process<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Step_1:_Preliminary_audit_assessment\">Step 1: Preliminary audit assessment<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The auditor is responsible for assessing the current technological maturity level of a company during the first stage of the audit. This stage is used to assess the current status of the company and helps identify the required time, cost and scope of an audit. First, you need to identify the minimum security requirements:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Security policy and standards<\/li>\n<li>Organizational and Personal security<\/li>\n<li>Communication, Operation and Asset management<\/li>\n<li>Physical and environmental security<\/li>\n<li>Access control and Compliance<\/li>\n<li>IT systems development and maintenance<\/li>\n<li>IT security incident management<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disaster_recovery\" title=\"Disaster recovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33aecbc3a0a3d980c88f37fbeb85d1a6\">Disaster recovery<\/a> and business continuity management<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_management\" title=\"Risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8dfffb6fe8cc680af34e88ec60c1c92\">Risk management<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Step_2:_Planning_.26_preparation\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Step_2:_Planning_&amp;_preparation\">Step 2: Planning &amp; preparation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The auditor should plan a company's audit based on the information found in the previous step. Planning an audit helps the auditor obtain sufficient and appropriate evidence for each company's specific circumstances. It helps predict audit costs at a reasonable level, assign the proper manpower and time line and avoid misunderstandings with clients.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An auditor should be adequately educated about the company and its critical business activities before conducting a data center review. The objective of the data center is to align data center activities with the goals of the business while maintaining the security and integrity of critical information and processes. To adequately determine whether the client's goal is being achieved, the auditor should perform the following before conducting the review:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Meet with IT management to determine possible areas of concern<\/li>\n<li>Review the current IT <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organizational_chart\" title=\"Organizational chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e19a123370284f6ab6e67f69cd54e19\">organization chart<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Review job descriptions of data center employees<\/li>\n<li>Research all <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Operating systems\" data-key=\"6d5686846d3a0e57fcdf5be5acaab515\">operating systems<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_applications\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software applications\" data-key=\"9d0038715c58903527ada3fc431cf87b\">software applications<\/a>, and data center equipment operating within the data center<\/li>\n<li>Review the company's IT policies and procedures<\/li>\n<li>Evaluate the company's IT budget and systems planning documentation<\/li>\n<li>Review the data center's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disaster_Recovery_Plan\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Disaster Recovery Plan\" data-key=\"bd241ba74b9a68b6d295c7f7cc10a2c7\">disaster recovery plan<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Step_3:_Establishing_audit_objectives\">Step 3: Establishing audit objectives<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the next step, the auditor outlines the objectives of the audit after that conducting a review of a corporate data center takes place. Auditors consider multiple factors that relate to data center procedures and activities that potentially identify audit risks in the operating environment and assess the controls in place that mitigate those risks. After thorough testing and analysis, the auditor is able to adequately determine if the data center maintains proper controls and is operating efficiently and effectively.\n<\/p><p>Following is a list of objectives the auditor should review:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Personnel procedures and responsibilities, including systems and cross-functional training<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_Management_(ITSM)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Change Management (ITSM)\" data-key=\"ebdec2e0e105ce65cce340abd56877af\">Change management<\/a> processes are in place and followed by IT and management personnel<\/li>\n<li>Appropriate backup procedures are in place to minimize downtime and prevent the loss of important data<\/li>\n<li>The data center has adequate physical security controls to prevent unauthorized access to the data center<\/li>\n<li>Adequate environmental controls are in place to ensure equipment is protected from fire and flooding<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Step_4:_Performing_the_review\">Step 4: Performing the review<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The next step is collecting evidence to satisfy data center audit objectives. This involves traveling to the data center location and observing processes and within the data center. The following review procedures should be conducted to satisfy the pre-determined audit objectives:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Data centre personnel \u2013 All data center personnel should be authorized to access the data center (key cards, login ID's, secure passwords, etc.). Datacenter employees are adequately educated about data center equipment and properly perform their jobs. Vendor service personnel are supervised when doing work on data center equipment. The auditor should observe and interview data center employees to satisfy their objectives.<\/li>\n<li>Equipment \u2013 The auditor should verify that all data center equipment is working properly and effectively. Equipment utilization reports, equipment inspection for damage and functionality, system downtime records and equipment performance measurements all help the auditor determine the state of data center equipment. Additionally, the auditor should interview employees to determine if preventative maintenance policies are in place and performed.<\/li>\n<li>Policies and Procedures \u2013 All data center policies and procedures should be documented and located at the data center. Important documented procedures include data center personnel job responsibilities, back up policies, security policies, employee termination policies, system operating procedures and an overview of operating systems.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_security\" title=\"Physical security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f5638e30bd1ab1ce1c42482d33a335b\">Physical security<\/a> \/ environmental controls \u2013 The auditor should assess the security of the client's data center. Physical security includes bodyguards, locked cages, man traps, single entrances, bolted-down equipment, and computer monitoring systems. Additionally, environmental controls should be in place to ensure the security of data center equipment. These include Air conditioning units, raised floors, humidifiers and an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uninterruptible_power_supply\" title=\"Uninterruptible power supply\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9530180297ed0f137cb7fcfd0495066\">uninterruptible power supply<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Backup procedures \u2013 The auditor should verify that the client has backup procedures in place in the case of system failure. Clients may maintain a backup data center at a separate location that allows them to instantaneously continue operations in the instance of system failure<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Step_5:_Preparing_the_Audit_Report\">Step 5: Preparing the Audit Report<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>After the audit examination is completed, the audit findings and suggestions for corrective actions can be communicated to responsible stakeholders in a formal meeting. This ensures better understanding and support of the audit recommendations. It also gives the audited organization an opportunity to express its views on the issues raised.\n<\/p><p>Writing a report after such a meeting and describing where agreements have been reached on all audit issues can greatly enhance audit effectiveness. Exit conferences also help finalize recommendations that are practical and feasible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Step_6:_Issuing_the_review_report\">Step 6: Issuing the review report<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The data center review report should summarize the auditor's findings and be similar in format to a standard review report. The review report should be dated as of the completion of the auditor's inquiry and procedures. It should state what the review entailed and explain that a review provides only \"limited assurance\" to third parties.\n<\/p><p>Typically, a data center review report consolidates the entirety of the audit. It also offers recommendations surrounding proper implementation of physical safeguards and advises the client on appropriate roles and responsibilities of its personnel. Its contents may include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The auditors\u2019 procedures and findings<\/li>\n<li>The auditors\u2019 recommendations<\/li>\n<li>Objective, scope, and methodologies<\/li>\n<li>Overview\/conclusions<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The report may optionally include rankings of the security vulnerabilities identified throughout the performance of the audit and the urgency of the tasks necessary to address them. Rankings like \u201chigh\u201d, \u201clow\u201d, and \u201cmedium\u201d can be used to describe the imperativeness of the tasks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Who_performs_audits\">Who performs audits<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485\" \/>\n<p>Generally, computer security audits are performed by:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Federal or State Regulators\n<ul><li>Information security audits would primarily be prepared by the partners of these regulators.<\/li>\n<li>Examples include: Certified accountants, Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA), Federal Office of Thrift Supervision (OTS), Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), etc.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Corporate Internal Auditors <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ul><li>If the information security audit is an internal audit, it may be performed by internal auditors employed by the organization.<\/li>\n<li>Examples include: Certificated accountants, Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency <b>(<\/b>CISA), and Certified Internet Audit Professional (CIAP)<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>External Auditors\n<ul><li>Typically, third-party experts employed by an independent organization and specializing in the field of data security are hired when state or federal auditors are not accessible.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Consultants\n<ul><li>Outsourcing the technology auditing where the organization lacks the specialized skill set.<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Jobs_and_certifications_in_information_security\">Jobs and certifications in information security<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Information_Security_Officer_.28ISO.29\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Information_Security_Officer_(ISO)\">Information Security Officer (ISO)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Information Security Officer (ISO) is a relatively new position, which has emerged in organizations to deal in the aftermath of chaotic growth in information technology and network communication. The role of the ISO has been very nebulous since the problem that they were created to address was not defined clearly. The role of an ISO has become one of following the dynamics of the security environment and keeping the risk posture balanced for the organization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Certifications\">Certifications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Information systems audits combine the efforts and skill sets from the accounting and technology fields. Professionals from both fields rely on one another to ensure the security of the information and data.With this collaboration, the security of the information system has proven to increase over time. In relation to the information systems audit, the role of the auditor is to examine the company\u2019s controls of the security program. Furthermore, the auditor discloses the operating effectiveness of these controls in an audit report. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISACA\" title=\"ISACA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"010a2ea5096a87c89e1bcf76f74cce67\">Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA)<\/a>, an Information Technology professional organization, promotes gaining expertise through various certifications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> The benefits of these certifications are applicable to external and internal personnel of the system. Examples of certifications that are relevant to information security audits include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Certified Information Systems Manager (CISM)<\/li>\n<li>Certified in Risk and Information Systems Control (CRISC)<\/li>\n<li>Certified in the Governance of Enterprise IT (CGEIT)<\/li>\n<li>Certified Information System Auditor (CISA)<\/li>\n<li>CSX (Cybersecurity Nexus Fundamentals)<\/li>\n<li>CSXP (Cybersecurity Nexus Practitioner)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_audited_systems\">The audited systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485\" \/>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Network_vulnerabilities\">Network vulnerabilities<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interception\" title=\"Interception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6717e2c4a5438b0af1432d24279a079a\">Interception<\/a>: Data that is being transmitted over the network is vulnerable to being intercepted by an unintended third party who could put the data to harmful use.<\/li>\n<li>Availability: Networks have become wide-spanning, crossing hundreds or thousands of miles which many rely on to access company information, and lost connectivity could cause business interruption.<\/li>\n<li>Access\/entry point: Networks are vulnerable to unwanted access. A weak point in the network can make that information available to intruders. It can also provide an entry point for viruses and Trojan horses.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Controls\">Controls<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Interception controls: Interception can be partially deterred by physical access controls at data centers and offices, including where communication links terminate and where the network wiring and distributions are located. Encryption also helps to secure wireless networks.<\/li>\n<li>Availability controls: The best control for this is to have excellent network architecture and monitoring. The network should have redundant paths between every resource and an access point and automatic routing to switch the traffic to the available path without loss of data or time.<\/li>\n<li>Access\/entry point controls: Most network controls are put at the point where the network connects with an external network. These controls limit the traffic that passes through the network. These can include firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and antivirus software.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The auditor should ask certain questions to better understand the network and its vulnerabilities. The auditor should first assess the extent of the network is and how it is structured. A network diagram can assist the auditor in this process. The next question an auditor should ask is what critical information this network must protect. Things such as enterprise systems, mail servers, web servers, and host applications accessed by customers are typically areas of focus. It is also important to know who has access and to what parts. Do customers and vendors have access to systems on the network? Can <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Employees\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Employees\" data-key=\"d37448cdc93213a69fee53b0bc690ea9\">employees<\/a> access information from home? Lastly, the auditor should assess how the network is connected to external networks and how it is protected. Most networks are at least connected to the internet, which could be a point of vulnerability. These are critical questions in protecting networks.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Segregation_of_duties\">Segregation of duties<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>When you have a function that deals with money either incoming or outgoing it is very important to make sure that duties are segregated to minimize and hopefully prevent fraud. One of the key ways to ensure proper <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Separation_of_duties\" title=\"Separation of duties\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7578cb212b3437ee680aeaa464fbdffc\">segregation of duties<\/a> (SoD) from a systems perspective is to review individuals\u2019 access authorizations. Certain systems such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_Applications_Products_audit\" title=\"Systems Applications Products audit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f9b9842a2b6a7de553af54eaa3043e9\">SAP<\/a> claim to come with the capability to perform SoD tests, but the functionality provided is elementary, requiring very time-consuming queries to be built and is limited to the transaction level only with little or no use of the object or field values assigned to the user through the transaction, which often produces misleading results. For complex systems such as SAP, it is often preferred to use tools developed specifically to assess and analyze SoD conflicts and other types of system activity. For other systems or for multiple system formats you should monitor which users may have superuser access to the system giving them unlimited access to all aspects of the system. Also, developing a matrix for all functions highlighting the points where proper <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Separation_of_duties\" title=\"Separation of duties\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7578cb212b3437ee680aeaa464fbdffc\">segregation of duties<\/a> has been breached will help identify potential material weaknesses by cross-checking each employee's available accesses. This is as important if not more so in the development function as it is in production. Ensuring that people who develop the programs are not the ones who are authorized to pull it into production is key to preventing unauthorized programs into the production environment where they can be used to perpetrate fraud.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_audits\">Types of audits<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Encryption_and_IT_audit\">Encryption and IT audit<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In assessing the need for a client to implement encryption policies for their organization, the Auditor should conduct an analysis of the client's risk and data value. Companies with multiple external users, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-commerce\" title=\"E-commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c03db4987b899365c11ec8496d2c7c99\">e-commerce<\/a> applications, and sensitive customer\/employee information should maintain rigid encryption policies aimed at encrypting the correct data at the appropriate stage in the data collection process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Auditors should continually evaluate their client's encryption policies and procedures. Companies that are heavily reliant on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-commerce\" title=\"E-commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c03db4987b899365c11ec8496d2c7c99\">e-commerce<\/a> systems and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wireless networks\" data-key=\"eaed2c376762142f21b183206a42b40c\">wireless networks<\/a> are extremely vulnerable to theft and loss of critical information in transmission. Policies and procedures should be documented and carried out to ensure that all transmitted data is protected.\n<\/p><p>The auditor should verify that management has controls in place over the data encryption management process. Access to keys should require dual control, keys should be composed of two separate components and should be maintained on a computer that is not accessible to programmers or outside users. Furthermore, management should attest that encryption policies ensure data protection at the desired level and verify that the cost of encrypting the data does not exceed the value of the information itself. All data that is required to be maintained for an extensive amount of time should be encrypted and transported to a remote location. Procedures should be in place to guarantee that all encrypted sensitive information arrives at its location and is stored properly. Finally, the auditor should attain verification from management that the encryption system is strong, not attackable, and compliant with all local and international laws and regulations.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Logical_security_audit\">Logical security audit<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Just as it sounds, a logical security audit follows a format in an organized procedure. The first step in an audit of any system is to seek to understand its components and its structure. When auditing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_Security\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Logical Security\" data-key=\"061ac0f7785ca7c97c609b60091ad75a\">logical security<\/a> the auditor should investigate what security controls are in place, and how they work. In particular, the following areas are key points in auditing logical security:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password\" title=\"Password\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1a0d7ae6f26ce9e27f1556f4d98c342\">Passwords<\/a>: Every company should have written policies regarding passwords, and employees' use of them. Passwords should not be shared and employees should have mandatory scheduled changes. Employees should have user rights that are in line with their job functions. They should also be aware of proper log on\/ log off procedures. Also helpful are security tokens, small devices that authorized users of computer programs or networks carry to assist in identity confirmation. They can also store <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptographic<\/a> keys and biometric <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a>. The most popular type of security token (RSA's SecurID) displays a number that changes every minute. Users are authenticated by entering a personal identification number and the number on the token.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Termination Procedures: Proper termination procedures so that, old employees can no longer access the network. This can be done by changing passwords and codes. Also, all id cards and badges that are in circulation should be documented and accounted for.<\/li>\n<li>Special User Accounts: Special User Accounts and other privileged accounts should be monitored and have proper controls in place.<\/li>\n<li>Remote Access: Remote access is often a point where intruders can enter a system. The logical security tools used for remote access should be very strict. Remote access should be logged.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Specific_tools_used_in_network_security\">Specific tools used in network security<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Network security is achieved by various tools including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(networking)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Firewall (networking)\" data-key=\"7da6d7805097a24a8974213a1734d7b4\">firewalls<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proxy_servers\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Proxy servers\" data-key=\"dc199d6f9bdd15afc899d2168e18975e\">proxy servers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">encryption<\/a>, logical security and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control\" title=\"Access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f978f594d7eee9299dbb3da18ee80a8c\">access controls<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anti-virus_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Anti-virus software\" data-key=\"2ac619778c31e93ad6698ab294ea59fb\">anti-virus software<\/a>, and auditing systems such as log management.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(computing)\" title=\"Firewall (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"853725a035c106719dbf2660d8eca0b8\">Firewalls<\/a> are a very basic part of network security. They are often placed between the private local network and the internet. Firewalls provide a flow-through for traffic in which it can be authenticated, monitored, logged, and reported. Some different types of firewalls include network layer firewalls, screened subnet firewalls, packet filter firewalls, dynamic packet filtering firewalls, hybrid firewalls, transparent firewalls, and application-level firewalls.\n<\/p><p>The process of encryption involves converting plain text into a series of unreadable characters known as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ciphertext\" title=\"Ciphertext\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4ee67116f844470f23a8861408a639f\">ciphertext<\/a>. If the encrypted text is stolen or attained while in transit, the content is unreadable to the viewer. This guarantees <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_transmission\" title=\"Secure transmission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16bcdc055bee6bc681cc78b6e27cc6e9\">secure transmission<\/a> and is extremely useful to companies sending\/receiving critical information. Once encrypted information arrives at its intended recipient, the decryption process is deployed to restore the ciphertext back to plaintext.\n<\/p><p>Proxy servers hide the true address of the client workstation and can also act as a firewall. Proxy server firewalls have special software to enforce authentication. Proxy server firewalls act as a middle man for user requests.\n<\/p><p>Antivirus software programs such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/McAfee\" title=\"McAfee\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d691ee59c38cd84d160e3949f3a6b1b\">McAfee<\/a> and Symantec software locate and dispose of malicious content. These virus protection programs run live updates to ensure they have the latest information about known computer viruses.\n<\/p><p>Logical security includes software safeguards for an organization's systems, including user ID and password access, authentication, access rights and authority levels. These measures are to ensure that only authorized users are able to perform actions or access information in a network or a workstation.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Behavioral_audit\">Behavioral audit<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Vulnerabilities in an organization's&#160; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IT systems\" data-key=\"4c5579739ac47ba288d1e8ce30aa178a\">IT systems<\/a> are often not attributed to technical weaknesses, but rather related to individual behavior of employees within the organization. A simple example of this is users leaving their computers unlocked or being vulnerable to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phishing\" title=\"Phishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c8238cbe6d3bb4c5c9496327b378d3b\">phishing<\/a> attacks. As a result, a thorough InfoSec audit will frequently include a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Penetration_test\" title=\"Penetration test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44dca4a1522ae55cbe5d49e703a38983\">penetration test<\/a> in which auditors attempt to gain access to as much of the system as possible, from both the perspective of a typical employee as well as an outsider.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> A behavioral audit ensures preventative measures are in place such as a phishing webinar, where employees are made aware of what phishing is and how to detect it.\n<\/p><p>System and process assurance audits combine elements from IT infrastructure and application\/information security audits and use diverse controls in categories such as Completeness, Accuracy, Validity (V) and Restricted access (CAVR).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Auditing_application_security\">Auditing application security<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485\" \/>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Application_security\">Application security<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Application Security centers on three main functions:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Programming<\/li>\n<li>Processing<\/li>\n<li>Access<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>When it comes to programming it is important to ensure proper physical and password protection exists around servers and mainframes for the development and update of key systems. Having physical access security at one's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_center\" title=\"Data center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f7623fd733432645a66e8903167fc90\">data center<\/a> or office such as electronic badges and badge readers, security guards, choke points, and security cameras is vitally important to ensuring the security of applications and data. Then one needs to have security around changes to the system. Those usually have to do with proper security access to make the changes and having proper authorization procedures in place for pulling programming changes from development through test and finally into production.\n<\/p><p>With processing, it is important that procedures and monitoring of a few different aspects such as the input of falsified or erroneous data, incomplete processing, duplicate transactions and untimely processing are in place. Making sure that input is randomly reviewed or that all processing has proper approval is a way to ensure this. It is important to be able to identify incomplete processing and ensure that proper procedures are in place for either completing it or deleting it from the system if it was in error. There should also be procedures to identify and correct duplicate entries. Finally, when it comes to processing that is not being done on a timely basis one should back-track the associated data to see where the delay is coming from and identify whether or not this delay creates any control concerns.\n<\/p><p>Finally, access, it is important to realize that maintaining <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_security\" title=\"Network security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd28fe06f1e45ea385d35225e5d4effc\">network security<\/a> against unauthorized access is one of the major focuses for companies as threats can come from a few sources. First, one have internal unauthorized access. It is very important to have system access passwords that must be changed regularly and that there is a way to track access and changes so one is able to identify who made what changes. All activity should be logged. The second arena to be concerned with is remote access, people accessing one's system from the outside through the internet. Setting up firewalls and password protection to on-line data changes are key to protecting against unauthorized remote access. One way to identify weaknesses in access controls is to bring in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacker_(computer_security)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hacker (computer security)\" data-key=\"451128bf11e718a1cc4e2e4e24e268cf\">hacker<\/a> to try and crack one's system by either gaining entry to the building and using an internal terminal or hacking in from the outside through remote access.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Summary\">Summary<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>An information security audit can be defined by examining the different aspects of information security. External and internal professionals within an institution&#160; have the responsibility of maintaining and inspecting the adequacy and effectiveness of information security. As in any institution, there are various controls to be implemented and maintained. To secure the information, an institution is expected to apply security measures to circumvent outside intervention. By and large, the two concepts of application security and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Separation_of_duties\" title=\"Separation of duties\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7578cb212b3437ee680aeaa464fbdffc\">segregation of duties<\/a> are both in many ways connected and they both have the same goal, to protect the integrity of the companies\u2019 data and to prevent fraud. For application security, it has to do with preventing unauthorized access to hardware and software through having proper security measures both physical and electronic in place. With segregation of duties, it is primarily a physical review of individuals\u2019 access to the systems and processing and ensuring that there are no overlaps that could lead to fraud. The type of audit the individual performs determines the specific procedures and tests to be executed throughout the audit process.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security\" title=\"Computer security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c2aa75aadd7f77c4f5ad26205c4c77b\">Computer security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defensive_computing\" title=\"Defensive computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f440b3cf02f9b6c360642a983144e809\">Defensive computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directive_95\/46\/EC_on_the_protection_of_personal_data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Directive 95\/46\/EC on the protection of personal data\" data-key=\"4d8a4e5373ba1456e20c6900fa6c40e1\">Directive 95\/46\/EC on the protection of personal data<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethical_hack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ethical hack\" data-key=\"d6218da4f2490bff30faecce8f7a912f\">Ethical hack<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" title=\"Information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">Information security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Penetration_test\" title=\"Penetration test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44dca4a1522ae55cbe5d49e703a38983\">Penetration test<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_breach\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Security breach\" data-key=\"615cf623d29a06e9d0ea43081be62f26\">Security breach<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.isaca.org\/resources\/isaca-journal\/issues\/2016\/volume-5\/holistic-it-governance-risk-management-security-and-privacy-needed-for-effective-implementation-and\" target=\"_blank\">\"Effective Governance Risk Management | ISACA Journal\"<\/a>. <i>ISACA<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Cao, Mingwei; Sun, Yeguo (2021-12-15). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8673604\" target=\"_blank\">\"A fusion data security protection scheme for sensitive E-documents in the open network environment\"<\/a>. <i>PLOS ONE<\/i>. <b>16<\/b> (12): e0258464. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0258464\" target=\"_blank\">10.1371\/journal.pone.0258464<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1932-6203\" target=\"_blank\">1932-6203<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8673604\" target=\"_blank\">8673604<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/34910722\" target=\"_blank\">34910722<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&amp;rft.atitle=A+fusion+data+security+protection+scheme+for+sensitive+E-documents+in+the+open+network+environment&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.issue=12&amp;rft.pages=e0258464&amp;rft.date=2021-12-15&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8673604%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=1932-6203&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34910722&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0258464&amp;rft.aulast=Liu&amp;rft.aufirst=Lei&amp;rft.au=Cao%2C+Mingwei&amp;rft.au=Sun%2C+Yeguo&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8673604&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security+audit\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAbu-JassarAttarYevsieievAmer2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Abu-Jassar, Amer Tahseen; Attar, Hani; Yevsieiev, Vladyslav; Amer, Ayman; Demska, Nataliia; Luhach, Ashish Kr.; Lyashenko, Vyacheslav (2022-04-13). Ning, Xin (ed.). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC9020904\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic User Authentication Key for Access to HMI\/SCADA via Unsecured Internet Networks\"<\/a>. <i>Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience<\/i>. <b>2022<\/b>: 1\u201313. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155%2F2022%2F5866922\" target=\"_blank\">10.1155\/2022\/5866922<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1687-5273\" target=\"_blank\">1687-5273<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC9020904\" target=\"_blank\">9020904<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/35463229\" target=\"_blank\">35463229<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Computational+Intelligence+and+Neuroscience&amp;rft.atitle=Electronic+User+Authentication+Key+for+Access+to+HMI%2FSCADA+via+Unsecured+Internet+Networks&amp;rft.volume=2022&amp;rft.pages=1-13&amp;rft.date=2022-04-13&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9020904%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=1687-5273&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35463229&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2022%2F5866922&amp;rft.aulast=Abu-Jassar&amp;rft.aufirst=Amer+Tahseen&amp;rft.au=Attar%2C+Hani&amp;rft.au=Yevsieiev%2C+Vladyslav&amp;rft.au=Amer%2C+Ayman&amp;rft.au=Demska%2C+Nataliia&amp;rft.au=Luhach%2C+Ashish+Kr.&amp;rft.au=Lyashenko%2C+Vyacheslav&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9020904&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security+audit\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.360ict.co.uk\/data-protection-and-security-tips\" target=\"_blank\">\"10 Pieces of Advice That Will Help You Protect Your Data\"<\/a>. 360ict<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=10+Pieces+of+Advice+That+Will+Help+You+Protect+Your+Data&amp;rft.pub=360ict&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.360ict.co.uk%2Fdata-protection-and-security-tips&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security+audit\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">K. Julisch et al., <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/soadecisions.org\/download\/ComplianceByDesign-AAM.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Compliance by design - Bridging the chasm between auditors and IT architects<\/a> Computers &amp; Security 30(6-7): 410-426 (2011)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bibliography\">Bibliography<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGallegos,_FrederickSenft,_SandraManson,_Daniel_P.Gonzales,_Carol2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Gallegos, Frederick; Senft, Sandra; Manson, Daniel P.; Gonzales, Carol (2004). <i>Technology Control and Audit (2nd ed.)<\/i>. Auerbach Publications. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-8493-2032-1<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Technology+Control+and+Audit+%282nd+ed.%29&amp;rft.pub=Auerbach+Publications&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=0-8493-2032-1&amp;rft.au=Gallegos%2C+Frederick&amp;rft.au=Senft%2C+Sandra&amp;rft.au=Manson%2C+Daniel+P.&amp;rft.au=Gonzales%2C+Carol&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security+audit\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.auditnet.org\/docs\/datacent.txt\" target=\"_blank\">Examining Data Centers<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.windowsecurity.com\/software\/Network-Auditing\/\" target=\"_blank\">Network Auditing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/openxdas.sourceforge.net\" target=\"_blank\">The OpenXDAS project<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.isaca.org\/Template.cfm?Section=IT_Audit_Basics&Template=\/ContentManagement\/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=11234\" target=\"_blank\">Information Systems and Audit Control Association (ISACA)<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070927220032\/http:\/\/www.isaca.org\/Template.cfm?Section=IT_Audit_Basics&Template=%2FContentManagement%2FContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=11234\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2007-09-27 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050326062253\/http:\/\/www.theiia.org\/itaudit\/index.cfm?fuseaction=forum&fid=5444\" target=\"_blank\">The Institute of Internal Auditors<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1352\nCached time: 20231215182705\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.276 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.360 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1266\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 52517\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 977\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 2\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 38634\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.154\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6176691\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 303.914 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>44.01% 133.760 1 Template:Reflist\n29.23% 88.824 6 Template:Cite_web\n24.48% 74.404 4 Template:Ambox\n21.16% 64.309 3 Template:Unreferenced_section\n18.96% 57.608 3 Template:Unreferenced\n18.74% 56.944 1 Template:Short_description\n 9.78% 29.709 2 Template:Pagetype\n 7.90% 24.019 1 Template:More_citations_needed\n 6.79% 20.636 3 Template:Cite_journal\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:1997617-0!canonical and timestamp 20231215182704 and revision id 1161214428. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology_security_audit\" data-key=\"7135277757379a18b0456060e566c670\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110165257\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.105 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.318 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 65590\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 299.153 1 wikipedia:Information_technology_security_audit\n100.00% 299.153 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8870-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110165256 and revision id 25950. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_technology_security_audit\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_technology_security_audit<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","aca6d664bdd7690b6fbb176859ed0652_images":[],"aca6d664bdd7690b6fbb176859ed0652_timestamp":1704907002,"153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_type":"article","153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_title":"Information security management","153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security_management","153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_plaintext":"\n\nInformation security managementFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_management?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security_management\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security_management<\/a>\nCategories: Computer securityData securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 21 June 2016, at 21:49.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,690 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Information_security_management rootpage-Information_security_management skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Information security management<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_management?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_management\" data-key=\"965dd2c20d37321146f7748f8a080d52\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171642\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.081 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.150 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 113\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 146.527 1 wikipedia:Information_security_management\n100.00% 146.527 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8868-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171642 and revision id 25947. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security_management\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security_management<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_images":[],"153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_timestamp":1704907002,"9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_type":"article","9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_title":"Information security","9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security","9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_plaintext":"\n\nInformation securityFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchProtecting information by mitigating risk\n\nInformation security, sometimes shortened to InfoSec,[1] is the practice of protecting information by mitigating information risks. It is part of information risk management.[2][3] It typically involves preventing or reducing the probability of unauthorized or inappropriate access to data or the unlawful use, disclosure, disruption, deletion, corruption, modification, inspection, recording, or devaluation of information.[citation needed ] It also involves actions intended to reduce the adverse impacts of such incidents. Protected information may take any form, e.g., electronic or physical, tangible (e.g., paperwork), or intangible (e.g., knowledge).[4][5] Information security's primary focus is the balanced protection of data confidentiality, integrity, and availability (also known as the \"CIA\" triad) while maintaining a focus on efficient policy implementation, all without hampering organization productivity.[6] This is largely achieved through a structured risk management process that involves: \n\nIdentifying information and related assets, plus potential threats, vulnerabilities, and impacts;\nEvaluating the risks\nDeciding how to address or treat the risks, i.e., to avoid, mitigate, share, or accept them\nWhere risk mitigation is required, selecting or designing appropriate security controls and implementing them\nMonitoring the activities and making adjustments as necessary to address any issues, changes, or improvement opportunities[7]\nTo standardize this discipline, academics and professionals collaborate to offer guidance, policies, and industry standards on passwords, antivirus software, firewalls, encryption software, legal liability, security awareness and training, and so forth.[8] This standardization may be further driven by a wide variety of laws and regulations that affect how data is accessed, processed, stored, transferred, and destroyed.[9] However, the implementation of any standards and guidance within an entity may have limited effect if a culture of continual improvement is not adopted.[10]\n\n\n\nDefinition \nInformation Security Attributes: or qualities, i.e., Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability (CIA). Information Systems are composed in three main portions, hardware, software and communications with the purpose to help identify and apply information security industry standards, as mechanisms of protection and prevention, at three levels or layers: physical, personal and organizational. Essentially, procedures or policies are implemented to tell administrators, users and operators how to use products to ensure information security within the organizations.[11]\n\nVarious definitions of information security are suggested below, summarized from different sources:\n\n\"Preservation of confidentiality, integrity and availability of information. Note: In addition, other properties, such as authenticity, accountability, non-repudiation and reliability can also be involved.\" (ISO\/IEC 27000:2018)[12]\n\"The protection of information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction in order to provide confidentiality, integrity, and availability.\" (CNSS, 2010)[13]\n\"Ensures that only authorized users (confidentiality) have access to accurate and complete information (integrity) when required (availability).\" (ISACA, 2008)[14]\n\"Information Security is the process of protecting the intellectual property of an organisation.\" (Pipkin, 2000)[15]\n\"...information security is a risk management discipline, whose job is to manage the cost of information risk to the business.\" (McDermott and Geer, 2001)[16]\n\"A well-informed sense of assurance that information risks and controls are in balance.\" (Anderson, J., 2003)[17]\n\"Information security is the protection of information and minimizes the risk of exposing information to unauthorized parties.\" (Venter and Eloff, 2003)[18]\n\"Information Security is a multidisciplinary area of study and professional activity which is concerned with the development and implementation of security mechanisms of all available types (technical, organizational, human-oriented and legal) in order to keep information in all its locations (within and outside the organization's perimeter) and, consequently, information systems, where information is created, processed, stored, transmitted and destroyed, free from threats.[19] Threats to information and information systems may be categorized and a corresponding security goal may be defined for each category of threats.[20] A set of security goals, identified as a result of a threat analysis, should be revised periodically to ensure its adequacy and conformance with the evolving environment.[21] The currently relevant set of security goals may include: confidentiality, integrity, availability, privacy, authenticity &amp; trustworthiness, non-repudiation, accountability and auditability.\" (Cherdantseva and Hilton, 2013)[11]\nInformation and information resource security using telecommunication system or devices means protecting information, information systems or books from unauthorized access, damage, theft, or destruction (Kurose and Ross, 2010).[22]\nOverview \nAt the core of information security is information assurance, the act of maintaining the confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA) of information, ensuring that information is not compromised in any way when critical issues arise.[23] These issues include but are not limited to natural disasters, computer\/server malfunction, and physical theft. While paper-based business operations are still prevalent, requiring their own set of information security practices, enterprise digital initiatives are increasingly being emphasized,[24][25] with information assurance now typically being dealt with by information technology (IT) security specialists. These specialists apply information security to technology (most often some form of computer system). It is worthwhile to note that a computer does not necessarily mean a home desktop.[26] A computer is any device with a processor and some memory. Such devices can range from non-networked standalone devices as simple as calculators, to networked mobile computing devices such as smartphones and tablet computers.[27] IT security specialists are almost always found in any major enterprise\/establishment due to the nature and value of the data within larger businesses.[28] They are responsible for keeping all of the technology within the company secure from malicious cyber attacks that often attempt to acquire critical private information or gain control of the internal systems.[29][30]\nThe field of information security has grown and evolved significantly in recent years.[31] It offers many areas for specialization, including securing networks and allied infrastructure, securing applications and databases, security testing, information systems auditing, business continuity planning, electronic record discovery, and digital forensics.[citation needed ] Information security professionals are very stable in their employment.[32] As of 2013[update] more than 80 percent of professionals had no change in employer or employment over a period of a year, and the number of professionals is projected to continuously grow more than 11 percent annually from 2014 to 2019.[33]\n\nThreats \nInformation security threats come in many different forms.[34][35] Some of the most common threats today are software attacks, theft of intellectual property, theft of identity, theft of equipment or information, sabotage, and information extortion.[36][37] Viruses,[38] worms, phishing attacks, and Trojan horses are a few common examples of software attacks. The theft of intellectual property has also been an extensive issue for many businesses in the information technology (IT) field.[39] Identity theft is the attempt to act as someone else usually to obtain that person's personal information or to take advantage of their access to vital information through social engineering.[40][41] Theft of equipment or information is becoming more prevalent today due to the fact that most devices today are mobile,[42] are prone to theft and have also become far more desirable as the amount of data capacity increases. Sabotage usually consists of the destruction of an organization's website in an attempt to cause loss of confidence on the part of its customers.[43] Information extortion consists of theft of a company's property or information as an attempt to receive a payment in exchange for returning the information or property back to its owner, as with ransomware.[44] There are many ways to help protect yourself from some of these attacks but one of the most functional precautions is conduct periodical user awareness.[45] The number one threat to any organisation are users or internal employees, they are also called insider threats.[46]\nGovernments, military, corporations, financial institutions, hospitals, non-profit organisations, and private businesses amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees, customers, products, research, and financial status.[47] Should confidential information about a business's customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor or a black hat hacker, a business and its customers could suffer widespread, irreparable financial loss, as well as damage to the company's reputation.[48] From a business perspective, information security must be balanced against cost; the Gordon-Loeb Model provides a mathematical economic approach for addressing this concern.[49]\nFor the individual, information security has a significant effect on privacy, which is viewed very differently in various cultures.[50]\n\nResponses to threats \nPossible responses to a security threat or risk are:[51]\n\nreduce\/mitigate \u2013 implement safeguards and countermeasures to eliminate vulnerabilities or block threats\nassign\/transfer \u2013 place the cost of the threat onto another entity or organization such as purchasing insurance or outsourcing\naccept \u2013 evaluate if the cost of the countermeasure outweighs the possible cost of loss due to the threat[52]\nHistory \nSince the early days of communication, diplomats and military commanders understood that it was necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of correspondence and to have some means of detecting tampering.[citation needed ] Julius Caesar is credited with the invention of the Caesar cipher c. 50 B.C., which was created in order to prevent his secret messages from being read should a message fall into the wrong hands.[53] However, for the most part protection was achieved through the application of procedural handling controls.[54][55] Sensitive information was marked up to indicate that it should be protected and transported by trusted persons, guarded and stored in a secure environment or strong box.[56] As postal services expanded, governments created official organizations to intercept, decipher, read, and reseal letters (e.g., the U.K.'s Secret Office, founded in 1653[57]).\nIn the mid-nineteenth century more complex classification systems were developed to allow governments to manage their information according to the degree of sensitivity.[58] For example, the British Government codified this, to some extent, with the publication of the Official Secrets Act in 1889.[59] Section 1 of the law concerned espionage and unlawful disclosures of information, while Section 2 dealt with breaches of official trust.[60] A public interest defense was soon added to defend disclosures in the interest of the state.[61] A similar law was passed in India in 1889, The Indian Official Secrets Act, which was associated with the British colonial era and used to crack down on newspapers that opposed the Raj's policies.[62] A newer version was passed in 1923 that extended to all matters of confidential or secret information for governance.[63] By the time of the First World War, multi-tier classification systems were used to communicate information to and from various fronts, which encouraged greater use of code making and breaking sections in diplomatic and military headquarters.[64] Encoding became more sophisticated between the wars as machines were employed to scramble and unscramble information.[65]\nThe establishment of computer security inaugurated the history of information security. The need for such appeared during World War II.[66] The volume of information shared by the Allied countries during the Second World War necessitated formal alignment of classification systems and procedural controls.[67] An arcane range of markings evolved to indicate who could handle documents (usually officers rather than enlisted troops) and where they should be stored as increasingly complex safes and storage facilities were developed.[68] The Enigma Machine, which was employed by the Germans to encrypt the data of warfare and was successfully decrypted by Alan Turing, can be regarded as a striking example of creating and using secured information.[69] Procedures evolved to ensure documents were destroyed properly, and it was the failure to follow these procedures which led to some of the greatest intelligence coups of the war (e.g., the capture of U-570[69]).\nVarious mainframe computers were connected online during the Cold War to complete more sophisticated tasks, in a communication process easier than mailing magnetic tapes back and forth by computer centers. As such, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), of the United States Department of Defense, started researching the feasibility of a networked system of communication to trade information within the United States Armed Forces. In 1968, the ARPANET project was formulated by Larry Roberts, which would later evolve into what is known as the internet.[70]\nIn 1973, important elements of ARPANET security were found by internet pioneer Robert Metcalfe to have many flaws such as the: \"vulnerability of password structure and formats; lack of safety procedures for dial-up connections; and nonexistent user identification and authorizations\", aside from the lack of controls and safeguards to keep data safe from unauthorized access. Hackers had effortless access to ARPANET, as phone numbers were known by the public.[71] Due to these problems, coupled with the constant violation of computer security, as well as the exponential increase in the number of hosts and users of the system, \"network security\" was often alluded to as \"network insecurity\".[71]\nThe end of the twentieth century and the early years of the twenty-first century saw rapid advancements in telecommunications, computing hardware and software, and data encryption.[72] The availability of smaller, more powerful, and less expensive computing equipment made electronic data processing within the reach of small business and home users.[73] The establishment of Transfer Control Protocol\/Internetwork Protocol (TCP\/IP) in the early 1980s enabled different types of computers to communicate.[74] These computers quickly became interconnected through the internet.[75]\nThe rapid growth and widespread use of electronic data processing and electronic business conducted through the internet, along with numerous occurrences of international terrorism, fueled the need for better methods of protecting the computers and the information they store, process, and transmit.[76] The academic disciplines of computer security and information assurance emerged along with numerous professional organizations, all sharing the common goals of ensuring the security and reliability of information systems.[citation needed ]\n\nBasic principles \nKey concepts \nPoster promoting information security by the Russian Ministry of Defence\n\nThe \"CIA\" triad of confidentiality, integrity, and availability is at the heart of information security.[77] (The members of the classic InfoSec triad\u2014confidentiality, integrity, and availability\u2014are interchangeably referred to in the literature as security attributes, properties, security goals, fundamental aspects, information criteria, critical information characteristics and basic building blocks.)[78] However, debate continues about whether or not this triad is sufficient to address rapidly changing technology and business requirements, with recommendations to consider expanding on the intersections between availability and confidentiality, as well as the relationship between security and privacy.[23] Other principles such as \"accountability\" have sometimes been proposed; it has been pointed out that issues such as non-repudiation do not fit well within the three core concepts.[79]\nThe triad seems to have first been mentioned in a NIST publication in 1977.[80]\nIn 1992 and revised in 2002, the OECD's Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and Networks[81] proposed the nine generally accepted principles: awareness, responsibility, response, ethics, democracy, risk assessment, security design and implementation, security management, and reassessment.[82] Building upon those, in 2004 the NIST's Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security[79] proposed 33 principles. From each of these derived guidelines and practices.\nIn 1998, Donn Parker proposed an alternative model for the classic \"CIA\" triad that he called the six atomic elements of information. The elements are confidentiality, possession, integrity, authenticity, availability, and utility. The merits of the Parkerian Hexad are a subject of debate amongst security professionals.[83]\nIn 2011, The Open Group published the information security management standard O-ISM3.[84] This standard proposed an operational definition of the key concepts of security, with elements called \"security objectives\", related to access control (9), availability (3), data quality (1), compliance, and technical (4). In 2009, DoD Software Protection Initiative Archived 2016-09-25 at the Wayback Machine released the Three Tenets of Cybersecurity Archived 2020-05-10 at the Wayback Machine which are System Susceptibility, Access to the Flaw, and Capability to Exploit the Flaw.[85][86][87] Neither of these models are widely adopted.\n\nConfidentiality \nIn information security, confidentiality \"is the property, that information is not made available or disclosed to unauthorized individuals, entities, or processes.\"[88] While similar to \"privacy,\" the two words are not interchangeable. Rather, confidentiality is a component of privacy that implements to protect our data from unauthorized viewers.[89] Examples of confidentiality of electronic data being compromised include laptop theft, password theft, or sensitive emails being sent to the incorrect individuals.[90]\n\nIntegrity \nIn IT security, data integrity means maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of data over its entire lifecycle.[91] This means that data cannot be modified in an unauthorized or undetected manner.[92] This is not the same thing as referential integrity in databases, although it can be viewed as a special case of consistency as understood in the classic ACID model of transaction processing.[93] Information security systems typically incorporate controls to ensure their own integrity, in particular protecting the kernel or core functions against both deliberate and accidental threats.[94] Multi-purpose and multi-user computer systems aim to compartmentalize the data and processing such that no user or process can adversely impact another: the controls may not succeed however, as we see in incidents such as malware infections, hacks, data theft, fraud, and privacy breaches.[95]\nMore broadly, integrity is an information security principle that involves human\/social, process, and commercial integrity, as well as data integrity. As such it touches on aspects such as credibility, consistency, truthfulness, completeness, accuracy, timeliness, and assurance.[96]\n\nAvailability \nFor any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be available when it is needed.[97] This means the computing systems used to store and process the information, the security controls used to protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be functioning correctly.[98] High availability systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing service disruptions due to power outages, hardware failures, and system upgrades.[99] Ensuring availability also involves preventing denial-of-service attacks, such as a flood of incoming messages to the target system, essentially forcing it to shut down.[100]\nIn the realm of information security, availability can often be viewed as one of the most important parts of a successful information security program.[citation needed ] Ultimately end-users need to be able to perform job functions; by ensuring availability an organization is able to perform to the standards that an organization's stakeholders expect.[101] This can involve topics such as proxy configurations, outside web access, the ability to access shared drives and the ability to send emails.[102] Executives oftentimes do not understand the technical side of information security and look at availability as an easy fix, but this often requires collaboration from many different organizational teams, such as network operations, development operations, incident response, and policy\/change management.[103] A successful information security team involves many different key roles to mesh and align for the \"CIA\" triad to be provided effectively.[104]\n\nNon-repudiation \nIn law, non-repudiation implies one's intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract. It also implies that one party of a transaction cannot deny having received a transaction, nor can the other party deny having sent a transaction.[105]\nIt is important to note that while technology such as cryptographic systems can assist in non-repudiation efforts, the concept is at its core a legal concept transcending the realm of technology.[106] It is not, for instance, sufficient to show that the message matches a digital signature signed with the sender's private key, and thus only the sender could have sent the message, and nobody else could have altered it in transit (data integrity).[107] The alleged sender could in return demonstrate that the digital signature algorithm is vulnerable or flawed, or allege or prove that his signing key has been compromised.[108] The fault for these violations may or may not lie with the sender, and such assertions may or may not relieve the sender of liability, but the assertion would invalidate the claim that the signature necessarily proves authenticity and integrity. As such, the sender may repudiate the message (because authenticity and integrity are pre-requisites for non-repudiation).[109]\n\nRisk management \nMain article: Risk management\nBroadly speaking, risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational asset (or the loss of the asset).[110] A vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to endanger or cause harm to an informational asset. A threat is anything (man-made or act of nature) that has the potential to cause harm.[111] The likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm creates a risk. When a threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm, it has an impact.[112] In the context of information security, the impact is a loss of availability, integrity, and confidentiality, and possibly other losses (lost income, loss of life, loss of real property).[113]\nThe Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) Review Manual 2006 defines risk management as \"the process of identifying vulnerabilities and threats to the information resources used by an organization in achieving business objectives, and deciding what countermeasures,[114] if any, to take in reducing risk to an acceptable level, based on the value of the information resource to the organization.\"[115]\nThere are two things in this definition that may need some clarification. First, the process of risk management is an ongoing, iterative process. It must be repeated indefinitely. The business environment is constantly changing and new threats and vulnerabilities emerge every day.[116] Second, the choice of countermeasures (controls) used to manage risks must strike a balance between productivity, cost, effectiveness of the countermeasure, and the value of the informational asset being protected.[117] Furthermore, these processes have limitations as security breaches are generally rare and emerge in a specific context which may not be easily duplicated.[118] Thus, any process and countermeasure should itself be evaluated for vulnerabilities.[119] It is not possible to identify all risks, nor is it possible to eliminate all risk. The remaining risk is called \"residual risk\".[120]\nA risk assessment is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of the business.[121] Membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business are assessed.[122] The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed opinion, or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may use quantitative analysis.\nResearch has shown that the most vulnerable point in most information systems is the human user, operator, designer, or other human.[123] The ISO\/IEC 27002:2005 Code of practice for information security management recommends the following be examined during a risk assessment:\n\nsecurity policy,\norganization of information security,\nasset management,\nhuman resources security,\nphysical and environmental security,\ncommunications and operations management,\naccess control,\ninformation systems acquisition, development, and maintenance,\ninformation security incident management,\nbusiness continuity management\nregulatory compliance.\nIn broad terms, the risk management process consists of:[124][125]\n\nIdentification of assets and estimating their value. Include: people, buildings, hardware, software, data (electronic, print, other), supplies.[126]\nConduct a threat assessment. Include: Acts of nature, acts of war, accidents, malicious acts originating from inside or outside the organization.[127]\nConduct a vulnerability assessment, and for each vulnerability, calculate the probability that it will be exploited. Evaluate policies, procedures, standards, training, physical security, quality control, technical security.[128]\nCalculate the impact that each threat would have on each asset. Use qualitative analysis or quantitative analysis.[129]\nIdentify, select and implement appropriate controls. Provide a proportional response. Consider productivity, cost effectiveness, and value of the asset.[130]\nEvaluate the effectiveness of the control measures. Ensure the controls provide the required cost effective protection without discernible loss of productivity.[131]\nFor any given risk, management can choose to accept the risk based upon the relative low value of the asset, the relative low frequency of occurrence, and the relative low impact on the business.[132] Or, leadership may choose to mitigate the risk by selecting and implementing appropriate control measures to reduce the risk. In some cases, the risk can be transferred to another business by buying insurance or outsourcing to another business.[133] The reality of some risks may be disputed. In such cases leadership may choose to deny the risk.[134]\n\nSecurity controls \nMain article: security controls\nSelecting and implementing proper security controls will initially help an organization bring down risk to acceptable levels.[135] Control selection should follow and should be based on the risk assessment.[136] Controls can vary in nature, but fundamentally they are ways of protecting the confidentiality, integrity or availability of information. ISO\/IEC 27001 has defined controls in different areas.[137] Organizations can implement additional controls according to requirement of the organization.[138] ISO\/IEC 27002 offers a guideline for organizational information security standards.[139]\n\nAdministrative \nAdministrative controls (also called procedural controls) consist of approved written policies, procedures, standards, and guidelines. Administrative controls form the framework for running the business and managing people.[140] They inform people on how the business is to be run and how day-to-day operations are to be conducted. Laws and regulations created by government bodies are also a type of administrative control because they inform the business.[141] Some industry sectors have policies, procedures, standards, and guidelines that must be followed \u2013 the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard[142] (PCI DSS) required by Visa and MasterCard is such an example. Other examples of administrative controls include the corporate security policy, password policy, hiring policies, and disciplinary policies.[143]\nAdministrative controls form the basis for the selection and implementation of logical and physical controls. Logical and physical controls are manifestations of administrative controls, which are of paramount importance.[140]\n\nLogical \nLogical controls (also called technical controls) use software and data to monitor and control access to information and computing systems.[citation needed ] Passwords, network and host-based firewalls, network intrusion detection systems, access control lists, and data encryption are examples of logical controls.[144]\nAn important logical control that is frequently overlooked is the principle of least privilege, which requires that an individual, program or system process not be granted any more access privileges than are necessary to perform the task.[145] A blatant example of the failure to adhere to the principle of least privilege is logging into Windows as user Administrator to read email and surf the web. Violations of this principle can also occur when an individual collects additional access privileges over time.[146] This happens when employees' job duties change, employees are promoted to a new position, or employees are transferred to another department.[147] The access privileges required by their new duties are frequently added onto their already existing access privileges, which may no longer be necessary or appropriate.[148]\n\nPhysical \nPhysical controls monitor and control the environment of the work place and computing facilities.[149] They also monitor and control access to and from such facilities and include doors, locks, heating and air conditioning, smoke and fire alarms, fire suppression systems, cameras, barricades, fencing, security guards, cable locks, etc. Separating the network and workplace into functional areas are also physical controls.[150]\nAn important physical control that is frequently overlooked is separation of duties, which ensures that an individual can not complete a critical task by himself.[151] For example, an employee who submits a request for reimbursement should not also be able to authorize payment or print the check.[152] An applications programmer should not also be the server administrator or the database administrator; these roles and responsibilities must be separated from one another.[153]\n\nDefense in depth \nThe onion model of defense in depth\n\nMain article: Defense in depth (computing)\nInformation security must protect information throughout its lifespan, from the initial creation of the information on through to the final disposal of the information.[154] The information must be protected while in motion and while at rest. During its lifetime, information may pass through many different information processing systems and through many different parts of information processing systems.[155] There are many different ways the information and information systems can be threatened. To fully protect the information during its lifetime, each component of the information processing system must have its own protection mechanisms.[156] The building up, layering on, and overlapping of security measures is called \"defense in depth.\"[157] In contrast to a metal chain, which is famously only as strong as its weakest link, the defense in depth strategy aims at a structure where, should one defensive measure fail, other measures will continue to provide protection.[158]\nRecall the earlier discussion about administrative controls, logical controls, and physical controls. The three types of controls can be used to form the basis upon which to build a defense in depth strategy.[140] With this approach, defense in depth can be conceptualized as three distinct layers or planes laid one on top of the other.[159] Additional insight into defense in depth can be gained by thinking of it as forming the layers of an onion, with data at the core of the onion, people the next outer layer of the onion, and network security, host-based security, and application security forming the outermost layers of the onion.[160] Both perspectives are equally valid, and each provides valuable insight into the implementation of a good defense in depth strategy.[161]\n\nClassification \nAn important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of information and defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for the information.[162] Not all information is equal and so not all information requires the same degree of protection.[163] This requires information to be assigned a security classification.[164] The first step in information classification is to identify a member of senior management as the owner of the particular information to be classified. Next, develop a classification policy.[165] The policy should describe the different classification labels, define the criteria for information to be assigned a particular label, and list the required security controls for each classification.[166]\nSome factors that influence which classification information should be assigned include how much value that information has to the organization, how old the information is and whether or not the information has become obsolete.[167] Laws and other regulatory requirements are also important considerations when classifying information.[168] The Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA) and its Business Model for Information Security also serves as a tool for security professionals to examine security from a systems perspective, creating an environment where security can be managed holistically, allowing actual risks to be addressed.[169]\nThe type of information security classification labels selected and used will depend on the nature of the organization, with examples being:[166]\n\nIn the business sector, labels such as: Public, Sensitive, Private, Confidential.\nIn the government sector, labels such as: Unclassified, Unofficial, Protected, Confidential, Secret, Top Secret, and their non-English equivalents.[170]\nIn cross-sectoral formations, the Traffic Light Protocol, which consists of: White, Green, Amber, and Red.\nIn the personal sector, one label such as Financial. This includes activities related to managing money, such as online banking.[171]\nAll employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the classification schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for each classification.[172] The classification of a particular information asset that has been assigned should be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for the information and to ensure the security controls required by the classification are in place and are followed in their right procedures.[173]\n\nAccess control \nAccess to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the information.[174] The computer programs, and in many cases the computers that process the information, must also be authorized.[175] This requires that mechanisms be in place to control the access to protected information.[175] The sophistication of the access control mechanisms should be in parity with the value of the information being protected; the more sensitive or valuable the information the stronger the control mechanisms need to be.[176] The foundation on which access control mechanisms are built start with identification and authentication.[177]\nAccess control is generally considered in three steps: identification, authentication, and authorization.[178][90]\n\nIdentification \nIdentification is an assertion of who someone is or what something is. If a person makes the statement \"Hello, my name is John Doe\" they are making a claim of who they are.[179] However, their claim may or may not be true. Before John Doe can be granted access to protected information it will be necessary to verify that the person claiming to be John Doe really is John Doe.[180] Typically the claim is in the form of a username. By entering that username you are claiming \"I am the person the username belongs to\".[181]\n\nAuthentication \nAuthentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity. When John Doe goes into a bank to make a withdrawal, he tells the bank teller he is John Doe, a claim of identity.[182] The bank teller asks to see a photo ID, so he hands the teller his driver's license.[183] The bank teller checks the license to make sure it has John Doe printed on it and compares the photograph on the license against the person claiming to be John Doe.[184] If the photo and name match the person, then the teller has authenticated that John Doe is who he claimed to be. Similarly, by entering the correct password, the user is providing evidence that he\/she is the person the username belongs to.[185]\nThere are three different types of information that can be used for authentication:[186][187]\n\nSomething you know: things such as a PIN, a password, or your mother's maiden name[188][189]\nSomething you have: a driver's license or a magnetic swipe card[190][191]\nSomething you are: biometrics, including palm prints, fingerprints, voice prints, and retina (eye) scans[192]\nStrong authentication requires providing more than one type of authentication information (two-factor authentication).[193] The username is the most common form of identification on computer systems today and the password is the most common form of authentication.[194] Usernames and passwords have served their purpose, but they are increasingly inadequate.[195] Usernames and passwords are slowly being replaced or supplemented with more sophisticated authentication mechanisms such as time-based one-time password algorithms.[196]\n\nAuthorization \nAfter a person, program or computer has successfully been identified and authenticated then it must be determined what informational resources they are permitted to access and what actions they will be allowed to perform (run, view, create, delete, or change).[197] This is called authorization. Authorization to access information and other computing services begins with administrative policies and procedures.[198] The policies prescribe what information and computing services can be accessed, by whom, and under what conditions. The access control mechanisms are then configured to enforce these policies.[199] Different computing systems are equipped with different kinds of access control mechanisms. Some may even offer a choice of different access control mechanisms.[200] The access control mechanism a system offers will be based upon one of three approaches to access control, or it may be derived from a combination of the three approaches.[90]\nThe non-discretionary approach consolidates all access control under a centralized administration.[201] The access to information and other resources is usually based on the individuals function (role) in the organization or the tasks the individual must perform.[202][203] The discretionary approach gives the creator or owner of the information resource the ability to control access to those resources.[201] In the mandatory access control approach, access is granted or denied basing upon the security classification assigned to the information resource.[174]\nExamples of common access control mechanisms in use today include role-based access control, available in many advanced database management systems; simple file permissions provided in the UNIX and Windows operating systems;[204] Group Policy Objects provided in Windows network systems; and Kerberos, RADIUS, TACACS, and the simple access lists used in many firewalls and routers.[205]\nTo be effective, policies and other security controls must be enforceable and upheld. Effective policies ensure that people are held accountable for their actions.[206] The U.S. Treasury's guidelines for systems processing sensitive or proprietary information, for example, states that all failed and successful authentication and access attempts must be logged, and all access to information must leave some type of audit trail.[207]\nAlso, the need-to-know principle needs to be in effect when talking about access control. This principle gives access rights to a person to perform their job functions.[208] This principle is used in the government when dealing with difference clearances.[209] Even though two employees in different departments have a top-secret clearance, they must have a need-to-know in order for information to be exchanged. Within the need-to-know principle, network administrators grant the employee the least amount of privilege to prevent employees from accessing more than what they are supposed to.[210] Need-to-know helps to enforce the confidentiality-integrity-availability triad. Need-to-know directly impacts the confidential area of the triad.[211]\n\nCryptography \nMain article: Cryptography\nInformation security uses cryptography to transform usable information into a form that renders it unusable by anyone other than an authorized user; this process is called encryption.[212] Information that has been encrypted (rendered unusable) can be transformed back into its original usable form by an authorized user who possesses the cryptographic key, through the process of decryption.[213] Cryptography is used in information security to protect information from unauthorized or accidental disclosure while the information is in transit (either electronically or physically) and while information is in storage.[90]\nCryptography provides information security with other useful applications as well, including improved authentication methods, message digests, digital signatures, non-repudiation, and encrypted network communications.[214] Older, less secure applications such as Telnet and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) are slowly being replaced with more secure applications such as Secure Shell (SSH) that use encrypted network communications.[215] Wireless communications can be encrypted using protocols such as WPA\/WPA2 or the older (and less secure) WEP. Wired communications (such as ITU\u2011T G.hn) are secured using AES for encryption and X.1035 for authentication and key exchange.[216] Software applications such as GnuPG or PGP can be used to encrypt data files and email.[217]\nCryptography can introduce security problems when it is not implemented correctly.[218] Cryptographic solutions need to be implemented using industry-accepted solutions that have undergone rigorous peer review by independent experts in cryptography.[219] The length and strength of the encryption key is also an important consideration.[220] A key that is weak or too short will produce weak encryption.[220] The keys used for encryption and decryption must be protected with the same degree of rigor as any other confidential information.[221] They must be protected from unauthorized disclosure and destruction, and they must be available when needed.[citation needed ] Public key infrastructure (PKI) solutions address many of the problems that surround key management.[90]\n\nProcess \nThe terms \"reasonable and prudent person\", \"due care\", and \"due diligence\" have been used in the fields of finance, securities, and law for many years. In recent years these terms have found their way into the fields of computing and information security.[125] U.S. Federal Sentencing Guidelines now make it possible to hold corporate officers liable for failing to exercise due care and due diligence in the management of their information systems.[222]\nIn the business world, stockholders, customers, business partners, and governments have the expectation that corporate officers will run the business in accordance with accepted business practices and in compliance with laws and other regulatory requirements. This is often described as the \"reasonable and prudent person\" rule. A prudent person takes due care to ensure that everything necessary is done to operate the business by sound business principles and in a legal, ethical manner. A prudent person is also diligent (mindful, attentive, ongoing) in their due care of the business.\nIn the field of information security, Harris[223]\noffers the following definitions of due care and due diligence:\n\n\n\"Due care are steps that are taken to show that a company has taken responsibility for the activities that take place within the corporation and has taken the necessary steps to help protect the company, its resources, and employees[224].\" And, [Due diligence are the] \"continual activities that make sure the protection mechanisms are continually maintained and operational.\"[225]\n\nAttention should be made to two important points in these definitions.[226][227] First, in due care, steps are taken to show; this means that the steps can be verified, measured, or even produce tangible artifacts.[228][229] Second, in due diligence, there are continual activities; this means that people are actually doing things to monitor and maintain the protection mechanisms, and these activities are ongoing.[230]\nOrganizations have a responsibility with practicing duty of care when applying information security. The Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard (DoCRA)[231] provides principles and practices for evaluating risk.[232] It considers all parties that could be affected by those risks.[233] DoCRA helps evaluate safeguards if they are appropriate in protecting others from harm while presenting a reasonable burden.[234] With increased data breach litigation, companies must balance security controls, compliance, and its mission.[235]\n\nSecurity governance \nSee also: Information Security Governance\nThe Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University, in a publication titled Governing for Enterprise Security (GES) Implementation Guide, defines characteristics of effective security governance. These include:[236]\n\nAn enterprise-wide issue\nLeaders are accountable\nViewed as a business requirement\nRisk-based\nRoles, responsibilities, and segregation of duties defined\nAddressed and enforced in policy\nAdequate resources committed\nStaff aware and trained\nA development life cycle requirement\nPlanned, managed, measurable, and measured\nReviewed and audited\nIncident response plans \n This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2018 ) \nAn incident response plan (IRP) is a group of policies that dictate an organizations reaction to a cyber attack. Once an security breach has been identified, for example by network intrusion detection system (NIDS) or host-based intrusion detection system (HIDS) (if configured to do so), the plan is initiated.[237] It is important to note that there can be legal implications to a data breach. Knowing local and federal laws is critical.[238] Every plan is unique to the needs of the organization, and it can involve skill sets that are not part of an IT team.[239] For example, a lawyer may be included in the response plan to help navigate legal implications to a data breach.[citation needed ]\nAs mentioned above every plan is unique but most plans will include the following:[240]\n\nPreparation \nGood preparation includes the development of an incident response team (IRT).[241] Skills need to be used by this team would be, penetration testing, computer forensics, network security, etc.[242] This team should also keep track of trends in cybersecurity and modern attack strategies.[243] A training program for end users is important as well as most modern attack strategies target users on the network.[240]\n\nIdentification \nThis part of the incident response plan identifies if there was a security event.[244] When an end user reports information or an admin notices irregularities, an investigation is launched. An incident log is a crucial part of this step.[citation needed ] All of the members of the team should be updating this log to ensure that information flows as fast as possible.[245] If it has been identified that a security breach has occurred the next step should be activated.[246]\n\nContainment \nIn this phase, the IRT works to isolate the areas that the breach took place to limit the scope of the security event.[247] During this phase it is important to preserve information forensically so it can be analyzed later in the process.[248] Containment could be as simple as physically containing a server room or as complex as segmenting a network to not allow the spread of a virus.[249]\n\nEradication \nThis is where the threat that was identified is removed from the affected systems.[250] This could include deleting malicious files, terminating compromised accounts, or deleting other components.[251][252] Some events do not require this step, however it is important to fully understand the event before moving to this step.[253] This will help to ensure that the threat is completely removed.[249]\n\nRecovery \nThis stage is where the systems are restored back to original operation.[254] This stage could include the recovery of data, changing user access information, or updating firewall rules or policies to prevent a breach in the future.[255][256] Without executing this step, the system could still be vulnerable to future security threats.[249]\n\nLessons learned \nIn this step information that has been gathered during this process is used to make future decisions on security.[257] This step is crucial to the ensure that future events are prevented. Using this information to further train admins is critical to the process.[258] This step can also be used to process information that is distributed from other entities who have experienced a security event.[259]\n\nChange management \nMain article: Change management (ITSM)\nChange management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the information processing environment.[260][261] This includes alterations to desktop computers, the network, servers, and software.[262] The objectives of change management are to reduce the risks posed by changes to the information processing environment and improve the stability and reliability of the processing environment as changes are made.[263] It is not the objective of change management to prevent or hinder necessary changes from being implemented.[264][265]\nAny change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk.[266] Even apparently simple changes can have unexpected effects.[267] One of management's many responsibilities is the management of risk.[268][269] Change management is a tool for managing the risks introduced by changes to the information processing environment.[270] Part of the change management process ensures that changes are not implemented at inopportune times when they may disrupt critical business processes or interfere with other changes being implemented.[271]\nNot every change needs to be managed.[272][273] Some kinds of changes are a part of the everyday routine of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure, which reduces the overall level of risk to the processing environment.[274] Creating a new user account or deploying a new desktop computer are examples of changes that do not generally require change management.[275] However, relocating user file shares, or upgrading the Email server pose a much higher level of risk to the processing environment and are not a normal everyday activity.[276] The critical first steps in change management are (a) defining change (and communicating that definition) and (b) defining the scope of the change system.[277]\nChange management is usually overseen by a change review board composed of representatives from key business areas,[278] security, networking, systems administrators, database administration, application developers, desktop support, and the help desk.[279] The tasks of the change review board can be facilitated with the use of automated work flow application.[280] The responsibility of the change review board is to ensure the organization's documented change management procedures are followed.[281] The change management process is as follows[282]\n\nRequest: Anyone can request a change.[283][284] The person making the change request may or may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the change.[285][286] When a request for change is received, it may undergo a preliminary review to determine if the requested change is compatible with the organizations business model and practices, and to determine the amount of resources needed to implement the change.[287]\nApprove: Management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore, management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change.[288] Management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with the business model, industry standards or best practices.[289][290] Management might also choose to reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be allocated for the change.[291]\nPlan: Planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed change; analyzing the complexity of the change; allocation of resources and, developing, testing, and documenting both implementation and back-out plans.[292] Need to define the criteria on which a decision to back out will be made.[293]\nTest: Every change must be tested in a safe test environment, which closely reflects the actual production environment, before the change is applied to the production environment.[294] The backout plan must also be tested.[295]\nSchedule: Part of the change review board's responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other scheduled changes or critical business activities.[296]\nCommunicate: Once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated.[297] The communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about other changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when scheduling the change.[298] The communication also serves to make the help desk and users aware that a change is about to occur.[299] Another responsibility of the change review board is to ensure that scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who will be affected by the change or otherwise have an interest in the change.[300][301]\nImplement: At the appointed date and time, the changes must be implemented.[302][303] Part of the planning process was to develop an implementation plan, testing plan and, a back out plan.[304][305] If the implementation of the change should fail or, the post implementation testing fails or, other \"drop dead\" criteria have been met, the back out plan should be implemented.[306]\nDocument: All changes must be documented.[307][308] The documentation includes the initial request for change, its approval, the priority assigned to it, the implementation,[309] testing and back out plans, the results of the change review board critique, the date\/time the change was implemented,[310] who implemented it, and whether the change was implemented successfully, failed or postponed.[311][312]\nPost-change review: The change review board should hold a post-implementation review of changes.[313] It is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes. The review board should try to understand the problems that were encountered, and look for areas for improvement.[313]\nChange management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce the overall risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment.[314] Good change management procedures improve the overall quality and success of changes as they are implemented.[315] This is accomplished through planning, peer review, documentation, and communication.[316]\nISO\/IEC 20000, The Visible OPS Handbook: Implementing ITIL in 4 Practical and Auditable Steps[317] (Full book summary),[318] and ITIL all provide valuable guidance on implementing an efficient and effective change management program information security.[319]\n\nBusiness continuity \nBusiness continuity management (BCM) concerns arrangements aiming to protect an organization's critical business functions from interruption due to incidents, or at least minimize the effects.[320][321] BCM is essential to any organization to keep technology and business in line with current threats to the continuation of business as usual.[322] The BCM should be included in an organizations risk analysis plan to ensure that all of the necessary business functions have what they need to keep going in the event of any type of threat to any business function.[323]\nIt encompasses:\n\nAnalysis of requirements, e.g., identifying critical business functions, dependencies and potential failure points, potential threats and hence incidents or risks of concern to the organization;[324][325]\nSpecification, e.g., maximum tolerable outage periods; recovery point objectives (maximum acceptable periods of data loss);[326]\nArchitecture and design, e.g., an appropriate combination of approaches including resilience (e.g. engineering IT systems and processes for high availability,[327] avoiding or preventing situations that might interrupt the business), incident and emergency management (e.g., evacuating premises, calling the emergency services, triage\/situation[328] assessment and invoking recovery plans), recovery (e.g., rebuilding) and contingency management (generic capabilities to deal positively with whatever occurs using whatever resources are available);[329]\nImplementation, e.g., configuring and scheduling backups, data transfers, etc., duplicating and strengthening critical elements; contracting with service and equipment suppliers;\nTesting, e.g., business continuity exercises of various types, costs and assurance levels;[330]\nManagement, e.g., defining strategies, setting objectives and goals; planning and directing the work; allocating funds, people and other resources; prioritization relative to other activities; team building, leadership, control, motivation and coordination with other business functions and activities[331] (e.g., IT, facilities, human resources, risk management, information risk and security, operations); monitoring the situation, checking and updating the arrangements when things change; maturing the approach through continuous improvement, learning and appropriate investment;[citation needed ]\nAssurance, e.g., testing against specified requirements; measuring, analyzing, and reporting key parameters; conducting additional tests, reviews and audits for greater confidence that the arrangements will go to plan if invoked.[332]\nWhereas BCM takes a broad approach to minimizing disaster-related risks by reducing both the probability and the severity of incidents, a disaster recovery plan (DRP) focuses specifically on resuming business operations as quickly as possible after a disaster.[333] A disaster recovery plan, invoked soon after a disaster occurs, lays out the steps necessary to recover critical information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure.[334] Disaster recovery planning includes establishing a planning group, performing risk assessment, establishing priorities, developing recovery strategies, preparing inventories and documentation of the plan, developing verification criteria and procedure, and lastly implementing the plan.[335]\n\nLaws and regulations \nPrivacy International 2007 privacy ranking\r\ngreen: Protections and safeguards\r\nred: Endemic surveillance societies\n\nBelow is a partial listing of governmental laws and regulations in various parts of the world that have, had, or will have, a significant effect on data processing and information security.[336][337] Important industry sector regulations have also been included when they have a significant impact on information security.[336]\n\nThe UK Data Protection Act 1998 makes new provisions for the regulation of the processing of information relating to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or disclosure of such information.[338][339] The European Union Data Protection Directive (EUDPD) requires that all E.U. members adopt national regulations to standardize the protection of data privacy for citizens throughout the E.U.[340][341]\nThe Computer Misuse Act 1990 is an Act of the U.K. Parliament making computer crime (e.g., hacking) a criminal offense.[342] The act has become a model upon which several other countries,[343] including Canada and the Republic of Ireland, have drawn inspiration from when subsequently drafting their own information security laws.[344][345]\nThe E.U.'s Data Retention Directive (annulled) required internet service providers and phone companies to keep data on every electronic message sent and phone call made for between six months and two years.[346]\nThe Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) (20&#160;U.S.C.&#160;\u00a7&#160;1232 g; 34 CFR Part 99) is a U.S. Federal law that protects the privacy of student education records.[347] The law applies to all schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education.[348] Generally, schools must have written permission from the parent or eligible student[348][349] in order to release any information from a student's education record.[350]\nThe Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council's (FFIEC) security guidelines for auditors specifies requirements for online banking security.[351]\nThe Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 requires the adoption of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers.[352] Additionally, it requires health care providers, insurance providers and employers to safeguard the security and privacy of health data.[353]\nThe Gramm\u2013Leach\u2013Bliley Act of 1999 (GLBA), also known as the Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999, protects the privacy and security of private financial information that financial institutions collect, hold, and process.[354]\nSection 404 of the Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX) requires publicly traded companies to assess the effectiveness of their internal controls for financial reporting in annual reports they submit at the end of each fiscal year.[355] Chief information officers are responsible for the security, accuracy, and the reliability of the systems that manage and report the financial data.[356] The act also requires publicly traded companies to engage with independent auditors who must attest to, and report on, the validity of their assessments.[357]\nThe Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) establishes comprehensive requirements for enhancing payment account data security.[358] It was developed by the founding payment brands of the PCI Security Standards Council \u2014 including American Express, Discover Financial Services, JCB, MasterCard Worldwide,[359] and Visa International \u2014 to help facilitate the broad adoption of consistent data security measures on a global basis.[360] The PCI DSS is a multifaceted security standard that includes requirements for security management, policies, procedures, network architecture, software design, and other critical protective measures.[361]\nState security breach notification laws (California and many others) require businesses, nonprofits, and state institutions to notify consumers when unencrypted \"personal information\" may have been compromised, lost, or stolen.[362]\nThe Personal Information Protection and Electronics Document Act (PIPEDA) of Canada supports and promotes electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is collected, used or disclosed in certain circumstances,[363][364] by providing for the use of electronic means to communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the Canada Evidence Act, the Statutory Instruments Act and the Statute Revision Act.[365][366][367]\nGreece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 165\/2011) establishes and describes the minimum information security controls that should be deployed by every company which provides electronic communication networks and\/or services in Greece in order to protect customers' confidentiality.[368] These include both managerial and technical controls (e.g., log records should be stored for two years).[369]\nGreece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 205\/2013) concentrates around the protection of the integrity and availability of the services and data offered by Greek telecommunication companies.[370] The law forces these and other related companies to build, deploy, and test appropriate business continuity plans and redundant infrastructures.[371]\nThe US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in information assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information Technology (IT) certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network infrastructure defense have minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA). Andersson and Reimers (2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's A+ and Security+ through the ICS2.org's CISSP, etc.. [372]\n\nCulture \nDescribing more than simply how security aware employees are, information security culture is the ideas, customs, and social behaviors of an organization that impact information security in both positive and negative ways.[373] Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness towards information security within an organization. The way employees think and feel about security and the actions they take can have a big impact on information security in organizations. Roer &amp; Petric (2017) identify seven core dimensions of information security culture in organizations:[374]\n\nAttitudes: employees' feelings and emotions about the various activities that pertain to the organizational security of information.[375]\nBehaviors: actual or intended activities and risk-taking actions of employees that have direct or indirect impact on information security.\nCognition: employees' awareness, verifiable knowledge, and beliefs regarding practices, activities, and self-efficacy relation that are related to information security.\nCommunication: ways employees communicate with each other, sense of belonging, support for security issues, and incident reporting.\nCompliance: adherence to organizational security policies, awareness of the existence of such policies and the ability to recall the substance of such policies.\nNorms: perceptions of security-related organizational conduct and practices that are informally deemed either normal or deviant by employees and their peers, e.g. hidden expectations regarding security behaviors and unwritten rules regarding uses of information-communication technologies.\nResponsibilities: employees' understanding of the roles and responsibilities they have as a critical factor in sustaining or endangering the security of information, and thereby the organization.\nAndersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of the organization Information Security \"effort\" and often take actions that ignore organizational information security best interests.[376] Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change, authors commented, \"It's a never ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance.\" To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation.[377]\n\nPre-evaluation: to identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze current security policy\nStrategic planning: to come up a better awareness-program, we need to set clear targets. Clustering people is helpful to achieve it\nOperative planning: create a good security culture based on internal communication, management buy-in, security awareness, and training programs\nImplementation: should feature commitment of management, communication with organizational members, courses for all organizational members, and commitment of the employees[377]\nPost-evaluation: to better gauge the effectiveness of the prior steps and build on continuous improvement\nSources of standards \nMain article: Cyber Security Standards\nThe International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an international standards organization organized as a consortium of national standards institutions from 167 countries, coordinated through a secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland. ISO is the world's largest developer of international standards. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is an international standards organization that deals with electrotechnology and cooperates closely with ISO. ISO\/IEC 15443: \"Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 A framework for IT security assurance\", ISO\/IEC 27002: \"Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 Code of practice for information security management\", ISO\/IEC 20000: \"Information technology \u2013 Service management\", and ISO\/IEC 27001: \"Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 Information security management systems \u2013 Requirements\" are of particular interest to information security professionals.\nThe US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is a non-regulatory federal agency within the U.S. Department of Commerce. The NIST Computer Security Division\ndevelops standards, metrics, tests, and validation programs as well as publishes standards and guidelines to increase secure IT planning, implementation, management, and operation. NIST is also the custodian of the U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard publications (FIPS).\n\nThe Internet Society is a professional membership society with more than 100 organizations and over 20,000 individual members in over 180 countries. It provides leadership in addressing issues that confront the future of the internet, and it is the organizational home for the groups responsible for internet infrastructure standards, including the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Architecture Board (IAB). The ISOC hosts the Requests for Comments (RFCs) which includes the Official Internet Protocol Standards and the RFC-2196 Site Security Handbook.\nThe Information Security Forum (ISF) is a global nonprofit organization of several hundred leading organizations in financial services, manufacturing, telecommunications, consumer goods, government, and other areas. It undertakes research into information security practices and offers advice in its biannual Standard of Good Practice for Information Security and more detailed advisories for members.\nThe Institute of Information Security Professionals (IISP) is an independent, non-profit body governed by its members, with the principal objective of advancing the professionalism of information security practitioners and thereby the professionalism of the industry as a whole. The institute developed the IISP Skills Framework. This framework describes the range of competencies expected of information security and information assurance professionals in the effective performance of their roles. It was developed through collaboration between both private and public sector organizations, world-renowned academics, and security leaders.[378]\nThe German Federal Office for Information Security (in German Bundesamt f\u00fcr Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI)) BSI-Standards 100\u20131 to 100-4 are a set of recommendations including \"methods, processes, procedures, approaches and measures relating to information security\".[379] The BSI-Standard 100-2 IT-Grundschutz Methodology describes how information security management can be implemented and operated. The standard includes a very specific guide, the IT Baseline Protection Catalogs (also known as IT-Grundschutz Catalogs). Before 2005, the catalogs were formerly known as \"IT Baseline Protection Manual\". The Catalogs are a collection of documents useful for detecting and combating security-relevant weak points in the IT environment (IT cluster). The collection encompasses as of September 2013 over 4,400 pages with the introduction and catalogs. The IT-Grundschutz approach is aligned with to the ISO\/IEC 2700x family.\nThe European Telecommunications Standards Institute standardized a catalog of information security indicators, headed by the Industrial Specification Group (ISG) ISI.\n\nSee also \n\nBackup\nCapability-based security\nComputer security (cybersecurity)\nData breach\nData-centric security\nEnterprise information security architecture\nIdentity-based security\nInformation infrastructure\nInformation security audit\nInformation security indicators\nInformation security management\nInformation security standards\nInformation technology\nInformation technology security audit\nIT risk\nITIL security management\nKill chain\nList of computer security certifications\nMobile security\nNetwork Security Services\nPrivacy engineering\nPrivacy software\nPrivacy-enhancing technologies\nSecurity bug\nSecurity convergence\nSecurity information management\nSecurity level management\nSecurity of Information Act\nSecurity service (telecommunication)\nSingle sign-on\nVerification and validation\n\nGordon\u2013Loeb model for cyber security investments\nReferences \n\n\n^ Curry, Michael; Marshall, Byron; Crossler, Robert E.; Correia, John (April 25, 2018). \"InfoSec Process Action Model (IPAM): Systematically Addressing Individual Security Behavior\". 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Retrieved January 18, 2022 . \n\n^ \"Payment Card Industry (PCI) Data Security Standard: Requirements and Security Assessment Procedures - Version 3.2\" (PDF) . Security Standards Council. April 2016. Retrieved January 25, 2018 . \n\n^ \"Security Breach Notification Laws\". National Conference of State Legislatures. April 12, 2017. Retrieved January 25, 2018 . \n\n^ Stein, Stuart G.; Schaberg, Richard A.; Biddle, Laura R., eds. (June 23, 2015). Financial institutions answer book, 2015&#160;: law, governance, compliance. Practising Law Institute. ISBN&#160;978-1-4024-2405-2. OCLC&#160;911952833. \n\n^ \"Personal Information and Data Protection\", Protecting Personal Information, Hart Publishing, 2019, doi:10.5040\/9781509924882.ch-002, ISBN&#160;978-1-5099-2485-1, S2CID&#160;239275871, retrieved June 5, 2021 \n\n^ Chapter 5. An Act to support and promote electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is collected, used or disclosed in certain circumstances, by providing for the use of electronic means to communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the Canada Evidence Act, the Statutory Instruments Act and the Statute Revision Act. Queen's Printer for Canada. 2000. OCLC&#160;61417862. \n\n^ \"Comments\". Statute Law Review. 5 (1): 184\u2013188. 1984. doi:10.1093\/slr\/5.1.184. ISSN&#160;0144-3593. \n\n^ \"Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act\" (PDF) . Canadian Minister of Justice. Retrieved January 25, 2018 . \n\n^ Werner, Martin (May 11, 2011). \"Privacy-protected communication for location-based services\". Security and Communication Networks. 9 (2): 130\u2013138. doi:10.1002\/sec.330. ISSN&#160;1939-0114. \n\n^ \"Regulation for the Assurance of Confidentiality in Electronic Communications\" (PDF) . Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic. Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy. November 17, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2018 . \n\n^ de Guise, Preston (April 29, 2020), \"Security, Privacy, Ethical, and Legal Considerations\", Data Protection, Auerbach Publications, pp.&#160;91\u2013108, doi:10.1201\/9780367463496-9, ISBN&#160;978-0-367-46349-6, S2CID&#160;219013948, retrieved June 5, 2021 \n\n^ \"\u0391\u03c1\u03b9\u03b8\u03bc. \u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03c6. 205\/2013\" (PDF) . Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic. Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy. July 15, 2013. Retrieved January 25, 2018 . \n\n^ Andersson and Reimers, 2019, CYBER SECURITY EMPLOYMENT POLICY AND WORKPLACE DEMAND IN THE U.S. GOVERNMENT, EDULEARN19 Proceedings, Publication year: 2019 Pages: 7858-7866 https:\/\/library.iated.org\/view\/ANDERSON2019CYB \n\n^ \"Definition of Security Culture\". The Security Culture Framework. April 9, 2014. \n\n^ Roer, Kai; Petric, Gregor (2017). The 2017 Security Culture Report - In depth insights into the human factor. CLTRe North America, Inc. pp.&#160;42\u201343. ISBN&#160;978-1544933948. \n\n^ Akhtar, Salman, ed. (March 21, 2018). Good Feelings. Routledge. doi:10.4324\/9780429475313. ISBN&#160;9780429475313. \n\n^ Anderson, D., Reimers, K. and Barretto, C. (March 2014). Post-Secondary Education Network Security: Results of Addressing the End-User Challenge.publication date Mar 11, 2014 publication description INTED2014 (International Technology, Education, and Development Conference) \n\n^ a b Schlienger, Thomas; Teufel, Stephanie (December 2003). \"Information security culture - from analysis to change\". South African Computer Society (SAICSIT). 2003 (31): 46\u201352. hdl:10520\/EJC27949. \n\n^ \"IISP Skills Framework\". Archived from the original on March 15, 2014. Retrieved April 27, 2014 . \n\n^ \"BSI-Standards\". BSI. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved November 29, 2013 . \n\n\nFurther reading \n \nAnderson, K., \"IT Security Professionals Must Evolve for Changing Market\", SC Magazine, October 12, 2006.\nAceituno, V., \"On Information Security Paradigms\", ISSA Journal, September 2005.\nDhillon, G., Principles of Information Systems Security: text and cases, John Wiley &amp; Sons, 2007.\nEasttom, C., Computer Security Fundamentals (2nd Edition) Pearson Education, 2011.\nLambo, T., \"ISO\/IEC 27001: The future of infosec certification\", ISSA Journal, November 2006.\nDustin, D., \" Awareness of How Your Data is Being Used and What to Do About It\", \"CDR Blog\", May 2017.\nBibliography \nAllen, Julia H. (2001). The CERT Guide to System and Network Security Practices. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley. ISBN&#160;978-0-201-73723-3. \nKrutz, Ronald L.; Russell Dean Vines (2003). The CISSP Prep Guide (Gold&#160;ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Wiley. ISBN&#160;978-0-471-26802-4. \nLayton, Timothy P. (2007). Information Security: Design, Implementation, Measurement, and Compliance. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications. ISBN&#160;978-0-8493-7087-8. \nMcNab, Chris (2004). Network Security Assessment. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly. ISBN&#160;978-0-596-00611-2. \nPeltier, Thomas R. (2001). Information Security Risk Analysis. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications. ISBN&#160;978-0-8493-0880-2. \nPeltier, Thomas R. (2002). Information Security Policies, Procedures, and Standards: guidelines for effective information security management. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications. ISBN&#160;978-0-8493-1137-6. \nWhite, Gregory (2003). All-in-one Security+ Certification Exam Guide. Emeryville, CA: McGraw-Hill\/Osborne. ISBN&#160;978-0-07-222633-1. \nDhillon, Gurpreet (2007). Principles of Information Systems Security: text and cases . NY: John Wiley &amp; Sons. ISBN&#160;978-0-471-45056-6. \nWhitman, Michael; Mattord, Herbert (2017). Principles of Information Security. Cengage. ISBN&#160;978-1337102063. \n\nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Information security .\n\nDoD IA Policy Chart Archived 2011-09-06 at the Wayback Machine on the DoD Information Assurance Technology Analysis Center web site.\npatterns &amp; practices Security Engineering Explained\nOpen Security Architecture- Controls and patterns to secure IT systems\nIWS \u2013 Information Security Chapter Archived 2019-11-08 at the Wayback Machine\nRoss Anderson's book \"Security Engineering\"\nteciza.in\nvteComputer scienceNote: This template roughly follows the 2012 ACM Computing Classification System.Hardware\nPrinted circuit board\nPeripheral\nIntegrated circuit\nVery Large Scale Integration\nSystems on Chip (SoCs)\nEnergy consumption (Green computing)\nElectronic design automation\nHardware acceleration\n Computer systems organization\nComputer architecture\nEmbedded system\nReal-time computing\nDependability\nNetworks\nNetwork architecture\nNetwork protocol\nNetwork 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security\nComputer security\nControl system security\nCorporate security\nEconomic security\nEmotional security\nEnergy security\nEvent security\nFood security\nHealth security\nInformation security\nInternal security\nInternational security\nJob security\nNational security\nOperations security\nPhysical security\nPublic security\nSocial security\n\nSecurity engineering\n\nvteInformation securityRelated security categories\nComputer security\nAutomotive security\nCybercrime\nCybersex trafficking\nComputer fraud\nCybergeddon\nCyberterrorism\nCyberwarfare\nElectronic warfare\nInformation warfare\nInternet security\nMobile security\nNetwork security\nCopy protection\nDigital rights management\nvectorial versionThreats\nAdware\nAdvanced persistent threat\nArbitrary code execution\nBackdoors\nHardware backdoors\nCode injection\nCrimeware\nCross-site scripting\nCross-site leaks\nDOM clobbering\nHistory sniffing\nCryptojacking malware\nBotnets\nData breach\nDrive-by download\nBrowser helper objects\nViruses\nData scraping\nDenial of service\nEavesdropping\nEmail fraud\nEmail spoofing\nExploits\nHacktivism\nKeyloggers\nLogic bombs\nTime bombs\nFork bombs\nZip bombs\nFraudulent dialers\nMalware\nPayload\nPhishing\nPolymorphic engine\nPrivilege escalation\nRansomware\nRootkits\nBootkits\nScareware\nShellcode\nSpamming\nSocial engineering\nScreen scraping\nSpyware\nSoftware bugs\nTrojan horses\nHardware Trojans\nRemote access trojans\nVulnerability\nWeb shells\nWiper\nWorms\nSQL injection\nRogue security software\nZombie\nDefenses\nApplication security\nSecure coding\nSecure by default\nSecure by design\nMisuse case\nComputer access control\nAuthentication\nMulti-factor authentication\nAuthorization\nComputer security software\nAntivirus software\nSecurity-focused operating system\nData-centric security\nCode obfuscation\nData masking\nEncryption\nFirewall\nIntrusion detection system\nHost-based intrusion detection system (HIDS)\nAnomaly detection\nSecurity information and event management (SIEM)\nMobile secure gateway\nRuntime application self-protection\nSite isolation\n\nAuthority control databases: National \nLatvia \nCzech Republic \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security<\/a>\nCategories: Computer securityData securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 21 June 2016, at 21:21.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 5,916 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Information_security rootpage-Information_security skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Information security<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Protecting information by mitigating risk<\/div>\n<p>\n<b>Information security<\/b>, sometimes shortened to <b>InfoSec<\/b>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> is the practice of protecting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a> by mitigating information risks. It is part of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_management_information_systems\" title=\"Risk management information systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e5d8936ad1043353f4f2fd08e669767\">information risk management<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> It typically involves preventing or reducing the probability of unauthorized or inappropriate access to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> or the unlawful use, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_breach\" title=\"Data breach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"611c0b2099532a287e0e8fe5b0c95f57\">disclosure<\/a>, disruption, deletion, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_corruption\" title=\"Data corruption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"012248352da338b332ab959566612a39\">corruption<\/a>, modification, inspection, recording, or devaluation of information.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> It also involves actions intended to reduce the adverse impacts of such incidents. Protected information may take any form, e.g., electronic or physical, tangible (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document\" title=\"Document\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f0fd03f08b691946949dcab005c763f\">paperwork<\/a>), or intangible (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge\" title=\"Knowledge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01c4b58d0351b823f87d6660469ca11a\">knowledge<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Information security's primary focus is the balanced protection of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_confidentiality\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data confidentiality\" data-key=\"606b56b1b2e0beea77b62149e224f40c\">data confidentiality<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">integrity<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_availability\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data availability\" data-key=\"d331d654a8862ce08cd8e5e8e1e927d9\">availability<\/a> (also known as the \"CIA\" triad) while maintaining a focus on efficient <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Policy\" title=\"Policy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1e53cac97ac6a1bb336545f75a474b3\">policy<\/a> implementation, all without hampering organization <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Productivity\" title=\"Productivity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d66f92b8b03a77df02918fc6232c3110\">productivity<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> This is largely achieved through a structured <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_management\" title=\"Risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8dfffb6fe8cc680af34e88ec60c1c92\">risk management<\/a> process that involves: \n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Identifying information and related <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Asset_(computer_security)\" title=\"Asset (computer security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"704585fda1481b233e598acbb5740287\">assets<\/a>, plus potential <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Threat_(computer)\" title=\"Threat (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d5165b429cff5ef72f0996f714d481\">threats<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_(computing)\" title=\"Vulnerability (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba3eca3995690776a2ec5d3a458bb68e\">vulnerabilities<\/a>, and impacts;<\/li>\n<li>Evaluating the risks<\/li>\n<li>Deciding how to address or treat the risks, i.e., to avoid, mitigate, share, or accept them<\/li>\n<li>Where risk mitigation is required, selecting or designing appropriate security controls and implementing them<\/li>\n<li>Monitoring the activities and making adjustments as necessary to address any issues, changes, or improvement opportunities<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>To standardize this discipline, academics and professionals collaborate to offer guidance, policies, and industry standards on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password\" title=\"Password\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1a0d7ae6f26ce9e27f1556f4d98c342\">passwords<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antivirus_software\" title=\"Antivirus software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc170f9654f68c67e02265c8874eab4d\">antivirus software<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(computing)\" title=\"Firewall (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"853725a035c106719dbf2660d8eca0b8\">firewalls<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption_software\" title=\"Encryption software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19339b1351f44aa407dbb5cc599b597b\">encryption software<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legal_liability\" title=\"Legal liability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3739ac5422617361ef5b6e408019861\">legal liability<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_awareness\" title=\"Security awareness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eaf324d545c765817c75e1b21d69ac58\">security awareness<\/a> and training, and so forth.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> This <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standardization\" title=\"Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f72bb2449f07a1d189664ba328c819fc\">standardization<\/a> may be further driven by a wide variety of laws and regulations that affect how data is accessed, processed, stored, transferred, and destroyed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> However, the implementation of any standards and guidance within an entity may have limited effect if a culture of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continual_improvement_process\" title=\"Continual improvement process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0c083e85a0c6a14719294c23bdaf2cd\">continual improvement<\/a> is not adopted.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Definition\">Definition<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:CIAJMK1209-en.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8fd06d75a809cee6be33b2ff26f1a51\"><img alt=\"vectorial version\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c5\/CIAJMK1209-en.svg\/220px-CIAJMK1209-en.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><b>Information Security Attributes<\/b>: or qualities, i.e., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Confidentiality\" title=\"Confidentiality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d847e78525549bfa02450d9bb2d16144\">Confidentiality<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">Integrity<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability\" title=\"Availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"852165c687e5f61ae873818e8645f987\">Availability<\/a> (CIA). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information Systems\" data-key=\"ac6dfde0c91540fd5d2847fe7510e21c\">Information Systems<\/a> are composed in three main portions, hardware, software and communications with the purpose to help identify and apply information security industry standards, as mechanisms of protection and prevention, at three levels or layers: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_information_security\" title=\"Physical information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d210dd5809fbbd0fd8f918fd20a90369\">physical<\/a>, personal and organizational. Essentially, procedures or policies are implemented to tell administrators, users and operators how to use products to ensure information security within the organizations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cherdantseva_Y_2013_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cherdantseva_Y_2013-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Various definitions of information security are suggested below, summarized from different sources:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>\"Preservation of confidentiality, integrity and availability of information. Note: In addition, other properties, such as authenticity, accountability, non-repudiation and reliability can also be involved.\" (ISO\/IEC 27000:2018)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"The protection of information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction in order to provide confidentiality, integrity, and availability.\" (CNSS, 2010)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"Ensures that only authorized users (confidentiality) have access to accurate and complete information (integrity) when required (availability).\" (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISACA\" title=\"ISACA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"010a2ea5096a87c89e1bcf76f74cce67\">ISACA<\/a>, 2008)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"Information Security is the process of protecting the intellectual property of an organisation.\" (Pipkin, 2000)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"...information security is a risk management discipline, whose job is to manage the cost of information risk to the business.\" (McDermott and Geer, 2001)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"A well-informed sense of assurance that information risks and controls are in balance.\" (Anderson, J., 2003)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"Information security is the protection of information and minimizes the risk of exposing information to unauthorized parties.\" (Venter and Eloff, 2003)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"Information Security is a multidisciplinary area of study and professional activity which is concerned with the development and implementation of security mechanisms of all available types (technical, organizational, human-oriented and legal) in order to keep information in all its locations (within and outside the organization's perimeter) and, consequently, information systems, where information is created, processed, stored, transmitted and destroyed, free from threats.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> Threats to information and information systems may be categorized and a corresponding security goal may be defined for each category of threats.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> A set of security goals, identified as a result of a threat analysis, should be revised periodically to ensure its adequacy and conformance with the evolving environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> The currently relevant set of security goals may include: <i>confidentiality, integrity, availability, privacy, authenticity &amp; trustworthiness, non-repudiation, accountability and auditability.<\/i>\" (Cherdantseva and Hilton, 2013)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cherdantseva_Y_2013_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cherdantseva_Y_2013-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Information and information resource security using telecommunication system or devices means protecting information, information systems or books from unauthorized access, damage, theft, or destruction (Kurose and Ross, 2010).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overview\">Overview<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>At the core of information security is information assurance, the act of maintaining the confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA) of information, ensuring that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a> is not compromised in any way when critical issues arise.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SamonasTheCIA14_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SamonasTheCIA14-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> These issues include but are not limited to natural disasters, computer\/server malfunction, and physical theft. While paper-based business operations are still prevalent, requiring their own set of information security practices, enterprise digital initiatives are increasingly being emphasized,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerSays17_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerSays17-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerSurvey17_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerSurvey17-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> with information assurance now typically being dealt with by information technology (IT) security specialists. These specialists apply information security to technology (most often some form of computer system). It is worthwhile to note that a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer\" title=\"Computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90ce149db23a6fc17d1d225fac611846\">computer<\/a> does not necessarily mean a home desktop.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> A computer is any device with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Central_processing_unit\" title=\"Central processing unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff175b7e455c4ae2a5ee0c4d09618f06\">processor<\/a> and some memory. Such devices can range from non-networked standalone devices as simple as calculators, to networked mobile computing devices such as smartphones and tablet computers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> IT security specialists are almost always found in any major enterprise\/establishment due to the nature and value of the data within larger businesses.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AFH_1_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AFH_1-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> They are responsible for keeping all of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technology\" title=\"Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"826a00bce65740132769609e46bf6515\">technology<\/a> within the company secure from malicious cyber attacks that often attempt to acquire critical private information or gain control of the internal systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The field of information security has grown and evolved significantly in recent years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HSU_1_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HSU_1-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> It offers many areas for specialization, including securing networks and allied <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrastructure\" title=\"Infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb70668db4564897263976d0920fec5\">infrastructure<\/a>, securing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">applications<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">databases<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_testing\" title=\"Security testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6542ac1447b6c6424f809c53adbced89\">security testing<\/a>, information systems <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology_audit\" title=\"Information technology audit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73cc451bbda159f450fed912409dfa8b\">auditing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_continuity_planning\" title=\"Business continuity planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0314e0ebb69a83f82d4925a81373f7f2\">business continuity planning<\/a>, electronic record discovery, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_forensics\" title=\"Digital forensics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8e27fcf2f4e8602135a2f06eed97d23\">digital forensics<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Information security professionals are very stable in their employment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> As of 2013<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup> more than 80 percent of professionals had no change in employer or employment over a period of a year, and the number of professionals is projected to continuously grow more than 11 percent annually from 2014 to 2019.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Threats\">Threats<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Information security <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Threat_(computer)\" title=\"Threat (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d5165b429cff5ef72f0996f714d481\">threats<\/a> come in many different forms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> Some of the most common threats today are software attacks, theft of intellectual property, theft of identity, theft of equipment or information, sabotage, and information extortion.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_virus\" title=\"Computer virus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91d7100dd3499b98a5308377a38a7b58\">Viruses<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_worm\" title=\"Computer worm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a91f5f0c8645bb8a187c68b0ba5df098\">worms<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phishing\" title=\"Phishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c8238cbe6d3bb4c5c9496327b378d3b\">phishing attacks<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trojan_horse_(computing)\" title=\"Trojan horse (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a678695bce8d35b35440bc260712bbc\">Trojan horses<\/a> are a few common examples of software attacks. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intellectual_property_infringement\" title=\"Intellectual property infringement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17b35f2269b08b626a517cc44ef8ff09\">theft of intellectual property<\/a> has also been an extensive issue for many businesses in the information technology (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">IT<\/a>) field.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WHP_1_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WHP_1-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_theft\" title=\"Identity theft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb9eb8acee1ea77f10451b7488ead058\">Identity theft<\/a> is the attempt to act as someone else usually to obtain that person's personal information or to take advantage of their access to vital information through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_engineering_(security)\" title=\"Social engineering (security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18c53a8e46796d2a2daa3a1642612677\">social engineering<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> Theft of equipment or information is becoming more prevalent today due to the fact that most devices today are mobile,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> are prone to theft and have also become far more desirable as the amount of data capacity increases. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sabotage\" title=\"Sabotage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65b6b6844e35009bede55acb924314c8\">Sabotage<\/a> usually consists of the destruction of an organization's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Website\" title=\"Website\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baaafe699fb6fda8b6611a6b03e9f889\">website<\/a> in an attempt to cause loss of confidence on the part of its customers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> Information extortion consists of theft of a company's property or information as an attempt to receive a payment in exchange for returning the information or property back to its owner, as with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ransomware\" title=\"Ransomware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9920028b76940c5bc43f59920d1c4eb\">ransomware<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> There are many ways to help protect yourself from some of these attacks but one of the most functional precautions is conduct periodical user awareness.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> The number one threat to any organisation are users or internal employees, they are also called insider threats.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Governments\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Governments\" data-key=\"aa36df8fc4d6c5d89862c672544689e8\">Governments<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military\" title=\"Military\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de82354cbb71572ffd905508c51d13c4\">military<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corporation\" title=\"Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a470ff12898a235c6f10225303ce1053\">corporations<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_institution\" title=\"Financial institution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef7ff1361e62469d9f8f94564fef25b3\">financial institutions<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hospital\" title=\"Hospital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01a6e094952d7c96dd9fcaaaea949170\">hospitals<\/a>, non-profit organisations, and private <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Businesses\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Businesses\" data-key=\"e6d9945fde342b5624daa88fcf4209cd\">businesses<\/a> amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees, customers, products, research, and financial status.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CPS_1_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CPS_1-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> Should confidential information about a business's customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor or a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black_hat_hacker\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Black hat hacker\" data-key=\"0ff59de9b1ff5c6acd757b524186529f\">black hat hacker<\/a>, a business and its customers could suffer widespread, irreparable financial loss, as well as damage to the company's reputation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup> From a business perspective, information security must be balanced against cost; the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gordon-Loeb_Model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gordon-Loeb Model\" data-key=\"7fb8f8a8b3a501927bdb2af9be0810c6\">Gordon-Loeb Model<\/a> provides a mathematical economic approach for addressing this concern.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>For the individual, information security has a significant effect on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">privacy<\/a>, which is viewed very differently in various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultures\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cultures\" data-key=\"f64e38a1fe3d9be2096c9803a3a73333\">cultures<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Responses_to_threats\">Responses to threats<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Possible responses to a security threat or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_risk_management\" title=\"IT risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6858ce8f0824db4ea3e85b51fabdbbd\">risk<\/a> are:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>reduce\/mitigate \u2013 implement safeguards and countermeasures to eliminate vulnerabilities or block threats<\/li>\n<li>assign\/transfer \u2013 place the cost of the threat onto another entity or organization such as purchasing insurance or outsourcing<\/li>\n<li>accept \u2013 evaluate if the cost of the countermeasure outweighs the possible cost of loss due to the threat<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Since the early days of communication, diplomats and military commanders understood that it was necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of correspondence and to have some means of detecting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tamper-evident\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Tamper-evident\" data-key=\"3a05d9c0b9dcb43807273cfd6b4e31f2\">tampering<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"article has nothing to with confidentiality (December 2023)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Julius_Caesar\" title=\"Julius Caesar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"136fed784316b42110978101903b657a\">Julius Caesar<\/a> is credited with the invention of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caesar_cipher\" title=\"Caesar cipher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1b45ef9dfee199f79d30ae510300e5e\">Caesar cipher<\/a> c. 50 B.C., which was created in order to prevent his secret messages from being read should a message fall into the wrong hands.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup> However, for the most part protection was achieved through the application of procedural handling controls.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup> Sensitive information was marked up to indicate that it should be protected and transported by trusted persons, guarded and stored in a secure environment or strong box.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup> As postal services expanded, governments created official organizations to intercept, decipher, read, and reseal letters (e.g., the U.K.'s Secret Office, founded in 1653<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JohnsonTheEvo97_57-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JohnsonTheEvo97-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup>).\n<\/p><p>In the mid-nineteenth century more complex <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classified_information\" title=\"Classified information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0ff0b737ab31c45d7e5a4047bfb82a7\">classification systems<\/a> were developed to allow governments to manage their information according to the degree of sensitivity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WBS_1_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WBS_1-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup> For example, the British Government codified this, to some extent, with the publication of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Official_Secrets_Act_1889\" title=\"Official Secrets Act 1889\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f73db55a72684d2eb11690918c80cd5\">Official Secrets Act<\/a> in 1889.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HastedtSpies11_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HastedtSpies11-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup> Section 1 of the law concerned espionage and unlawful disclosures of information, while Section 2 dealt with breaches of official trust.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup> A public interest defense was soon added to defend disclosures in the interest of the state.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup> A similar law was passed in India in 1889, The Indian Official Secrets Act, which was associated with the British colonial era and used to crack down on newspapers that opposed the Raj's policies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup> A newer version was passed in 1923 that extended to all matters of confidential or secret information for governance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup> By the time of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First_World_War\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"First World War\" data-key=\"e053beb5bdf71bdf3729b03867e64914\">First World War<\/a>, multi-tier classification systems were used to communicate information to and from various fronts, which encouraged greater use of code making and breaking sections in diplomatic and military headquarters.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> Encoding became more sophisticated between the wars as machines were employed to scramble and unscramble information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The establishment of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security\" title=\"Computer security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c2aa75aadd7f77c4f5ad26205c4c77b\">computer security<\/a> inaugurated the history of information security. The need for such appeared during <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_War_II\" title=\"World War II\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e84fed64df8fb7b478f5e52dbb470eb\">World War II<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitmanMattord20173_66-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitmanMattord20173-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup> The volume of information shared by the Allied countries during the Second World War necessitated formal alignment of classification systems and procedural controls.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup> An arcane range of markings evolved to indicate who could handle documents (usually officers rather than enlisted troops) and where they should be stored as increasingly complex safes and storage facilities were developed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enigma_Machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Enigma Machine\" data-key=\"cb2dd0a96ec20a76f625ba6b27a97fb8\">Enigma Machine<\/a>, which was employed by the Germans to encrypt the data of warfare and was successfully decrypted by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Turing\" title=\"Alan Turing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48468f77ba0cf295402108f0dd72c040\">Alan Turing<\/a>, can be regarded as a striking example of creating and using secured information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sebag-MontefioreEnigma11_69-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sebag-MontefioreEnigma11-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup> Procedures evolved to ensure documents were destroyed properly, and it was the failure to follow these procedures which led to some of the greatest intelligence coups of the war (e.g., the capture of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/U-570\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"U-570\" data-key=\"fb51908bd8e5927715c990e1ae955434\">U-570<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sebag-MontefioreEnigma11_69-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sebag-MontefioreEnigma11-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup>).\n<\/p><p>Various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mainframe_computers\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mainframe computers\" data-key=\"d7b066672cd5fa9a8b572b43f37e3578\">mainframe computers<\/a> were connected online during the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cold_War\" title=\"Cold War\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26f57feb8d3840f1e97528ffd7a2dd3e\">Cold War<\/a> to complete more sophisticated tasks, in a communication process easier than mailing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetic_tapes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Magnetic tapes\" data-key=\"d8c77b56aa85b669e9bf12c20f9d3d4f\">magnetic tapes<\/a> back and forth by computer centers. As such, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Advanced Research Projects Agency\" data-key=\"109381d09f7a06d2d408e3a228a69fe5\">Advanced Research Projects Agency<\/a> (ARPA), of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_Defense\" title=\"United States Department of Defense\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"655b39ec745d1842fbcb4d9760be7f84\">United States Department of Defense<\/a>, started researching the feasibility of a networked system of communication to trade information within the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Armed_Forces\" title=\"United States Armed Forces\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4c3d1ee8f63369e52047bc7e3ec73cb\">United States Armed Forces<\/a>. In 1968, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ARPANET\" title=\"ARPANET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b9dca38ecbd05b9a6dea1b3dd87111a\">ARPANET<\/a> project was formulated by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lawrence_Roberts_(scientist)\" title=\"Lawrence Roberts (scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b01ca944587a422fbeb9cc6dbfab3fa6\">Larry Roberts<\/a>, which would later evolve into what is known as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">internet<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitmanMattord20174\u20135_70-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitmanMattord20174\u20135-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 1973, important elements of ARPANET security were found by internet pioneer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert_Metcalfe\" title=\"Robert Metcalfe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b0a98ed2c47896be1689130c17f7347\">Robert Metcalfe<\/a> to have many flaws such as the: \"vulnerability of password structure and formats; lack of safety procedures for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dialup_connection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dialup connection\" data-key=\"838be521f0d756876f1d8cf29a873b15\">dial-up connections<\/a>; and nonexistent user identification and authorizations\", aside from the lack of controls and safeguards to keep data safe from unauthorized access. Hackers had effortless access to ARPANET, as phone numbers were known by the public.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitmanMattord20175_71-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitmanMattord20175-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup> Due to these problems, coupled with the constant violation of computer security, as well as the exponential increase in the number of hosts and users of the system, \"network security\" was often alluded to as \"network insecurity\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitmanMattord20175_71-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitmanMattord20175-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The end of the twentieth century and the early years of the twenty-first century saw rapid advancements in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telecommunications\" title=\"Telecommunications\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c6b66a3f44e091a8ccba63659266923\">telecommunications<\/a>, computing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_hardware\" title=\"Computer hardware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3af5473d082dc42736a8f0e670ebb91\">hardware<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a>, and data <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">encryption<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup> The availability of smaller, more powerful, and less expensive computing equipment made <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_processing\" title=\"Data processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b36e7bb8fd1d63549fc55ba60d8729fe\">electronic data processing<\/a> within the reach of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Small_business\" title=\"Small business\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4fffb3656f995a8907bf12298d69ed6\">small business<\/a> and home users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> The establishment of Transfer Control Protocol\/Internetwork Protocol (TCP\/IP) in the early 1980s enabled different types of computers to communicate.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> These computers quickly became interconnected through the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">internet<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The rapid growth and widespread use of electronic data processing and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_business\" title=\"Electronic business\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"434db26912da8a9300608c10d3c8b44c\">electronic business<\/a> conducted through the internet, along with numerous occurrences of international <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Terrorism\" title=\"Terrorism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff765bf66c2389435634c236c9d096cd\">terrorism<\/a>, fueled the need for better methods of protecting the computers and the information they store, process, and transmit.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeLeeuwTheHist07_76-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeLeeuwTheHist07-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup> The academic disciplines of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security\" title=\"Computer security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c2aa75aadd7f77c4f5ad26205c4c77b\">computer security<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_assurance\" title=\"Information assurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7b0a4f40d633e51fcc2dfa55fdb8529\">information assurance<\/a> emerged along with numerous professional organizations, all sharing the common goals of ensuring the security and reliability of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_system\" title=\"Information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142b46020d5e573e81dabce3b59c33ec\">information systems<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Basic_principles\">Basic principles<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Key_concepts\">Key concepts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Posters_for_information_security_for_the_Ministry_of_Defense_of_the_Russian_Federation.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3d6f061169bbaccf47156fbc4c46053\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a1\/Posters_for_information_security_for_the_Ministry_of_Defense_of_the_Russian_Federation.jpg\/220px-Posters_for_information_security_for_the_Ministry_of_Defense_of_the_Russian_Federation.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"312\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Poster promoting information security by the Russian <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ministry_of_Defence_(Russia)\" title=\"Ministry of Defence (Russia)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5eb50d17ddd282d07f873f629fc02bcb\">Ministry of Defence<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The \"CIA\" triad of <i><b>c<\/b>onfidentiality, <b>i<\/b>ntegrity, and <b>a<\/b>vailability<\/i> is at the heart of information security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup> (The members of the classic InfoSec triad\u2014confidentiality, integrity, and availability\u2014are interchangeably referred to in the literature as security attributes, properties, security goals, fundamental aspects, information criteria, critical information characteristics and basic building blocks.)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup> However, debate continues about whether or not this triad is sufficient to address rapidly changing technology and business requirements, with recommendations to consider expanding on the intersections between availability and confidentiality, as well as the relationship between security and privacy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SamonasTheCIA14_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SamonasTheCIA14-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> Other principles such as \"accountability\" have sometimes been proposed; it has been pointed out that issues such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-repudiation\" title=\"Non-repudiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"626625acb28e081c4e58d7fb46a4b9f5\">non-repudiation<\/a> do not fit well within the three core concepts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NIST_79-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NIST-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The triad seems to have first been mentioned in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NIST\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NIST\" data-key=\"2c5730fa123ebb7598290eb8137b243f\">NIST<\/a> publication in 1977.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NIST1977_80-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NIST1977-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 1992 and revised in 2002, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OECD\" title=\"OECD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54f18718f83debb05ba3bed03728c89b\">OECD<\/a>'s <i>Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and Networks<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-81\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup> proposed the nine generally accepted principles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_awareness\" title=\"Information security awareness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72fc08974e96d08809fd9516d8e883df\">awareness<\/a>, responsibility, response, ethics, democracy, risk assessment, security design and implementation, security management, and reassessment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-82\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup> Building upon those, in 2004 the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NIST\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NIST\" data-key=\"2c5730fa123ebb7598290eb8137b243f\">NIST<\/a>'s <i>Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NIST_79-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NIST-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup> proposed 33 principles. From each of these derived guidelines and practices.\n<\/p><p>In 1998, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Donn_Parker\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Donn Parker\" data-key=\"b142283cc24f5c4b85ea5c31cabff24d\">Donn Parker<\/a> proposed an alternative model for the classic \"CIA\" triad that he called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parkerian_Hexad\" title=\"Parkerian Hexad\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eed96e5d998436c90b004cad583b76e1\">six atomic elements of information<\/a>. The elements are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Confidentiality\" title=\"Confidentiality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d847e78525549bfa02450d9bb2d16144\">confidentiality<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ownership\" title=\"Ownership\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8aa14294d82818297cdff88ca8088396\">possession<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integrity\" title=\"Integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f3641502bb975111af957dade22b840a\">integrity<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">authenticity<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability\" title=\"Availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"852165c687e5f61ae873818e8645f987\">availability<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Utility\" title=\"Utility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"317210b0c67c2128db183f39aa610e39\">utility<\/a>. The merits of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parkerian_Hexad\" title=\"Parkerian Hexad\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eed96e5d998436c90b004cad583b76e1\">Parkerian Hexad<\/a> are a subject of debate amongst security professionals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2011, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Open_Group\" title=\"The Open Group\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed26d19e0fe33a6405308223795d6307\">The Open Group<\/a> published the information security management standard <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Information_Security_Maturity_Model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Open Information Security Maturity Model\" data-key=\"66b7bad7e42161d96a6b4b66d5bfde4c\">O-ISM3<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-84\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup> This standard proposed an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_definition\" title=\"Operational definition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76875458195604543b0ca5ea75ff2e23\">operational definition<\/a> of the key concepts of security, with elements called \"security objectives\", related to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control\" title=\"Access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f978f594d7eee9299dbb3da18ee80a8c\">access control<\/a> (9), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability\" title=\"Availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"852165c687e5f61ae873818e8645f987\">availability<\/a> (3), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8771428f8ff5b31246abf8b197186672\">data quality<\/a> (1), compliance, and technical (4). In 2009, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DoD\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"DoD\" data-key=\"08fd2cf924191ca62618a56f11658eab\">DoD<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/spi.dod.mil\/\" target=\"_blank\">Software Protection Initiative<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160925225224\/https:\/\/www.spi.dod.mil\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2016-09-25 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> released the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/spi.dod.mil\/threat.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Three Tenets of Cybersecurity<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200510012626\/https:\/\/spi.dod.mil\/threat.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2020-05-10 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> which are System Susceptibility, Access to the Flaw, and Capability to Exploit the Flaw.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-85\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-86\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup> Neither of these models are widely adopted.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Confidentiality\">Confidentiality<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In information security, confidentiality \"is the property, that information is not made available or disclosed to unauthorized individuals, entities, or processes.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BeckersPattern15_88-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BeckersPattern15-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup> While similar to \"privacy,\" the two words are not interchangeable. Rather, confidentiality is a component of privacy that implements to protect our data from unauthorized viewers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-89\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-89\">[89]<\/a><\/sup> Examples of confidentiality of electronic data being compromised include laptop theft, password theft, or sensitive emails being sent to the incorrect individuals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_90-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AndressTheBasics14-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Integrity\">Integrity<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In IT security, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">data integrity<\/a> means maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of data over its entire lifecycle.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-91\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-91\">[91]<\/a><\/sup> This means that data cannot be modified in an unauthorized or undetected manner.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-92\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-92\">[92]<\/a><\/sup> This is not the same thing as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Referential_integrity\" title=\"Referential integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff357b46cedfef3587d99400e530e6c5\">referential integrity<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Databases\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Databases\" data-key=\"4ff0b40b476e847fb7b4f18428ec64ad\">databases<\/a>, although it can be viewed as a special case of consistency as understood in the classic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ACID\" title=\"ACID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49a2ed92a6f8e7d2959db4830195557a\">ACID<\/a> model of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transaction_processing\" title=\"Transaction processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc4654ebea47d9f14e7ebe49367c965c\">transaction processing<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">[93]<\/a><\/sup> Information security systems typically incorporate controls to ensure their own integrity, in particular protecting the kernel or core functions against both deliberate and accidental threats.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-94\">[94]<\/a><\/sup> Multi-purpose and multi-user computer systems aim to compartmentalize the data and processing such that no user or process can adversely impact another: the controls may not succeed however, as we see in incidents such as malware infections, hacks, data theft, fraud, and privacy breaches.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-95\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-95\">[95]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>More broadly, integrity is an information security principle that involves human\/social, process, and commercial integrity, as well as data integrity. As such it touches on aspects such as credibility, consistency, truthfulness, completeness, accuracy, timeliness, and assurance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-96\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-96\">[96]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Availability\">Availability<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>For any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability\" title=\"Availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"852165c687e5f61ae873818e8645f987\">available<\/a> when it is needed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-97\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-97\">[97]<\/a><\/sup> This means the computing systems used to store and process the information, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_controls\" title=\"Security controls\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"967bf01beac3187ddde94c106f7e5db3\">security controls<\/a> used to protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be functioning correctly.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-98\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-98\">[98]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High_availability\" title=\"High availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6acdd44b498040284e564f149f928f24\">High availability<\/a> systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing service disruptions due to power outages, hardware failures, and system upgrades.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-99\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-99\">[99]<\/a><\/sup> Ensuring availability also involves preventing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denial-of-service_attack\" title=\"Denial-of-service attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60592f037a0652dd16c640127be8ca89\">denial-of-service attacks<\/a>, such as a flood of incoming messages to the target system, essentially forcing it to shut down.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-100\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-100\">[100]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the realm of information security, availability can often be viewed as one of the most important parts of a successful information security program.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Ultimately end-users need to be able to perform job functions; by ensuring availability an organization is able to perform to the standards that an organization's stakeholders expect.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-101\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-101\">[101]<\/a><\/sup> This can involve topics such as proxy configurations, outside web access, the ability to access shared drives and the ability to send emails.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-102\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-102\">[102]<\/a><\/sup> Executives oftentimes do not understand the technical side of information security and look at availability as an easy fix, but this often requires collaboration from many different organizational teams, such as network operations, development operations, incident response, and policy\/change management.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-103\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-103\">[103]<\/a><\/sup> A successful information security team involves many different key roles to mesh and align for the \"CIA\" triad to be provided effectively.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-104\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-104\">[104]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Non-repudiation\">Non-repudiation<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In law, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-repudiation\" title=\"Non-repudiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"626625acb28e081c4e58d7fb46a4b9f5\">non-repudiation<\/a> implies one's intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract. It also implies that one party of a transaction cannot deny having received a transaction, nor can the other party deny having sent a transaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BidgoliHandbook06_105-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BidgoliHandbook06-105\">[105]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>It is important to note that while technology such as cryptographic systems can assist in non-repudiation efforts, the concept is at its core a legal concept transcending the realm of technology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-106\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-106\">[106]<\/a><\/sup> It is not, for instance, sufficient to show that the message matches a digital signature signed with the sender's private key, and thus only the sender could have sent the message, and nobody else could have altered it in transit (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">data integrity<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-107\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-107\">[107]<\/a><\/sup> The alleged sender could in return demonstrate that the digital signature algorithm is vulnerable or flawed, or allege or prove that his signing key has been compromised.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-108\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-108\">[108]<\/a><\/sup> The fault for these violations may or may not lie with the sender, and such assertions may or may not relieve the sender of liability, but the assertion would invalidate the claim that the signature necessarily proves authenticity and integrity. As such, the sender may repudiate the message (because authenticity and integrity are pre-requisites for non-repudiation).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-109\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-109\">[109]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Risk_management\">Risk management<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_management\" title=\"Risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8dfffb6fe8cc680af34e88ec60c1c92\">Risk management<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Broadly speaking, risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational asset (or the loss of the asset).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-110\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-110\">[110]<\/a><\/sup> A vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to endanger or cause harm to an informational asset. A threat is anything (man-made or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_disaster\" title=\"Natural disaster\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ace129743c79a6eb9942600c17f6fdf\">act of nature<\/a>) that has the potential to cause harm.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-111\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-111\">[111]<\/a><\/sup> The likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm creates a risk. When a threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm, it has an impact.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-112\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-112\">[112]<\/a><\/sup> In the context of information security, the impact is a loss of availability, integrity, and confidentiality, and possibly other losses (lost income, loss of life, loss of real property).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GramaLegal14_113-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GramaLegal14-113\">[113]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Certified_Information_Systems_Auditor\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Certified Information Systems Auditor\" data-key=\"f8dcd7a7d7bf8bb62bba49dc5fd0a9a2\">Certified Information Systems Auditor<\/a> (CISA) Review Manual 2006<\/i> defines <b>risk management<\/b> as \"the process of identifying <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_(computing)\" title=\"Vulnerability (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba3eca3995690776a2ec5d3a458bb68e\">vulnerabilities<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Threat_(computer)\" title=\"Threat (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d5165b429cff5ef72f0996f714d481\">threats<\/a> to the information resources used by an organization in achieving business objectives, and deciding what <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Countermeasure_(computer)\" title=\"Countermeasure (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"786c1827cd50ca51d3c796640418a445\">countermeasures<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-114\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-114\">[114]<\/a><\/sup> if any, to take in reducing risk to an acceptable level, based on the value of the information resource to the organization.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-115\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-115\">[115]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There are two things in this definition that may need some clarification. First, the <i>process<\/i> of risk management is an ongoing, iterative <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">process<\/a>. It must be repeated indefinitely. The business environment is constantly changing and new <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Threat_(computer)\" title=\"Threat (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d5165b429cff5ef72f0996f714d481\">threats<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_(computing)\" title=\"Vulnerability (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba3eca3995690776a2ec5d3a458bb68e\">vulnerabilities<\/a> emerge every day.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-116\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-116\">[116]<\/a><\/sup> Second, the choice of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Countermeasure_(computer)\" title=\"Countermeasure (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"786c1827cd50ca51d3c796640418a445\">countermeasures<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_controls\" title=\"Security controls\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"967bf01beac3187ddde94c106f7e5db3\">controls<\/a>) used to manage risks must strike a balance between productivity, cost, effectiveness of the countermeasure, and the value of the informational asset being protected.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-117\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-117\">[117]<\/a><\/sup> Furthermore, these processes have limitations as security breaches are generally rare and emerge in a specific context which may not be easily duplicated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-118\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-118\">[118]<\/a><\/sup> Thus, any process and countermeasure should itself be evaluated for vulnerabilities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-119\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-119\">[119]<\/a><\/sup> It is not possible to identify all risks, nor is it possible to eliminate all risk. The remaining risk is called \"residual risk\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-120\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-120\">[120]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_assessment\" title=\"Risk assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"011cb1c8b0a87fcbb22deb8c265f5410\">risk assessment<\/a> is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of the business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-121\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-121\">[121]<\/a><\/sup> Membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business are assessed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-122\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-122\">[122]<\/a><\/sup> The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed opinion, or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">quantitative<\/a> analysis.\n<\/p><p>Research has shown that the most vulnerable point in most information systems is the human user, operator, designer, or other human.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-123\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-123\">[123]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_17799\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17799\" data-key=\"f22acb53c5d3e8ff1295edd089585782\">ISO\/IEC 27002:2005<\/a> Code of practice for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_management\" title=\"Information security management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"965dd2c20d37321146f7748f8a080d52\">information security management<\/a> recommends the following be examined during a risk assessment:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_policy\" title=\"Security policy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"240c40608a1fa03fb94728756d41b1db\">security policy<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organization\" title=\"Organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3f46954c79f7a1fafc5e803bd654e8\">organization<\/a> of information security,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Asset_management\" title=\"Asset management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1390a11e683d0eff107c334424ba9a71\">asset management<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_resources\" title=\"Human resources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efc1600cf27dd94c0c671f2b4c618ab5\">human resources<\/a> security,<\/li>\n<li>physical and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_security\" title=\"Environmental security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bab62bbe39a38cf0527ff518b6b68cfd\">environmental security<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communications\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Communications\" data-key=\"5c9aec456fcd38abe3c81cdab4f7f5b1\">communications<\/a> and operations management,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control\" title=\"Access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f978f594d7eee9299dbb3da18ee80a8c\">access control<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li>information systems acquisition, development, and maintenance,<\/li>\n<li>information security <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incident_management\" title=\"Incident management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc3b95f332502327588aadeffb21282b\">incident management<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li>business continuity management<\/li>\n<li>regulatory compliance.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In broad terms, the risk management process consists of:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NewsomeAPract13_124-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NewsomeAPract13-124\">[124]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WhitmanManage16_125-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WhitmanManage16-125\">[125]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Identification of assets and estimating their value. Include: people, buildings, hardware, software, data (electronic, print, other), supplies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-126\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-126\">[126]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Conduct a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Threat_assessment\" title=\"Threat assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0a1bfa8a8bfeae97434bb3990cdcd5e\">threat assessment<\/a>. Include: Acts of nature, acts of war, accidents, malicious acts originating from inside or outside the organization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-127\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-127\">[127]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Conduct a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_assessment\" title=\"Vulnerability assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ece2090b891dcf65af4cc398ef400633\">vulnerability assessment<\/a>, and for each vulnerability, calculate the probability that it will be exploited. Evaluate policies, procedures, standards, training, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_security\" title=\"Physical security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f5638e30bd1ab1ce1c42482d33a335b\">physical security<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_control\" title=\"Quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53081160bfedb3363868fc07b231ab5c\">quality control<\/a>, technical security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-128\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-128\">[128]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Calculate the impact that each threat would have on each asset. Use qualitative analysis or quantitative analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-129\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-129\">[129]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Identify, select and implement appropriate controls. Provide a proportional response. Consider productivity, cost effectiveness, and value of the asset.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-130\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-130\">[130]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures. Ensure the controls provide the required cost effective protection without discernible loss of productivity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-131\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-131\">[131]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<p>For any given risk, management can choose to accept the risk based upon the relative low value of the asset, the relative low frequency of occurrence, and the relative low impact on the business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-132\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-132\">[132]<\/a><\/sup> Or, leadership may choose to mitigate the risk by selecting and implementing appropriate control measures to reduce the risk. In some cases, the risk can be transferred to another business by buying insurance or outsourcing to another business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SP80030_133-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SP80030-133\">[133]<\/a><\/sup> The reality of some risks may be disputed. In such cases leadership may choose to deny the risk.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-134\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-134\">[134]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_controls\">Security controls<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_controls\" title=\"Security controls\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"967bf01beac3187ddde94c106f7e5db3\">security controls<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Selecting and implementing proper security controls will initially help an organization bring down risk to acceptable levels.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-135\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-135\">[135]<\/a><\/sup> Control selection should follow and should be based on the risk assessment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-136\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-136\">[136]<\/a><\/sup> Controls can vary in nature, but fundamentally they are ways of protecting the confidentiality, integrity or availability of information. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_27001\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 27001\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd3902db4bbaf0270cab9cb14d0f326e\">ISO\/IEC 27001<\/a> has defined controls in different areas.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-137\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-137\">[137]<\/a><\/sup> Organizations can implement additional controls according to requirement of the organization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JohnsonSecurity15_138-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JohnsonSecurity15-138\">[138]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_27002\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 27002\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc28eaa3c6396ef0cb40ec8a4bc4ab2e\">ISO\/IEC 27002<\/a> offers a guideline for organizational information security standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-139\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-139\">[139]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Administrative\">Administrative<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Administrative controls (also called procedural controls) consist of approved written policies, procedures, standards, and guidelines. Administrative controls form the framework for running the business and managing people.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Administrative_Controls_140-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Administrative_Controls-140\">[140]<\/a><\/sup> They inform people on how the business is to be run and how day-to-day operations are to be conducted. Laws and regulations created by government bodies are also a type of administrative control because they inform the business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-141\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-141\">[141]<\/a><\/sup> Some industry sectors have policies, procedures, standards, and guidelines that must be followed \u2013 the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Payment_Card_Industry_Data_Security_Standard\" title=\"Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7349f5e00d4d43437e99087117caf84\">Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_142-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-142\">[142]<\/a><\/sup> (PCI DSS) required by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visa_Inc.\" title=\"Visa Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17c5c7efa3b8a11bb0981f3b7e1d24b7\">Visa<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MasterCard\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MasterCard\" data-key=\"800930ed966ced433aa04bbc3482c041\">MasterCard<\/a> is such an example. Other examples of administrative controls include the corporate security policy, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password_policy\" title=\"Password policy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"222b7c7d2fd9f738bac2ff84dda06491\">password policy<\/a>, hiring policies, and disciplinary policies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-143\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-143\">[143]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Administrative controls form the basis for the selection and implementation of logical and physical controls. Logical and physical controls are manifestations of administrative controls, which are of paramount importance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Administrative_Controls_140-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Administrative_Controls-140\">[140]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Logical\">Logical<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Logical controls (also called technical controls) use software and data to monitor and control access to information and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing\" title=\"Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e2b41b4b3636a02cae6b06d1b0b6378\">computing<\/a> systems.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Passwords, network and host-based firewalls, network <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intrusion_detection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intrusion detection\" data-key=\"1bc8a7889354f177551215bcbb759cc1\">intrusion detection<\/a> systems, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control_list\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Access control list\" data-key=\"8c0bf561208bb893140c82316c072372\">access control lists<\/a>, and data encryption are examples of logical controls.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-144\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-144\">[144]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An important logical control that is frequently overlooked is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Principle_of_least_privilege\" title=\"Principle of least privilege\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76e1ae0b7577f7325933b66ea83206f3\">principle of least privilege<\/a>, which requires that an individual, program or system process not be granted any more access privileges than are necessary to perform the task.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RansomeCore13_145-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RansomeCore13-145\">[145]<\/a><\/sup> A blatant example of the failure to adhere to the principle of least privilege is logging into Windows as user Administrator to read email and surf the web. Violations of this principle can also occur when an individual collects additional access privileges over time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-146\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-146\">[146]<\/a><\/sup> This happens when employees' job duties change, employees are promoted to a new position, or employees are transferred to another department.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-147\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-147\">[147]<\/a><\/sup> The access privileges required by their new duties are frequently added onto their already existing access privileges, which may no longer be necessary or appropriate.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-148\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-148\">[148]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Physical\">Physical<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Physical controls monitor and control the environment of the work place and computing facilities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-149\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-149\">[149]<\/a><\/sup> They also monitor and control access to and from such facilities and include doors, locks, heating and air conditioning, smoke and fire alarms, fire suppression systems, cameras, barricades, fencing, security guards, cable locks, etc. Separating the network and workplace into functional areas are also physical controls.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-150\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-150\">[150]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An important physical control that is frequently overlooked is separation of duties, which ensures that an individual can not complete a critical task by himself.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-151\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-151\">[151]<\/a><\/sup> For example, an employee who submits a request for reimbursement should not also be able to authorize payment or print the check.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-152\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-152\">[152]<\/a><\/sup> An applications programmer should not also be the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_administrator\" title=\"System administrator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86ed88f966bb45921ef615e89161da11\">server administrator<\/a> or the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_administrator\" title=\"Database administrator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8e2b2bd10401dfbb829692fdc8df46a\">database administrator<\/a>; these roles and responsibilities must be separated from one another.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-153\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-153\">[153]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Defense_in_depth\">Defense in depth<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Defense_In_Depth_-_Onion_Model.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8398aef9f8eb1c69f5a990d7f569cc7\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/4c\/Defense_In_Depth_-_Onion_Model.svg\/220px-Defense_In_Depth_-_Onion_Model.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Onion_model\" title=\"Onion model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"693151511ed57412cd8089b02c6a6123\">onion model<\/a> of defense in depth<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defense_in_depth_(computing)\" title=\"Defense in depth (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f19c946c8f3003cd31960f9b5665cfbc\">Defense in depth (computing)<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Information security must protect information throughout its lifespan, from the initial creation of the information on through to the final disposal of the information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-154\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-154\">[154]<\/a><\/sup> The information must be protected while in motion and while at rest. During its lifetime, information may pass through many different information processing systems and through many different parts of information processing systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-155\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-155\">[155]<\/a><\/sup> There are many different ways the information and information systems can be threatened. To fully protect the information during its lifetime, each component of the information processing system must have its own protection mechanisms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-156\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-156\">[156]<\/a><\/sup> The building up, layering on, and overlapping of security measures is called \"defense in depth.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-157\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-157\">[157]<\/a><\/sup> In contrast to a metal chain, which is famously only as strong as its weakest link, the defense in depth strategy aims at a structure where, should one defensive measure fail, other measures will continue to provide protection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VaccaComputer13_158-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VaccaComputer13-158\">[158]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Recall the earlier discussion about administrative controls, logical controls, and physical controls. The three types of controls can be used to form the basis upon which to build a defense in depth strategy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Administrative_Controls_140-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Administrative_Controls-140\">[140]<\/a><\/sup> With this approach, defense in depth can be conceptualized as three distinct layers or planes laid one on top of the other.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-159\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-159\">[159]<\/a><\/sup> Additional insight into defense in depth can be gained by thinking of it as forming the layers of an onion, with data at the core of the onion, people the next outer layer of the onion, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_security\" title=\"Network security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd28fe06f1e45ea385d35225e5d4effc\">network security<\/a>, host-based security, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_security\" title=\"Application security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58af074101b32ff0ed2601987d6030d0\">application security<\/a> forming the outermost layers of the onion.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-160\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-160\">[160]<\/a><\/sup> Both perspectives are equally valid, and each provides valuable insight into the implementation of a good defense in depth strategy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-161\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-161\">[161]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Classification\">Classification<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of information and defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for the information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-162\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-162\">[162]<\/a><\/sup> Not all information is equal and so not all information requires the same degree of protection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-163\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-163\">[163]<\/a><\/sup> This requires information to be assigned a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classified_information\" title=\"Classified information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0ff0b737ab31c45d7e5a4047bfb82a7\">security classification<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-164\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-164\">[164]<\/a><\/sup> The first step in information classification is to identify a member of senior management as the owner of the particular information to be classified. Next, develop a classification policy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-165\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-165\">[165]<\/a><\/sup> The policy should describe the different classification labels, define the criteria for information to be assigned a particular label, and list the required <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_controls\" title=\"Security controls\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"967bf01beac3187ddde94c106f7e5db3\">security controls<\/a> for each classification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BayukEnterprise09_166-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BayukEnterprise09-166\">[166]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Some factors that influence which classification information should be assigned include how much value that information has to the organization, how old the information is and whether or not the information has become obsolete.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-167\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-167\">[167]<\/a><\/sup> Laws and other regulatory requirements are also important considerations when classifying information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-168\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-168\">[168]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISACA\" title=\"ISACA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"010a2ea5096a87c89e1bcf76f74cce67\">Information Systems Audit and Control Association<\/a> (ISACA) and its <i>Business Model for Information Security<\/i> also serves as a tool for security professionals to examine security from a systems perspective, creating an environment where security can be managed holistically, allowing actual risks to be addressed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISACA-BMIS_169-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISACA-BMIS-169\">[169]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The type of information security classification labels selected and used will depend on the nature of the organization, with examples being:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BayukEnterprise09_166-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BayukEnterprise09-166\">[166]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>In the business sector, labels such as: Public, Sensitive, Private, Confidential.<\/li>\n<li>In the government sector, labels such as: Unclassified, Unofficial, Protected, Confidential, Secret, Top Secret, and their non-English equivalents.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-170\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-170\">[170]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In cross-sectoral formations, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic_Light_Protocol\" title=\"Traffic Light Protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66bdb08e5fc2228e139b10bea7398999\">Traffic Light Protocol<\/a>, which consists of: White, Green, Amber, and Red.<\/li>\n<li>In the personal sector, one label such as Financial. This includes activities related to managing money, such as online banking.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-171\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-171\">[171]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>All employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the classification schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for each classification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-172\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-172\">[172]<\/a><\/sup> The classification of a particular information asset that has been assigned should be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for the information and to ensure the security controls required by the classification are in place and are followed in their right procedures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-173\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-173\">[173]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Access_control\">Access control<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Access to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACM_Press_174-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACM_Press-174\">[174]<\/a><\/sup> The computer programs, and in many cases the computers that process the information, must also be authorized.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Peiss_2020_16\u201339_175-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Peiss_2020_16\u201339-175\">[175]<\/a><\/sup> This requires that mechanisms be in place to control the access to protected information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Peiss_2020_16\u201339_175-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Peiss_2020_16\u201339-175\">[175]<\/a><\/sup> The sophistication of the access control mechanisms should be in parity with the value of the information being protected; the more sensitive or valuable the information the stronger the control mechanisms need to be.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-176\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-176\">[176]<\/a><\/sup> The foundation on which access control mechanisms are built start with identification and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">authentication<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-177\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-177\">[177]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Access control is generally considered in three steps: identification, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">authentication<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authorization\" title=\"Authorization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e448453704ea5be3cefe1e1593364217\">authorization<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-178\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-178\">[178]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_90-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AndressTheBasics14-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Identification\">Identification<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Identification is an assertion of who someone is or what something is. If a person makes the statement \"Hello, my name is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Doe\" title=\"John Doe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30fed3344a61fccdbce47e1f90ab11a2\">John Doe<\/a>\" they are making a claim of who they are.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-179\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-179\">[179]<\/a><\/sup> However, their claim may or may not be true. Before John Doe can be granted access to protected information it will be necessary to verify that the person claiming to be John Doe really is John Doe.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-180\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-180\">[180]<\/a><\/sup> Typically the claim is in the form of a username. By entering that username you are claiming \"I am the person the username belongs to\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-181\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-181\">[181]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Authentication\">Authentication<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Authentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity. When John Doe goes into a bank to make a withdrawal, he tells the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bank_teller\" title=\"Bank teller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43414f7f536b05ebb48c0f4b91a93d38\">bank teller<\/a> he is John Doe, a claim of identity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-182\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-182\">[182]<\/a><\/sup> The bank teller asks to see a photo ID, so he hands the teller his <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Driver%27s_license\" title=\"Driver's license\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a79f51dceb5346d0448c148020d1f1c\">driver's license<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-183\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-183\">[183]<\/a><\/sup> The bank teller checks the license to make sure it has John Doe printed on it and compares the photograph on the license against the person claiming to be John Doe.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-184\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-184\">[184]<\/a><\/sup> If the photo and name match the person, then the teller has authenticated that John Doe is who he claimed to be. Similarly, by entering the correct password, the user is providing evidence that he\/she is the person the username belongs to.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-185\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-185\">[185]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There are three different types of information that can be used for authentication:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-186\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-186\">[186]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-187\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-187\">[187]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Something you know: things such as a PIN, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password\" title=\"Password\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1a0d7ae6f26ce9e27f1556f4d98c342\">password<\/a>, or your mother's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maiden_name\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Maiden name\" data-key=\"e5bcfd60a794e6ba37fa596ec5d14b6b\">maiden name<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-188\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-188\">[188]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-189\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-189\">[189]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Something you have: a driver's license or a magnetic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swipe_card\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Swipe card\" data-key=\"d80cad37d0858f4645a845ccf0d7ef6a\">swipe card<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-190\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-190\">[190]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-191\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-191\">[191]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Something you are: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biometrics\" title=\"Biometrics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4f35a99c6e99677482bfa536211b504\">biometrics<\/a>, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Palm_print\" title=\"Palm print\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45c895ec915797b82533a3482ad1ad2c\">palm prints<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fingerprint\" title=\"Fingerprint\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"467ce94e6e4a373eb01fa079a45609ff\">fingerprints<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speaker_recognition\" title=\"Speaker recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49a5cd75e4e5ece8e506ae2f09e75f11\">voice prints<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retina_scan\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Retina scan\" data-key=\"a39a274997307b549ccce693061793d5\">retina (eye) scans<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-192\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-192\">[192]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Strong authentication requires providing more than one type of authentication information (two-factor authentication).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-193\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-193\">[193]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Username\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Username\" data-key=\"83b88effc872d757b09098aa05ee9160\">username<\/a> is the most common form of identification on computer systems today and the password is the most common form of authentication.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-194\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-194\">[194]<\/a><\/sup> Usernames and passwords have served their purpose, but they are increasingly inadequate.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-195\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-195\">[195]<\/a><\/sup> Usernames and passwords are slowly being replaced or supplemented with more sophisticated authentication mechanisms such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time-based_one-time_password\" title=\"Time-based one-time password\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f835ca7a72b18530ce3a9d455a088c25\">time-based one-time password algorithms<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-196\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-196\">[196]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Authorization\">Authorization<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>After a person, program or computer has successfully been identified and authenticated then it must be determined what informational resources they are permitted to access and what actions they will be allowed to perform (run, view, create, delete, or change).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-197\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-197\">[197]<\/a><\/sup> This is called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authorization\" title=\"Authorization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e448453704ea5be3cefe1e1593364217\">authorization<\/a>. Authorization to access information and other computing services begins with administrative policies and procedures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-198\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-198\">[198]<\/a><\/sup> The policies prescribe what information and computing services can be accessed, by whom, and under what conditions. The access control mechanisms are then configured to enforce these policies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-199\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-199\">[199]<\/a><\/sup> Different computing systems are equipped with different kinds of access control mechanisms. Some may even offer a choice of different access control mechanisms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-200\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-200\">[200]<\/a><\/sup> The access control mechanism a system offers will be based upon one of three approaches to access control, or it may be derived from a combination of the three approaches.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_90-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AndressTheBasics14-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The non-discretionary approach consolidates all access control under a centralized administration.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-discretionary_access_control_201-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-discretionary_access_control-201\">[201]<\/a><\/sup> The access to information and other resources is usually based on the individuals function (role) in the organization or the tasks the individual must perform.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IS_1_202-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IS_1-202\">[202]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-203\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-203\">[203]<\/a><\/sup> The discretionary approach gives the creator or owner of the information resource the ability to control access to those resources.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-discretionary_access_control_201-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-discretionary_access_control-201\">[201]<\/a><\/sup> In the mandatory access control approach, access is granted or denied basing upon the security classification assigned to the information resource.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACM_Press_174-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACM_Press-174\">[174]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Examples of common access control mechanisms in use today include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Role-Based_Access_Control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Role-Based Access Control\" data-key=\"2e1497ec02152335e6e9339e79b15bc9\">role-based access control<\/a>, available in many advanced database management systems; simple <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_system_permissions\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"File system permissions\" data-key=\"bd2cd7ba46400951982f63715bcc08c7\">file permissions<\/a> provided in the UNIX and Windows operating systems;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-204\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-204\">[204]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Group_Policy_Object\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Group Policy Object\" data-key=\"aae55913161c0e1fca1388a3b9dcf56e\">Group Policy Objects<\/a> provided in Windows network systems; and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kerberos_(protocol)\" title=\"Kerberos (protocol)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d030e1836409d375c5fd53ae3dd36e88\">Kerberos<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RADIUS\" title=\"RADIUS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38d1ecc9dd9ff46be4907a1af7090c9c\">RADIUS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TACACS\" title=\"TACACS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c30c0970e022bea7217b780ec18c3a3\">TACACS<\/a>, and the simple access lists used in many <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(networking)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Firewall (networking)\" data-key=\"7da6d7805097a24a8974213a1734d7b4\">firewalls<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Router_(computing)\" title=\"Router (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46947797897d69ee68e26743409f5b0d\">routers<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-205\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-205\">[205]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>To be effective, policies and other security controls must be enforceable and upheld. Effective policies ensure that people are held accountable for their actions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-206\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-206\">[206]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury\" title=\"United States Department of the Treasury\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca637dddb909c91302330bde6ab587d2\">U.S. Treasury<\/a>'s guidelines for systems processing sensitive or proprietary information, for example, states that all failed and successful authentication and access attempts must be logged, and all access to information must leave some type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20dda7b1dead7c17c90c4498b0afe092\">audit trail<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-207\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-207\">[207]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Also, the need-to-know principle needs to be in effect when talking about access control. This principle gives access rights to a person to perform their job functions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-208\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-208\">[208]<\/a><\/sup> This principle is used in the government when dealing with difference clearances.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-209\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-209\">[209]<\/a><\/sup> Even though two employees in different departments have a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classified_information\" title=\"Classified information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0ff0b737ab31c45d7e5a4047bfb82a7\">top-secret clearance<\/a>, they must have a need-to-know in order for information to be exchanged. Within the need-to-know principle, network administrators grant the employee the least amount of privilege to prevent employees from accessing more than what they are supposed to.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-210\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-210\">[210]<\/a><\/sup> Need-to-know helps to enforce the confidentiality-integrity-availability triad. Need-to-know directly impacts the confidential area of the triad.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-211\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-211\">[211]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cryptography\">Cryptography<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">Cryptography<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Information security uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptography<\/a> to transform usable information into a form that renders it unusable by anyone other than an authorized user; this process is called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">encryption<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-212\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-212\">[212]<\/a><\/sup> Information that has been encrypted (rendered unusable) can be transformed back into its original usable form by an authorized user who possesses the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_(cryptography)\" title=\"Key (cryptography)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f386cde7c8c131fd3ca8b2e725775fcd\">cryptographic key<\/a>, through the process of decryption.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-213\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-213\">[213]<\/a><\/sup> Cryptography is used in information security to protect information from unauthorized or accidental disclosure while the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a> is in transit (either electronically or physically) and while information is in storage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_90-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AndressTheBasics14-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Cryptography provides information security with other useful applications as well, including improved authentication methods, message digests, digital signatures, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-repudiation\" title=\"Non-repudiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"626625acb28e081c4e58d7fb46a4b9f5\">non-repudiation<\/a>, and encrypted network communications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-214\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-214\">[214]<\/a><\/sup> Older, less secure applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telnet\" title=\"Telnet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"885d05aadabd58ef57bcebde9d7f8509\">Telnet<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_Transfer_Protocol\" title=\"File Transfer Protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02c256429868d5a2ea279ac6ccb336a6\">File Transfer Protocol<\/a> (FTP) are slowly being replaced with more secure applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_Shell\" title=\"Secure Shell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"985ea9b990df466e020a3f536bdce306\">Secure Shell<\/a> (SSH) that use encrypted network communications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-URK_1_215-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-URK_1-215\">[215]<\/a><\/sup> Wireless communications can be encrypted using protocols such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wi-Fi_Protected_Access\" title=\"Wi-Fi Protected Access\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63eab7b4dc4136f5ef1d614d03ebf686\">WPA\/WPA2<\/a> or the older (and less secure) <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wired_Equivalent_Privacy\" title=\"Wired Equivalent Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01b5a3f371cd38c2b221f0b591897dd0\">WEP<\/a>. Wired communications (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITU-T\" title=\"ITU-T\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66989984f04c650ca9f0770e4833a5d6\">ITU\u2011T<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/G.hn\" title=\"G.hn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47f628c02e510aecefa4c3d64ea0d6ab\">G.hn<\/a>) are secured using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_Encryption_Standard\" title=\"Advanced Encryption Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0411feeb59e8eb26837d638e589e3fb6\">AES<\/a> for encryption and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/X.1035\" title=\"X.1035\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b3b670e0ff2978c6957bdc5e164baa0\">X.1035<\/a> for authentication and key exchange.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-216\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-216\">[216]<\/a><\/sup> Software applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GnuPG\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GnuPG\" data-key=\"d0b18a53bd68c9e39ba2a9ec9ac509c6\">GnuPG<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pretty_Good_Privacy\" title=\"Pretty Good Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53b603ea3a39ecc964d1c8035196d426\">PGP<\/a> can be used to encrypt data files and email.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-217\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-217\">[217]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Cryptography can introduce security problems when it is not implemented correctly.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-218\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-218\">[218]<\/a><\/sup> Cryptographic solutions need to be implemented using industry-accepted solutions that have undergone rigorous peer review by independent experts in cryptography.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-219\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-219\">[219]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_size\" title=\"Key size\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"891c5be28796575e5d9741067ba79f63\">length and strength<\/a> of the encryption key is also an important consideration.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Key_Encryption_Key_220-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Key_Encryption_Key-220\">[220]<\/a><\/sup> A key that is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weak_key\" title=\"Weak key\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18f11c6e348a0be274cdeaa72bb676d4\">weak<\/a> or too short will produce <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weak_encryption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Weak encryption\" data-key=\"f12d2658104c78ed3a58d3b1bee126dc\">weak encryption<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Key_Encryption_Key_220-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Key_Encryption_Key-220\">[220]<\/a><\/sup> The keys used for encryption and decryption must be protected with the same degree of rigor as any other confidential information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-221\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-221\">[221]<\/a><\/sup> They must be protected from unauthorized disclosure and destruction, and they must be available when needed.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"link no longer works (November 2023)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_key_infrastructure\" title=\"Public key infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe01ccfdd85622bf9528e8428b3b5897\">Public key infrastructure<\/a> (PKI) solutions address many of the problems that surround <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_management\" title=\"Key management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9c068d4680b0ef256209228831e12d2\">key management<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_90-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AndressTheBasics14-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Process\">Process<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The terms \"reasonable and prudent person\", \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Due_care\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Due care\" data-key=\"24563707232bae0ff4b38f069723112d\">due care<\/a>\", and \"due diligence\" have been used in the fields of finance, securities, and law for many years. In recent years these terms have found their way into the fields of computing and information security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WhitmanManage16_125-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WhitmanManage16-125\">[125]<\/a><\/sup> U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Sentencing_Guidelines\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Federal Sentencing Guidelines\" data-key=\"b78b3347c9c53ca0b352f5d29a541ffb\">Federal Sentencing Guidelines<\/a> now make it possible to hold corporate officers liable for failing to exercise due care and due diligence in the management of their information systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VallabhaneniCorporate08_222-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VallabhaneniCorporate08-222\">[222]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the business world, stockholders, customers, business partners, and governments have the expectation that corporate officers will run the business in accordance with accepted business practices and in compliance with laws and other regulatory requirements. This is often described as the \"reasonable and prudent person\" rule. A prudent person takes due care to ensure that everything necessary is done to operate the business by sound business principles and in a legal, ethical manner. A prudent person is also diligent (mindful, attentive, ongoing) in their due care of the business.\n<\/p><p>In the field of information security, Harris<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-223\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-223\">[223]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>offers the following definitions of due care and due diligence:\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<blockquote><p><i>\"Due care are steps that are taken to show that a company has taken responsibility for the activities that take place within the corporation and has taken the necessary steps to help protect the company, its resources, and employees<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-224\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-224\">[224]<\/a><\/sup><i>.\"<\/i> And, [Due diligence are the] <i>\"continual activities that make sure the protection mechanisms are continually maintained and operational.\"<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-225\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-225\">[225]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Attention should be made to two important points in these definitions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-226\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-226\">[226]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-227\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-227\">[227]<\/a><\/sup> First, in due care, steps are taken to show; this means that the steps can be verified, measured, or even produce tangible artifacts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-228\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-228\">[228]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-229\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-229\">[229]<\/a><\/sup> Second, in due diligence, there are continual activities; this means that people are actually doing things to monitor and maintain the protection mechanisms, and these activities are ongoing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-230\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-230\">[230]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Organizations have a responsibility with practicing duty of care when applying information security. The Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard (DoCRA)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-231\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-231\">[231]<\/a><\/sup> provides principles and practices for evaluating risk.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-232\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-232\">[232]<\/a><\/sup> It considers all parties that could be affected by those risks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-233\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-233\">[233]<\/a><\/sup> DoCRA helps evaluate safeguards if they are appropriate in protecting others from harm while presenting a reasonable burden.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-234\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-234\">[234]<\/a><\/sup> With increased data breach litigation, companies must balance security controls, compliance, and its mission.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-235\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-235\">[235]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_governance\">Security governance<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Security_Governance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information Security Governance\" data-key=\"c5cab2657bb7974a04ccd3e69b18740d\">Information Security Governance<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_Engineering_Institute\" title=\"Software Engineering Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1071582bb3392ccef646ca4577971ea5\">Software Engineering Institute<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">Carnegie Mellon University<\/a>, in a publication titled <i>Governing for Enterprise Security (GES) Implementation Guide<\/i>, defines characteristics of effective security governance. These include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WestbyGovern07_236-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WestbyGovern07-236\">[236]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>An enterprise-wide issue<\/li>\n<li>Leaders are accountable<\/li>\n<li>Viewed as a business requirement<\/li>\n<li>Risk-based<\/li>\n<li>Roles, responsibilities, and segregation of duties defined<\/li>\n<li>Addressed and enforced in policy<\/li>\n<li>Adequate resources committed<\/li>\n<li>Staff aware and trained<\/li>\n<li>A development life cycle requirement<\/li>\n<li>Planned, managed, measurable, and measured<\/li>\n<li>Reviewed and audited<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Incident_response_plans\">Incident response plans<\/span><\/h3>\n\n<p>An incident response plan (IRP) is a group of policies that dictate an organizations reaction to a cyber attack. Once an security breach has been identified, for example by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intrusion_detection_system\" title=\"Intrusion detection system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5d5594179a0f4df4d85d17aa52c5c4f\">network intrusion detection system<\/a> (NIDS) or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Host-based_intrusion_detection_system\" title=\"Host-based intrusion detection system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2dac3e30970488b90a784c6eb4ecb8b7\">host-based intrusion detection system<\/a> (HIDS) (if configured to do so), the plan is initiated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-237\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-237\">[237]<\/a><\/sup> It is important to note that there can be legal implications to a data breach. Knowing local and federal laws is critical.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-238\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-238\">[238]<\/a><\/sup> Every plan is unique to the needs of the organization, and it can involve skill sets that are not part of an IT team.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-239\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-239\">[239]<\/a><\/sup> For example, a lawyer may be included in the response plan to help navigate legal implications to a data breach.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As mentioned above every plan is unique but most plans will include the following:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:02_240-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:02-240\">[240]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Preparation\">Preparation<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Good preparation includes the development of an incident response team (IRT).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-241\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-241\">[241]<\/a><\/sup> Skills need to be used by this team would be, penetration testing, computer forensics, network security, etc.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-242\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-242\">[242]<\/a><\/sup> This team should also keep track of trends in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cybersecurity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cybersecurity\" data-key=\"ddaa1c5fc6bcff8b19b98b7b0fdf2f64\">cybersecurity<\/a> and modern attack strategies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-243\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-243\">[243]<\/a><\/sup> A training program for end users is important as well as most modern attack strategies target users on the network.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:02_240-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:02-240\">[240]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Identification_2\">Identification<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>This part of the incident response plan identifies if there was a security event.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-244\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-244\">[244]<\/a><\/sup> When an end user reports information or an admin notices irregularities, an investigation is launched. An incident log is a crucial part of this step.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"article has nothing to with incident logs (December 2023)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> All of the members of the team should be updating this log to ensure that information flows as fast as possible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-245\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-245\">[245]<\/a><\/sup> If it has been identified that a security breach has occurred the next step should be activated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-246\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-246\">[246]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Containment\">Containment<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In this phase, the IRT works to isolate the areas that the breach took place to limit the scope of the security event.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-247\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-247\">[247]<\/a><\/sup> During this phase it is important to preserve information forensically so it can be analyzed later in the process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-248\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-248\">[248]<\/a><\/sup> Containment could be as simple as physically containing a server room or as complex as segmenting a network to not allow the spread of a virus.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_249-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-249\">[249]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Eradication\">Eradication<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>This is where the threat that was identified is removed from the affected systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-250\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-250\">[250]<\/a><\/sup> This could include deleting malicious files, terminating compromised accounts, or deleting other components.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-251\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-251\">[251]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-252\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-252\">[252]<\/a><\/sup> Some events do not require this step, however it is important to fully understand the event before moving to this step.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-253\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-253\">[253]<\/a><\/sup> This will help to ensure that the threat is completely removed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_249-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-249\">[249]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Recovery\">Recovery<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>This stage is where the systems are restored back to original operation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-254\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-254\">[254]<\/a><\/sup> This stage could include the recovery of data, changing user access information, or updating firewall rules or policies to prevent a breach in the future.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-255\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-255\">[255]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-256\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-256\">[256]<\/a><\/sup> Without executing this step, the system could still be vulnerable to future security threats.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_249-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-249\">[249]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Lessons_learned\">Lessons learned<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In this step information that has been gathered during this process is used to make future decisions on security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-257\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-257\">[257]<\/a><\/sup> This step is crucial to the ensure that future events are prevented. Using this information to further train admins is critical to the process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-258\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-258\">[258]<\/a><\/sup> This step can also be used to process information that is distributed from other entities who have experienced a security event.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-259\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-259\">[259]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Change_management\">Change management<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_management_(ITSM)\" title=\"Change management (ITSM)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"818ff9ffbc05753df50660edd3de0488\">Change management (ITSM)<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Change management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the information processing environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-260\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-260\">[260]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-261\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-261\">[261]<\/a><\/sup> This includes alterations to desktop computers, the network, servers, and software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-262\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-262\">[262]<\/a><\/sup> The objectives of change management are to reduce the risks posed by changes to the information processing environment and improve the stability and reliability of the processing environment as changes are made.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-263\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-263\">[263]<\/a><\/sup> It is not the objective of change management to prevent or hinder necessary changes from being implemented.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CampbellPractical16_264-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CampbellPractical16-264\">[264]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-265\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-265\">[265]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Any change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-266\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-266\">[266]<\/a><\/sup> Even apparently simple changes can have unexpected effects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-267\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-267\">[267]<\/a><\/sup> One of management's many responsibilities is the management of risk.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-268\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-268\">[268]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-269\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-269\">[269]<\/a><\/sup> Change management is a tool for managing the risks introduced by changes to the information processing environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-270\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-270\">[270]<\/a><\/sup> Part of the change management process ensures that changes are not implemented at inopportune times when they may disrupt critical business processes or interfere with other changes being implemented.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-271\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-271\">[271]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Not every change needs to be managed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-272\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-272\">[272]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-273\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-273\">[273]<\/a><\/sup> Some kinds of changes are a part of the everyday routine of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure, which reduces the overall level of risk to the processing environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-274\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-274\">[274]<\/a><\/sup> Creating a new user account or deploying a new desktop computer are examples of changes that do not generally require change management.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-275\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-275\">[275]<\/a><\/sup> However, relocating user file shares, or upgrading the Email server pose a much higher level of risk to the processing environment and are not a normal everyday activity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-276\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-276\">[276]<\/a><\/sup> The critical first steps in change management are (a) defining change (and communicating that definition) and (b) defining the scope of the change system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-277\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-277\">[277]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Change management is usually overseen by a change review board composed of representatives from key business areas,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-278\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-278\">[278]<\/a><\/sup> security, networking, systems administrators, database administration, application developers, desktop support, and the help desk.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-279\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-279\">[279]<\/a><\/sup> The tasks of the change review board can be facilitated with the use of automated work flow application.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-280\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-280\">[280]<\/a><\/sup> The responsibility of the change review board is to ensure the organization's documented change management procedures are followed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-281\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-281\">[281]<\/a><\/sup> The change management process is as follows<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorProject08_282-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorProject08-282\">[282]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>Request<\/b>: Anyone can request a change.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-283\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-283\">[283]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-284\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-284\">[284]<\/a><\/sup> The person making the change request may or may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the change.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-285\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-285\">[285]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-286\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-286\">[286]<\/a><\/sup> When a request for change is received, it may undergo a preliminary review to determine if the requested change is compatible with the organizations <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_model\" title=\"Business model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2688ecba2105e5229b85377e94392f3e\">business model<\/a> and practices, and to determine the amount of resources needed to implement the change.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-287\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-287\">[287]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Approve<\/b>: Management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore, management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-288\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-288\">[288]<\/a><\/sup> Management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with the business model, industry standards or best practices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-289\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-289\">[289]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-290\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-290\">[290]<\/a><\/sup> Management might also choose to reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be allocated for the change.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-291\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-291\">[291]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Plan<\/b>: Planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed change; analyzing the complexity of the change; allocation of resources and, developing, testing, and documenting both implementation and back-out plans.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-292\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-292\">[292]<\/a><\/sup> Need to define the criteria on which a decision to back out will be made.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-293\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-293\">[293]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Test<\/b>: Every change must be tested in a safe test environment, which closely reflects the actual production environment, before the change is applied to the production environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-294\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-294\">[294]<\/a><\/sup> The backout plan must also be tested.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-295\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-295\">[295]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Schedule<\/b>: Part of the change review board's responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other scheduled changes or critical business activities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-296\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-296\">[296]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Communicate<\/b>: Once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-297\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-297\">[297]<\/a><\/sup> The communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about other changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when scheduling the change.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-298\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-298\">[298]<\/a><\/sup> The communication also serves to make the help desk and users aware that a change is about to occur.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-299\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-299\">[299]<\/a><\/sup> Another responsibility of the change review board is to ensure that scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who will be affected by the change or otherwise have an interest in the change.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-300\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-300\">[300]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-301\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-301\">[301]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Implement<\/b>: At the appointed date and time, the changes must be implemented.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-302\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-302\">[302]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-303\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-303\">[303]<\/a><\/sup> Part of the planning process was to develop an implementation plan, testing plan and, a back out plan.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-304\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-304\">[304]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-305\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-305\">[305]<\/a><\/sup> If the implementation of the change should fail or, the post implementation testing fails or, other \"drop dead\" criteria have been met, the back out plan should be implemented.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-306\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-306\">[306]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Document<\/b>: All changes must be documented.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-307\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-307\">[307]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-308\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-308\">[308]<\/a><\/sup> The documentation includes the initial request for change, its approval, the priority assigned to it, the implementation,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-309\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-309\">[309]<\/a><\/sup> testing and back out plans, the results of the change review board critique, the date\/time the change was implemented,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-310\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-310\">[310]<\/a><\/sup> who implemented it, and whether the change was implemented successfully, failed or postponed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-311\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-311\">[311]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-312\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-312\">[312]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Post-change review<\/b>: The change review board should hold a post-implementation review of changes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Soriani_313-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Soriani-313\">[313]<\/a><\/sup> It is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes. The review board should try to understand the problems that were encountered, and look for areas for improvement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Soriani_313-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Soriani-313\">[313]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Change management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce the overall risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-314\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-314\">[314]<\/a><\/sup> Good change management procedures improve the overall quality and success of changes as they are implemented.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-315\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-315\">[315]<\/a><\/sup> This is accomplished through planning, peer review, documentation, and communication.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-316\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-316\">[316]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_20000\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 20000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46bbc6f69ef65963c3574045ff6379f8\">ISO\/IEC 20000<\/a>, The Visible OPS Handbook: Implementing ITIL in 4 Practical and Auditable Steps<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-317\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-317\">[317]<\/a><\/sup> (Full book summary),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-318\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-318\">[318]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITIL\" title=\"ITIL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ecb066fc21e166ca22e8a9091e3791d\">ITIL<\/a> all provide valuable guidance on implementing an efficient and effective change management program information security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-319\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-319\">[319]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Business_continuity\">Business continuity<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Business continuity management (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_continuity_planning\" title=\"Business continuity planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0314e0ebb69a83f82d4925a81373f7f2\">BCM<\/a>) concerns arrangements aiming to protect an organization's critical business functions from interruption due to incidents, or at least minimize the effects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-320\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-320\">[320]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-321\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-321\">[321]<\/a><\/sup> BCM is essential to any organization to keep technology and business in line with current threats to the continuation of business as usual.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-322\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-322\">[322]<\/a><\/sup> The BCM should be included in an organizations <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Risk analysis\" data-key=\"df1f083529f7408563140a1abeda3bf4\">risk analysis<\/a> plan to ensure that all of the necessary business functions have what they need to keep going in the event of any type of threat to any business function.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-323\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-323\">[323]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>It encompasses:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Analysis of requirements, e.g., identifying critical business functions, dependencies and potential failure points, potential threats and hence incidents or risks of concern to the organization;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-324\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-324\">[324]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-325\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-325\">[325]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Specification, e.g., maximum tolerable outage periods; recovery point objectives (maximum acceptable periods of data loss);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-326\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-326\">[326]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Architecture and design, e.g., an appropriate combination of approaches including resilience (e.g. engineering IT systems and processes for high availability,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-327\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-327\">[327]<\/a><\/sup> avoiding or preventing situations that might interrupt the business), incident and emergency management (e.g., evacuating premises, calling the emergency services, triage\/situation<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-328\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-328\">[328]<\/a><\/sup> assessment and invoking recovery plans), recovery (e.g., rebuilding) and contingency management (generic capabilities to deal positively with whatever occurs using whatever resources are available);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-329\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-329\">[329]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Implementation, e.g., configuring and scheduling backups, data transfers, etc., duplicating and strengthening critical elements; contracting with service and equipment suppliers;<\/li>\n<li>Testing, e.g., business continuity exercises of various types, costs and assurance levels;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-330\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-330\">[330]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Management, e.g., defining strategies, setting objectives and goals; planning and directing the work; allocating funds, people and other resources; prioritization relative to other activities; team building, leadership, control, motivation and coordination with other business functions and activities<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-331\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-331\">[331]<\/a><\/sup> (e.g., IT, facilities, human resources, risk management, information risk and security, operations); monitoring the situation, checking and updating the arrangements when things change; maturing the approach through continuous improvement, learning and appropriate investment;<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Assurance, e.g., testing against specified requirements; measuring, analyzing, and reporting key parameters; conducting additional tests, reviews and audits for greater confidence that the arrangements will go to plan if invoked.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-332\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-332\">[332]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Whereas BCM takes a broad approach to minimizing disaster-related risks by reducing both the probability and the severity of incidents, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disaster_recovery_plan\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Disaster recovery plan\" data-key=\"087866b7ea43f9f22ab1207694e81b93\">disaster recovery plan<\/a> (DRP) focuses specifically on resuming business operations as quickly as possible after a disaster.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-333\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-333\">[333]<\/a><\/sup> A disaster recovery plan, invoked soon after a disaster occurs, lays out the steps necessary to recover critical <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_and_communications_technology\" title=\"Information and communications technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"595b230f45aac8af1e3004fad0f14cf0\">information and communications technology<\/a> (ICT) infrastructure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-334\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-334\">[334]<\/a><\/sup> Disaster recovery planning includes establishing a planning group, performing risk assessment, establishing priorities, developing recovery strategies, preparing inventories and documentation of the plan, developing verification criteria and procedure, and lastly implementing the plan.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-335\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-335\">[335]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laws_and_regulations\">Laws and regulations<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c86601bbce88581b408b01caa8dd5376\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2c\/Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png\/220px-Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"102\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_International\" title=\"Privacy International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5871c91334e4a46ac82f987ff205c62e\">Privacy International<\/a> 2007 privacy ranking<br \/>green: Protections and safeguards<br \/>red: Endemic surveillance societies<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Below is a partial listing of governmental laws and regulations in various parts of the world that have, had, or will have, a significant effect on data processing and information security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-dx.doi.org_336-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-dx.doi.org-336\">[336]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-337\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-337\">[337]<\/a><\/sup> Important industry sector regulations have also been included when they have a significant impact on information security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-dx.doi.org_336-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-dx.doi.org-336\">[336]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The UK <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Protection_Act_1984\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data Protection Act 1984\" data-key=\"21b3ec37c87ae98a4b124345dcb0ba66\">Data Protection Act 1998<\/a> makes new provisions for the regulation of the processing of information relating to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or disclosure of such information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-338\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-338\">[338]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-339\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-339\">[339]<\/a><\/sup> The European Union Data Protection Directive (EUDPD) requires that all E.U. members adopt national regulations to standardize the protection of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_privacy\" title=\"Information privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dbb3588f4b4f0d68b7d7359daea67bb\">data privacy<\/a> for citizens throughout the E.U.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-340\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-340\">[340]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UKDataProtAct_341-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UKDataProtAct-341\">[341]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Misuse_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer Misuse Act\" data-key=\"031f6e4f5c2d28e8fe8a7a36cdb2dd90\">Computer Misuse Act<\/a> 1990 is an Act of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom\" title=\"Parliament of the United Kingdom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"28abbf09cedf0ab1c7e4d188ee06f606\">U.K. Parliament<\/a> making computer crime (e.g., hacking) a criminal offense.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-342\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-342\">[342]<\/a><\/sup> The act has become a model upon which several other countries,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-343\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-343\">[343]<\/a><\/sup> including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canada\" title=\"Canada\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d2d285670d9ceeca776b202248af2f2\">Canada<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Republic_of_Ireland\" title=\"Republic of Ireland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5380a9d5ba49fae68060f38bd3b50297\">Republic of Ireland<\/a>, have drawn inspiration from when subsequently drafting their own information security laws.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-344\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-344\">[344]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UKCompMisAct_345-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UKCompMisAct-345\">[345]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The E.U.'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Retention_Directive\" title=\"Data Retention Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97dcc4c879c13050f302a7e7873fa6e9\">Data Retention Directive<\/a> (annulled) required internet service providers and phone companies to keep data on every electronic message sent and phone call made for between six months and two years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EU24EC06_346-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EU24EC06-346\">[346]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Family_Educational_Rights_and_Privacy_Act\" title=\"Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca10926de917212e4d97b79d64a41232\">Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act<\/a> (FERPA) (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Title_20_of_the_United_States_Code\" title=\"Title 20 of the United States Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52ad536444c760308c076d17939c6eab\">20&#160;U.S.C.<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/uscode\/text\/20\/1232\" target=\"_blank\">\u00a7&#160;1232<\/a> g; 34 CFR Part 99) is a U.S. Federal law that protects the privacy of student education records.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-347\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-347\">[347]<\/a><\/sup> The law applies to all schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/U.S._Department_of_Education\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"U.S. Department of Education\" data-key=\"fa20e6abd3ec03310f8264175e40585d\">U.S. Department of Education<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReferenceA_348-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReferenceA-348\">[348]<\/a><\/sup> Generally, schools must have written permission from the parent or eligible student<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReferenceA_348-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReferenceA-348\">[348]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-349\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-349\">[349]<\/a><\/sup> in order to release any information from a student's education record.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FERPA_350-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FERPA-350\">[350]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Financial_Institutions_Examination_Council\" title=\"Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad1f8325607e69ec9a40dd285c49bd3d\">Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council<\/a>'s (FFIEC) security guidelines for auditors specifies requirements for online banking security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FFIECAudit_351-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FFIECAudit-351\">[351]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"651fe0fa5498890d1a29b4c1e21db2db\">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act<\/a> (HIPAA) of 1996 requires the adoption of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-352\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-352\">[352]<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, it requires health care providers, insurance providers and employers to safeguard the security and privacy of health data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_353-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HIPAAGPO-353\">[353]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gramm%E2%80%93Leach%E2%80%93Bliley_Act\" title=\"Gramm\u2013Leach\u2013Bliley Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"883c5a526cf8e5d63388b682f058a36b\">Gramm\u2013Leach\u2013Bliley Act<\/a> of 1999 (GLBA), also known as the Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999, protects the privacy and security of private financial information that financial institutions collect, hold, and process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GLBAGPO_354-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GLBAGPO-354\">[354]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Section 404 of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sarbanes%E2%80%93Oxley_Act\" title=\"Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bc225a8cadba29f9f88c2930c3a91b9\">Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX)<\/a> requires publicly traded companies to assess the effectiveness of their internal controls for financial reporting in annual reports they submit at the end of each fiscal year.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-355\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-355\">[355]<\/a><\/sup> Chief information officers are responsible for the security, accuracy, and the reliability of the systems that manage and report the financial data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-356\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-356\">[356]<\/a><\/sup> The act also requires publicly traded companies to engage with independent auditors who must attest to, and report on, the validity of their assessments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SOAGPO_357-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SOAGPO-357\">[357]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Payment_Card_Industry_Data_Security_Standard\" title=\"Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7349f5e00d4d43437e99087117caf84\">Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS)<\/a> establishes comprehensive requirements for enhancing payment account data security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-358\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-358\">[358]<\/a><\/sup> It was developed by the founding payment brands of the PCI Security Standards Council \u2014 including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American_Express\" title=\"American Express\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e0c2d212bea869912e330567c5e91e6\">American Express<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discover_Card\" title=\"Discover Card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fce884382c359f2a0d87b09153287ff8\">Discover Financial Services<\/a>, JCB, MasterCard Worldwide,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-359\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-359\">[359]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visa_Inc.\" title=\"Visa Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17c5c7efa3b8a11bb0981f3b7e1d24b7\">Visa International<\/a> \u2014 to help facilitate the broad adoption of consistent <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">data security<\/a> measures on a global basis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-360\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-360\">[360]<\/a><\/sup> The PCI DSS is a multifaceted security standard that includes requirements for security management, policies, procedures, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_architecture\" title=\"Network architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a2dd983cb372f51ca551b0426078134\">network architecture<\/a>, software design, and other critical protective measures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCIDSS3.2_361-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCIDSS3.2-361\">[361]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>State <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_breach_notification_laws\" title=\"Security breach notification laws\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"836a6f4563df66fb4e12aa8c9572410d\">security breach notification laws<\/a> (California and many others) require businesses, nonprofits, and state institutions to notify consumers when unencrypted \"personal information\" may have been compromised, lost, or stolen.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NCSLStateSecBreach17_362-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NCSLStateSecBreach17-362\">[362]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The Personal Information Protection and Electronics Document Act (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_Information_Protection_and_Electronic_Documents_Act\" title=\"Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"281123a74d6f255d572e17bafd2474fe\">PIPEDA<\/a>) of Canada supports and promotes electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is collected, used or disclosed in certain circumstances,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-363\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-363\">[363]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-364\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-364\">[364]<\/a><\/sup> by providing for the use of electronic means to communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canada_Evidence_Act\" title=\"Canada Evidence Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb37f370d9e19709795d4bc80ed3df8e\">Canada Evidence Act<\/a>, the Statutory Instruments Act and the Statute Revision Act.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-365\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-365\">[365]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-366\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-366\">[366]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PIPEDA_367-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PIPEDA-367\">[367]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 165\/2011) establishes and describes the minimum information security controls that should be deployed by every company which provides electronic communication networks and\/or services in Greece in order to protect customers' confidentiality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-368\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-368\">[368]<\/a><\/sup> These include both managerial and technical controls (e.g., log records should be stored for two years).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RACEC_369-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RACEC-369\">[369]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 205\/2013) concentrates around the protection of the integrity and availability of the services and data offered by Greek telecommunication companies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-370\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-370\">[370]<\/a><\/sup> The law forces these and other related companies to build, deploy, and test appropriate business continuity plans and redundant infrastructures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-205\/2013_371-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-205\/2013-371\">[371]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in information assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information Technology (IT) certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network infrastructure defense have minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA). Andersson and Reimers (2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's A+ and Security+ through the ICS2.org's CISSP, etc.. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-372\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-372\">[372]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Culture\">Culture<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Describing more than simply how security aware employees are, information security culture is the ideas, customs, and social behaviors of an organization that impact information security in both positive and negative ways.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-373\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-373\">[373]<\/a><\/sup> Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness towards information security within an organization. The way employees think and feel about security and the actions they take can have a big impact on information security in organizations. Roer &amp; Petric (2017) identify seven core dimensions of information security culture in organizations:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-374\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-374\">[374]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Attitudes: employees' feelings and emotions about the various activities that pertain to the organizational security of information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-375\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-375\">[375]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Behaviors: actual or intended activities and risk-taking actions of employees that have direct or indirect impact on information security.<\/li>\n<li>Cognition: employees' awareness, verifiable knowledge, and beliefs regarding practices, activities, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-efficacy\" title=\"Self-efficacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cce75472250bbf5076b3aff19c26c7cd\">self-efficacy<\/a> relation that are related to information security.<\/li>\n<li>Communication: ways employees communicate with each other, sense of belonging, support for security issues, and incident reporting.<\/li>\n<li>Compliance: adherence to organizational security policies, awareness of the existence of such policies and the ability to recall the substance of such policies.<\/li>\n<li>Norms: perceptions of security-related organizational conduct and practices that are informally deemed either normal or deviant by employees and their peers, e.g. hidden expectations regarding security behaviors and unwritten rules regarding uses of information-communication technologies.<\/li>\n<li>Responsibilities: employees' understanding of the roles and responsibilities they have as a critical factor in sustaining or endangering the security of information, and thereby the organization.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of the organization Information Security \"effort\" and often take actions that ignore organizational information security best interests.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Andersson_&amp;_Reimers_2014_376-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Andersson_&amp;_Reimers_2014-376\">[376]<\/a><\/sup> Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In <i>Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change<\/i>, authors commented, \"It's a never ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance.\" To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_377-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-377\">[377]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Pre-evaluation: to identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze current security policy<\/li>\n<li>Strategic planning: to come up a better awareness-program, we need to set clear targets. Clustering people is helpful to achieve it<\/li>\n<li>Operative planning: create a good security culture based on internal communication, management buy-in, security awareness, and training programs<\/li>\n<li>Implementation: should feature commitment of management, communication with organizational members, courses for all organizational members, and commitment of the employees<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_377-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-377\">[377]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Post-evaluation: to better gauge the effectiveness of the prior steps and build on continuous improvement<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sources_of_standards\">Sources of standards<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber_Security_Standards\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cyber Security Standards\" data-key=\"abd04a349a425fc6dd4ffe53d10cc604\">Cyber Security Standards<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) is an international standards organization organized as a consortium of national standards institutions from 167 countries, coordinated through a secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland. ISO is the world's largest developer of international standards. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Electrotechnical_Commission\" title=\"International Electrotechnical Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3365d94c8fd167fc59737ebfcb686d3e\">International Electrotechnical Commission<\/a> (IEC) is an international standards organization that deals with electrotechnology and cooperates closely with ISO. ISO\/IEC 15443: \"Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 A framework for IT security assurance\", <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_27002\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 27002\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc28eaa3c6396ef0cb40ec8a4bc4ab2e\">ISO\/IEC 27002<\/a>: \"Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 Code of practice for information security management\", <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_20000\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 20000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46bbc6f69ef65963c3574045ff6379f8\">ISO\/IEC 20000<\/a>: \"Information technology \u2013 Service management\", and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_27001\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 27001\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd3902db4bbaf0270cab9cb14d0f326e\">ISO\/IEC 27001<\/a>: \"Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 Information security management systems \u2013 Requirements\" are of particular interest to information security professionals.\n<\/p><p>The US <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology\" title=\"National Institute of Standards and Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"420abb4c176d79852b635ba1191578a1\">National Institute of Standards and Technology<\/a> (NIST) is a non-regulatory federal agency within the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/U.S._Department_of_Commerce\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"U.S. Department of Commerce\" data-key=\"bebed447447884350f4e51a0aef3af6d\">U.S. Department of Commerce<\/a>. The NIST Computer Security Division\n<\/p><p>develops standards, metrics, tests, and validation programs as well as publishes standards and guidelines to increase secure IT planning, implementation, management, and operation. NIST is also the custodian of the U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Information_Processing_Standard\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Federal Information Processing Standard\" data-key=\"fb42dc27b7635c7b5e49bde5b9a0029e\">Federal Information Processing Standard<\/a> publications (FIPS).\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Internet_Society\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"The Internet Society\" data-key=\"cb8dd3a3553d2de4563e4cc36ed6f7b9\">The Internet Society<\/a> is a professional membership society with more than 100 organizations and over 20,000 individual members in over 180 countries. It provides leadership in addressing issues that confront the future of the internet, and it is the organizational home for the groups responsible for internet infrastructure standards, including the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force\" title=\"Internet Engineering Task Force\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88d05b50307366450526102068246161\">Internet Engineering Task Force<\/a> (IETF) and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Architecture_Board\" title=\"Internet Architecture Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"487acd15ae9dcacae2795cd1c55bd68d\">Internet Architecture Board<\/a> (IAB). The ISOC hosts the Requests for Comments (RFCs) which includes the Official Internet Protocol Standards and the RFC-2196 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Site_Security_Handbook\" title=\"Site Security Handbook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f63185b98a29e901898d8ad3f2a12a3a\">Site Security Handbook<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Security_Forum\" title=\"Information Security Forum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b23a7618101e56ee5c288c920e48e86c\">Information Security Forum<\/a> (ISF) is a global nonprofit organization of several hundred leading organizations in financial services, manufacturing, telecommunications, consumer goods, government, and other areas. It undertakes research into information security practices and offers advice in its biannual <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standard_of_Good_Practice_for_Information_Security\" title=\"Standard of Good Practice for Information Security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c5f580467fca5a2fc31b988725ca983\">Standard of Good Practice for Information Security<\/a> and more detailed advisories for members.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Institute_of_Information_Security_Professionals\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Institute of Information Security Professionals\" data-key=\"d9e090f7f9591cbcfdf1e613da9211f7\">Institute of Information Security Professionals<\/a> (IISP) is an independent, non-profit body governed by its members, with the principal objective of advancing the professionalism of information security practitioners and thereby the professionalism of the industry as a whole. The institute developed the IISP Skills Framework. This framework describes the range of competencies expected of information security and information assurance professionals in the effective performance of their roles. It was developed through collaboration between both private and public sector organizations, world-renowned academics, and security leaders.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-378\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-378\">[378]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The German <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Office_for_Information_Security\" title=\"Federal Office for Information Security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7031f1b30ce0534a0850ebadcf42735d\">Federal Office for Information Security<\/a> (in German <i>Bundesamt f\u00fcr Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI)<\/i>) BSI-Standards 100\u20131 to 100-4 are a set of recommendations including \"methods, processes, procedures, approaches and measures relating to information security\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-379\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-379\">[379]<\/a><\/sup> The BSI-Standard 100-2 <i>IT-Grundschutz Methodology<\/i> describes how information security management can be implemented and operated. The standard includes a very specific guide, the IT Baseline Protection Catalogs (also known as IT-Grundschutz Catalogs). Before 2005, the catalogs were formerly known as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_baseline_protection\" title=\"IT baseline protection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dbd75ca5685bac717cfa9738425d2eb8\">IT Baseline Protection<\/a> Manual\". The Catalogs are a collection of documents useful for detecting and combating security-relevant weak points in the IT environment (IT cluster). The collection encompasses as of September 2013 over 4,400 pages with the introduction and catalogs. The IT-Grundschutz approach is aligned with to the ISO\/IEC 2700x family.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Telecommunications_Standards_Institute\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"European Telecommunications Standards Institute\" data-key=\"50ca573812ddcd1848e305041321eb4c\">European Telecommunications Standards Institute<\/a> standardized a catalog of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_indicators\" title=\"Information security indicators\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b860ef785a8e89bb7e50d9a4b8b208d\">information security indicators<\/a>, headed by the Industrial Specification Group (ISG) ISI.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa4b45de245f1a05a108097855baf547\">Backup<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capability-based_security\" title=\"Capability-based security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f78a8e064e03df9279ceb7dc6bc2c55\">Capability-based security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security\" title=\"Computer security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c2aa75aadd7f77c4f5ad26205c4c77b\">Computer security<\/a> (cybersecurity)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_breach\" title=\"Data breach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"611c0b2099532a287e0e8fe5b0c95f57\">Data breach<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data-centric_security\" title=\"Data-centric security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"feedeb7bbd576ad9a332a705aff195ff\">Data-centric security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_information_security_architecture\" title=\"Enterprise information security architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb446f05bbe936305384d67c8c315c8f\">Enterprise information security architecture<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity-based_security\" title=\"Identity-based security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d369fa224c1be047c7e2e3fdc2afbf0\">Identity-based security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_infrastructure\" title=\"Information infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8027e41333cc7d18b82989cd35af1314\">Information infrastructure<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_audit\" title=\"Information security audit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54b78415e2cd54db9b44910817ad9ce4\">Information security audit<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_indicators\" title=\"Information security indicators\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b860ef785a8e89bb7e50d9a4b8b208d\">Information security indicators<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_management\" title=\"Information security management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"965dd2c20d37321146f7748f8a080d52\">Information security management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_standards\" title=\"Information security standards\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4ba975b6b283fc00c2e33f0afee4635\">Information security standards<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">Information technology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology_security_audit\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information technology security audit\" data-key=\"7135277757379a18b0456060e566c670\">Information technology security audit<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_risk\" title=\"IT risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce3ce8706cab9a53b087faec87be3e38\">IT risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITIL_security_management\" title=\"ITIL security management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe7522d2e4c01c76d2ff011a70706cbf\">ITIL security management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kill_chain\" title=\"Kill chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd364217b33226afd8de5c0917cb4a06\">Kill chain<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_computer_security_certifications\" title=\"List of computer security certifications\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5977c7d55fe4a8ecb05d1b5c17ef59f3\">List of computer security certifications<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_security\" title=\"Mobile security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf32c339d351c1985e8b463b30752340\">Mobile security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_Security_Services\" title=\"Network Security Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"611822eef6124c8be777392ee72dd084\">Network Security Services<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_engineering\" title=\"Privacy engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09e10e0d8639a74f9f59abcc2bda335a\">Privacy engineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_software\" title=\"Privacy software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c74548af7083e4b6f7021ad7a65759ee\">Privacy software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy-enhancing_technologies\" title=\"Privacy-enhancing technologies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ae61af64d4df26eac37f3a66efc853a\">Privacy-enhancing technologies<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_bug\" title=\"Security bug\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4beabdc260e7c15d505dd13ccd229e28\">Security bug<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_convergence\" title=\"Security convergence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa85a39e353b0f0e2b4a1a55d8c7fbf3\">Security convergence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_information_management\" title=\"Security information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05eb1ff1c2e95447bbc894f070a84d1d\">Security information management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_level_management\" title=\"Security level management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"468fbb55dc5fb6ccda121f6b4d614535\">Security level management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_of_Information_Act\" title=\"Security of Information Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5e8211709e6b3dfbc86dba6c77251f7\">Security of Information Act<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_service_(telecommunication)\" title=\"Security service (telecommunication)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89e0ed00300848b9ed15452e9bc06ded\">Security service (telecommunication)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Single_sign-on\" title=\"Single sign-on\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff6ef9321be5735b208f36c02bfe8450\">Single sign-on<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Verification_and_validation\" title=\"Verification and validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed7e27dd6af25849fd870d013597fa9f\">Verification and validation<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gordon%E2%80%93Loeb_model\" title=\"Gordon\u2013Loeb model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2267aae0341c0080b2d4ced25086f0fe\">Gordon\u2013Loeb model<\/a> for cyber security investments<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCurryMarshallCrosslerCorreia2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Curry, Michael; Marshall, Byron; Crossler, Robert E.; Correia, John (April 25, 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3210530.3210535\" target=\"_blank\">\"InfoSec Process Action Model (IPAM): Systematically Addressing Individual Security Behavior\"<\/a>. <i>ACM SIGMIS Database: The DATABASE for Advances in Information Systems<\/i>. <b>49<\/b> (SI): 49\u201366. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F3210530.3210535\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/3210530.3210535<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0095-0033\" target=\"_blank\">0095-0033<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:14003960\" target=\"_blank\">14003960<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGMIS+Database%3A+The+DATABASE+for+Advances+in+Information+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=InfoSec+Process+Action+Model+%28IPAM%29%3A+Systematically+Addressing+Individual+Security+Behavior&amp;rft.volume=49&amp;rft.issue=SI&amp;rft.pages=49-66&amp;rft.date=2018-04-25&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14003960%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0095-0033&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F3210530.3210535&amp;rft.aulast=Curry&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft.au=Marshall%2C+Byron&amp;rft.au=Crossler%2C+Robert+E.&amp;rft.au=Correia%2C+John&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1145%2F3210530.3210535&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link 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Defense Technical Information Center. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/74288358\" target=\"_blank\">74288358<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Human+Rights+and+Internal+Security+in+Malaysia%3A+Rhetoric+and+Reality.&amp;rft.pub=Defense+Technical+Information+Center&amp;rft.date=2006-03&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F74288358&amp;rft.aulast=Rahim&amp;rft.aufirst=Noor+H.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKramer2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kramer, David (September 14, 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1063\/pt.6.2.20180914a\" target=\"_blank\">\"Nuclear theft and sabotage threats remain high, report warns\"<\/a>. <i>Physics Today<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063%2Fpt.6.2.20180914a\" target=\"_blank\">10.1063\/pt.6.2.20180914a<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1945-0699\" target=\"_blank\">1945-0699<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:240223415\" target=\"_blank\">240223415<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&amp;rft.atitle=Nuclear+theft+and+sabotage+threats+remain+high%2C+report+warns&amp;rft.date=2018-09-14&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240223415%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=1945-0699&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2Fpt.6.2.20180914a&amp;rft.aulast=Kramer&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1063%2Fpt.6.2.20180914a&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWilding2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Wilding, Edward (March 2, 2017). <i>Information risk and security&#160;: preventing and investigating workplace computer crime<\/i>. Routledge. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-351-92755-0<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1052118207\" target=\"_blank\">1052118207<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Information+risk+and+security+%3A+preventing+and+investigating+workplace+computer+crime&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2017-03-02&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1052118207&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-351-92755-0&amp;rft.aulast=Wilding&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFStewart2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Stewart, James (2012). <i>CISSP Study Guide<\/i>. Canada: John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;255\u2013257. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-118-31417-3<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=CISSP+Study+Guide&amp;rft.place=Canada&amp;rft.pages=255-257&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-118-31417-3&amp;rft.aulast=Stewart&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WHP_1-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WHP_1_39-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oecd-ilibrary.org\/economics\/oecd-economic-surveys-denmark-2009\/why-has-productivity-growth-declined_eco_surveys-dnk-2009-4-en\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why has productivity growth declined?\"<\/a>. <i>OECD Economic Surveys: Denmark 2009<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OECD\" title=\"OECD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54f18718f83debb05ba3bed03728c89b\">OECD<\/a>. 2009. pp.&#160;65\u201396. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1787%2Feco_surveys-dnk-2009-4-en\" target=\"_blank\">10.1787\/eco_surveys-dnk-2009-4-en<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9789264076556<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">November 30,<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Why+has+productivity+growth+declined%3F&amp;rft.btitle=OECD+Economic+Surveys%3A+Denmark+2009&amp;rft.pages=65-96&amp;rft.pub=OECD&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2Feco_surveys-dnk-2009-4-en&amp;rft.isbn=9789264076556&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd-ilibrary.org%2Feconomics%2Foecd-economic-surveys-denmark-2009%2Fwhy-has-productivity-growth-declined_eco_surveys-dnk-2009-4-en&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48009%2F2_iis_2007_297-302\" target=\"_blank\">\"Identity Theft: The Newest Digital Attackking Industry Must Take Seriously\"<\/a>. <i>Issues in Information Systems<\/i>. 2007. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48009%2F2_iis_2007_297-302\" target=\"_blank\">10.48009\/2_iis_2007_297-302<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1529-7314\" target=\"_blank\">1529-7314<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Issues+in+Information+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Identity+Theft%3A+The+Newest+Digital+Attackking+Industry+Must+Take+Seriously&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.48009%2F2_iis_2007_297-302&amp;rft.issn=1529-7314&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.48009%252F2_iis_2007_297-302&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWendel-PerssonRonnhed2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Wendel-Persson, Anna; Ronnhed, Fredrik (2017). <i>IT-s\u00e4kerhet och m\u00e4nniskan&#160;: De har v\u00e4rldens starkaste mur men porten st\u00e5r alltid p\u00e5 gl\u00e4nt<\/i>. Ume\u00e5 universitet, Institutionen f\u00f6r informatik. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1233659973\" target=\"_blank\">1233659973<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=IT-s%C3%A4kerhet+och+m%C3%A4nniskan+%3A+De+har+v%C3%A4rldens+starkaste+mur+men+porten+st%C3%A5r+alltid+p%C3%A5+gl%C3%A4nt&amp;rft.pub=Ume%C3%A5+universitet%2C+Institutionen+f%C3%B6r+informatik&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1233659973&amp;rft.aulast=Wendel-Persson&amp;rft.aufirst=Anna&amp;rft.au=Ronnhed%2C+Fredrik&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEnge2017\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Enge, Eric (April 5, 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180427104959\/https:\/\/www.stonetemple.com\/mobile-vs-desktop-usage-mobile-grows-but-desktop-still-a-big-player\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stone Temple\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.stonetemple.com\/mobile-vs-desktop-usage-mobile-grows-but-desktop-still-a-big-player\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on April 27, 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">November 17,<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Stone+Temple&amp;rft.date=2017-04-05&amp;rft.aulast=Enge&amp;rft.aufirst=Eric&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stonetemple.com%2Fmobile-vs-desktop-usage-mobile-grows-but-desktop-still-a-big-player%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_phone\" title=\"Mobile phone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f308160569b30fb9430217f73c172f7d\">Cell phones<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShaoSkarlicki2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Shao, Ruodan; Skarlicki, Daniel P. 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data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:144325193\" target=\"_blank\">144325193<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Legal+Information+Management&amp;rft.atitle=7side+%E2%80%93+Company+Information%2C+Company+Formations+and+Property+Searches&amp;rft.volume=8&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=146&amp;rft.date=2008-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144325193%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=1472-6696&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs1472669608000364&amp;rft.aulast=Kitchen&amp;rft.aufirst=Julie&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2Fs1472669608000364&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFYoung2018\" class=\"citation cs2\">Young, Courtenay (May 8, 2018), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.4324\/9780429475474-32\" target=\"_blank\">\"Working with panic attacks\"<\/a>, <i>Help Yourself Towards Mental Health<\/i>, Routledge, pp.&#160;209\u2013214, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324%2F9780429475474-32\" target=\"_blank\">10.4324\/9780429475474-32<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" 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(2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oecd.org\/sdd\/UNA-2014.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Table 7.7 France: Comparison of the profit shares of non-financial corporations and non-financial corporations plus unincorporated enterprises<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OECD\" title=\"OECD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54f18718f83debb05ba3bed03728c89b\">OECD<\/a>. p.&#160;217. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1787%2F9789264214637-en\" target=\"_blank\">10.1787\/9789264214637-en<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-92-64-21462-0<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Loeb\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66a6116f69b752ae2440c388bee9f46c\">Loeb, Martin P.<\/a> (November 2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/tissec.acm.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Economics of Information Security Investment\"<\/a>. <i>ACM Transactions on Information and System Security<\/i>. <b>5<\/b> (4): 438\u2013457. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F581271.581274\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/581271.581274<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:1500788\" target=\"_blank\">1500788<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=ACM+Transactions+on+Information+and+System+Security&amp;rft.atitle=The+Economics+of+Information+Security+Investment&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=438-457&amp;rft.date=2002-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F581271.581274&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1500788%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Gordon&amp;rft.aufirst=Lawrence+A.&amp;rft.au=Loeb%2C+Martin+P.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftissec.acm.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCho_KimKhansaJames2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Cho Kim, Byung; Khansa, Lara; James, Tabitha (July 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1080\/15536548.2011.10855915\" target=\"_blank\">\"Individual Trust and Consumer Risk Perception\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Information Privacy and Security<\/i>. <b>7<\/b> (3): 3\u201322. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F15536548.2011.10855915\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/15536548.2011.10855915<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1553-6548\" target=\"_blank\">1553-6548<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:144643691\" target=\"_blank\">144643691<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Information+Privacy+and+Security&amp;rft.atitle=Individual+Trust+and+Consumer+Risk+Perception&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=3-22&amp;rft.date=2011-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144643691%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=1553-6548&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F15536548.2011.10855915&amp;rft.aulast=Cho+Kim&amp;rft.aufirst=Byung&amp;rft.au=Khansa%2C+Lara&amp;rft.au=James%2C+Tabitha&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1080%2F15536548.2011.10855915&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFStewart2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Stewart, James (2012). <i>CISSP Certified Information Systems Security Professional Study Guide Sixth Edition<\/i>. 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New York: Oxford University Press. p.&#160;28. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-19-953756-3<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Lives+of+the+Caesars+%28Oxford+World%27s+Classics%29&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pages=28&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-953756-3&amp;rft.aulast=Suetonius+Tranquillus&amp;rft.aufirst=Gaius&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSingh2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Simon_Singh\" title=\"Simon Singh\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa41bba80dbd3aab1662ac2538706f62\">Singh, Simon<\/a> (2000). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Code_Book\" title=\"The Code Book\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f219faf65e4df0b06ff890035483e231\"><i>The Code Book<\/i><\/a>. Anchor. pp.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/codebook00simo\/page\/289\" target=\"_blank\">289\u2013290<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-385-49532-5<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Code+Book&amp;rft.pages=289-290&amp;rft.pub=Anchor&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-385-49532-5&amp;rft.aulast=Singh&amp;rft.aufirst=Simon&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTan2017\" class=\"citation thesis cs1\">Tan, Heng Chuan (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.32657\/10356\/72758\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Towards trusted and secure communications in a vehicular environment<\/i><\/a> (Thesis). Nanyang Technological University. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.32657%2F10356%2F72758\" target=\"_blank\">10.32657\/10356\/72758<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&amp;rft.title=Towards+trusted+and+secure+communications+in+a+vehicular+environment&amp;rft.inst=Nanyang+Technological+University&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.32657%2F10356%2F72758&amp;rft.aulast=Tan&amp;rft.aufirst=Heng+Chuan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.32657%2F10356%2F72758&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JohnsonTheEvo97-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-JohnsonTheEvo97_57-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJohnson1997\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Johnson, John (1997). <i>The Evolution of British Sigint: 1653\u20131939<\/i>. Her Majesty's Stationery Office. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ASIN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ASIN (identifier)\" data-key=\"51f28c0f267587c382908f07f76c2b6f\">ASIN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/dp\/B00GYX1GX2\" target=\"_blank\">B00GYX1GX2<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+British+Sigint%3A+1653%E2%80%931939&amp;rft.pub=Her+Majesty%27s+Stationery+Office&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB00GYX1GX2%23id-name%3DASIN&amp;rft.aulast=Johnson&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WBS_1-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WBS_1_58-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWillison,_M.2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Willison, M. (September 21, 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=3249510\" target=\"_blank\">\"Were Banks Special? Contrasting Viewpoints in Mid-Nineteenth Century Britain\"<\/a>. <i>Monetary Economics: International Financial Flows<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139%2Fssrn.3249510\" target=\"_blank\">10.2139\/ssrn.3249510<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=A8WoNp2vI-cC&pg=PA589\" target=\"_blank\">\"Official Secrets Act (1889; New 1911; Amended 1920, 1939, 1989)\"<\/a>. In Hastedt, G.P. (ed.). <i>Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations: An Encyclopedia of American Espionage<\/i>. Vol.&#160;2. ABC-CLIO. pp.&#160;589\u2013590. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781851098088<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Official+Secrets+Act+%281889%3B+New+1911%3B+Amended+1920%2C+1939%2C+1989%29&amp;rft.btitle=Spies%2C+Wiretaps%2C+and+Secret+Operations%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+American+Espionage&amp;rft.pages=589-590&amp;rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=9781851098088&amp;rft.au=Ruppert%2C+K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA8WoNp2vI-cC%26pg%3DPA589&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.7312\/dunn93452-003\" target=\"_blank\">\"2. 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id=\"cite_note-111\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-111\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFReynolds1995\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Reynolds, E H (July 22, 1995). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1136\/bmj.311.6999.257\" target=\"_blank\">\"Folate has potential to cause harm\"<\/a>. <i>BMJ<\/i>. <b>311<\/b> (6999): 257. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136%2Fbmj.311.6999.257\" target=\"_blank\">10.1136\/bmj.311.6999.257<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0959-8138\" target=\"_blank\">0959-8138<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2550299\" target=\"_blank\">2550299<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/7503870\" target=\"_blank\">7503870<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BMJ&amp;rft.atitle=Folate+has+potential+to+cause+harm&amp;rft.volume=311&amp;rft.issue=6999&amp;rft.pages=257&amp;rft.date=1995-07-22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2550299%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=0959-8138&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7503870&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.311.6999.257&amp;rft.aulast=Reynolds&amp;rft.aufirst=E+H&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.311.6999.257&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-112\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-112\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRandall2011\" class=\"citation cs2\">Randall, Alan (2011), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1017\/cbo9780511974557.003\" target=\"_blank\">\"Harm, risk, and threat\"<\/a>, <i>Risk and Precaution<\/i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.&#160;31\u201342, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511974557.003\" target=\"_blank\">10.1017\/cbo9780511974557.003<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-511-97455-7<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">May 29,<\/span> 2021<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Risk+and+Precaution&amp;rft.atitle=Harm%2C+risk%2C+and+threat&amp;rft.pages=31-42&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511974557.003&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-511-97455-7&amp;rft.aulast=Randall&amp;rft.aufirst=Alan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511974557.003&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GramaLegal14-113\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GramaLegal14_113-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGrama,_J.L.2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Grama, J.L. 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Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning. p.&#160;550. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781284151046<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Legal+Issues+in+Information+Security&amp;rft.pages=550&amp;rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=9781284151046&amp;rft.au=Grama%2C+J.L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkqoyDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT38&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-114\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-114\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCannon2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Cannon, David L. (March 4, 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1002\/9781119419211.ch3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Audit Process\"<\/a>. <i>CISA: Certified Information Systems Auditor Study Guide<\/i> (Fourth&#160;ed.). pp.&#160;139\u2013214. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002%2F9781119419211.ch3\" target=\"_blank\">10.1002\/9781119419211.ch3<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781119056249<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Audit+Process&amp;rft.btitle=CISA%3A+Certified+Information+Systems+Auditor+Study+Guide&amp;rft.pages=139-214&amp;rft.edition=Fourth&amp;rft.date=2016-03-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781119419211.ch3&amp;rft.isbn=9781119056249&amp;rft.aulast=Cannon&amp;rft.aufirst=David+L.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1002%2F9781119419211.ch3&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-115\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-115\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><i>CISA Review Manual 2006<\/i>. Information Systems Audit and Control Association. 2006. p.&#160;85. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-933284-15-6<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=CISA+Review+Manual+2006&amp;rft.pages=85&amp;rft.pub=Information+Systems+Audit+and+Control+Association&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-933284-15-6&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-116\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-116\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKadlec2012\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kadlec, Jaroslav (November 2, 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108\/14637151211283320\" target=\"_blank\">\"Two-dimensional process modeling (2DPM)\"<\/a>. <i>Business Process Management Journal<\/i>. <b>18<\/b> (6): 849\u2013875. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108%2F14637151211283320\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/14637151211283320<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1463-7154\" target=\"_blank\">1463-7154<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Business+Process+Management+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Two-dimensional+process+modeling+%282DPM%29&amp;rft.volume=18&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=849-875&amp;rft.date=2012-11-02&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2F14637151211283320&amp;rft.issn=1463-7154&amp;rft.aulast=Kadlec&amp;rft.aufirst=Jaroslav&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1108%2F14637151211283320&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-117\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-117\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007\/0-387-21712-6_14\" target=\"_blank\">\"All Countermeasures Have Some Value, But No Countermeasure Is Perfect\"<\/a>, <i>Beyond Fear<\/i>, New York: Springer-Verlag, pp.&#160;207\u2013232, 2003, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F0-387-21712-6_14\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/0-387-21712-6_14<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-387-02620-7<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">May 29,<\/span> 2021<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Beyond+Fear&amp;rft.atitle=All+Countermeasures+Have+Some+Value%2C+But+No+Countermeasure+Is+Perfect&amp;rft.pages=207-232&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F0-387-21712-6_14&amp;rft.isbn=0-387-02620-7&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2F0-387-21712-6_14&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-118\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-118\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016\/s1361-3723(17)30086-6\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data breaches: Deloitte suffers serious hit while more details emerge about Equifax and Yahoo\"<\/a>. <i>Computer Fraud &amp; Security<\/i>. <b>2017<\/b> (10): 1\u20133. 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Relative risk of being a low performer depending on personal circumstances (2012)\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1787%2F888933171410\" target=\"_blank\">10.1787\/888933171410<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Marriage remains the most common form of partnership among couples, 2000-07\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1787%2F888932392533\" target=\"_blank\">10.1787\/888932392533<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. p.&#160;135. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4817-8232-6<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(April 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.17487\/rfc6560\" target=\"_blank\">\"One-Time Password (OTP) Pre-Authentication\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17487%2Frfc6560\" target=\"_blank\">10.17487\/rfc6560<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=One-Time+Password+%28OTP%29+Pre-Authentication&amp;rft.date=2012-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2Frfc6560&amp;rft.aulast=Richards&amp;rft.aufirst=G.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.17487%2Frfc6560&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-197\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-197\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchumacher2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Schumacher, Dietmar (April 3, 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1190\/ice2016-6522983.1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Surface geochemical exploration after 85 years: What has been accomplished and what more must be done\"<\/a>. <i>International Conference and Exhibition, Barcelona, Spain, 3-6 April 2016<\/i>. 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D.; Jana, Biswapati (2010), \"A Cryptosystem for Encryption and Decryption of Long Confidential Messages\", <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-13365-7_9\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Information Security and Assurance<\/i><\/a>, Communications in Computer and Information Science, vol.&#160;76, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp.&#160;86\u201396, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2010isa..conf...86G\" target=\"_blank\">2010isa..conf...86G<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-642-13365-7_9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-642-13365-7_9<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-642-13364-0<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 5,<\/span> 2021<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=A+Cryptosystem+for+Encryption+and+Decryption+of+Long+Confidential+Messages&amp;rft.btitle=Information+Security+and+Assurance&amp;rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&amp;rft.series=Communications+in+Computer+and+Information+Science&amp;rft.pages=86-96&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-13365-7_9&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010isa..conf...86G&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-642-13364-0&amp;rft.aulast=Giri&amp;rft.aufirst=Debasis&amp;rft.au=Barua%2C+Prithayan&amp;rft.au=Srivastava%2C+P.+D.&amp;rft.au=Jana%2C+Biswapati&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-13365-7_9&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VallabhaneniCorporate08-222\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-VallabhaneniCorporate08_222-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVallabhaneni,_S.R.2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Vallabhaneni, S.R. 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(March 1917). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1097\/00007611-191703000-00007\" target=\"_blank\">\"Some Important Diagnostic Points the General Practioner [<i>sic<\/i>] Should Know About the Nose\"<\/a>. <i>Southern Medical Journal<\/i>. <b>10<\/b> (3): 211. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097%2F00007611-191703000-00007\" target=\"_blank\">10.1097\/00007611-191703000-00007<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0038-4348\" target=\"_blank\">0038-4348<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Southern+Medical+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Some+Important+Diagnostic+Points+the+General+Practioner%26%2332%3B%26%2391%3Bsic%26%2393%3B+Should+Know+About+the+Nose&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=211&amp;rft.date=1917-03&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00007611-191703000-00007&amp;rft.issn=0038-4348&amp;rft.aulast=Hall&amp;rft.aufirst=Gaylord+C.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1097%2F00007611-191703000-00007&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-227\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-227\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRenes1999\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Renes, J. 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Eisma. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>90-74252-84-2<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/782897414\" target=\"_blank\">782897414<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Landschappen+van+Maas+en+Peel%3A+een+toegepast+historisch-geografisch+onderzoek+in+het+streekplangebied+Noord-+en+Midden-Limburg.&amp;rft.pub=Eisma&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F782897414&amp;rft.isbn=90-74252-84-2&amp;rft.aulast=Renes&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-228\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-228\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFThomas2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Thomas, Brook (June 22, 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780190456368.003.0002\" target=\"_blank\">\"Minding Previous Steps Taken\"<\/a>. <i>Oxford Scholarship Online<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780190456368.003.0002\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780190456368.003.0002<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-19-045639-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Oxford+Scholarship+Online&amp;rft.atitle=Minding+Previous+Steps+Taken&amp;rft.date=2017-06-22&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780190456368.003.0002&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-045639-9&amp;rft.aulast=Thomas&amp;rft.aufirst=Brook&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780190456368.003.0002&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-229\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-229\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLundgren2018\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lundgren, Regina E. 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Wiley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-119-45613-1<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1043389392\" target=\"_blank\">1043389392<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Risk+communication+%3A+a+handbook+for+communicating+environmental%2C+safety%2C+and+health+risks&amp;rft.pub=Wiley&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1043389392&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-119-45613-1&amp;rft.aulast=Lundgren&amp;rft.aufirst=Regina+E.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-230\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-230\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJensen2020\" class=\"citation cs2\">Jensen, Eric Talbot (December 3, 2020), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093\/oso\/9780198869900.003.0015\" target=\"_blank\">\"Due Diligence in Cyber Activities\"<\/a>, <i>Due Diligence in the International Legal Order<\/i>, Oxford University Press, pp.&#160;252\u2013270, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198869900.003.0015\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/oso\/9780198869900.003.0015<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-19-886990-0<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 5,<\/span> 2021<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Due+Diligence+in+the+International+Legal+Order&amp;rft.atitle=Due+Diligence+in+Cyber+Activities&amp;rft.pages=252-270&amp;rft.date=2020-12-03&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198869900.003.0015&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-886990-0&amp;rft.aulast=Jensen&amp;rft.aufirst=Eric+Talbot&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198869900.003.0015&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-231\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-231\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180814170112\/https:\/\/docra.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard\"<\/a>. <i>DoCRA<\/i>. 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New York: Springer-Verlag. 2006. pp.&#160;51\u201382. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F0-387-28058-8_3\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/0-387-28058-8_3<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-387-28057-X<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Flood+Risk+Management&amp;rft.atitle=Shared+roles+and+responsibilities+in+flood+risk+management&amp;rft.volume=12&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=e12528&amp;rft.date=2019-02-22&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjfr3.12528&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A133789858%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=1753-318X&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019JFRM...12E2528P&amp;rft.aulast=Priest&amp;rft.aufirst=Sally&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1111%2Fjfr3.12528&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-269\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-269\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite 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(January 1992). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016\/0306-4573(92)90052-2\" target=\"_blank\">\"Managing change in libraries and information services; A systems approach\"<\/a>. <i>Information Processing &amp; Management<\/i>. <b>28<\/b> (2): 281\u2013282. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2F0306-4573%2892%2990052-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/0306-4573(92)90052-2<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0306-4573\" target=\"_blank\">0306-4573<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Information+Processing+%26+Management&amp;rft.atitle=Managing+change+in+libraries+and+information+services%3B+A+systems+approach&amp;rft.volume=28&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=281-282&amp;rft.date=1992-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0306-4573%2892%2990052-2&amp;rft.issn=0306-4573&amp;rft.aulast=Toms&amp;rft.aufirst=Elaine+G.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2F0306-4573%2892%2990052-2&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-271\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-271\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAbolhassan2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Abolhassan, Ferri (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-540-24703-6_2\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Change Management Process Implemented at IDS Scheer\"<\/a>. <i>Business Process Change Management<\/i>. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp.&#160;15\u201322. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-540-24703-6_2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-540-24703-6_2<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-642-05532-4<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 5,<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+Change+Management+Process+Implemented+at+IDS+Scheer&amp;rft.btitle=Business+Process+Change+Management&amp;rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&amp;rft.pages=15-22&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-540-24703-6_2&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-642-05532-4&amp;rft.aulast=Abolhassan&amp;rft.aufirst=Ferri&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-3-540-24703-6_2&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-272\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-272\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDawson2020\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dawson, Chris (July 1, 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1515\/9780804774673\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Leading Culture Change<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515%2F9780804774673\" target=\"_blank\">10.1515\/9780804774673<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780804774673<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:242348822\" target=\"_blank\">242348822<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Leading+Culture+Change&amp;rft.date=2020-07-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A242348822%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9780804774673&amp;rft.isbn=9780804774673&amp;rft.aulast=Dawson&amp;rft.aufirst=Chris&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1515%2F9780804774673&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-273\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-273\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMcCormick,_Douglas_P.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">McCormick, Douglas P. 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State University of New York Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-87395-886-1<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/10300171\" target=\"_blank\">10300171<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Legislating+bureaucratic+change+%3A+the+Civil+Service+Reform+Act+of+1978&amp;rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&amp;rft.date=1984&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10300171&amp;rft.isbn=0-87395-886-1&amp;rft.aulast=Ingraham&amp;rft.aufirst=Carolyn&amp;rft.au=Ban%2C+Patricia+W.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-287\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-287\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWei2000\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wei, J. (May 4, 2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.osti.gov\/biblio\/1157253\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Preliminary Change Request for the SNS 1.3 GeV-Compatible Ring\"<\/a>. <i>OSTI.GOV<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2172%2F1157253\" target=\"_blank\">10.2172\/1157253<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OSTI_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OSTI (identifier)\" data-key=\"ff9cbc7554e63d1ff3149b9ba8f52760\">OSTI<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.osti.gov\/biblio\/1157253\" target=\"_blank\">1157253<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">January 18,<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=OSTI.GOV&amp;rft.atitle=Preliminary+Change+Request+for+the+SNS+1.3+GeV-Compatible+Ring&amp;rft.date=2000-05-04&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F1157253%23id-name%3DOSTI&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2172%2F1157253&amp;rft.aulast=Wei&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F1157253%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-288\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-288\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChen_Liang2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Chen Liang (May 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1109\/icbmei.2011.5917018\" target=\"_blank\">\"Allocation priority management of agricultural water resources based on the theory of virtual water\"<\/a>. <i>2011 International Conference on Business Management and Electronic Information<\/i>. Vol.&#160;1. IEEE. pp.&#160;644\u2013647. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2Ficbmei.2011.5917018\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/icbmei.2011.5917018<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-61284-108-3<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:29137725\" target=\"_blank\">29137725<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Allocation+priority+management+of+agricultural+water+resources+based+on+the+theory+of+virtual+water&amp;rft.btitle=2011+International+Conference+on+Business+Management+and+Electronic+Information&amp;rft.pages=644-647&amp;rft.pub=IEEE&amp;rft.date=2011-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29137725%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Ficbmei.2011.5917018&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-61284-108-3&amp;rft.au=Chen+Liang&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1109%2Ficbmei.2011.5917018&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-289\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-289\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.4324\/9780203073957-9\" target=\"_blank\">\"Change risks and best practices in Business Change Management Unmanaged change risk leads to problems for change management\"<\/a>, <i>Leading and Implementing Business Change Management<\/i>, Routledge, pp.&#160;32\u201374, July 18, 2013, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324%2F9780203073957-9\" target=\"_blank\">10.4324\/9780203073957-9<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-203-07395-7<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 5,<\/span> 2021<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Leading+and+Implementing+Business+Change+Management&amp;rft.atitle=Change+risks+and+best+practices+in+Business+Change+Management+Unmanaged+change+risk+leads+to+problems+for+change+management&amp;rft.pages=32-74&amp;rft.date=2013-07-18&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203073957-9&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-203-07395-7&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9780203073957-9&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-290\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-290\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBragg2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Bragg, Steven M. (2016). <i>Accounting Best Practices<\/i>. Wiley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-118-41780-5<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/946625204\" target=\"_blank\">946625204<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Accounting+Best+Practices&amp;rft.pub=Wiley&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F946625204&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-118-41780-5&amp;rft.aulast=Bragg&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-291\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-291\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108\/hrmid.2008.04416gad.005\" target=\"_blank\">\"Successful change requires more than change management\"<\/a>. <i>Human Resource Management International Digest<\/i>. <b>16<\/b> (7). 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Human+Resource+Management+International+Digest&amp;rft.atitle=Successful+change+requires+more+than+change+management&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.date=2008-10-17&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2Fhrmid.2008.04416gad.005&amp;rft.issn=0967-0734&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1108%2Fhrmid.2008.04416gad.005&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-292\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-292\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.4324\/9780203846537-20\" target=\"_blank\">\"Planning for water resources under climate change\"<\/a>, 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Antioch+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Two%2C+When+There+Might+Have+Been+Three&amp;rft.volume=41&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=209&amp;rft.date=1983&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4611230&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4611230%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft.aulast=Bell&amp;rft.aufirst=Marvin&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-299\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-299\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1163\/2210-7975_hrd-0148-2015175\" target=\"_blank\">\"We can also make change\"<\/a>. <i>Human Rights Documents Online<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1163%2F2210-7975_hrd-0148-2015175\" target=\"_blank\">10.1163\/2210-7975_hrd-0148-2015175<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Kennedy' Assessing This Statement with References to Organizations in Zimbabwe Who Have Been Affected by Change\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SSRN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SSRN (identifier)\" data-key=\"756ca64b422c56b1944f99f42e4d7c96\">SSRN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3725707\" target=\"_blank\">3725707<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=preprint&amp;rft.jtitle=Social+Science+Research+Network&amp;rft.atitle=%27Change+Is+the+Law+of+Life.+and+Those+Who+Look+only+to+the+past+or+Present+Are+Certain+to+Miss+the+Future-+John+F.+Kennedy%27+Assessing+This+Statement+with+References+to+Organizations+in+Zimbabwe+Who+Have+Been+Affected+by+Change.&amp;rft.date=2020-11-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3725707%23id-name%3DSSRN&amp;rft.aulast=Mazikana&amp;rft.aufirst=Anthony+Tapiwa&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-301\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-301\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRamanadham\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ramanadham, V. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 5,<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Develop+Your+Improvement+Implementation+Plan&amp;rft.btitle=Achieve+Lasting+Process+Improvement&amp;rft.pages=151-171&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-449984-3.50011-8&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-449984-3&amp;rft.aulast=Lientz&amp;rft.aufirst=B&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-449984-3.50011-8&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-305\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-305\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSmeets2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Smeets, Peter (2009). <i>Expeditie agroparken&#160;: ontwerpend onderzoek naar metropolitane landbouw en duurzame ontwikkeling<\/i>. s.n.] <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-90-8585-515-6<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/441821141\" target=\"_blank\">441821141<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Expeditie+agroparken+%3A+ontwerpend+onderzoek+naar+metropolitane+landbouw+en+duurzame+ontwikkeling&amp;rft.pub=s.n.%5D&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F441821141&amp;rft.isbn=978-90-8585-515-6&amp;rft.aulast=Smeets&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-306\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-306\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1787\/888933323735\" target=\"_blank\">\"Figure 1.3. About 50 percent of the Going for Growth recommendations have been implemented or are in process of implementation\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1787%2F888933323735\" target=\"_blank\">10.1787\/888933323735<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 5,<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Figure+1.3.+About+50+percent+of+the+Going+for+Growth+recommendations+have+been+implemented+or+are+in+process+of+implementation&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2F888933323735&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1787%2F888933323735&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-307\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-307\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKekes2019\" class=\"citation cs2\">Kekes, John (February 21, 2019), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093\/oso\/9780190919986.003.0005\" target=\"_blank\">\"Must Justice Be Done at All Costs?\"<\/a>, <i>Hard Questions<\/i>, Oxford University Press, pp.&#160;98\u2013126, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780190919986.003.0005\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/oso\/9780190919986.003.0005<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-19-091998-6<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 5,<\/span> 2021<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Hard+Questions&amp;rft.atitle=Must+Justice+Be+Done+at+All+Costs%3F&amp;rft.pages=98-126&amp;rft.date=2019-02-21&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780190919986.003.0005&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-091998-6&amp;rft.aulast=Kekes&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780190919986.003.0005&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-308\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-308\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFForrester2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Forrester, Kellie (2014). <i>Macroeconomic implications of changes in the composition of the labor force<\/i>. University of California, Santa Barbara. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-321-34938-2<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/974418780\" target=\"_blank\">974418780<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Macroeconomic+implications+of+changes+in+the+composition+of+the+labor+force&amp;rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Santa+Barbara&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F974418780&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-321-34938-2&amp;rft.aulast=Forrester&amp;rft.aufirst=Kellie&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-309\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-309\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChoudhuryRappaport1981\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Choudhury, Gagan L.; Rappaport, Stephen S. (October 1981). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1145\/1013879.802667\" target=\"_blank\">\"Demand assigned multiple access systems using collision type request channels\"<\/a>. <i>ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review<\/i>. <b>11<\/b> (4): 136\u2013148. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F1013879.802667\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/1013879.802667<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0146-4833\" target=\"_blank\">0146-4833<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGCOMM+Computer+Communication+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Demand+assigned+multiple+access+systems+using+collision+type+request+channels&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=136-148&amp;rft.date=1981-10&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1013879.802667&amp;rft.issn=0146-4833&amp;rft.aulast=Choudhury&amp;rft.aufirst=Gagan+L.&amp;rft.au=Rappaport%2C+Stephen+S.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1145%2F1013879.802667&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-310\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-310\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCrinson2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Crinson, Mark (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1353\/cot.2013.0000\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"Certain Old and Lovely Things, Whose Signified Is Abstract, Out of Date\": James Stirling and Nostalgia\"<\/a>. <i>Change over Time<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (1): 116\u2013135. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1353%2Fcot.2013.0000\" target=\"_blank\">10.1353\/cot.2013.0000<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2153-0548\" target=\"_blank\">2153-0548<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:144451363\" target=\"_blank\">144451363<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Change+over+Time&amp;rft.atitle=%22Certain+Old+and+Lovely+Things%2C+Whose+Signified+Is+Abstract%2C+Out+of+Date%22%3A+James+Stirling+and+Nostalgia&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=116-135&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144451363%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=2153-0548&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcot.2013.0000&amp;rft.aulast=Crinson&amp;rft.aufirst=Mark&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1353%2Fcot.2013.0000&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-311\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-311\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAhwidyPemberton2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ahwidy, Mansour; Pemberton, Lyn (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.5220\/0005620400710079\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Changes Need to be Made within the LNHS for Ehealth Systems to be Successfully Implemented?\"<\/a>. <i>Proceedings of the International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies for Ageing Well and e-Health<\/i>. Scitepress. pp.&#160;71\u201379. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5220%2F0005620400710079\" target=\"_blank\">10.5220\/0005620400710079<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-989-758-180-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=What+Changes+Need+to+be+Made+within+the+LNHS+for+Ehealth+Systems+to+be+Successfully+Implemented%3F&amp;rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+International+Conference+on+Information+and+Communication+Technologies+for+Ageing+Well+and+e-Health&amp;rft.pages=71-79&amp;rft.pub=Scitepress&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5220%2F0005620400710079&amp;rft.isbn=978-989-758-180-9&amp;rft.aulast=Ahwidy&amp;rft.aufirst=Mansour&amp;rft.au=Pemberton%2C+Lyn&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.5220%2F0005620400710079&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-312\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-312\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMortimer2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mortimer, John (April 2010). <i>Paradise postponed<\/i>. Penguin Adult. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-14-104952-6<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/495596392\" target=\"_blank\">495596392<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Paradise+postponed&amp;rft.pub=Penguin+Adult&amp;rft.date=2010-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F495596392&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-14-104952-6&amp;rft.aulast=Mortimer&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Soriani-313\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Soriani_313-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Soriani_313-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCobeyLarremoreGradLipsitch2021\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Cobey, Sarah; Larremore, Daniel B.; Grad, Yonatan H.; Lipsitch, Marc (2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8014893\" target=\"_blank\">\"Concerns about SARS-CoV-2 evolution should not hold back efforts to expand vaccination\"<\/a>. <i>Nature Reviews Immunology<\/i>. <b>21<\/b> (5): 330\u2013335. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fs41577-021-00544-9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/s41577-021-00544-9<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8014893\" target=\"_blank\">8014893<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33795856\" target=\"_blank\">33795856<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Immunology&amp;rft.atitle=Concerns+about+SARS-CoV-2+evolution+should+not+hold+back+efforts+to+expand+vaccination&amp;rft.volume=21&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=330-335&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8014893%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33795856&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41577-021-00544-9&amp;rft.aulast=Cobey&amp;rft.aufirst=Sarah&amp;rft.au=Larremore%2C+Daniel+B.&amp;rft.au=Grad%2C+Yonatan+H.&amp;rft.au=Lipsitch%2C+Marc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8014893&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-314\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-314\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFrampton2014\" class=\"citation cs2\">Frampton, Michael (December 26, 2014), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007\/978-1-4842-0094-0_4\" target=\"_blank\">\"Processing Data with Map Reduce\"<\/a>, <i>Big Data Made Easy<\/i>, Berkeley, CA: Apress, pp.&#160;85\u2013120, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-1-4842-0094-0_4\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-1-4842-0094-0_4<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4842-0095-7<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 5,<\/span> 2021<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Big+Data+Made+Easy&amp;rft.atitle=Processing+Data+with+Map+Reduce&amp;rft.pages=85-120&amp;rft.date=2014-12-26&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4842-0094-0_4&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4842-0095-7&amp;rft.aulast=Frampton&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4842-0094-0_4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-315\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-315\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hess.copernicus.org\/preprints\/hess-2015-520\/hess-2015-520-RC2.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Good study overall, but several procedures need fixing\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 7,<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Disaster+Recovery+Plan&amp;rft.pub=Sans+Institute&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sans.org%2Freading_room%2Fwhitepapers%2Frecovery%2Fdisaster-recovery-plan_1164&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-dx.doi.org-336\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-dx.doi.org_336-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-dx.doi.org_336-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOECD2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">OECD (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1787\/888933323807\" target=\"_blank\">\"Figure 1.10. Regulations in non-manufacturing sector have significant impact on the manufacturing sector\"<\/a>. <i>Economic Policy Reforms 2016: Going for Growth Interim Report<\/i>. Economic Policy Reforms. Paris: OECD Publishing. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1787%2Fgrowth-2016-en\" target=\"_blank\">10.1787\/growth-2016-en<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9789264250079<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 5,<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Economic+Policy+Reforms+2016%3A+Going+for+Growth+Interim+Report&amp;rft.atitle=Figure+1.10.+Regulations+in+non-manufacturing+sector+have+significant+impact+on+the+manufacturing+sector&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2Fgrowth-2016-en&amp;rft.isbn=9789264250079&amp;rft.au=OECD&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1787%2F888933323807&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-337\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-337\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><i>Ahupua\u02bba [electronic resource]&#160;: World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008, May 12-16, 2008, Honolulu, Hawai\u02bbi<\/i>. American Society of Civil Engineers. 2008. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-7844-0976-3<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/233033926\" target=\"_blank\">233033926<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Ahupua%CA%BBa+%5Belectronic+resource%5D+%3A+World+Environmental+and+Water+Resources+Congress+2008%2C+May+12-16%2C+2008%2C+Honolulu%2C+Hawai%CA%BBi&amp;rft.pub=American+Society+of+Civil+Engineers&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F233033926&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7844-0976-3&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-338\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-338\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGreat_Britain._Parliament._House_of_Commons2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons (2007). <i>Data protection [H.L.] A bill [as amended in standing committee d] intituled an act to make new provision for the regulation of the processing of information relating to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or disclosure of such information<\/i>. 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(July 5, 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.4324\/9781315240350-8\" target=\"_blank\">\"Genetic Information and the Data Protection Directive of the European Union\"<\/a>. <i>The Data Protection Directive and Medical Research Across Europe<\/i>. Routledge. pp.&#160;103\u2013112. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324%2F9781315240350-8\" target=\"_blank\">10.4324\/9781315240350-8<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-315-24035-0<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 5,<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Genetic+Information+and+the+Data+Protection+Directive+of+the+European+Union&amp;rft.btitle=The+Data+Protection+Directive+and+Medical+Research+Across+Europe&amp;rft.pages=103-112&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2017-07-05&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315240350-8&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-315-24035-0&amp;rft.aulast=Lehtonen&amp;rft.aufirst=Lasse+A.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781315240350-8&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-UKDataProtAct-341\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-UKDataProtAct_341-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.legislation.gov.uk\/ukpga\/1998\/29\/contents\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Protection Act 1998\"<\/a>. <i>legislation.gov.uk<\/i>. The National Archives<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">January 25,<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=legislation.gov.uk&amp;rft.atitle=Data+Protection+Act+1998&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Fukpga%2F1998%2F29%2Fcontents&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-342\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-342\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.4324\/9780203722763-42\" target=\"_blank\">\"Computer Misuse Act 1990\"<\/a>. <i>Criminal Law Statutes 2011-2012<\/i>. Routledge. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 5,<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Computer+Misuse+Act+1990&amp;rft.btitle=Criminal+Law+Statutes+2011-2012&amp;rft.pages=114-118&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2013-06-17&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203722763-42&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-203-72276-3&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9780203722763-42&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-343\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-343\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDharmapalaHines2006\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Dharmapala, Dhammika; Hines, James (December 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3386\/w12802\" target=\"_blank\">\"Which Countries Become Tax Havens?\"<\/a>. Working Paper Series. Cambridge, MA. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3386%2Fw12802\" target=\"_blank\">10.3386\/w12802<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Which+Countries+Become+Tax+Havens%3F&amp;rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&amp;rft.series=Working+Paper+Series&amp;rft.date=2006-12&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3386%2Fw12802&amp;rft.aulast=Dharmapala&amp;rft.aufirst=Dhammika&amp;rft.au=Hines%2C+James&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.3386%2Fw12802&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-344\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-344\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1787\/888933367391\" target=\"_blank\">\"Figure 1.14. Participation rates have risen but labour force growth has slowed in several countries\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1787%2F888933367391\" target=\"_blank\">10.1787\/888933367391<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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FFIEC<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">January 25,<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Information+Technology+Examination+Handbook&amp;rft.atitle=Audit+Booklet&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fithandbook.ffiec.gov%2Fit-booklets%2Faudit.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-352\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-352\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRay2004\" class=\"citation encyclopaedia cs1\">Ray, Amy W. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">January 25,<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Government+Gazette+of+the+Hellenic+Republic&amp;rft.atitle=Regulation+for+the+Assurance+of+Confidentiality+in+Electronic+Communications&amp;rft.date=2011-11-17&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adae.gr%2Ffileadmin%2Fdocs%2Fnomoi%2Fkanonismoi%2FADAE_REGULATION_165.2011.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-370\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-370\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFde_Guise2020\" class=\"citation cs2\">de Guise, Preston (April 29, 2020), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1201\/9780367463496-9\" target=\"_blank\">\"Security, Privacy, Ethical, and Legal Considerations\"<\/a>, <i>Data Protection<\/i>, Auerbach Publications, pp.&#160;91\u2013108, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1201%2F9780367463496-9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1201\/9780367463496-9<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-367-46349-6<\/bdi>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:219013948\" target=\"_blank\">219013948<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 5,<\/span> 2021<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Data+Protection&amp;rft.atitle=Security%2C+Privacy%2C+Ethical%2C+and+Legal+Considerations&amp;rft.pages=91-108&amp;rft.date=2020-04-29&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219013948%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1201%2F9780367463496-9&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-367-46349-6&amp;rft.aulast=de+Guise&amp;rft.aufirst=Preston&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1201%2F9780367463496-9&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-205\/2013-371\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-205\/2013_371-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.adae.gr\/fileadmin\/docs\/nomoi\/kanonismoi\/Kanonismos_FEK_1742_B_15_07_2013_asfaleia_akeraiotita__ADAE_205_2013.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"\u0391\u03c1\u03b9\u03b8\u03bc. \u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03c6. 205\/2013\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic<\/i>. Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy. July 15, 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">January 25,<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Government+Gazette+of+the+Hellenic+Republic&amp;rft.atitle=%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%BC.+%CE%B1%CF%80%CF%8C%CF%86.+205%2F2013&amp;rft.date=2013-07-15&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adae.gr%2Ffileadmin%2Fdocs%2Fnomoi%2Fkanonismoi%2FKanonismos_FEK_1742_B_15_07_2013_asfaleia_akeraiotita__ADAE_205_2013.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-372\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-372\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Andersson and Reimers, 2019, CYBER SECURITY EMPLOYMENT POLICY AND WORKPLACE DEMAND IN THE U.S. GOVERNMENT, EDULEARN19 Proceedings, Publication year: 2019 Pages: 7858-7866 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/library.iated.org\/view\/ANDERSON2019CYB\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/library.iated.org\/view\/ANDERSON2019CYB<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-373\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-373\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/securitycultureframework.net\/definition-of-security-culture\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Definition of Security Culture\"<\/a>. <i>The Security Culture Framework<\/i>. April 9, 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Security+Culture+Framework&amp;rft.atitle=Definition+of+Security+Culture&amp;rft.date=2014-04-09&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsecuritycultureframework.net%2Fdefinition-of-security-culture%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-374\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-374\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRoerPetric2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Roer, Kai; Petric, Gregor (2017). <i>The 2017 Security Culture Report - In depth insights into the human factor<\/i>. CLTRe North America, Inc. pp.&#160;42\u201343. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1544933948<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+2017+Security+Culture+Report+-+In+depth+insights+into+the+human+factor&amp;rft.pages=42-43&amp;rft.pub=CLTRe+North+America%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=978-1544933948&amp;rft.aulast=Roer&amp;rft.aufirst=Kai&amp;rft.au=Petric%2C+Gregor&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-375\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-375\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAkhtar2018\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Akhtar, Salman, ed. (March 21, 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.4324\/9780429475313\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Good Feelings<\/i><\/a>. Routledge. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324%2F9780429475313\" target=\"_blank\">10.4324\/9780429475313<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780429475313<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Good+Feelings&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2018-03-21&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780429475313&amp;rft.isbn=9780429475313&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9780429475313&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Andersson_&amp;_Reimers_2014-376\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Andersson_&amp;_Reimers_2014_376-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Anderson, D., Reimers, K. and Barretto, C. (March 2014). Post-Secondary Education Network Security: Results of Addressing the End-User Challenge.publication date Mar 11, 2014 publication description INTED2014 (International Technology, Education, and Development Conference)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-377\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_377-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_377-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchliengerTeufel2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Schlienger, Thomas; Teufel, Stephanie (December 2003). \"Information security culture - from analysis to change\". <i>South African Computer Society (SAICSIT)<\/i>. <b>2003<\/b> (31): 46\u201352. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/10520%2FEJC27949\" target=\"_blank\">10520\/EJC27949<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=South+African+Computer+Society+%28SAICSIT%29&amp;rft.atitle=Information+security+culture+-+from+analysis+to+change&amp;rft.volume=2003&amp;rft.issue=31&amp;rft.pages=46-52&amp;rft.date=2003-12&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10520%2FEJC27949&amp;rft.aulast=Schlienger&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft.au=Teufel%2C+Stephanie&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-378\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-378\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140315184556\/https:\/\/www.iisp.org\/imis15\/iisp\/Accreditation\/Our_Skills_Framework\/iispv2\/Accreditation\/Our_Skills_Framework.aspx?hkey=e77a6f03-9498-423e-aa7b-585381290ec4\" target=\"_blank\">\"IISP Skills Framework\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iisp.org\/imis15\/iisp\/Accreditation\/Our_Skills_Framework\/iispv2\/Accreditation\/Our_Skills_Framework.aspx?hkey=e77a6f03-9498-423e-aa7b-585381290ec4\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on March 15, 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">April 27,<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=IISP+Skills+Framework&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iisp.org%2Fimis15%2Fiisp%2FAccreditation%2FOur_Skills_Framework%2Fiispv2%2FAccreditation%2FOur_Skills_Framework.aspx%3Fhkey%3De77a6f03-9498-423e-aa7b-585381290ec4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-379\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-379\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131203010908\/https:\/\/www.bsi.bund.de\/EN\/Publications\/BSIStandards\/BSIStandards_node.html;jsessionid=8FB8A442EDCF66AECC34651426C22D11.2_cid359\" target=\"_blank\">\"BSI-Standards\"<\/a>. BSI. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bsi.bund.de\/EN\/Publications\/BSIStandards\/BSIStandards_node.html;jsessionid=8FB8A442EDCF66AECC34651426C22D11.2_cid359\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on December 3, 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">November 29,<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=BSI-Standards&amp;rft.pub=BSI&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bsi.bund.de%2FEN%2FPublications%2FBSIStandards%2FBSIStandards_node.html%3Bjsessionid%3D8FB8A442EDCF66AECC34651426C22D11.2_cid359&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em\"> \n<ul><li>Anderson, K., \"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080402234040\/http:\/\/www.scmagazineus.com\/IT-security-professionals-must-evolve-for-changing-market\/article\/33990\/\" target=\"_blank\">IT Security Professionals Must Evolve for Changing Market<\/a>\", <i>SC Magazine<\/i>, October 12, 2006.<\/li>\n<li>Aceituno, V., \"On Information Security Paradigms\", <i>ISSA Journal<\/i>, September 2005.<\/li>\n<li>Dhillon, G., <i>Principles of Information Systems Security: text and cases<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Wiley_%26_Sons\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"John Wiley &amp; Sons\" data-key=\"a94882be8e75db6c18ed0e8bd4f49ced\">John Wiley &amp; Sons<\/a>, 2007.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chuck_Easttom\" title=\"Chuck Easttom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae7f84417e2ff0be92a3e516d8aa6527\">Easttom, C.<\/a>, <i>Computer Security Fundamentals (2nd Edition)<\/i> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pearson_Education\" title=\"Pearson Education\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e89df204aaa261281002dcd6097046db\">Pearson Education<\/a>, 2011.<\/li>\n<li>Lambo, T., \"ISO\/IEC 27001: The future of infosec certification\", <i>ISSA Journal<\/i>, November 2006.<\/li>\n<li>Dustin, D., \" <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.brisbanedatarecovery.com.au\/2017\/05\/awareness-of-how-your-data-is-being.html\" target=\"_blank\">Awareness of How Your Data is Being Used and What to Do About It<\/a>\", \"CDR Blog\", May 2017.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bibliography\">Bibliography<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAllen2001\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Allen, Julia H. (2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/certguidetosyste00alle\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The CERT Guide to System and Network Security Practices<\/i><\/a>. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-201-73723-3<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+CERT+Guide+to+System+and+Network+Security+Practices&amp;rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-201-73723-3&amp;rft.aulast=Allen&amp;rft.aufirst=Julia+H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcertguidetosyste00alle&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKrutzRussell_Dean_Vines2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Krutz, Ronald L.; Russell Dean Vines (2003). <i>The CISSP Prep Guide<\/i> (Gold&#160;ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Wiley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-471-26802-4<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+CISSP+Prep+Guide&amp;rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+IN&amp;rft.edition=Gold&amp;rft.pub=Wiley&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-471-26802-4&amp;rft.aulast=Krutz&amp;rft.aufirst=Ronald+L.&amp;rft.au=Russell+Dean+Vines&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLayton2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Layton, Timothy P. (2007). <i>Information Security: Design, Implementation, Measurement, and Compliance<\/i>. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-8493-7087-8<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Information+Security%3A+Design%2C+Implementation%2C+Measurement%2C+and+Compliance&amp;rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&amp;rft.pub=Auerbach+publications&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8493-7087-8&amp;rft.aulast=Layton&amp;rft.aufirst=Timothy+P.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMcNab2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">McNab, Chris (2004). <i>Network Security Assessment<\/i>. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-596-00611-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Network+Security+Assessment&amp;rft.place=Sebastopol%2C+CA&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-596-00611-2&amp;rft.aulast=McNab&amp;rft.aufirst=Chris&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPeltier2001\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Peltier, Thomas R. (2001). <i>Information Security Risk Analysis<\/i>. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-8493-0880-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Information+Security+Risk+Analysis&amp;rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&amp;rft.pub=Auerbach+publications&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8493-0880-2&amp;rft.aulast=Peltier&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPeltier2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Peltier, Thomas R. (2002). <i>Information Security Policies, Procedures, and Standards: guidelines for effective information security management<\/i>. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-8493-1137-6<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Information+Security+Policies%2C+Procedures%2C+and+Standards%3A+guidelines+for+effective+information+security+management&amp;rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&amp;rft.pub=Auerbach+publications&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8493-1137-6&amp;rft.aulast=Peltier&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWhite2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">White, Gregory (2003). <i>All-in-one Security+ Certification Exam Guide<\/i>. Emeryville, CA: McGraw-Hill\/Osborne. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-07-222633-1<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=All-in-one+Security%2B+Certification+Exam+Guide&amp;rft.place=Emeryville%2C+CA&amp;rft.pub=McGraw-Hill%2FOsborne&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-07-222633-1&amp;rft.aulast=White&amp;rft.aufirst=Gregory&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDhillon2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dhillon, Gurpreet (2007). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/principlesofinfo0000dhil\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Principles of Information Systems Security: text and cases<\/i><\/a><\/span>. NY: John Wiley &amp; Sons. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-471-45056-6<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Principles+of+Information+Systems+Security%3A+text+and+cases&amp;rft.place=NY&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-471-45056-6&amp;rft.aulast=Dhillon&amp;rft.aufirst=Gurpreet&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprinciplesofinfo0000dhil&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWhitmanMattord2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Whitman, Michael; Mattord, Herbert (2017). <i>Principles of Information Security<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cengage\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cengage\" data-key=\"e2f5ada2cc8772893f9ec7636068cf7c\">Cengage<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1337102063<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Principles+of+Information+Security&amp;rft.pub=Cengage&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=978-1337102063&amp;rft.aulast=Whitman&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft.au=Mattord%2C+Herbert&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/iac.dtic.mil\/iatac\/ia_policychart.html\" target=\"_blank\">DoD IA Policy Chart<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110906012808\/http:\/\/iac.dtic.mil\/iatac\/ia_policychart.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2011-09-06 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> on the DoD Information Assurance Technology Analysis Center web site.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/msdn2.microsoft.com\/en-us\/library\/ms998382.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">patterns &amp; practices Security Engineering Explained<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.opensecurityarchitecture.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Open Security Architecture- Controls and patterns to secure IT systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iwar.org.uk\/comsec\/\" target=\"_blank\">IWS \u2013 Information Security Chapter<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20191108164220\/http:\/\/www.iwar.org.uk\/comsec\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2019-11-08 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cl.cam.ac.uk\/~rja14\/book.html\" target=\"_blank\">Ross Anderson's book \"Security Engineering\"<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/teciza.in\/\" target=\"_blank\">teciza.in<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1496\nCached time: 20240102035935\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 2.964 seconds\nReal time usage: 3.177 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 20168\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 832181\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 8959\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 19\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 17\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 1165420\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 2.047\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 10900256\/52428800 bytes\nLua Profile:\n<\/p>\n<pre> ? 320 ms 16.5%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction 320 ms 16.5%\n dataWrapper <mw.lua:672> 240 ms 12.4%\n recursiveClone <mwInit.lua:41> 160 ms 8.2%\n citation0 <Module:Citation\/CS1:2606> 100 ms 5.2%\n <mw.lua:694> 100 ms 5.2%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match 100 ms 5.2%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub 60 ms 3.1%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find 60 ms 3.1%\n type 60 ms 3.1%\n [others] 420 ms 21.6%\n<\/pre>\n<p>Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 2830.023 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>70.88% 2005.998 1 Template:Reflist\n19.94% 564.414 101 Template:Cite_journal\n16.69% 472.261 103 Template:Citation\n15.71% 444.649 101 Template:Cite_book\n 8.05% 227.830 58 Template:Cite_web\n 6.18% 174.840 4 Template:Sfn\n 3.33% 94.254 11 Template:Fix\n 2.95% 83.508 3 Template:Navbox\n 2.79% 79.004 1 Template:Computer_science\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:15036-0!canonical and timestamp 20240102035932 and revision id 1191914398. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110151433\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.540 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.025 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 775531\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 687.896 1 wikipedia:Information_security\n100.00% 687.896 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8858-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110151432 and revision id 25937. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_images":[],"9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_timestamp":1704907001,"185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_type":"article","185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_title":"Information privacy","185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_privacy","185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_plaintext":"\n\nInformation privacyFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchLegal issues regarding the collection and dissemination of data\nInformation privacy is the relationship between the collection and dissemination of data, technology, the public expectation of privacy, contextual information norms, and the legal and political issues surrounding them. [1] It is also known as data privacy[2] or data protection.\nData privacy is challenging since it [clarify ] attempts to use[weasel&#160;words ] data while protecting an individual's privacy preferences and personally identifiable information.[3] The fields of computer security, data security, and information security all design and use software, hardware, and human resources to address this issue.\n\n\n\nAuthorities \nLaws \nSee also: Information privacy law \nSee also: Privacy law\nGeneral Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) (European Union)[4]\nGeneral Personal Data Protection Law (Brazil)\nData Protection Directive (European Union)\nCalifornia Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) (California)\nPrivacy Act (Canada)\nPrivacy Act 1988 (Australia)\nPersonal Data Protection Bill 2019 (India)\nChina Cyber Security Law (CCSL) (China)\nPersonal Information Protection Law (PIPL) (China)\nData Protection Act, 2012 (Ghana)\nPersonal Data Protection Act 2012 (Singapore)[5]\nRepublic Act No. 10173: Data Privacy Act of 2012 (Philippines)[6]\nData protection (privacy) laws in Russia\nData Protection Act 2018 (United Kingdom)\nPersonal Data Protection Law (PDPL) (Bahrain)\nAuthorities by country \nSee also: Information commissioner and National data protection authority\nNational data protection authorities in the European Union and the European Free Trade Association\nOffice of the Australian Information Commissioner (Australia)\nPrivacy Commissioner (New Zealand)\nCommission nationale de l'informatique et des libert\u00e9s (CNIL , France)\nFederal Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information (Germany)\nOffice of the Privacy Commissioner for Personal Data (Hong Kong)\nData Protection Commissioner (Ireland)\nOffice of the Data Protection Supervisor (Isle of Man)\nNational Privacy Commission (Philippines)\nPersonal Data Protection Commission (Singapore)\nTurkish Data Protection Authority (KVKK, Turkey)\nFederal Data Protection and Information Commissioner (Switzerland)\nInformation Commissioner's Office (ICO, United Kingdom)\nAgencia Espa\u00f1ola de Protecci\u00f3n de Datos (AEPD, Spain)\nInformation types \nVarious types of personal information often come under privacy concerns.\n\nCable television \nThis describes the ability to control what information one reveals about oneself over cable television, and who can access that information. For example, third parties can track IP TV programs someone has watched at any given time. \"The addition of any information in a broadcasting stream is not required for an audience rating survey, additional devices are not requested to be installed in the houses of viewers or listeners, and without the necessity of their cooperations, audience ratings can be automatically performed in real-time.\"[7]\n\nEducational \nIn the United Kingdom in 2012, the Education Secretary Michael Gove described the National Pupil Database as a \"rich dataset\" whose value could be \"maximised\" by making it more openly accessible, including to private companies. Kelly Fiveash of The Register said that this could mean \"a child's school life including exam results, attendance, teacher assessments and even characteristics\" could be available, with third-party organizations being responsible for anonymizing any publications themselves, rather than the data being anonymized by the government before being handed over. An example of a data request that Gove indicated had been rejected in the past, but might be possible under an improved version of privacy regulations, was for \"analysis on sexual exploitation\".[8]\n\nFinancial \nMain article: Financial privacy\nInformation about a person's financial transactions, including the amount of assets, positions held in stocks or funds, outstanding debts, and purchases can be sensitive. If criminals gain access to information such as a person's accounts or credit card numbers, that person could become the victim of fraud or identity theft. Information about a person's purchases can reveal a great deal about that person's history, such as places they have visited, whom they have contact with, products they have used, their activities and habits, or medications they have used. In some cases, corporations may use this information to target individuals with marketing customized towards those individual's personal preferences, which that person may or may not approve.[8]\n\nInternet \n This section may require copy editing for grammar and style. You can assist by editing it. (October 2023 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nMain article: Internet privacy\nThe ability to control the information one reveals about oneself over the internet, and who can access that information, has become a growing concern. These concerns include whether email can be stored or read by third parties without consent, or whether third parties can continue to track the websites that someone visited. Another concern is if websites one visited can collect, store, and possibly share personally identifiable information about users.\nThe advent of various search engines and the use of data mining created a capability for data about individuals to be collected and combined from a wide variety of sources very easily.[9][10][11] The FTC has provided a set of guidelines that represent widely accepted concepts concerning fair information practices in an electronic marketplace called the Fair Information Practice Principles.\nTo avoid giving away too much personal information, emails should be encrypted. Browsing of web pages as well as other online activities should be done trace-less via \"anonymizers\", in case those are not trusted, by open-source distributed anonymizers, so called mix nets, such as I2P or Tor \u2013 The Onion Router. VPNs (Virtual Private Networks) are another \"anonymizer\" that can be used to give someone more protection while online. This includes obfuscating and encrypting web traffic so that other groups cannot see or mine it.[12]\nEmail is not the only internet content with privacy concerns. In an age where increasing amounts of information is online, social networking sites pose additional privacy challenges. People may be tagged in photos or have valuable information exposed about themselves either by choice or unexpectedly by others, referred to as participatory surveillance. Data about location can also be accidentally published, for example, when someone posts a picture with a store as a background. Caution should be exercised when posting information online, social networks vary in what they allow users to make private and what remains publicly accessible.[13] Without strong security settings in place and careful attention to what remains public, a person can be profiled by searching for and collecting disparate pieces of information, worst case leading to cases of cyberstalking[14] or reputation damage.[15]\nCookies are used in websites that users may allow the website to retrieve some information from user's internet which it usually does not mention what the data being retrieved is.[16] In 2018, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) passed regulation that forces websites to visibly disclose to consumers their information privacy practices, referred to as cookie notices.[16]This was issued to give consumers the choice of what information about their behavior they consent to letting websites track, however its effectiveness is controversial.[16] Some websites may engage in deceptive practices such as placing the cookie notices in places on the page that are not visible, or only giving consumers notice that their information is being tracked, but not allowing them to change their privacy settings.[16]Apps like Instagram and Facebook collect user data for a personalised app experience, however they track user activity on other apps which jeopardises user's privacy and data. By controlling how visible these cookie notices are, companies can discreetly collect data, giving them more power over the consumers.[16]\n\nLocational \nAs location tracking capabilities of mobile devices are advancing (location-based services), problems related to user privacy arise. Location data is among the most sensitive data currently being collected.[17] A list of potentially sensitive professional and personal information that could be inferred about an individual knowing only their mobility trace was published in 2009 by the Electronic Frontier Foundation.[18] These include the movements of a competitor sales force, attendance of a particular church or an individual's presence in a motel, or at an abortion clinic. A recent MIT study[19][20] by de Montjoye et al. showed that four spatio-temporal points, approximate places and times, are enough to uniquely identify 95% of 1.5&#160;million people in a mobility database. The study further shows that these constraints hold even when the resolution of the dataset is low. Therefore, even coarse or blurred datasets provide little anonymity.\n\nMedical \nMain article: Medical privacy\nPeople may not wish for their medical records to be revealed to others due to the confidentiality and sensitivity of what the information could reveal about their health. For example, they might be concerned that it might affect their insurance coverage or employment. Or, it may be because they would not wish for others to know about any medical or psychological conditions or treatments that would bring embarrassment upon themselves. Revealing medical data could also reveal other details about one's personal life.[21] There are three major categories of medical privacy: informational (the degree of control over personal information), physical (the degree of physical inaccessibility to others), and psychological (the extent to which the doctor respects patients' cultural beliefs, inner thoughts, values, feelings, and religious practices and allows them to make personal decisions).[22]\nPhysicians and psychiatrists in many cultures and countries have standards for doctor\u2013patient relationships, which include maintaining confidentiality. In some cases, the physician\u2013patient privilege is legally protected. These practices are in place to protect the dignity of patients, and to ensure that patients feel free to reveal complete and accurate information required for them to receive the correct treatment.[23]\nTo view the United States' laws on governing privacy of private health information, see HIPAA and the HITECH Act. The Australian law is the Privacy Act 1988 Australia as well as state-based health records legislation.\n\nPolitical \nMain article: Political privacy\nPolitical privacy has been a concern since voting systems emerged in ancient times. The secret ballot is the simplest and most widespread measure to ensure that political views are not known to anyone other than the voters themselves\u2014it is nearly universal in modern democracy and considered to be a basic right of citizenship. In fact, even where other rights of privacy do not exist, this type of privacy very often does. There are several forms of voting fraud or privacy violations possible with the use of digital voting machines.[24]\n\nLegality \nMain article: Information privacy law\nThe legal protection of the right to privacy in general \u2013 and of data privacy in particular \u2013 varies greatly around the world.[25]\nLaws and regulations related to Privacy and Data Protection are constantly changing, it is seen as important to keep abreast of any changes in the law and to continually reassess compliance with data privacy and security regulations.[26] Within academia, Institutional Review Boards function to assure that adequate measures are taken to ensure both the privacy and confidentiality of human subjects in research.[27]\nPrivacy concerns exist wherever personally identifiable information or other sensitive information is collected, stored, used, and finally destroyed or deleted \u2013 in digital form or otherwise. Improper or non-existent disclosure control can be the root cause for privacy issues. Informed consent mechanisms including dynamic consent are important in communicating to data subjects the different uses of their personally identifiable information. Data privacy issues may arise in response to information from a wide range of sources, such as:[28]\n\nHealthcare records\nCriminal justice investigations and proceedings\nFinancial institutions and transactions\nBiological traits, such as genetic material\nResidence and geographic records\nPrivacy breach\nLocation-based service and geolocation\nWeb surfing behavior or user preferences using persistent cookies\nAcademic research\nProtection of privacy in information systems \nAs heterogeneous information systems with differing privacy rules are interconnected and information is shared, policy appliances will be required to reconcile, enforce, and monitor an increasing amount of privacy policy rules (and laws). There are two categories of technology to address privacy protection in commercial IT systems: communication and enforcement.\n\nPolicy communication\nP3P \u2013 The Platform for Privacy Preferences. P3P is a standard for communicating privacy practices and comparing them to the preferences of individuals.\nPolicy enforcement\nXACML \u2013 The Extensible Access Control Markup Language together with its Privacy Profile is a standard for expressing privacy policies in a machine-readable language which a software system can use to enforce the policy in enterprise IT systems.\nEPAL \u2013 The Enterprise Privacy Authorization Language is very similar to XACML, but is not yet a standard.\nWS-Privacy - \"Web Service Privacy\" will be a specification for communicating privacy policy in web services. For example, it may specify how privacy policy information can be embedded in the SOAP envelope of a web service message.\nProtecting privacy on the internet\nOn the internet many users give away a lot of information about themselves: unencrypted e-mails can be read by the administrators of an e-mail server if the connection is not encrypted (no HTTPS), and also the internet service provider and other parties sniffing the network traffic of that connection are able to know the contents.\nThe same applies to any kind of traffic generated on the Internet, including web browsing, instant messaging, and others.\nIn order not to give away too much personal information, e-mails can be encrypted and browsing of webpages as well as other online activities can be done traceless via anonymizers, or by open source distributed anonymizers, so-called mix networks.\nWell-known open-source mix nets include I2P \u2013 The Anonymous Network and Tor.\n\nImproving privacy through individualization\nComputer privacy can be improved through individualization. Currently security messages are designed for the \"average user\", i.e. the same message for everyone. Researchers have posited that individualized messages and security \"nudges\", crafted based on users' individual differences and personality traits, can be used for further improvements for each person's compliance with computer security and privacy.[29]\n\nUnited States Safe Harbor program and passenger name record issues \nThe United States Department of Commerce created the International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles certification program in response to the 1995 Directive on Data Protection (Directive 95\/46\/EC) of the European Commission.[30] Both the United States and the European Union officially state that they are committed to upholding information privacy of individuals, but the former has caused friction between the two by failing to meet the standards of the EU's stricter laws on personal data. The negotiation of the Safe Harbor program was, in part, to address this long-running issue.[31] Directive 95\/46\/EC declares in Chapter IV Article 25 that personal data may only be transferred from the countries in the European Economic Area to countries which provide adequate privacy protection. Historically, establishing adequacy required the creation of national laws broadly equivalent to those implemented by Directive 95\/46\/EU. Although there are exceptions to this blanket prohibition \u2013 for example where the disclosure to a country outside the EEA is made with the consent of the relevant individual (Article 26(1)(a)) \u2013 they are limited in practical scope. As a result, Article 25 created a legal risk to organizations which transfer personal data from Europe to the United States.\nThe program regulates the exchange of passenger name record information between the EU and the US. According to the EU directive, personal data may only be transferred to third countries if that country provides an adequate level of protection. Some exceptions to this rule are provided, for instance when the controller themself can guarantee that the recipient will comply with the data protection rules.\nThe European Commission has set up the \"Working party on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data,\" commonly known as the \"Article 29 Working Party\". The Working Party gives advice about the level of protection in the European Union and third countries.[32]\nThe Working Party negotiated with U.S. representatives about the protection of personal data, the Safe Harbor Principles were the result. Notwithstanding that approval, the self-assessment approach of the Safe Harbor remains controversial with a number of European privacy regulators and commentators.[33]\nThe Safe Harbor program addresses this issue in the following way: rather than a blanket law imposed on all organizations in the United States, a voluntary program is enforced by the Federal Trade Commission. U.S. organizations which register with this program, having self-assessed their compliance with a number of standards, are \"deemed adequate\" for the purposes of Article 25. Personal information can be sent to such organizations from the EEA without the sender being in breach of Article 25 or its EU national equivalents. The Safe Harbor was approved as providing adequate protection for personal data, for the purposes of Article 25(6), by the European Commission on 26 July 2000.[34]\nUnder the Safe Harbor, adoptee organizations need to carefully consider their compliance with the onward transfer obligations, where personal data originating in the EU is transferred to the US Safe Harbor, and then onward to a third country. The alternative compliance approach of \"binding corporate rules\", recommended by many EU privacy regulators, resolves this issue. In addition, any dispute arising in relation to the transfer of HR data to the US Safe Harbor must be heard by a panel of EU privacy regulators.[35]\nIn July 2007, a new, controversial,[36] Passenger Name Record agreement between the US and the EU was made.[37] A short time afterwards, the Bush administration gave exemption for the Department of Homeland Security, for the Arrival and Departure Information System (ADIS) and for the Automated Target System from the 1974 Privacy Act.[38]\nIn February 2008, Jonathan Faull, the head of the EU's Commission of Home Affairs, complained about the US bilateral policy concerning PNR.[39] The US had signed in February 2008 a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the Czech Republic in exchange of a visa waiver scheme, without concerting before with Brussels.[36] The tensions between Washington and Brussels are mainly caused by a lesser level of data protection in the US, especially since foreigners do not benefit from the US Privacy Act of 1974. Other countries approached for bilateral MOU included the United Kingdom, Estonia, Germany and Greece.[40]\n\nSee also \n\nData sovereignty\nData localization\nDigital inheritance\nDigital self-determination\nePrivacy Regulation\nGenetic privacy\nPirate Party\nPrivacy\nPrivacy by design\nPrivacy enhancing technologies\nPrivacy law\nPrivacy software\nWeb literacy (privacy)\nComputer science specific\n\nAuthentication\nData loss prevention software\nData retention\nData security\nDifferential privacy\nOrganisations\n\nConfederation of European Data Protection Organisations\nData Privacy Day (28 January)\nInternational Association of Privacy Professionals (headquartered in USA)\nPrivacy International (headquartered in UK)\nScholars working in the field\n\nAdam Back\nCynthia Dwork\nHelen Nissenbaum\nIan Goldberg\nKhaled El Emam\nLatanya Sweeney\nPeter Gutmann\nStefan Brands\nReferences \n\n\n^ Uberveillance and the social implications of microchip implants&#160;: emerging technologies. Michael, M. G., Michael, Katina, 1976-. Hershey, PA. 30 September 2013. ISBN&#160;978-1466645820. OCLC&#160;843857020. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_book\" title=\"Template:Cite book\">cite book<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link) \n\n^ Ian Austen (June 22, 2011). \"Canadian Inquiry Finds Privacy Issues in Sale of Used Products at Staples\". The New York Times. Retrieved 2019-05-14 . \n\n^ Vicen\u00e7 Torra (2017), \"Introduction\", Data Privacy: Foundations, New Developments and the Big Data Challenge, Studies in Big Data, vol.&#160;28, Springer International Publishing, pp.&#160;1\u201321, doi:10.1007\/978-3-319-57358-8_1, ISBN&#160;9783319573564 \n\n^ \"Data protection\". 4 June 2021. \n\n^ \"Personal Data Protection Act Overview\". www.pdpc.gov.sg. Archived from the original on 23 December 2017. Retrieved 20 Oct 2019 . \n\n^ Republic Act No. 10173: Data Privacy Act of 2012 \n\n^ \"System for Gathering TV Audience Rating in Real Time in Internet Protocol Television Network and Method Thereof\". FreePatentsOnline.com. 2010-01-14. Retrieved 2011-06-07 . \n\n^ a b Fiveash, Kelly (2012-11-08). \"Psst: Heard the one about the National Pupil Database? Thought not\". The Register. Retrieved 2012-12-12 . \n\n^ Bergstein, Brian (2006-06-18). \"Research explores data mining, privacy\". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-05-05 . \n\n^ Bergstein, Brian (2004-01-01). \"In this data-mining society, privacy advocates shudder\". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. \n\n^ Swartz, Nikki (2006). \"U.S. Demands Google Web Data\". Information Management Journal. Archived from the original on 2014-12-19. Vol. 40 Issue 3, p. 18 \n\n^ \"VyprVPN Protects Your Privacy and Security | Golden Frog\". www.vyprvpn.com. Retrieved 2019-04-03 . \n\n^ Schneider, G.; Evans, J.; Pinard, K.T. (2008). The Internet: Illustrated Series. Cengage Learning. p.&#160;156. ISBN&#160;9781423999386. Retrieved 9 May 2018 . \n\n^ Bocij, P. (2004). Cyberstalking: Harassment in the Internet Age and How to Protect Your Family . Greenwood Publishing Group. pp.&#160;268. ISBN&#160;9780275981181. \n\n^ Cannataci, J.A.; Zhao, B.; Vives, G.T.; et&#160;al. (2016). Privacy, free expression and transparency: Redefining their new boundaries in the digital age. UNESCO. p.&#160;26. ISBN&#160;9789231001888. Retrieved 9 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d e Bornschein, R.; Schmidt, L.; Maier, E.; Bone, S. A.; Pappalardo, J. K.; Fitzgerald, M. P. (April 2020). \"The Effect of Consumers' Perceived Power and Risk in Digital Information Privacy: The Example of Cookie Notices\". Journal of Public Policy &amp; Marketing. 39 (2): 135\u2013154. doi:10.1177\/0743915620902143 . ISSN&#160;0743-9156. S2CID&#160;213860986. \n\n^ Ataei, M.; Kray, C. (2016). \"Ephemerality Is the New Black: A Novel Perspective on Location Data Management and Location Privacy in LBS\". Progress in Location-Based Services 2016. Springer. pp.&#160;357\u2013374. ISBN&#160;9783319472898. Retrieved 9 May 2018 . \n\n^ Blumberg, A. Eckersley, P. (3 August 2009). \"On locational privacy and how to avoid losing it forever\". EFF. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ de Montjoye, Yves-Alexandre; C\u00e9sar A. Hidalgo; Michel Verleysen; Vincent D. Blondel (March 25, 2013). \"Unique in the Crowd: The privacy bounds of human mobility\". Scientific Reports. 3: 1376. Bibcode:2013NatSR...3E1376D. doi:10.1038\/srep01376. PMC&#160;3607247 . PMID&#160;23524645. \n\n^ Palmer, Jason (March 25, 2013). \"Mobile location data 'present anonymity risk' \". BBC News. Retrieved 12 April 2013 . \n\n^ Aurelia, Nicholas-Donald; Francisco, Matus, Jesus; SeungEui, Ryu; M, Mahmood, Adam (1 June 2017). \"The Economic Effect of Privacy Breach Announcements on Stocks: A Comprehensive Empirical Investigation\". Amcis 2011 Proceedings - All Submissions. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Serenko, Natalia; Lida Fan (2013). \"Patients' Perceptions of Privacy and Their Outcomes in Healthcare\" (PDF) . International Journal of Behavioural and Healthcare Research. 4 (2): 101\u2013122. doi:10.1504\/IJBHR.2013.057359. \n\n^ \"If a patient is below the age of 18-years does confidentiality still works or should doctor breach and inform the parents?15years girl went for... - eNotes\". eNotes. \n\n^ Zetter, Kim (2018-02-21). \"The Myth of the Hacker-Proof Voting Machine\". The New York Times. ISSN&#160;0362-4331. Retrieved 2019-04-03 . \n\n^ Rakower, Lauren (2011). \"Blurred Line: Zooming in on Google Street View and the Global Right to Privacy\". brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu. Archived from the original on 2017-10-05. \n\n^ Robert Hasty, Dr Trevor W. Nagel and Mariam Subjally, Data Protection Law in the USA. (Advocates for International Development, August 2013.)\"Archived copy\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-25. Retrieved 2013-10-14 . {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) \n\n^ \"Institutional Review Board - Guidebook, CHAPTER IV - CONSIDERATIONS OF RESEARCH DESIGN\". www.hhs.gov. October 5, 2017. Retrieved October 5, 2017 . \n\n^ Programme Management Managing Multiple Projects Successfully. Mittal, Prashant. Global India Pubns. 2009. ISBN&#160;978-9380228204. OCLC&#160;464584332. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_book\" title=\"Template:Cite book\">cite book<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: others (link) \n\n^ \"The Myth of the Average User: Improving Privacy and Security Systems through Individualization (NSPW '15) | BLUES\". blues.cs.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-11 . \n\n^ \"Protection of personal data\". European Commission. Archived from the original on 16 June 2006. \n\n^ Weiss and Archick, Martin A. and Kristin (May 19, 2016). \"U.S.-EU Data Privacy: From Safe Harbor to Privacy Shield\". Congressional Research Service. \n\n^ \"EPIC - Article 29 Working Party\". epic.org. Archived from the original on 15 Aug 2021. Retrieved 2021-03-20 . \n\n^ \"SEC (2004) 1323: The implementation of Commission Decision 520\/2000\/EC on the adequate protection of personal data provided by the Safe Harbour privacy Principles and related Frequently Asked Questions issued by the US Department of Commerce\" (PDF) . European Commission. 20 October 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2006. \n\n^ \"2000\/520\/EC: Commission Decision of 26 July 2000 pursuant to Directive 95\/46\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the adequacy of the protection provided by the safe harbour privacy principles and related frequently asked questions issued by the US Department of Commerce\". Official Journal of the European Union, L Series. 25 August 2000. pp.&#160;7\u201347 \u2013 via Eur-Lex. \n\n^ \"Q&amp;A on the European Data Protection Authorities Panel foreseen by the Safe Harbour Decision\" (PDF) . European Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-07-24. \n\n^ a b A divided Europe wants to protect its personal data wanted by the US, Rue 89, 4 March 2008 (in English) \n\n^ \"New EU-US PNR Agreement on the processing and transfer of Passenger Name Record (PNR) data - CHALLENGE | Liberty &amp; Security\". www.libertysecurity.org. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012. Retrieved 11 January 2022 . {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) \n\n^ Statewatch, US changes the privacy rules to exemption access to personal data September 2007 \n\n^ Brussels attacks new US security demands, European Observer. See also Statewatch newsletter February 2008 \n\n^ Statewatch, March 2008 \n\n\nFurther reading \nPhilip E. Agre; Marc Rotenberg (1998). Technology and privacy: the new landscape . MIT Press. ISBN&#160;978-0-262-51101-8. \nExternal links \nInternational\nFactsheet on ECtHR case law on data protection\nInternational Conference of Data Protection and Privacy Commissioners\nBiometrics Institute Privacy Charter\nEurope\nEU data protection page\nUNESCO Chair in Data Privacy\nEuropean Data Protection Supervisor Archived 2008-12-19 at the Wayback Machine\nLatin America\nLatin American Data Protection Law Review\nNorth America\nPrivacy and Access Council of Canada\nLaboratory for International Data Privacy Archived 2019-08-12 at the Wayback Machine at Carnegie Mellon University.\nPrivacy Laws by State\nJournals\nIEEE Security &amp; Privacy magazine\nTransactions on Data Privacy\nvteData\nAugmentation\nAnalysis\nArchaeology\nBig\nCleansing\nCollection\nCompression\nCorruption\nCuration\nDegradation\nEditing\nETL\/ELT\nExtract\nTransform\nLoad\nFarming\nFormat management\nFusion\nIntegration\nIntegrity\nLibrary\nLineage\nLoss\nManagement\nMigration\nMining\nPhilanthropy\nPre-processing\nPreservation\nProcessing\nProtection (privacy)\nPublishing\nRecovery\nReduction\nRetention\nQuality\nScience\nScraping\nScrubbing\nSecurity\nStewardship\nStorage\nSynchronization\nValidation\nWarehouse\nWrangling\/munging\n\nvtePrivacyPrinciples\nRight of access to personal data\nExpectation of privacy\nRight to privacy\nRight to be forgotten\nPost-mortem privacy\nPrivacy laws\nAustralia\nBrazil\nCanada\nChina\nDenmark\nEngland\nEuropean Union\nGermany\nGhana\nNew Zealand\nRussia\nSingapore\nSwitzerland\nUnited Kingdom\nUnited States\nCalifornia, amended in 2020\nData protection authorities\nAustralia\nDenmark\nEuropean Union\nFrance\nGermany\nIndia\nIndonesia\nIreland\nIsle of Man\nNetherlands\nNorway\nPhilippines\nPoland\nSouth Korea\nSpain\nSweden\nSwitzerland\nThailand\nTurkey\nUnited Kingdom\nAreas\nConsumer\nDigital\nEducation\nMedical\nWorkplace\nInformation privacy\nLaw\nFinancial\nInternet\nFacebook\nGoogle\nTwitter\nEmail\nPersonal data\nPersonal identifier\nSocial networking services\nPrivacy-enhancing technologies\nPrivacy engineering\nPrivacy-invasive software\nPrivacy policy\nSecret ballot\nVirtual assistant privacy\nAdvocacy organizations\nAmerican Civil Liberties Union\nCenter for Democracy and Technology\nComputer Professionals for Social Responsibility\nData Privacy Lab\nElectronic Frontier Foundation\nElectronic Privacy Information Center\nEuropean Digital Rights\nFuture of Privacy Forum\nGlobal Network Initiative\nInternational Association of Privacy Professionals\nNOYB\nPrivacy International\nSee also\nAnonymity\nCellphone surveillance\nData security\nEavesdropping\nGlobal surveillance\nIdentity theft\nMass surveillance\nPanopticon\nPRISM\nSearch warrant\nWiretapping\nHuman rights\nPersonality rights\n\n Category\n\nAuthority control databases: National \nGermany \nIsrael \nUnited States \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_privacy\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_privacy<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementComputer securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 9 May 2018, at 19:39.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 5,344 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Information_privacy rootpage-Information_privacy skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Information privacy<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Legal issues regarding the collection and dissemination of data<\/div>\n<p><b>Information privacy<\/b> is the relationship between the collection and dissemination of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technology\" title=\"Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"826a00bce65740132769609e46bf6515\">technology<\/a>, the public <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expectation_of_privacy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expectation of privacy\" data-key=\"75668efd18cb5237821f441464fd6a56\">expectation of privacy<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contextual_integrity\" title=\"Contextual integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dbbe8c3cc6caa939683252ca57460597\">contextual information norms<\/a>, and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legal\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Legal\" data-key=\"1bd28b6fd166d646443ca8c9848a2680\">legal<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Political\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Political\" data-key=\"77022dc2600cd33c65bb368feff30854\">political<\/a> issues surrounding them. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> It is also known as <b>data privacy<\/b><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> or <b>data protection<\/b>.\n<\/p><p>Data privacy is challenging since <span class=\"clarify-content\" style=\"padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:#595959; border:1px solid #DDD;\">it<\/span><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Clarify\" style=\"margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Please_clarify\" title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42f809a0943a5d548f1a80f2e4a0f0bf\"><span title=\"This passage needs to be better explained. (June 2022)\">clarify<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> attempts to use<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words\" data-key=\"3c3e3e3bd5e8c5c41bbedf61159040c1\"><span title=\"Who says this? (June 2022)\">weasel&#160;words<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> data while protecting an individual's privacy preferences and personally identifiable information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The fields of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security\" title=\"Computer security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c2aa75aadd7f77c4f5ad26205c4c77b\">computer security<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">data security<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" title=\"Information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">information security<\/a> all design and use software, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_hardware\" title=\"Computer hardware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3af5473d082dc42736a8f0e670ebb91\">hardware<\/a>, and human resources to address this issue.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Authorities\">Authorities<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laws\">Laws<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_privacy_law\" title=\"Information privacy law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3668af10c336ea0006d5e50f32ad79bd\">Information privacy law<\/a><\/div> \n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_law\" title=\"Privacy law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58442113e93c1e202fc66e92aac1c44f\">Privacy law<\/a><\/div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Data_Protection_Regulation\" title=\"General Data Protection Regulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20785e45cbe1c33b7aead05d3a22887e\">General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a>)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Personal_Data_Protection_Law\" title=\"General Personal Data Protection Law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"894bdcc3d83361135ab8a57c6578490b\">General Personal Data Protection Law<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brazil\" title=\"Brazil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8a89a38d6ce43b78f6aec37f331570b\">Brazil<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Protection_Directive\" title=\"Data Protection Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77b2baccd00c9d2787cfad389318038f\">Data Protection Directive<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/California_Consumer_Privacy_Act\" title=\"California Consumer Privacy Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c744d099b2f2ab043c13067ed4d1b5e6\">California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) (California)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_Act_(Canada)\" title=\"Privacy Act (Canada)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e69fa2e2c591495fc32d74e29a968bf3\">Privacy Act (Canada)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_Act_1988\" title=\"Privacy Act 1988\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0abd7efe6be7e04918aacd79f5445494\">Privacy Act 1988<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australia\" title=\"Australia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c2db49e6ded3da2c9ba98e453f9ea81\">Australia<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_Data_Protection_Bill_2019\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Personal Data Protection Bill 2019\" data-key=\"ec1d262e9c2770d6e62846cd38c842db\">Personal Data Protection Bill 2019 (India)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/China_Internet_Security_Law\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"China Internet Security Law\" data-key=\"9946188ce7dc394d0799612133e8c832\">China Cyber Security Law (CCSL) (China)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_Information_Protection_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China\" title=\"Personal Information Protection Law of the People's Republic of China\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"29659e6932d4e86741fdbaa116db5b24\">Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL) (China)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Protection_Act,_2012\" title=\"Data Protection Act, 2012\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d3b3ab7fee537f72ec32bce1ce1937b\">Data Protection Act, 2012<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ghana\" title=\"Ghana\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54a7599616ef6f8ff2a1e4d51f5f1c42\">Ghana<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_Data_Protection_Act_2012_(Singapore)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Personal Data Protection Act 2012 (Singapore)\" data-key=\"8424919fc79e4ff34103db7ce784edb9\">Personal Data Protection Act 2012 (Singapore)<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Republic Act No. 10173: Data Privacy Act of 2012 (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philippines\" title=\"Philippines\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6dceabefcd9cbc9aede7ef2df59637d\">Philippines<\/a>)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_protection_(privacy)_laws_in_Russia\" title=\"Data protection (privacy) laws in Russia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91f3df9c84b214fc75a076441c5c58ca\">Data protection (privacy) laws in Russia<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Protection_Act_2018\" title=\"Data Protection Act 2018\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4feca229ed6478a57f50dd84535dd84d\">Data Protection Act 2018<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Kingdom\" title=\"United Kingdom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec8205bb550c2cfa9d84ff6d896f202f\">United Kingdom<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>Personal Data Protection Law (PDPL) (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bahrain\" title=\"Bahrain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af6fa2eb25b821f99957e079ec46e114\">Bahrain<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Authorities_by_country\">Authorities by country<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_commissioner\" title=\"Information commissioner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4edbb4e0f02071aba276b4472b4c67f\">Information commissioner<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_data_protection_authority\" title=\"National data protection authority\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a1e2c1a526eadc0674a5b66dd837cd3\">National data protection authority<\/a><\/div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_data_protection_authority\" title=\"National data protection authority\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a1e2c1a526eadc0674a5b66dd837cd3\">National data protection authorities<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Free_Trade_Association\" title=\"European Free Trade Association\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e2b26984fed3861cbde531ce13711f0\">European Free Trade Association<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_the_Australian_Information_Commissioner\" title=\"Office of the Australian Information Commissioner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a14f0dc32430ea4bd017ecbf10aa4b37\">Office of the Australian Information Commissioner<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australia\" title=\"Australia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c2db49e6ded3da2c9ba98e453f9ea81\">Australia<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_Commissioner_(New_Zealand)\" title=\"Privacy Commissioner (New Zealand)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fdf34a26e3e13bd56182073904def27\">Privacy Commissioner (New Zealand)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><span title=\"French-language text\"><i lang=\"fr\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commission_nationale_de_l%27informatique_et_des_libert%C3%A9s\" title=\"Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libert\u00e9s\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b3ca732815dcd3bd450e8843ce8139\">Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libert\u00e9s<\/a><\/i><\/span> (<span title=\"French-language text\"><i lang=\"fr\">CNIL<\/i><\/span>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/France\" title=\"France\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a81de8f2d8fdc9a54e30324c3966d61\">France<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Commissioner_for_Data_Protection_and_Freedom_of_Information\" title=\"Federal Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"381edd865b2f61c55cd54f09853f36a4\">Federal Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Germany\" title=\"Germany\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4158270cd6f788dfa9227a7042402194\">Germany<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_the_Privacy_Commissioner_for_Personal_Data\" title=\"Office of the Privacy Commissioner for Personal Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b15e8642019e21b2f778beec3e62785b\">Office of the Privacy Commissioner for Personal Data<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hong_Kong\" title=\"Hong Kong\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"796da450eb53b46deace00adcf801282\">Hong Kong<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Protection_Commissioner\" title=\"Data Protection Commissioner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b423dde3ff537485cf266d708748eb81\">Data Protection Commissioner<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Republic_of_Ireland\" title=\"Republic of Ireland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5380a9d5ba49fae68060f38bd3b50297\">Ireland<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_the_Data_Protection_Supervisor\" title=\"Office of the Data Protection Supervisor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34ed2f0ff326447fa4ebcfdbad7556ef\">Office of the Data Protection Supervisor<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Isle_of_Man\" title=\"Isle of Man\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba1c2bad342d362c3217f57a7d7f54a5\">Isle of Man<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Privacy_Commission_(Philippines)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"National Privacy Commission (Philippines)\" data-key=\"42522939561d923f94b0aad482469ad7\">National Privacy Commission (Philippines)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_Data_Protection_Act_2012_(Singapore)#Personal_Data_Protection_Commission\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Personal Data Protection Act 2012 (Singapore)\" data-key=\"6195f99c6e4c31bab0772f28e94fb264\">Personal Data Protection Commission<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Singapore\" title=\"Singapore\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f96bc9b4dba20f7652486c063c05f335\">Singapore<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turkish_Data_Protection_Authority\" title=\"Turkish Data Protection Authority\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8775c9bb74aeba5dd70d084d63c0893\">Turkish Data Protection Authority<\/a> (KVKK, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turkey\" title=\"Turkey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7cb3289729bf552ccbdf9ccf6f4ef20\">Turkey<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Data_Protection_and_Information_Commissioner\" title=\"Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f05de7e5d4cfd30db6d914b58909939d\">Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Switzerland\" title=\"Switzerland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2046dc1f5faf03e4992722fe3080c906\">Switzerland<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Commissioner%27s_Office\" title=\"Information Commissioner's Office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42dea620818f881e4865280dbc45fd95\">Information Commissioner's Office<\/a> (ICO, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Kingdom\" title=\"United Kingdom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec8205bb550c2cfa9d84ff6d896f202f\">United Kingdom<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agencia_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_Protecci%C3%B3n_de_Datos\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Agencia Espa\u00f1ola de Protecci\u00f3n de Datos\" data-key=\"43463c2fe1008846cdb85511c7f6746b\">Agencia Espa\u00f1ola de Protecci\u00f3n de Datos<\/a> (AEPD, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spain\" title=\"Spain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1eca4c884d6636131e2ccdb780ddb7d\">Spain<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Information_types\">Information types<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Various types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_Information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Personal Information\" data-key=\"2530c74d6b0a18cc26b7a5c2398f5a7e\">personal information<\/a> often come under privacy concerns.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cable_television\">Cable television<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This describes the ability to control what information one reveals about oneself over cable television, and who can access that information. For example, third parties can track <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Protocol_television\" title=\"Internet Protocol television\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b221db11e506943bab88a14ad2717aca\">IP TV<\/a> programs someone has watched at any given time. \"The addition of any information in a broadcasting stream is not required for an audience rating survey, additional devices are not requested to be installed in the houses of viewers or listeners, and without the necessity of their cooperations, audience ratings can be automatically performed in real-time.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Educational\">Educational<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the United Kingdom in 2012, the Education Secretary <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_Gove\" title=\"Michael Gove\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc5addeaf0f256c3ddddb56f37cf3c2e\">Michael Gove<\/a> described the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Pupil_Database\" title=\"National Pupil Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e07d44b27c1a4c61c535235ad1eac785\">National Pupil Database<\/a> as a \"rich dataset\" whose value could be \"maximised\" by making it more openly accessible, including to private companies. Kelly Fiveash of <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Register\" title=\"The Register\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2eb0545423025dd1f51e39f5eed0591\">The Register<\/a><\/i> said that this could mean \"a child's school life including exam results, attendance, teacher assessments and even characteristics\" could be available, with third-party organizations being responsible for anonymizing any publications themselves, rather than the data being anonymized by the government before being handed over. An example of a data request that Gove indicated had been rejected in the past, but might be possible under an improved version of privacy regulations, was for \"analysis on sexual exploitation\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Financial\">Financial<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_privacy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Financial privacy\" data-key=\"c04ba54560fddb6cc3caf3266fc73d23\">Financial privacy<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Information about a person's financial transactions, including the amount of assets, positions held in stocks or funds, outstanding debts, and purchases can be sensitive. If criminals gain access to information such as a person's accounts or credit card numbers, that person could become the victim of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fraud\" title=\"Fraud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be4a1d0862e2f02d0c1a33dd9fc7c81c\">fraud<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_theft\" title=\"Identity theft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb9eb8acee1ea77f10451b7488ead058\">identity theft<\/a>. Information about a person's purchases can reveal a great deal about that person's history, such as places they have visited, whom they have contact with, products they have used, their activities and habits, or medications they have used. In some cases, corporations may use this information to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Targeted_advertising\" title=\"Targeted advertising\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21987920a3e15bafd1272a864549edf9\">target<\/a> individuals with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marketing\" title=\"Marketing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fc25da4af284af2b3cae5726440415e\">marketing<\/a> customized towards those individual's personal preferences, which that person may or may not approve.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Internet\">Internet<\/span><\/h3>\n\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_privacy\" title=\"Internet privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cade7c6061c0a371cb777430c9704101\">Internet privacy<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The ability to control the information one reveals about oneself over the internet, and who can access that information, has become a growing concern. These concerns include whether <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Email\" title=\"Email\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d5abd02ca0ff73bc0596c3ae672ec7e\">email<\/a> can be stored or read by third parties without consent, or whether third parties can continue to track the websites that someone visited. Another concern is if websites one visited can collect, store, and possibly share <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personally_identifiable_information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Personally identifiable information\" data-key=\"e4c271adb170f3060365fdae55299b88\">personally identifiable information<\/a> about users.\n<\/p><p>The advent of various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_search_engine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web search engine\" data-key=\"dba49baed4bcefee8f46c77c8ad4f862\">search engines<\/a> and the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a> created a capability for data about individuals to be collected and combined from a wide variety of sources very easily.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> The FTC has provided a set of guidelines that represent widely accepted concepts concerning fair information practices in an electronic marketplace called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fair_Information_Practice_Principles\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fair Information Practice Principles\" data-key=\"e334370f01c8a2aee4f2d410659833e5\">Fair Information Practice Principles<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>To avoid giving away too much personal information, emails should be encrypted. Browsing of web pages as well as other online activities should be done trace-less via \"anonymizers\", in case those are not trusted, by open-source distributed anonymizers, so called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mix_net\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mix net\" data-key=\"01a0844be671c5e2a36e16a6931baf79\">mix nets<\/a>, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I2P\" title=\"I2P\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1444ad7406e84a786f648bd1c8dfb258\">I2P<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tor_(anonymity_network)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Tor (anonymity network)\" data-key=\"088a6cecf874a719eb19743cb91a7904\">Tor \u2013 The Onion Router<\/a>. VPNs (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_private_network\" title=\"Virtual private network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6afbff675ea96146a59e5832f243fc0a\">Virtual Private Networks<\/a>) are another \"anonymizer\" that can be used to give someone more protection while online. This includes obfuscating and encrypting web traffic so that other groups cannot see or mine it.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Email is not the only internet content with privacy concerns. In an age where increasing amounts of information is online, social networking sites pose additional privacy challenges. People may be tagged in photos or have valuable information exposed about themselves either by choice or unexpectedly by others, referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Participatory_surveillance\" title=\"Participatory surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2040d55bf596ec6414e27225716074a\">participatory surveillance<\/a>. Data about location can also be accidentally published, for example, when someone posts a picture with a store as a background. Caution should be exercised when posting information online, social networks vary in what they allow users to make private and what remains publicly accessible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchneiderTheInter08_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchneiderTheInter08-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> Without strong security settings in place and careful attention to what remains public, a person can be profiled by searching for and collecting disparate pieces of information, worst case leading to cases of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyberstalking\" title=\"Cyberstalking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce26f1cbda63681657b9927456f12339\">cyberstalking<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BocijCyber04_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BocijCyber04-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> or reputation damage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CannataciPrivacy16_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CannataciPrivacy16-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Cookies are used in websites that users may allow the website to retrieve some information from user's internet which it usually does not mention what the data being retrieved is.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bornschein_135\u2013154_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bornschein_135\u2013154-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> In 2018, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) passed regulation that forces websites to visibly disclose to consumers their information privacy practices, referred to as cookie notices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bornschein_135\u2013154_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bornschein_135\u2013154-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>This was issued to give consumers the choice of what information about their behavior they consent to letting websites track, however its effectiveness is controversial.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bornschein_135\u2013154_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bornschein_135\u2013154-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Some websites may engage in deceptive practices such as placing the cookie notices in places on the page that are not visible, or only giving consumers notice that their information is being tracked, but not allowing them to change their privacy settings.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bornschein_135\u2013154_16-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bornschein_135\u2013154-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>Apps like Instagram and Facebook collect user data for a personalised app experience, however they track user activity on other apps which jeopardises user's privacy and data. By controlling how visible these cookie notices are, companies can discreetly collect data, giving them more power over the consumers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bornschein_135\u2013154_16-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bornschein_135\u2013154-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Locational\">Locational<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As location tracking capabilities of mobile devices are advancing (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Location-based_service\" title=\"Location-based service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54774d687495c3bc30798929c47c1b35\">location-based services<\/a>), problems related to user privacy arise. Location data is among the most sensitive data currently being collected.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AtaeiEphem16_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AtaeiEphem16-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> A list of potentially sensitive professional and personal information that could be inferred about an individual knowing only their mobility trace was published in 2009 by the Electronic Frontier Foundation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> These include the movements of a competitor sales force, attendance of a particular church or an individual's presence in a motel, or at an abortion clinic. A recent MIT study<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> by de Montjoye et al. showed that four spatio-temporal points, approximate places and times, are enough to uniquely identify 95% of 1.5&#160;million people in a mobility database. The study further shows that these constraints hold even when the resolution of the dataset is low. Therefore, even coarse or blurred datasets provide little anonymity.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Medical\">Medical<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_privacy\" title=\"Medical privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea169294058a9b6f9fa01ffd884d9541\">Medical privacy<\/a><\/div>\n<p>People may not wish for their medical records to be revealed to others due to the confidentiality and sensitivity of what the information could reveal about their health. For example, they might be concerned that it might affect their insurance coverage or employment. Or, it may be because they would not wish for others to know about any medical or psychological conditions or treatments that would bring embarrassment upon themselves. Revealing medical data could also reveal other details about one's personal life.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> There are three major categories of medical privacy: informational (the degree of control over personal information), physical (the degree of physical inaccessibility to others), and psychological (the extent to which the doctor respects patients' cultural beliefs, inner thoughts, values, feelings, and religious practices and allows them to make personal decisions).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\nPhysicians and psychiatrists in many cultures and countries have standards for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doctor%E2%80%93patient_relationship\" title=\"Doctor\u2013patient relationship\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8630bce29da26b5d7ee01def7d1f5207\">doctor\u2013patient relationships<\/a>, which include maintaining confidentiality. In some cases, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physician%E2%80%93patient_privilege\" title=\"Physician\u2013patient privilege\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e75d41b9ada990699557ea9be88ca6c5\">physician\u2013patient privilege<\/a> is legally protected. These practices are in place to protect the dignity of patients, and to ensure that patients feel free to reveal complete and accurate information required for them to receive the correct treatment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\nTo view the United States' laws on governing privacy of private health information, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"651fe0fa5498890d1a29b4c1e21db2db\">HIPAA<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_Information_Technology_for_Economic_and_Clinical_Health_Act\" title=\"Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc3a48e374c7dfd42d66bc6bc0cfd0b2\">HITECH Act<\/a>. The Australian law is the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legislation.gov.au\/Details\/C2020C00025\" target=\"_blank\">Privacy Act 1988 Australia<\/a> as well as state-based health records legislation.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Political\">Political<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Political_privacy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Political privacy\" data-key=\"53bc1fa4bb7f904ed8b2ac86149fec51\">Political privacy<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Political_privacy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Political privacy\" data-key=\"53bc1fa4bb7f904ed8b2ac86149fec51\">Political privacy<\/a> has been a concern since <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voting_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Voting system\" data-key=\"75a47430f16fe46be76809a2265602ea\">voting systems<\/a> emerged in ancient times. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secret_ballot\" title=\"Secret ballot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e61dfce45ab22c25473fabd4a184c35\">secret ballot<\/a> is the simplest and most widespread measure to ensure that political views are not known to anyone other than the voters themselves\u2014it is nearly universal in modern <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Democracy\" title=\"Democracy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"617a7e91bb9e98ef50224c61e0ab091a\">democracy<\/a> and considered to be a basic right of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Citizenship\" title=\"Citizenship\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f73779ee7f0d1d24b296c432cd06a852\">citizenship<\/a>. In fact, even where other rights of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">privacy<\/a> do not exist, this type of privacy very often does. There are several forms of voting fraud or privacy violations possible with the use of digital voting machines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Legality\">Legality<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_privacy_law\" title=\"Information privacy law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3668af10c336ea0006d5e50f32ad79bd\">Information privacy law<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The legal protection of the right to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">privacy<\/a> in general \u2013 and of data privacy in particular \u2013 varies greatly around the world.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Laws and regulations related to Privacy and Data Protection are constantly changing, it is seen as important to keep abreast of any changes in the law and to continually reassess compliance with data privacy and security regulations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> Within academia, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Institutional_review_board\" title=\"Institutional review board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7ec5483de271ebaf5d35f24a451623f\">Institutional Review Boards<\/a> function to assure that adequate measures are taken to ensure both the privacy and confidentiality of human subjects in research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">Privacy<\/a> concerns exist wherever <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personally_identifiable_information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Personally identifiable information\" data-key=\"e4c271adb170f3060365fdae55299b88\">personally identifiable information<\/a> or other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_sensitivity\" title=\"Information sensitivity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9360eee4db59815289a22198492abe7\">sensitive information<\/a> is collected, stored, used, and finally destroyed or deleted \u2013 in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_data\" title=\"Digital data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e1fcec00faf0662c4218c67c68af1b1\">digital form<\/a> or otherwise. Improper or non-existent disclosure control can be the root cause for privacy issues. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Informed_consent\" title=\"Informed consent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f105461cc5e4cadc550099230f150f2\">Informed consent<\/a> mechanisms including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_consent\" title=\"Dynamic consent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5fc26ea1cd475ba92816716889f47adb\">dynamic consent<\/a> are important in communicating to data subjects the different uses of their personally identifiable information. Data privacy issues may arise in response to information from a wide range of sources, such as:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_health_record\" title=\"Electronic health record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac279ef0b018794a23fde72e025169ea\">Healthcare records<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Criminal_justice\" title=\"Criminal justice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d4ab5224ded8ebf202a4fb0afc0ffac\">Criminal justice<\/a> investigations and proceedings<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Financial\" data-key=\"7c74dcd6c263cccf883766b92327eebd\">Financial<\/a> institutions and transactions<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biological\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Biological\" data-key=\"f86e71f459583876141f602efc9ef258\">Biological<\/a> traits, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_material\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Genetic material\" data-key=\"100d30d30eeafe053b2807153a41c5f5\">genetic material<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/House\" title=\"House\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"491c3f7f6f7e52a2bf4c32b6b4426b58\">Residence<\/a> and geographic records<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_breach\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Privacy breach\" data-key=\"ebea5759a8c685016570e5b813ac70d4\">Privacy breach<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Location-based_service\" title=\"Location-based service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54774d687495c3bc30798929c47c1b35\">Location-based service<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geolocation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Geolocation\" data-key=\"b324b393a6289779b52bf930b68139b8\">geolocation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behavioral_Targeting\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Behavioral Targeting\" data-key=\"96798da3816553ddcca0252db4d5355c\">Web surfing behavior<\/a> or user preferences using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Persistent_cookie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Persistent cookie\" data-key=\"c7c17381683a3a87d711fb1f4d3a3bc0\">persistent cookies<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Academic_research\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Academic research\" data-key=\"3358c648d73b87752065ddcc59d97db4\">Academic research<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Protection_of_privacy_in_information_systems\">Protection of privacy in information systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As heterogeneous information systems with differing privacy rules are interconnected and information is shared, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Policy_appliances\" title=\"Policy appliances\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f82dd3308e9885a17a09b5cddeb5304e\">policy appliances<\/a> will be required to reconcile, enforce, and monitor an increasing amount of privacy policy rules (and laws). There are two categories of technology to address privacy protection in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commerce\" title=\"Commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad5a2c520c9917ff59771021594f5d5a\">commercial<\/a> IT systems: communication and enforcement.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Policy communication<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>P3P \u2013 The Platform for Privacy Preferences. P3P is a standard for communicating privacy practices and comparing them to the preferences of individuals.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Policy enforcement<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XACML\" title=\"XACML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cf5668ccec74cd8a9987f3fbcb73102\">XACML<\/a> \u2013 The Extensible Access Control Markup Language together with its Privacy Profile is a standard for expressing privacy policies in a machine-readable language which a software system can use to enforce the policy in enterprise IT systems.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_Privacy_Authorization_Language\" title=\"Enterprise Privacy Authorization Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ed1dbc6f746bad883aaf55af1332b69\">EPAL<\/a> \u2013 The Enterprise Privacy Authorization Language is very similar to XACML, but is not yet a standard.<\/li>\n<li>WS-Privacy - \"Web Service Privacy\" will be a specification for communicating privacy policy in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_service\" title=\"Web service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e72dffc79d570a758fb072280ae0ca6e\">web services<\/a>. For example, it may specify how privacy policy information can be embedded in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SOAP\" title=\"SOAP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"952e7ea001d98d86e8321b60c06caa6d\">SOAP<\/a> envelope of a web service message.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Protecting privacy on the internet<\/dt><\/dl>\n<p>On the internet many users give away a lot of information about themselves: unencrypted e-mails can be read by the administrators of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-mail_server\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"E-mail server\" data-key=\"4a03f0f6da6ac1dbf4f63f4cd0202b6f\">e-mail server<\/a> if the connection is not encrypted (no <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTTPS\" title=\"HTTPS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"12d3d428d7a70406f198e258c806a867\">HTTPS<\/a>), and also the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_service_provider\" title=\"Internet service provider\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f9d9e4f7009df2d06a1ede76c8391ebd\">internet service provider<\/a> and other parties <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Packet_analyzer\" title=\"Packet analyzer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ff4ec43f937f08c15e2f340e2856d88\">sniffing<\/a> the network traffic of that connection are able to know the contents.\nThe same applies to any kind of traffic generated on the Internet, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_browsing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web browsing\" data-key=\"cab7180c46a1d059656d4efb9f45d7a6\">web browsing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instant_messenger\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Instant messenger\" data-key=\"f5e2cd3b2afe7aab4bc15cf5709bfdd6\">instant messaging<\/a>, and others.\nIn order not to give away too much personal information, e-mails can be encrypted and browsing of webpages as well as other online activities can be done traceless via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anonymizer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Anonymizer\" data-key=\"bcefaa098f5232080302f92a051b0ce9\">anonymizers<\/a>, or by open source distributed anonymizers, so-called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mix_network\" title=\"Mix network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd08676cdcd885ce4c2c4dd24427f657\">mix networks<\/a>.\nWell-known open-source mix nets include I2P \u2013 The Anonymous Network and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tor_(anonymity_network)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Tor (anonymity network)\" data-key=\"088a6cecf874a719eb19743cb91a7904\">Tor<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Improving privacy through individualization<\/dt><\/dl>\n<p>Computer privacy can be improved through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensic_identification\" title=\"Forensic identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d260494776bd1fae7def0c81597db517\">individualization<\/a>. Currently security messages are designed for the \"average user\", i.e. the same message for everyone. Researchers have posited that individualized messages and security \"nudges\", crafted based on users' individual differences and personality traits, can be used for further improvements for each person's compliance with computer security and privacy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"United_States_Safe_Harbor_program_and_passenger_name_record_issues\">United States Safe Harbor program and passenger name record issues<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_Commerce\" title=\"United States Department of Commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a89680b194a0a51dfb84fd8059646dc8\">United States Department of Commerce<\/a> created the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Safe_Harbor_Privacy_Principles\" title=\"International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc1405cdea3543a46f2e660c8ab7b72c\">International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles<\/a> certification program in response to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directive_95\/46\/EC_on_the_protection_of_personal_data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Directive 95\/46\/EC on the protection of personal data\" data-key=\"4d8a4e5373ba1456e20c6900fa6c40e1\">1995 Directive on Data Protection<\/a> (Directive 95\/46\/EC) of the European Commission.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> Both the United States and the European Union officially state that they are committed to upholding information privacy of individuals, but the former has caused friction between the two by failing to meet the standards of the EU's stricter laws on personal data. The negotiation of the Safe Harbor program was, in part, to address this long-running issue.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> Directive 95\/46\/EC declares in Chapter IV Article 25 that personal data may only be transferred from the countries in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Economic_Area\" title=\"European Economic Area\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55a3a8ba91c0db6463362d9432afb213\">European Economic Area<\/a> to countries which provide <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adequate\" title=\"Adequate\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"29764da75ffc09c3cf21205a26bf2a0e\">adequate<\/a> privacy protection. Historically, establishing adequacy required the creation of national laws broadly equivalent to those implemented by Directive 95\/46\/EU. Although there are exceptions to this blanket prohibition \u2013 for example where the disclosure to a country outside the EEA is made with the consent of the relevant individual (Article 26(1)(a)) \u2013 they are limited in practical scope. As a result, Article 25 created a legal risk to organizations which transfer personal data from Europe to the United States.\n<\/p><p>The program regulates the exchange of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Passenger_name_record\" title=\"Passenger name record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"feba4575a2e64d09220652a6a64d8705\">passenger name record<\/a> information between the EU and the US. According to the EU directive, personal data may only be transferred to third countries if that country provides an adequate level of protection. Some exceptions to this rule are provided, for instance when the controller themself can guarantee that the recipient will comply with the data protection rules.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Commission\" title=\"European Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81898eaa89710c9f6ca992957c6e3e7c\">European Commission<\/a> has set up the \"Working party on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data,\" commonly known as the \"Article 29 Working Party\". The Working Party gives advice about the level of protection in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a> and third countries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The Working Party negotiated with U.S. representatives about the protection of personal data, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Safe_Harbor_Principles\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Safe Harbor Principles\" data-key=\"316ffda0ac624229eb9e7d990b8c3b4a\">Safe Harbor Principles<\/a> were the result. Notwithstanding that approval, the self-assessment approach of the Safe Harbor remains controversial with a number of European privacy regulators and commentators.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The Safe Harbor program addresses this issue in the following way: rather than a blanket law imposed on all organizations in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States\" title=\"United States\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f44266ab2da9382e3764bac08cfb4076\">United States<\/a>, a voluntary program is enforced by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Trade_Commission\" title=\"Federal Trade Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33171fd8a02cab952ca3335ce510d273\">Federal Trade Commission<\/a>. U.S. organizations which register with this program, having self-assessed their compliance with a number of standards, are \"deemed adequate\" for the purposes of Article 25. Personal information can be sent to such organizations from the EEA without the sender being in breach of Article 25 or its EU national equivalents. The Safe Harbor was approved as providing adequate protection for personal data, for the purposes of Article 25(6), by the European Commission on 26 July 2000.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Under the Safe Harbor, adoptee organizations need to carefully consider their compliance with the <i>onward transfer obligations<\/i>, where <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_data\" title=\"Personal data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7578f12e531b6ffa6c1b5fc457c37a53\">personal data<\/a> originating in the EU is transferred to the US Safe Harbor, and then onward to a third country. The alternative compliance approach of \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Binding_corporate_rules\" title=\"Binding corporate rules\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0910771506df454e2e91bb3be3bf2c80\">binding corporate rules<\/a>\", recommended by many EU privacy regulators, resolves this issue. In addition, any dispute arising in relation to the transfer of HR data to the US Safe Harbor must be heard by a panel of EU privacy regulators.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In July 2007, a new, controversial,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-R89_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-R89-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Passenger_Name_Record\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Passenger Name Record\" data-key=\"683c07655403f79d3f88d04549dea51d\">Passenger Name Record<\/a> agreement between the US and the EU was made.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> A short time afterwards, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush\" title=\"Presidency of George W. Bush\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9c16ae7279422aeb30eff879abe5c0b\">Bush administration<\/a> gave exemption for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Department_of_Homeland_Security\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Department of Homeland Security\" data-key=\"7f017d14ac9bd6c4bb22b8aac9cd4d2c\">Department of Homeland Security<\/a>, for the (ADIS) and for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_Target_System\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated Target System\" data-key=\"df7c186d07c453bbb908f0c4f77ba744\">Automated Target System<\/a> from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/1974_Privacy_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"1974 Privacy Act\" data-key=\"3053f9dc3b27694989e41886ff1b25e0\">1974 Privacy Act<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Exemption_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Exemption-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In February 2008, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jonathan_Faull\" title=\"Jonathan Faull\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6afd0deaca91053b56f70834297205b\">Jonathan Faull<\/a>, the head of the EU's Commission of Home Affairs, complained about the US bilateral policy concerning PNR.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Faull_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Faull-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> The US had signed in February 2008 a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Czech_Republic\" title=\"Czech Republic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77002b6cebe02b8fa177be993daa7ed7\">Czech Republic<\/a> in exchange of a visa waiver scheme, without concerting before with Brussels.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-R89_36-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-R89-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> The tensions between Washington and Brussels are mainly caused by a lesser level of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_protection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data protection\" data-key=\"435ee937bd32896bbc3bdc6253a4f199\">data protection<\/a> in the US, especially since foreigners do not benefit from the US <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_Act_of_1974\" title=\"Privacy Act of 1974\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ace73f51225dc654075bd159f4cab48\">Privacy Act of 1974<\/a>. Other countries approached for bilateral MOU included the United Kingdom, Estonia, Germany and Greece.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_sovereignty\" title=\"Data sovereignty\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8473332b5fcf261c2324048ceca5e168\">Data sovereignty<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_localization\" title=\"Data localization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79ec08df1e18eefc0a02a21007c9c0b4\">Data localization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_inheritance\" title=\"Digital inheritance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c8d5e61ee1ce1d21fe30140336a9ba6\">Digital inheritance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_self-determination\" title=\"Digital self-determination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe56eeb62a4b55b6fdc0a6af2996d797\">Digital self-determination<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EPrivacy_Regulation\" title=\"EPrivacy Regulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ab4abe6eaedb3edcb1431631981b959\">ePrivacy Regulation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_privacy\" title=\"Genetic privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9200810d73c6f7cb80313945e94cbcb\">Genetic privacy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pirate_Party\" title=\"Pirate Party\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c6fd2f7e210e6f80a9a2f572b7a1374\">Pirate Party<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">Privacy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_by_design\" title=\"Privacy by design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53f122f368fac6337721ad557fc00ceb\">Privacy by design<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_enhancing_technologies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Privacy enhancing technologies\" data-key=\"a66deafa5fdbf51bcbbddfb705703a0b\">Privacy enhancing technologies<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_law\" title=\"Privacy law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58442113e93c1e202fc66e92aac1c44f\">Privacy law<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_software\" title=\"Privacy software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c74548af7083e4b6f7021ad7a65759ee\">Privacy software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_literacy\" title=\"Web literacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53d3d5816616bafbd3c3d1712ead8f96\">Web literacy<\/a> (privacy)<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<dl><dt>Computer science specific<\/dt><\/dl>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">Authentication<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_loss_prevention_software\" title=\"Data loss prevention software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"985dd65bda1b5dea90cc63b4d899e124\">Data loss prevention software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retention\" title=\"Data retention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7319085a4f0e9c849d3614b6d796cdb5\">Data retention<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">Data security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Differential_privacy\" title=\"Differential privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93b125a98b7b4a1d56ff140b713317bf\">Differential privacy<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<dl><dt>Organisations<\/dt><\/dl>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Confederation_of_European_Data_Protection_Organisations\" title=\"Confederation of European Data Protection Organisations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f10adf18d3896e3e27139198b76ccc6\">Confederation of European Data Protection Organisations<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Privacy_Day\" title=\"Data Privacy Day\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e3f8f1b19681de06b632dcb25a1ad69\">Data Privacy Day<\/a> (28 January)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Association_of_Privacy_Professionals\" title=\"International Association of Privacy Professionals\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e35a002ab5b935548b573c1b95617880\">International Association of Privacy Professionals<\/a> (headquartered in USA)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_International\" title=\"Privacy International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5871c91334e4a46ac82f987ff205c62e\">Privacy International<\/a> (headquartered in UK)<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<dl><dt>Scholars working in the field<\/dt><\/dl>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adam_Back\" title=\"Adam Back\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"798568de2cf2789449f1c3ce8105bc07\">Adam Back<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cynthia_Dwork\" title=\"Cynthia Dwork\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f45ea24ce173fb9e624eb628a55ccb7c\">Cynthia Dwork<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Helen_Nissenbaum\" title=\"Helen Nissenbaum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f500735b51fcf6848d0ba7dd95dd68e\">Helen Nissenbaum<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ian_Goldberg\" title=\"Ian Goldberg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"686eda3f9d8c72743e5605843a711ac8\">Ian Goldberg<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Khaled_El_Emam\" title=\"Khaled El Emam\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c45e4d96a62b20d0a56a4e1d12f1a11a\">Khaled El Emam<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Latanya_Sweeney\" title=\"Latanya Sweeney\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9881b4375d5612c30fcb44c8cb6a1d7c\">Latanya Sweeney<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Gutmann_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"Peter Gutmann (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"31aa076ff07ad6ce02c8d53437731286\">Peter Gutmann<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stefan_Brands\" title=\"Stefan Brands\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bd53c18344d94c5dd0645fc9a4916a3\">Stefan Brands<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><i>Uberveillance and the social implications of microchip implants&#160;: emerging technologies<\/i>. Michael, M. G., Michael, Katina, 1976-. Hershey, PA. 30 September 2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1466645820<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/843857020\" target=\"_blank\">843857020<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Uberveillance+and+the+social+implications+of+microchip+implants+%3A+emerging+technologies&amp;rft.place=Hershey%2C+PA&amp;rft.date=2013-09-30&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F843857020&amp;rft.isbn=978-1466645820&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_book\" title=\"Template:Cite book\">cite book<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bfc82be2a8039a5c9ddc70b6cb10bda\">link<\/a>) CS1 maint: others (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_others\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: others\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"627f6dc7fbff4e2fb188e21febf64850\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFIan_Austen2011\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Ian Austen (June 22, 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/bits.blogs.nytimes.com\/2011\/06\/22\/canadian-inquiry-finds-privacy-issues-in-sale-of-used-products-at-staples\" target=\"_blank\">\"Canadian Inquiry Finds Privacy Issues in Sale of Used Products at Staples\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_York_Times\" title=\"The New York Times\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623c682760636b635e0bd6f2cf164389\">The New York Times<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2019-05-14<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Canadian+Inquiry+Finds+Privacy+Issues+in+Sale+of+Used+Products+at+Staples&amp;rft.date=2011-06-22&amp;rft.au=Ian+Austen&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbits.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F06%2F22%2Fcanadian-inquiry-finds-privacy-issues-in-sale-of-used-products-at-staples&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVicen\u00e7_Torra2017\" class=\"citation cs2\">Vicen\u00e7 Torra (2017), \"Introduction\", <i>Data Privacy: Foundations, New Developments and the Big Data Challenge<\/i>, Studies in Big Data, vol.&#160;28, Springer International Publishing, pp.&#160;1\u201321, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-319-57358-8_1\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-319-57358-8_1<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783319573564<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Introduction&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Privacy%3A+Foundations%2C+New+Developments+and+the+Big+Data+Challenge&amp;rft.series=Studies+in+Big+Data&amp;rft.pages=1-21&amp;rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-57358-8_1&amp;rft.isbn=9783319573564&amp;rft.au=Vicen%C3%A7+Torra&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/info\/law\/law-topic\/data-protection_en\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data protection\"<\/a>. 4 June 2021.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Data+protection&amp;rft.date=2021-06-04&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Finfo%2Flaw%2Flaw-topic%2Fdata-protection_en&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171223034152\/https:\/\/www.pdpc.gov.sg\/Legislation-and-Guidelines\/Personal-Data-Protection-Act-Overview\" target=\"_blank\">\"Personal Data Protection Act Overview\"<\/a>. <i>www.pdpc.gov.sg<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pdpc.gov.sg\/Legislation-and-Guidelines\/Personal-Data-Protection-Act-Overview\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 23 December 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 Oct<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.pdpc.gov.sg&amp;rft.atitle=Personal+Data+Protection+Act+Overview&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pdpc.gov.sg%2FLegislation-and-Guidelines%2FPersonal-Data-Protection-Act-Overview&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.officialgazette.gov.ph\/2012\/08\/15\/republic-act-no-10173\/\" target=\"_blank\">Republic Act No. 10173: Data Privacy Act of 2012<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.freepatentsonline.com\/y2010\/0011389.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"System for Gathering TV Audience Rating in Real Time in Internet Protocol Television Network and Method Thereof\"<\/a>. <i>FreePatentsOnline.com<\/i>. 2010-01-14<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-06-07<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=FreePatentsOnline.com&amp;rft.atitle=System+for+Gathering+TV+Audience+Rating+in+Real+Time+in+Internet+Protocol+Television+Network+and+Method+Thereof&amp;rft.date=2010-01-14&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.freepatentsonline.com%2Fy2010%2F0011389.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:1-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFiveash2012\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Fiveash, Kelly (2012-11-08). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2012\/11\/08\/national_pupil_database_regulation_overhaul_in_private_sector_data_grab\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Psst: Heard the one about the National Pupil Database? Thought not\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Register\" title=\"The Register\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2eb0545423025dd1f51e39f5eed0591\">The Register<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2012-12-12<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Register&amp;rft.atitle=Psst%3A+Heard+the+one+about+the+National+Pupil+Database%3F+Thought+not&amp;rft.date=2012-11-08&amp;rft.aulast=Fiveash&amp;rft.aufirst=Kelly&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2012%2F11%2F08%2Fnational_pupil_database_regulation_overhaul_in_private_sector_data_grab%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBergstein2006\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Bergstein, Brian (2006-06-18). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.usatoday.com\/tech\/news\/surveillance\/2006-06-18-data-mining-privacy_x.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Research explores data mining, privacy\"<\/a>. <i>USA Today<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2010-05-05<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=USA+Today&amp;rft.atitle=Research+explores+data+mining%2C+privacy&amp;rft.date=2006-06-18&amp;rft.aulast=Bergstein&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Ftech%2Fnews%2Fsurveillance%2F2006-06-18-data-mining-privacy_x.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBergstein2004\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Bergstein, Brian (2004-01-01). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.seattlepi.com\/business\/154986_privacychallenge02.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"In this data-mining society, privacy advocates shudder\"<\/a>. <i>Seattle Post-Intelligencer<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Seattle+Post-Intelligencer&amp;rft.atitle=In+this+data-mining+society%2C+privacy+advocates+shudder&amp;rft.date=2004-01-01&amp;rft.aulast=Bergstein&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seattlepi.com%2Fbusiness%2F154986_privacychallenge02.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSwartz2006\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Swartz, Nikki (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141219105358\/http:\/\/connection.ebscohost.com\/c\/articles\/21472572\/u-s-demands-google-web-data\" target=\"_blank\">\"U.S. Demands Google Web Data\"<\/a>. <i>Information Management Journal<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/connection.ebscohost.com\/c\/articles\/21472572\/u-s-demands-google-web-data\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2014-12-19.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Information+Management+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=U.S.+Demands+Google+Web+Data&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.aulast=Swartz&amp;rft.aufirst=Nikki&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconnection.ebscohost.com%2Fc%2Farticles%2F21472572%2Fu-s-demands-google-web-data&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> Vol. 40 Issue 3, p. 18<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.vyprvpn.com\/why-vpn\/protect-privacy-and-security\" target=\"_blank\">\"VyprVPN Protects Your Privacy and Security | Golden Frog\"<\/a>. <i>www.vyprvpn.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2019-04-03<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.vyprvpn.com&amp;rft.atitle=VyprVPN+Protects+Your+Privacy+and+Security+%7C+Golden+Frog&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vyprvpn.com%2Fwhy-vpn%2Fprotect-privacy-and-security&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchneiderTheInter08-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchneiderTheInter08_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchneider,_G.Evans,_J.Pinard,_K.T.2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Schneider, G.; Evans, J.; Pinard, K.T. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=E1fQdrzxAPoC&pg=PA17-IA137\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Internet: Illustrated Series<\/i><\/a>. Cengage Learning. p.&#160;156. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781423999386<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Internet%3A+Illustrated+Series&amp;rft.pages=156&amp;rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=9781423999386&amp;rft.au=Schneider%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Evans%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Pinard%2C+K.T.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE1fQdrzxAPoC%26pg%3DPA17-IA137&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BocijCyber04-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BocijCyber04_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBocij,_P.2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Bocij, P. (2004). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/cyberstalkinghar00boci\/page\/268\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Cyberstalking: Harassment in the Internet Age and How to Protect Your Family<\/i><\/a><\/span>. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/cyberstalkinghar00boci\/page\/268\" target=\"_blank\">268<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780275981181<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Cyberstalking%3A+Harassment+in+the+Internet+Age+and+How+to+Protect+Your+Family&amp;rft.pages=268&amp;rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=9780275981181&amp;rft.au=Bocij%2C+P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcyberstalkinghar00boci%2Fpage%2F268&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CannataciPrivacy16-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CannataciPrivacy16_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCannataci,_J.A.Zhao,_B.Vives,_G.T.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Cannataci, J.A.; Zhao, B.; Vives, G.T.; et&#160;al. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=tGC_DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA26\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Privacy, free expression and transparency: Redefining their new boundaries in the digital age<\/i><\/a>. UNESCO. p.&#160;26. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9789231001888<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Privacy%2C+free+expression+and+transparency%3A+Redefining+their+new+boundaries+in+the+digital+age&amp;rft.pages=26&amp;rft.pub=UNESCO&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=9789231001888&amp;rft.au=Cannataci%2C+J.A.&amp;rft.au=Zhao%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Vives%2C+G.T.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtGC_DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA26&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bornschein_135\u2013154-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Bornschein_135\u2013154_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Bornschein_135\u2013154_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Bornschein_135\u2013154_16-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Bornschein_135\u2013154_16-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Bornschein_135\u2013154_16-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBornschein,_R.Schmidt,_L.Maier,_E.Bone,_S._A.2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bornschein, R.; Schmidt, L.; Maier, E.; Bone, S. A.; Pappalardo, J. K.; Fitzgerald, M. P. (April 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F0743915620902143\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Effect of Consumers' Perceived Power and Risk in Digital Information Privacy: The Example of Cookie Notices\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Public Policy &amp; Marketing<\/i>. <b>39<\/b> (2): 135\u2013154. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F0743915620902143\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/0743915620902143<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0743-9156\" target=\"_blank\">0743-9156<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:213860986\" target=\"_blank\">213860986<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Public+Policy+%26+Marketing&amp;rft.atitle=The+Effect+of+Consumers%27+Perceived+Power+and+Risk+in+Digital+Information+Privacy%3A+The+Example+of+Cookie+Notices&amp;rft.volume=39&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=135-154&amp;rft.date=2020-04&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213860986%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0743-9156&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0743915620902143&amp;rft.au=Bornschein%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Schmidt%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Maier%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Bone%2C+S.+A.&amp;rft.au=Pappalardo%2C+J.+K.&amp;rft.au=Fitzgerald%2C+M.+P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F0743915620902143&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AtaeiEphem16-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AtaeiEphem16_17-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAtaei,_M.Kray,_C.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ataei, M.; Kray, C. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=_BdADQAAQBAJ&pg=PA360\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ephemerality Is the New Black: A Novel Perspective on Location Data Management and Location Privacy in LBS\"<\/a>. <i>Progress in Location-Based Services 2016<\/i>. Springer. pp.&#160;357\u2013374. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783319472898<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Ephemerality+Is+the+New+Black%3A+A+Novel+Perspective+on+Location+Data+Management+and+Location+Privacy+in+LBS&amp;rft.btitle=Progress+in+Location-Based+Services+2016&amp;rft.pages=357-374&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=9783319472898&amp;rft.au=Ataei%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Kray%2C+C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_BdADQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA360&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBlumberg,_A._Eckersley,_P.2009\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Blumberg, A. Eckersley, P. (3 August 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.eff.org\/wp\/locational-privacy\" target=\"_blank\">\"On locational privacy and how to avoid losing it forever\"<\/a>. EFF.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=On+locational+privacy+and+how+to+avoid+losing+it+forever.&amp;rft.pub=EFF&amp;rft.date=2009-08-03&amp;rft.au=Blumberg%2C+A.+Eckersley%2C+P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eff.org%2Fwp%2Flocational-privacy&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1debe3ec6beda68f84866dbe0567eb4\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFde_MontjoyeC\u00e9sar_A._HidalgoMichel_VerleysenVincent_D._Blondel2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">de Montjoye, Yves-Alexandre; C\u00e9sar A. Hidalgo; Michel Verleysen; Vincent D. Blondel (March 25, 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3607247\" target=\"_blank\">\"Unique in the Crowd: The privacy bounds of human mobility\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific Reports<\/i>. <b>3<\/b>: 1376. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2013NatSR...3E1376D\" target=\"_blank\">2013NatSR...3E1376D<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fsrep01376\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/srep01376<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3607247\" target=\"_blank\">3607247<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/23524645\" target=\"_blank\">23524645<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&amp;rft.atitle=Unique+in+the+Crowd%3A+The+privacy+bounds+of+human+mobility&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.pages=1376&amp;rft.date=2013-03-25&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3607247%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23524645&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsrep01376&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013NatSR...3E1376D&amp;rft.aulast=de+Montjoye&amp;rft.aufirst=Yves-Alexandre&amp;rft.au=C%C3%A9sar+A.+Hidalgo&amp;rft.au=Michel+Verleysen&amp;rft.au=Vincent+D.+Blondel&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3607247&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPalmer2013\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Palmer, Jason (March 25, 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/science-environment-21923360\" target=\"_blank\">\"Mobile location data 'present anonymity risk'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 April<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=Mobile+location+data+%27present+anonymity+risk%27&amp;rft.date=2013-03-25&amp;rft.aulast=Palmer&amp;rft.aufirst=Jason&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-21923360&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAureliaFranciscoSeungEuiM2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Aurelia, Nicholas-Donald; Francisco, Matus, Jesus; SeungEui, Ryu; M, Mahmood, Adam (1 June 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aisel.aisnet.org\/amcis2011_submissions\/341\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Economic Effect of Privacy Breach Announcements on Stocks: A Comprehensive Empirical Investigation\"<\/a>. <i>Amcis 2011 Proceedings - All Submissions<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Amcis+2011+Proceedings+-+All+Submissions&amp;rft.atitle=The+Economic+Effect+of+Privacy+Breach+Announcements+on+Stocks%3A+A+Comprehensive+Empirical+Investigation&amp;rft.date=2017-06-01&amp;rft.aulast=Aurelia&amp;rft.aufirst=Nicholas-Donald&amp;rft.au=Francisco%2C+Matus%2C+Jesus&amp;rft.au=SeungEui%2C+Ryu&amp;rft.au=M%2C+Mahmood%2C+Adam&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faisel.aisnet.org%2Famcis2011_submissions%2F341%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1debe3ec6beda68f84866dbe0567eb4\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSerenkoLida_Fan2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Serenko, Natalia; Lida Fan (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aserenko.com\/IJBHR_Serenko_Fan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Patients' Perceptions of Privacy and Their Outcomes in Healthcare\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>International Journal of Behavioural and Healthcare Research<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (2): 101\u2013122. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1504%2FIJBHR.2013.057359\" target=\"_blank\">10.1504\/IJBHR.2013.057359<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Behavioural+and+Healthcare+Research&amp;rft.atitle=Patients%27+Perceptions+of+Privacy+and+Their+Outcomes+in+Healthcare&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=101-122&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1504%2FIJBHR.2013.057359&amp;rft.aulast=Serenko&amp;rft.aufirst=Natalia&amp;rft.au=Lida+Fan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faserenko.com%2FIJBHR_Serenko_Fan.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.enotes.com\/everyday-law-encyclopedia\/doctor-patient-confidentiality\" target=\"_blank\">\"If a patient is below the age of 18-years does confidentiality still works or should doctor breach and inform the parents?15years girl went for... - eNotes\"<\/a>. <i>eNotes<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=eNotes&amp;rft.atitle=If+a+patient+is+below+the+age+of+18-years+does+confidentiality+still+works+or+should+doctor+breach+and+inform+the+parents%3F15years+girl+went+for...+-+eNotes&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enotes.com%2Feveryday-law-encyclopedia%2Fdoctor-patient-confidentiality&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZetter2018\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Zetter, Kim (2018-02-21). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/02\/21\/magazine\/the-myth-of-the-hacker-proof-voting-machine.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Myth of the Hacker-Proof Voting Machine\"<\/a>. <i>The New York Times<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0362-4331\" target=\"_blank\">0362-4331<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2019-04-03<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=The+Myth+of+the+Hacker-Proof+Voting+Machine&amp;rft.date=2018-02-21&amp;rft.issn=0362-4331&amp;rft.aulast=Zetter&amp;rft.aufirst=Kim&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2018%2F02%2F21%2Fmagazine%2Fthe-myth-of-the-hacker-proof-voting-machine.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRakower2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Rakower, Lauren (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=bjil\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blurred Line: Zooming in on Google Street View and the Global Right to Privacy\"<\/a>. <i>brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171005101128\/http:\/\/brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=bjil\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2017-10-05.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu&amp;rft.atitle=Blurred+Line%3A+Zooming+in+on+Google+Street+View+and+the+Global+Right+to+Privacy&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.aulast=Rakower&amp;rft.aufirst=Lauren&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbrooklynworks.brooklaw.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1082%26context%3Dbjil&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Robert Hasty, Dr Trevor W. Nagel and Mariam Subjally, <i>Data Protection Law in the USA.<\/i> (Advocates for International Development, August 2013.)<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150925093457\/http:\/\/www.a4id.org\/sites\/default\/files\/user\/Data%20Protection%20Law%20in%20the%20USA_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Archived copy\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/a4id.org\/sites\/default\/files\/user\/Data%20Protection%20Law%20in%20the%20USA_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 2015-09-25<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-10-14<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Archived+copy&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fa4id.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fuser%2FData%2520Protection%2520Law%2520in%2520the%2520USA_0.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5cd31c2d2bd5f32d9873b5ce8573afa\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ohrp\/education-and-outreach\/archived-materials\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Institutional Review Board - Guidebook, CHAPTER IV - CONSIDERATIONS OF RESEARCH DESIGN\"<\/a>. <i>www.hhs.gov<\/i>. October 5, 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">October 5,<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.hhs.gov&amp;rft.atitle=Institutional+Review+Board+-+Guidebook%2C+CHAPTER+IV+-+CONSIDERATIONS+OF+RESEARCH+DESIGN&amp;rft.date=2017-10-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Fohrp%2Feducation-and-outreach%2Farchived-materials%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><i>Programme Management Managing Multiple Projects Successfully<\/i>. Mittal, Prashant. Global India Pubns. 2009. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-9380228204<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/464584332\" target=\"_blank\">464584332<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Programme+Management+Managing+Multiple+Projects+Successfully.&amp;rft.pub=Global+India+Pubns&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F464584332&amp;rft.isbn=978-9380228204&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_book\" title=\"Template:Cite book\">cite book<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_others\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: others\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"627f6dc7fbff4e2fb188e21febf64850\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blues.cs.berkeley.edu\/blog\/2015\/08\/26\/the-myth-of-the-average-user-improving-privacy-and-security-systems-through-individualization-nspw-15\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Myth of the Average User: Improving Privacy and Security Systems through Individualization (NSPW '15) | BLUES\"<\/a>. <i>blues.cs.berkeley.edu<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-03-11<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=blues.cs.berkeley.edu&amp;rft.atitle=The+Myth+of+the+Average+User%3A+Improving+Privacy+and+Security+Systems+through+Individualization+%28NSPW+%2715%29+%7C+BLUES&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblues.cs.berkeley.edu%2Fblog%2F2015%2F08%2F26%2Fthe-myth-of-the-average-user-improving-privacy-and-security-systems-through-individualization-nspw-15%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20060616181201\/http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/justice_home\/fsj\/privacy\/law\/index_en.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Protection of personal data\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Commission\" title=\"European Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81898eaa89710c9f6ca992957c6e3e7c\">European Commission<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/justice_home\/fsj\/privacy\/law\/index_en.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 16 June 2006.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Protection+of+personal+data&amp;rft.pub=European+Commission&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fjustice_home%2Ffsj%2Fprivacy%2Flaw%2Findex_en.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWeiss_and_Archick2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Weiss and Archick, Martin A. and Kristin (May 19, 2016). \"U.S.-EU Data Privacy: From Safe Harbor to Privacy Shield\". <i>Congressional Research Service<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Congressional+Research+Service&amp;rft.atitle=U.S.-EU+Data+Privacy%3A+From+Safe+Harbor+to+Privacy+Shield&amp;rft.date=2016-05-19&amp;rft.aulast=Weiss+and+Archick&amp;rft.aufirst=Martin+A.+and+Kristin&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#:~:text=The%20Working%20Party%20on%20the,Member%20States,%20the%20European%20Data\">\"EPIC - Article 29 Working Party\"<\/a>. <i>epic.org<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210815003317\/https:\/\/epic.org\/privacy\/art29wp\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 15 Aug 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-03-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=epic.org&amp;rft.atitle=EPIC+-+Article+29+Working+Party&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fepic.org%2Fprivacy%2Fart29wp%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520Working%2520Party%2520on%2520the%2CMember%2520States%2C%2520the%2520European%2520Data&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20060724173657\/http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/justice_home\/fsj\/privacy\/docs\/adequacy\/sec-2004-1323_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"SEC (2004) 1323: The implementation of Commission Decision 520\/2000\/EC on the adequate protection of personal data provided by the Safe Harbour privacy Principles and related Frequently Asked Questions issued by the US Department of Commerce\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Commission\" title=\"European Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81898eaa89710c9f6ca992957c6e3e7c\">European Commission<\/a>. 20 October 2004. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/justice_home\/fsj\/privacy\/docs\/adequacy\/sec-2004-1323_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 24 July 2006.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=SEC+%282004%29+1323%3A+The+implementation+of+Commission+Decision+520%2F2000%2FEC+on+the+adequate+protection+of+personal+data+provided+by+the+Safe+Harbour+privacy+Principles+and+related+Frequently+Asked+Questions+issued+by+the+US+Department+of+Commerce&amp;rft.pub=European+Commission&amp;rft.date=2004-10-20&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fjustice_home%2Ffsj%2Fprivacy%2Fdocs%2Fadequacy%2Fsec-2004-1323_en.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32000D0520:EN:HTML\" target=\"_blank\">\"2000\/520\/EC: Commission Decision of 26 July 2000 pursuant to Directive 95\/46\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the adequacy of the protection provided by the safe harbour privacy principles and related frequently asked questions issued by the US Department of Commerce\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Official_Journal_of_the_European_Union\" title=\"Official Journal of the European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a2f48d4f4a6596e47d5dcf2f3b2a060\">Official Journal of the European Union<\/a>, L Series<\/i>. 25 August 2000. pp.&#160;7\u201347 \u2013 via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eur-Lex\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Eur-Lex\" data-key=\"cb4648c99368163edfd6f3e3c14fc02f\">Eur-Lex<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Official+Journal+of+the+European+Union%2C+L+Series&amp;rft.atitle=2000%2F520%2FEC%3A+Commission+Decision+of+26+July+2000+pursuant+to+Directive+95%2F46%2FEC+of+the+European+Parliament+and+of+the+Council+on+the+adequacy+of+the+protection+provided+by+the+safe+harbour+privacy+principles+and+related+frequently+asked+questions+issued+by+the+US+Department+of+Commerce&amp;rft.pages=7-47&amp;rft.date=2000-08-25&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feur-lex.europa.eu%2FLexUriServ%2FLexUriServ.do%3Furi%3DCELEX%3A32000D0520%3AEN%3AHTML&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20060724174212\/http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/justice_home\/fsj\/privacy\/docs\/adequacy\/information_safe_harbour_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Q&amp;A on the European Data Protection Authorities Panel foreseen by the Safe Harbour Decision\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Commission\" title=\"European Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81898eaa89710c9f6ca992957c6e3e7c\">European Commission<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/justice_home\/fsj\/privacy\/docs\/adequacy\/information_safe_harbour_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 2006-07-24.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Q%26A+on+the+European+Data+Protection+Authorities+Panel+foreseen+by+the+Safe+Harbour+Decision&amp;rft.pub=European+Commission&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fjustice_home%2Ffsj%2Fprivacy%2Fdocs%2Fadequacy%2Finformation_safe_harbour_en.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-R89-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-R89_36-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-R89_36-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rue89.com\/2008\/03\/04\/a-divided-europe-wants-to-protect-its-personal-data-wanted-by-the-us\" target=\"_blank\">A divided Europe wants to protect its personal data wanted by the US<\/a>, <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rue_89\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Rue 89\" data-key=\"f8ba892cec67c46698472c3166d63518\">Rue 89<\/a><\/i>, 4 March 2008 <span class=\"languageicon\">(in English)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120112021643\/http:\/\/www.libertysecurity.org\/article1591.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"New EU-US PNR Agreement on the processing and transfer of Passenger Name Record (PNR) data - CHALLENGE | Liberty &amp; Security\"<\/a>. <i>www.libertysecurity.org<\/i>. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 January<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.libertysecurity.org&amp;rft.atitle=New+EU-US+PNR+Agreement+on+the+processing+and+transfer+of+Passenger+Name+Record+%28PNR%29+data+-+CHALLENGE+%26%23124%3B+Liberty+%26+Security&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.libertysecurity.org%2Farticle1591.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"188a69d9391a8b2579e7f49edcc3ee7d\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Exemption-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Exemption_38-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statewatch\" title=\"Statewatch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2496c287bd3286ddda67b5b422ea050e\">Statewatch<\/a>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.statewatch.org\/news\/2007\/sep\/04eu-usa-pnr-exemptions.htm\" target=\"_blank\">US changes the privacy rules to exemption access to personal data<\/a> September 2007<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Faull-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Faull_39-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/euobserver.com\/9\/25657\" target=\"_blank\">Brussels attacks new US security demands<\/a>, European Observer. See also <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.statewatch.org\/news\/\" target=\"_blank\">Statewatch newsletter<\/a> February 2008<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statewatch\" title=\"Statewatch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2496c287bd3286ddda67b5b422ea050e\">Statewatch<\/a>, March 2008<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPhilip_E._AgreMarc_Rotenberg1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Philip E. Agre; Marc Rotenberg (1998). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/technologyprivac0000agre\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Technology and privacy: the new landscape<\/i><\/a><\/span>. MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-262-51101-8<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Technology+and+privacy%3A+the+new+landscape&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-262-51101-8&amp;rft.au=Philip+E.+Agre&amp;rft.au=Marc+Rotenberg&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftechnologyprivac0000agre&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<dl><dt>International<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120111162553\/http:\/\/www.echr.coe.int\/NR\/rdonlyres\/4FCF8133-AD91-4F7B-86F0-A448429BC2CC\/0\/FICHES_Protection_des_donn\u00e9es_EN.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Factsheet on ECtHR case law on data protection<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190904150616\/https:\/\/icdppc.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">International Conference of Data Protection and Privacy Commissioners<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120418083909\/http:\/\/www.biometricsinstitute.org\/pages\/privacy-biometrics.html\" target=\"_blank\">Biometrics Institute Privacy Charter<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Europe<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/justice_home\/fsj\/privacy\/\" target=\"_blank\">EU data protection page<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/unescoprivacychair.urv.cat\/\" target=\"_blank\">UNESCO Chair in Data Privacy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.edps.europa.eu\/EDPSWEB\/\" target=\"_blank\">European Data Protection Supervisor<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081219153008\/http:\/\/www.edps.europa.eu\/EDPSWEB\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2008-12-19 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Latin America<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130108061616\/http:\/\/www.rlpdp.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Latin American Data Protection Law Review<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>North America<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pacc-ccap.ca\/\" target=\"_blank\">Privacy and Access Council of Canada<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/privacy.cs.cmu.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\">Laboratory for International Data Privacy<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190812043133\/http:\/\/privacy.cs.cmu.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2019-08-12 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">Carnegie Mellon University<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.epic.org\/privacy\/consumer\/states.html\" target=\"_blank\">Privacy Laws by State<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Journals<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computer.org\/security\/\" target=\"_blank\">IEEE Security &amp; Privacy magazine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tdp.cat\/\" target=\"_blank\">Transactions on Data Privacy<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1430\nCached time: 20240108231351\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.640 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.911 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3311\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 133006\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 14302\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 14\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 136184\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.429\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 18518547\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 769.229 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>33.21% 255.426 1 Template:Reflist\n19.08% 146.788 6 Template:Columns-list\n13.10% 100.752 7 Template:Cite_book\n11.95% 91.923 2 Template:Lang\n10.92% 84.006 2 Template:Navbox\n 9.35% 71.961 1 Template:Data\n 8.76% 67.408 1 Template:Cl-span\n 8.30% 63.817 2 Template:Fix-span\n 7.89% 60.679 1 Template:Ced\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:237536-0!canonical and timestamp 20240108231350 and revision id 1185539757. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_privacy\" data-key=\"7dbb3588f4b4f0d68b7d7359daea67bb\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110144014\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.229 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.488 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 137383\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 413.967 1 wikipedia:Information_privacy\n100.00% 413.967 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10565-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110144014 and revision id 33198. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_privacy\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_privacy<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_images":[],"185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_timestamp":1704907001,"f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73_type":"article","f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73_title":"Information management","f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management","f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73_plaintext":"\n\nInformation managementFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchOrganisational activity concerning information lifecycle\nFor the library science degree, see Master of Information Management.\nNot to be confused with Content management, Knowledge management, or Data management.\n\n\nInformation science\nGeneral aspects\n\nAccess\nArchitecture\nBehavior\nManagement\nRetrieval\nSeeking\nSociety\nKnowledge organization\nOntology\nPhilosophy\nScience and technology studies\nTaxonomy\n\n\nRelated fields and subfields\n\nBibliometrics\nCategorization\nCensorship\nClassification\nComputer data storage\nCultural studies\nData modeling\nInformatics\nInformation technology\nIntellectual freedom\nIntellectual property\nLibrary and information science\nMemory\nPreservation\nPrivacy\nQuantum information science\n\nvte\nPart of a series onLibrary and information science \nOutline\nGlossary\nHistoriesLibraries - Information\n\nFocusArchives management - Collections management (Preservation) - Data management - Information management (cataloguing) - Knowledge management - Library management\n\nCurationData - Metadata - Information - Documents - Artefacts - Knowledge\n\nInterdisciplinary fieldsArchival science - Communication studies - Computer science - Data science - Documentation science - Epistemology - Library science - Information science - Science and technology studies\n\nAreasAcademic - Archival - Legal - Health - Private - Public - School - Special\n\nWikiProject\n &#160;Category vte\nInformation management (IM) is the appropriate and optimized capture, storage, retrieval, and use of information. It may be personal information management or organizational. IM for organizations concerns a cycle of organizational activity: the acquisition of information from one or more sources, the custodianship and the distribution of that information to those who need it, and its ultimate disposal through archiving or deletion and extraction.\nThis cycle of information organisation involves a variety of stakeholders, including those who are responsible for assuring the quality, accessibility and utility of acquired information; those who are responsible for its safe storage and disposal; and those who need it for decision making. Stakeholders might have rights to originate, change, distribute or delete information according to organisational information management policies.\nInformation management embraces all the generic concepts of management, including the planning, organizing, structuring, processing, controlling, evaluation and reporting of information activities, all of which is needed in order to meet the needs of those with organisational roles or functions that depend on information. These generic concepts allow the information to be presented to the audience or the correct group of people. After individuals are able to put that information to use, it then gains more value.\nInformation management is closely related to, and overlaps with, the management of data, systems, technology, processes and \u2013 where the availability of information is critical to organisational success \u2013 strategy. This broad view of the realm of information management contrasts with the earlier, more traditional view, that the life cycle of managing information is an operational matter that requires specific procedures, organisational capabilities and standards that deal with information as a product or a service.\n\n\n\nHistory \nEmergent ideas out of data management \nIn the 1970s, the management of information largely concerned matters closer to what would now be called data management: punched cards, magnetic tapes and other record-keeping media, involving a life cycle of such formats requiring origination, distribution, backup, maintenance and disposal. At this time the huge potential of information technology began to be recognised: for example a single chip storing a whole book, or electronic mail moving messages instantly around the world, remarkable ideas at the time.[1] With the proliferation of information technology and the extending reach of information systems in the 1980s and 1990s,[2] information management took on a new form. Progressive businesses such as British Petroleum transformed the vocabulary of what was then \"IT management\", so that \u201csystems analysts\u201d became \u201cbusiness analysts\u201d, \u201cmonopoly supply\u201d became a mixture of \u201cinsourcing\u201d and \u201coutsourcing\u201d, and the large IT function was transformed into \u201clean teams\u201d that began to allow some agility in the processes that harness information for business benefit.[3] The scope of senior management interest in information at British Petroleum extended from the creation of value through improved business processes, based upon the effective management of information, permitting the implementation of appropriate information systems (or \u201capplications\u201d) that were operated on IT infrastructure that was outsourced.[3] In this way, information management was no longer a simple job that could be performed by anyone who had nothing else to do, it became highly strategic and a matter for senior management attention. An understanding of the technologies involved, an ability to manage information systems projects and business change well, and a willingness to align technology and business strategies all became necessary.[4]\n\nPositioning information management in the bigger picture \nIn the transitional period leading up to the strategic view of information management, Venkatraman (a strong advocate of this transition and transformation,[5] proffered a simple arrangement of ideas that succinctly brought together the managements of data, information, and knowledge (see the figure)) argued that:\n\nData that is maintained in IT infrastructure has to be interpreted in order to render information.\nThe information in our information systems has to be understood in order to emerge as knowledge.\nKnowledge allows managers to take effective decisions.\nEffective decisions have to lead to appropriate actions.\nAppropriate actions are expected to deliver meaningful results.\nThis simple model summarises a presentation by Venkatraman in 1996, as reported by Ward and Peppard (2002, page 207).[4]\n\nThis is often referred to as the DIKAR model: Data, Information, Knowledge, Action and Result,[6] it gives a strong clue as to the layers involved in aligning technology and organisational strategies, and it can be seen as a pivotal moment in changing attitudes to information management. The recognition that information management is an investment that must deliver meaningful results is important to all modern organisations that depend on information and good decision-making for their success.[7]\n\nTheoretical background \nBehavioural and organisational theories \nIt is commonly believed that good information management is crucial to the smooth working of organisations, and although there is no commonly accepted theory of information management per se, behavioural and organisational theories help. Following the behavioural science theory of management, mainly developed at Carnegie Mellon University and prominently supported by March and Simon,[8] most of what goes on in modern organizations is actually information handling and decision making. One crucial factor in information handling and decision making is an individual's ability to process information and to make decisions under limitations that might derive from the context: a person's age, the situational complexity, or a lack of requisite quality in the information that is at hand \u2013 all of which is exacerbated by the rapid advance of technology and the new kinds of system that it enables, especially as the social web emerges as a phenomenon that business cannot ignore. And yet, well before there was any general recognition of the importance of information management in organisations, March and Simon [8] argued that organizations have to be considered as cooperative systems, with a high level of information processing and a vast need for decision making at various levels. Instead of using the model of the \"economic man\", as advocated in classical theory [9] they proposed \"administrative man\" as an alternative, based on their argumentation about the cognitive limits of rationality. Additionally they proposed the notion of satisficing, which entails searching through the available alternatives until an acceptability threshold is met - another idea that still has currency.[10]\n\nEconomic theory \nIn addition to the organisational factors mentioned by March and Simon, there are other issues that stem from economic and environmental dynamics. There is the cost of collecting and evaluating the information needed to take a decision, including the time and effort required.[11] The transaction cost associated with information processes can be high. In particular, established organizational rules and procedures can prevent the taking of the most appropriate decision, leading to sub-optimum outcomes \n.[12][13] This is an issue that has been presented as a major problem with bureaucratic organizations that lose the economies of strategic change because of entrenched attitudes.[14]\n\nStrategic information management \nBackground \nAccording to the Carnegie Mellon School an organization's ability to process information is at the core of organizational and managerial competency, and an organization's strategies must be designed to improve information processing capability [15] and as information systems that provide that capability became formalised and automated, competencies were severely tested at many levels.[16] It was recognised that organisations needed to be able to learn and adapt in ways that were never so evident before [17] and academics began to organise and publish definitive works concerning the strategic management of information, and information systems.[4][18] Concurrently, the ideas of business process management [19] and knowledge management[20] although much of the optimistic early thinking about business process redesign has since been discredited in the information management literature.[21] In the strategic studies field, it is considered of the highest priority the understanding of the information environment, conceived as the aggregate of individuals, organizations, and systems that collect, process, disseminate, or act on information. This environment consists of three interrelated dimensions which continuously interact with individuals, organizations, and systems. These dimensions are the physical, informational, and cognitive.[22]\n\nAligning technology and business strategy with information management \nVenkatraman has provided a simple view of the requisite capabilities of an organisation that wants to manage information well \u2013 the DIKAR model (see above). He also worked with others to understand how technology and business strategies could be appropriately aligned in order to identify specific capabilities that are needed.[23] This work was paralleled by other writers in the world of consulting,[24] practice [25] and academia.[26]\n\nA contemporary portfolio model for information \nBytheway has collected and organised basic tools and techniques for information management in a single volume.[7] At the heart of his view of information management is a portfolio model that takes account of the surging interest in external sources of information and the need to organise un-structured information external so as to make it useful (see the figure).\n\nThis portfolio model organizes issues of internal and external sourcing and management of information, that may be either structured or unstructured.\n\nSuch an information portfolio as this shows how information can be gathered and usefully organised, in four stages:\nStage 1: Taking advantage of public information: recognise and adopt well-structured external schemes of reference data, such as post codes, weather data, GPS positioning data and travel timetables, exemplified in the personal computing press.[27]\nStage 2: Tagging the noise on the World Wide Web: use existing schemes such as post codes and GPS data or more typically by adding \u201ctags\u201d, or construct a formal ontology that provides structure. Shirky provides an overview of these two approaches.[28]\nStage 3: Sifting and analysing: in the wider world the generalised ontologies that are under development extend to hundreds of entities and hundreds of relations between them and provide the means to elicit meaning from large volumes of data. Structured data in databases works best when that structure reflects a higher-level information model \u2013 an ontology, or an entity-relationship model.[29]\nStage 4: Structuring and archiving: with the large volume of data available from sources such as the social web and from the miniature telemetry systems used in personal health management, new ways to archive and then trawl data for meaningful information. Map-reduce methods, originating from functional programming, are a more recent way of eliciting information from large archival datasets that is becoming interesting to regular businesses that have very large data resources to work with, but it requires advanced multi-processor resources.[30]\n\nCompetencies to manage information well \nIn 2004, the management system \"Information Management Body of Knowledge\" was first published on the World Wide Web[31] \nand set out to show that the required management competencies to derive real benefits from an investment in information are complex and multi-layered. The framework model that is the basis for understanding competencies comprises six \u201cknowledge\u201d areas and four \u201cprocess\u201d areas:\n\nThis framework is the basis of organising the \"Information Management Body of Knowledge\" first made available in 2004. This version is adapted by the addition of \"Business information\" in 2014.\n\nThe information management knowledge areas\nThe IMBOK is based on the argument that there are six areas of required management competency, two of which (\u201cbusiness process management\u201d and \u201cbusiness information management\u201d) are very closely related.[32]\n\nInformation technology: The pace of change of technology and the pressure to constantly acquire the newest technological products can undermine the stability of the infrastructure that supports systems, and thereby optimises business processes and delivers benefits. It is necessary to manage the \u201csupply side\u201d and recognise that technology is, increasingly, becoming a commodity.[33]\nInformation system: While historically information systems were developed in-house, over the years it has become possible to acquire most of the software systems that an organisation needs from the software package industry. However, there is still the potential for competitive advantage from the implementation of new systems ideas that deliver to the strategic intentions of organisations.[4]\nBusiness processes and Business information: Information systems are applied to business processes in order to improve them, and they bring data to the business that becomes useful as business information. Business process management is still seen as a relatively new idea because it is not universally adopted, and it has been difficult in many cases; business information management is even more of a challenge.[34][35]\nBusiness benefit: What are the benefits that we are seeking? It is necessary not only to be brutally honest about what can be achieved, but also to ensure the active management and assessment of benefit delivery. Since the emergence and popularisation of the Balanced scorecard[36] there has been huge interest in business performance management but not much serious effort has been made to relate business performance management to the benefits of information technology investments and the introduction of new information systems until the turn of the millennium.[26]\nBusiness strategy: Although a long way from the workaday issues of managing information in organisations, strategy in most organisations simply has to be informed by information technology and information systems opportunities, whether to address poor performance or to improve differentiation and competitiveness. Strategic analysis tools such as the value chain and critical success factor analysis are directly dependent on proper attention to the information that is (or could be) managed [4]\nThe information management processes\nEven with full capability and competency within the six knowledge areas, it is argued that things can still go wrong. The problem lies in the migration of ideas and information management value from one area of competency to another. Summarising what Bytheway explains in some detail (and supported by selected secondary references):[37]\n\nProjects: Information technology is without value until it is engineered into information systems that meet the needs of the business by means of good project management.[38]\nBusiness change: The best information systems succeed in delivering benefits through the achievement of change within the business systems, but people do not appreciate change that makes new demands upon their skills in the ways that new information systems often do. Contrary to common expectations, there is some evidence that the public sector has succeeded with information technology induced business change.[39]\nBusiness operations: With new systems in place, with business processes and business information improved, and with staff finally ready and able to work with new processes, then the business can get to work, even when new systems extend far beyond the boundaries of a single business.[40]\nPerformance management: Investments are no longer solely about financial results, financial success must be balanced with internal efficiency, customer satisfaction, and with organisational learning and development.[36]\nSummary \nThere are always many ways to see a business, and the information management viewpoint is only one way. It is important to remember that other areas of business activity will also contribute to strategy \u2013 it is not only good information management that moves a business forwards. Corporate governance, human resource management, product development and marketing will all have an important role to play in strategic ways, and we must not see one domain of activity alone as the sole source of strategic success. On the other hand, corporate governance, human resource management, product development and marketing are all dependent on effective information management, and so in the final analysis our competency to manage information well, on the broad basis that is offered here, can be said to be predominant.\n\nOperationalising information management \nManaging requisite change \nOrganizations are often confronted with many information management challenges and issues at the operational level, especially when organisational change is engendered. The novelty of new systems architectures and a lack of experience with new styles of information management requires a level of organisational change management that is notoriously difficult to deliver. As a result of a general organisational reluctance to change, to enable new forms of information management, there might be (for example): a shortfall in the requisite resources, a failure to acknowledge new classes of information and the new procedures that use them, a lack of support from senior management leading to a loss of strategic vision, and even political manoeuvring that undermines the operation of the whole organisation.[41] However, the implementation of new forms of information management should normally lead to operational benefits.\n\nThe early work of Galbraith \nIn early work, taking an information processing view of organisation design, Jay Galbraith has identified five tactical areas to increase information processing capacity and reduce the need for information processing.[42]\n\nDeveloping, implementing, and monitoring all aspects of the \u201cenvironment\u201d of an organization.\nCreation of slack resources so as to decrease the load on the overall hierarchy of resources and to reduce information processing relating to overload.\nCreation of self-contained tasks with defined boundaries and that can achieve proper closure, and with all the resources at hand required to perform the task.\nRecognition of lateral relations that cut across functional units, so as to move decision power to the process instead of fragmenting it within the hierarchy.\nInvestment in vertical information systems that route information flows for a specific task (or set of tasks) in accordance to the applied business logic.\nThe matrix organisation \nThe lateral relations concept leads to an organizational form that is different from the simple hierarchy, the \u201cmatrix organization\u201d. This brings together the vertical (hierarchical) view of an organisation and the horizontal (product or project) view of the work that it does visible to the outside world. The creation of a matrix organization is one management response to a persistent fluidity of external demand, avoiding multifarious and spurious responses to episodic demands that tend to be dealt with individually.\n\nSee also \n\nBalanced scorecard\nBusiness process\nContent management\nData management\nInformation excellence\nInformation Management Body of Knowledge\nInformation Resources Management Journal\nInformation system\nInformation technology\nJournal of Global Information Management\nKnowledge management\nMaster of Information Management\nProject management\nRecords management\nStrategic management\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ Evans, C., 1979. The Mighty Micro, London: Victor Gollancz. \n\n^ Venkatraman, N., 1994. IT-enabled business transformation: from automation to business scope redefinition. Sloan Management Review, 35(2), pp.73\u201387 \n\n^ a b Cross, J. &amp; Earl, M., 1997. Transformation of the IT function at British Petroleum. MIS Quarterly, 21(4), page 403 \n\n^ a b c d e Ward, J. &amp; Peppard, J., 2002. Strategic Planning for Information Systems (3rd Edition), Chichester: Wiley \n\n^ Venkatraman, N., 1994. IT-enabled business transformation: from automation to business scope redefinition. Sloan Management Review, 35(2), pp.73\u201387. \n\n^ Venkatraman, N., 1996. Managing IT resources as a value center, IS Executive Seminar Series, Cranfield School of Management \n\n^ a b Bytheway, A., 2015. Investing in Information: the Information Management Body of Knowledge, Geneva: Springer \n\n^ a b March, J.G. &amp; Simon, H.A., 1958. Organizations, Wiley \n\n^ see Opp, K.-D., 1985. Sociology and economic man. Zeitschrift f\u00fcr die gesamte Staatswissenschaft\/Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, pp.213\u2013243 \n\n^ Winter, S.G., 2000. The satisficing principle in capability learning. Strategic Management Journal, 21(10-11), pp.981\u2013996 \n\n^ Hedberg, Bo (1981), \"How organizations learn and unlearn\", in: Nystr\u00f6m, P.C. &amp; Starbuck, W.H., Handbook of Organizational Design, Oxford University Press \n\n^ Mackenzie K.D. (1978), Organizational Structures, AHM Publishing Corporation \n\n^ Mullins, L.J (1993), Management and Organizational Behaviours, 3rd ed., Pitman Publishing \n\n^ Wigand, Rolf T., Picot, Arnold and Reichwald, Ralf (1997), Information, Organization and Management: Expanding Markets and Corporate Boundaries, Wiley &amp; Sons \n\n^ Cyert, R.M. &amp; March, J.G., 1959. A behavioural theory of organizational objectives. Modern Organization Theory, Wiley, New York, pp.76\u201390 \n\n^ Morton, M.S.S., 1991. The corporation of the 1990s: Information technology and organizational transformation, Oxford University Press \n\n^ Senge, P.M., 1990. The fifth discipline, Doubleday \n\n^ Earl, M.J., 1989. Management Strategies for Information Technology, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. \n\n^ Hammer, M. &amp; Champy, J., 2009. Reengineering the Corporation: Manifesto for Business Revolution, A, Zondervan \n\n^ Nonaka, I. &amp; Takeuchi, H., 1995. The knowledge creating company: how Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation, New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press \n\n^ Belmiro, T., Gardiner, P. &amp; Simmons, J., 1997. Business process re-engineering\u2014A discredited vocabulary? International Journal of Information Management, 17(1), pp.21\u201333 \n\n^ Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S. Army (2012). Information Operations. Joint Publication 3-13. Joint Doctrine Support Division, 116 Lake View Parkway, Suffolk, VA., p. 18. \n\n^ Henderson, J.C. &amp; Venkatraman, N., 1993. Strategic alignment: leveraging information technology for transforming organizations. IBM Systems Journal, 32(1), pp.4\u201316 \n\n^ Zachman, J. A. (1987). A framework for information systems architecture. IBM Systems Journal, 26(3), 590\u2013616 \n\n^ Cross, J., 1995. IT outsourcing&#160;: British Petroleum's competitive approach. Harvard Business Review, 73(3), p.94 \n\n^ a b Ward, J. &amp; Daniel, E., 2005. Benefits Management: Delivering Value from IS and IT Investments, Chichester: Wiley \n\n^ Ashbrook, D. &amp; Starner, T., 2003. Using GPS to learn significant locations and predict movement across multiple users. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 7(5), pp.275\u2013286 \n\n^ Shirky, C., 2005. Shirky: Ontology is Overrated -- Categories, Links, and Tags. Clay Shirky's Writings About the Internet. Available at: http:\/\/shirky.com\/writings\/ontology_overrated.html [Accessed May 23, 2013] \n\n^ Noy, N.F., McGuinness, D.L. &amp; others, 2001. Ontology development 101: A guide to creating your first ontology, Stanford knowledge systems laboratory technical report KSL-01-05 and Stanford medical informatics technical report SMI-2001-0880 \n\n^ Chu, C. et al., 2007. Map-reduce for machine learning on multicore. Advances in neural information processing systems, 19, p.281 \n\n^ IMBOK, 2004. The Information Management Body of Knowledge. Available at: http:\/\/www.imbok.org [Accessed May 12, 2015] \n\n^ Bytheway, A., 2015. Investing in Information: the Information Management Body of Knowledge, Geneva: Springer,\n p29 \n\n^ Carr, N., 2003. IT doesn't matter. In Wringing real value from IT. HBR OnPoint, pp. 3\u201310 \n\n^ Belmiro, T.R. et al., 2000. Are BPR practitioners really addressing business processes? International Journal of Operations &amp; Production Management, 20(10), pp.1183\u20131203 \n\n^ Davenport, T.H. &amp; Short, J., 2003. Information technology and business process redesign. Operations management: critical perspectives on business and management, 1, p.97 \n\n^ a b Kaplan, R. &amp; Norton, D., 1996. The balanced scorecard - translating strategy into action, Boston MA: Harvard University Press \n\n^ Bytheway, A., 2015. Investing in Information: the Information Management Body of Knowledge, Geneva: Springer,\n p31 \n\n^ Schwalbe, K., 2013. Information technology project management, Cengage Learning \n\n^ Scholl, H.J., 2005. E-government-induced business process change (BPC): An empirical study of current practices. International Journal of Electronic Government Research (IJEGR), 1(2), pp.27\u201349 \n\n^ Saeed, K.A., Malhotra, M.K. &amp; Grover, V., 2005. Examining the Impact of Interorganizational Systems on Process Efficiency and Sourcing Leverage in Buyer\u2013Supplier Dyads. Decision Sciences, 36(3), pp.365\u2013396 \n\n^ Knights, D. &amp; Murray, F., 1994. Managers Divided, Chichester: John Wiley \n\n^ Galbraith, J.R., 1977. Organization design, Addison Wesley \n\n\nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Information management .\n\n\n\n \nWikiquote has quotations related to Information management.\n\nvteInformation processingInformation processesinformation processes by function\nperception\nattention\ninfluence\noperating\ncommunication\nreasoning\nlearning\nstoring\ndecision-making\ninformation processing abstractions\nevent processing\nsign processesing\nsignal processing\ndata processing\nstream processing\nagent processing\nstate processing\nInformation processorsnatural\nnature as information processing\nhumans as information processing systems\nsociety as information processing system\nmixed\nmixed reality\nbrain\u2013computer interface\nphysical computing\nhuman\u2013computer interaction\nartificial\nprocessors and processes\nbio-inspired computing\nubiquitous computing\nartificial brain and mind uploading\nvirtual reality\nvirtual world\nInformation processing \r\ntheories and conceptsin biology\ncomputational and systems biology\ngenetic informatics and cellular computing\ncomputational neuroscience and neurocomputing\nin cognitive psychology\ninformation processing theory\nmind and intelligence\ncognitive informatics and neuroinformatics\nbehavior informatics\nin computer science\nneural computation\ncomputation theory\nalgorithms and information structures\ncomputational circuits\nartificial intelligence\nin philosophy\ncomputational theory of mind\nphilosophy of information\nphilosophy of artificial intelligence\ninterdisciplinary\ninformation theory\ndecision theory\nsystems theory\nother\ninfosphere\ninforg\nDecoding the Universe\ninformation overload\n\nvteManagement\nOutline of management\nIndex of management articles\nBy type \r\nof organization\nAcademic\nAssociation\nBusiness\nRestaurant\nCourt\nHealthcare\nIntelligence\nMilitary\nPublic\nReputation\nBy focus (within \r\nan organization)By scopeStrategic\r\n(top-level)\nCapability\nCapital\nChange\nCommunication\nFinancial\nInnovation\nLegal\nPerformance\nRisk\nSystems\nBy component\nFacility\nProduct\nProduct lifecycle\nBrand\nProgram\nProject\nConstruction\nBy activity or\r\ndepartment\r\n managedLine\nMarketing\nOperations\/production\nProcess\nQuality\nSales\nStaff\nAccounting\nOffice\nRecords\nBy aspect or\r\nrelationship\nCustomer relationship\nEngineering\nLogistics\nPerception\nSupply chain\nTalent\nBy problem\nConflict\nCrisis\nStress\nBy resource\nEnvironmental resource\nField inventory\nHuman resources\nInformation\nInformation technology\nKnowledge\nLand\nMaterials\nSkills\nTechnology\nTime\nManagement\r\npositions\nInterim\nMiddle\nSenior\nMethods\r\nand approaches\nAdhocracy\nCollaborative method\nDistributed\nEarned value management\nEvidence-based management\nFull Range of Leadership Model\nManagement by objectives\nManagement style\nMacromanagement\nMicromanagement\nScientific management\nSocial entrepreneurship\nSustainable management\nTeam building\nVirtual management\nManagement skills\r\nand activities\nDecision-making\nForecasting\nLeadership\nPioneers and\r\nscholars\nPeter Drucker\nEliyahu M. 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LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementInformaticsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 10 January 2022, at 23:44.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 8,590 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Information_management rootpage-Information_management skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Information management<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Organisational activity concerning information lifecycle<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For the library science degree, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master_of_Information_Management\" title=\"Master of Information Management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32f3293665f7e130270618959719f33f\">Master of Information Management<\/a>.<\/div>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Not to be confused with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_management\" title=\"Content management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ddb6b50fbc33bcfbf5f77cb58c5ead1\">Content management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_management\" title=\"Data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c54f822d2961a56b862b2fe07cff86\">Data management<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><table class=\"sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title\" style=\"padding: 0.3em\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_science\" title=\"Information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d03d37d20fd3931e86c370316d1a14a\">Information science<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #CCC;\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outline_of_information_science\" title=\"Outline of information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"06250eaad5c293c647218cf63c06cb05\">General aspects<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_access\" title=\"Information access\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59b0904f679fc6f9b3ef7348335034b8\">Access<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_architecture\" title=\"Information architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7cf4d6469343f6fc04f2caf4d3b3cf32\">Architecture<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_behavior\" title=\"Information behavior\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0718e31696484ab329f53b6c8ad8b891\">Behavior<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">Retrieval<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_seeking\" title=\"Information seeking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eeae24e29d054610ccd6f150433540d\">Seeking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_society\" title=\"Information society\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec91210c361bc5e50a26be09e3bc9ba\">Society<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_organization\" title=\"Knowledge organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef0148870a5bdb537140f3b2cb2e4142\">Knowledge organization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ontology (computer science)\" data-key=\"2cf14c9076764ffc3f7426754d3c4730\">Ontology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_information\" title=\"Philosophy of information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c93981290c3cc681d0bfca8a1edee8f6\">Philosophy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science_and_technology_studies\" title=\"Science and technology studies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"253de26211601f822a50376feac76bb1\">Science and technology studies<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taxonomy\" title=\"Taxonomy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67440e90ee1a736368986d530106451a\">Taxonomy<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #CCC;\">\nRelated fields and subfields<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibliometrics\" title=\"Bibliometrics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a649d2b9d48a89cd496cdd3acc874e11\">Bibliometrics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Categorization\" title=\"Categorization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9542c0778bcbedd986b051ce4f0c548a\">Categorization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Censorship\" title=\"Censorship\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77ef0462dd42b52caca5cac4aa977c6b\">Censorship<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)\" title=\"Classification of the sciences (Peirce)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bfed88d8ccf199915f3cf1ed570464d\">Classification<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_data_storage\" title=\"Computer data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c06a35ae9ff26906dd57849f8067bfdb\">Computer data storage<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural_studies\" title=\"Cultural studies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eee5ee417981d6de5d58782498c5f6bb\">Cultural studies<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_modeling\" title=\"Data modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeb367af0f28dde6b5d2b55e69b02ddb\">Data modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Informatics\" title=\"Informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5b9d6881b5614ed822aa48b723394b5\">Informatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">Information technology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intellectual_freedom\" title=\"Intellectual freedom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c78f3f6074f3510879fd1310fbf5139e\">Intellectual freedom<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intellectual_property\" title=\"Intellectual property\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2604ea8c7b8a70b5079014f7760bc5f9\">Intellectual property<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_and_information_science\" title=\"Library and information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c387b78ad018343e5d9e46eb5a8a8330\">Library and information science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memory\" title=\"Memory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa4184eed0530d9f8a6df06a9119eab8\">Memory<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Preservation_(library_and_archival_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Preservation (library and archival science)\" data-key=\"7000e91f54b712e0bac183f5c3adf000\">Preservation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">Privacy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_information_science\" title=\"Quantum information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b51e234b4a54db1ed50e2e5e8adc525\">Quantum information science<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1045330069\" \/><table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a series on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_and_information_science\" title=\"Library and information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c387b78ad018343e5d9e46eb5a8a8330\">Library and information science<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><span class=\"mw-image-border\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Frameless\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:LIS_SidebarPicture.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d15d1cd809b741cfd8245df325ddc64\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/3a\/LIS_SidebarPicture.png\/250px-LIS_SidebarPicture.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"162\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-above\" style=\"padding-bottom:0.35em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outline_of_library_and_information_science\" title=\"Outline of library and information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f1cf11802040a148658b27cf9650e66\">Outline<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science\" title=\"Glossary of library and information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce7f51484ea232e9d7e4fc7ced3f0a72\">Glossary<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.2em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#ddddff; text-align:center;\">Histories<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_libraries\" title=\"History of libraries\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4223fe33a5f679114258889a2ed322fc\">Libraries<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_history\" title=\"Information history\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fcfd1655d35a399238e3c8dc8526a6a\">Information<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.2em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#ddddff; text-align:center;\">Focus<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archives_management\" title=\"Archives management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebdcbc4609cd50c90423333bf2d5d6bb\">Archives management<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collections_management\" title=\"Collections management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7753af158886c956a59db980e8dc1e7\">Collections management<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Preservation_(library_and_archive)\" title=\"Preservation (library and archive)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7e3434721012a1b823e3d1c25e8a518d\">Preservation<\/a>) - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_management\" title=\"Data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c54f822d2961a56b862b2fe07cff86\">Data management<\/a> - <a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Information management<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cataloging_(library_science)\" title=\"Cataloging (library science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6283661fd7148549382799406d400fe\">cataloguing<\/a>) - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_management\" title=\"Library management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f9d5e99004c6b63a341ece0c5e351d26\">Library management<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.2em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#ddddff; text-align:center;\">Curation<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">Data<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">Metadata<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">Information<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document\" title=\"Document\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f0fd03f08b691946949dcab005c763f\">Documents<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural_artifact\" title=\"Cultural artifact\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"091e242a2559c53a1dc4b1f61f473eae\">Artefacts<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge\" title=\"Knowledge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01c4b58d0351b823f87d6660469ca11a\">Knowledge<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.2em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#ddddff; text-align:center;\">Interdisciplinary fields<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archival_science\" title=\"Archival science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e58a0935d059aaf989cac9434a0e150e\">Archival science<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communication_studies\" title=\"Communication studies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d216ca4c9742a97b988069f3e8004be5\">Communication studies<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">Computer science<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_science\" title=\"Data science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ca3033a747d64b89d986a08df1bf310\">Data science<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Documentation_science\" title=\"Documentation science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acaa5b2cdab99786fc25aa0a1a13d33a\">Documentation science<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epistemology\" title=\"Epistemology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9006d5326ea15b9a744ad2d5c794fbfd\">Epistemology<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_science\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Library science\" data-key=\"d0008364809b9d88fca31ad1d366db7b\">Library science<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_science\" title=\"Information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d03d37d20fd3931e86c370316d1a14a\">Information science<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science_and_technology_studies\" title=\"Science and technology studies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"253de26211601f822a50376feac76bb1\">Science and technology studies<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\" style=\"padding-top:0.2em;\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"background:#ddddff; text-align:center;\">Areas<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Academic_library\" title=\"Academic library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b960ec836a6c35c2a7b606b18dcbf0ff\">Academic<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archive\" title=\"Archive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0616d0287fea30e581df809e4fd9aaa1\">Archival<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Law_library\" title=\"Law library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"15c2c3540bc144de8ae30c67cc4c02ed\">Legal<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_library\" title=\"Medical library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01af92e63a359f71b190de7dff43b5e0\">Health<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Private_library\" title=\"Private library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3b58c27ef17efedd5496a95f9301e41\">Private<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_library\" title=\"Public library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d7110032249d23a67727507c295cd33\">Public<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/School_library\" title=\"School library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa1c7885f7934146826f07d8d3ba9065\">School<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special_library\" title=\"Special library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfb0322df43c5527779537171e657669\">Special<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-below\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Libraries\" title=\"Wikipedia:WikiProject Libraries\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d8c6dff4e2c8fcc94ad844837fefcc4\">WikiProject<\/a><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"nowrap\"><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span title=\"Category\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/9\/96\/Symbol_category_class.svg\/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/span><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Library_and_information_science\" title=\"Category:Library and information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c6e0985265d857a9753f91e128e9474\">Category<\/a><\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><b>Information management<\/b> (<b>IM<\/b>) is the appropriate and optimized capture, storage, retrieval, and use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a>. It may be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_information_management\" title=\"Personal information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd49a4a2470d344eb90676ab346943dc\">personal information management<\/a> or organizational. IM for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organization\" title=\"Organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3f46954c79f7a1fafc5e803bd654e8\">organizations<\/a> concerns a cycle of organizational activity: the acquisition of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a> from one or more sources, the custodianship and the distribution of that information to those who need it, and its ultimate disposal through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archiving\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Archiving\" data-key=\"4fbc6dd4e1d2a702dfc0937b9d8e302e\">archiving<\/a> or deletion and extraction.\n<\/p><p>This cycle of information organisation involves a variety of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_(corporate)\" title=\"Stakeholder (corporate)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ca00d64d7f7af3b41dfe409fa5af06e\">stakeholders<\/a>, including those who are responsible for assuring the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_(business)\" title=\"Quality (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93c3fbb1e90ef808bed953ad4e2a10d6\">quality<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accessibility\" title=\"Accessibility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b03a29f12fb22a58105751f50b00570\">accessibility<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Utility\" title=\"Utility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"317210b0c67c2128db183f39aa610e39\">utility<\/a> of acquired information; those who are responsible for its safe <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_storage_device\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data storage device\" data-key=\"3ed5a8a7abc6bc6fbf516d6728e74e3a\">storage<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/disposal\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:disposal\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">disposal<\/a>; and those who need it for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision making\" data-key=\"f7ca18573163d657813ebb8dfb5bff55\">decision making<\/a>. Stakeholders might have rights to originate, change, distribute or delete information according to organisational information management <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Policies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Policies\" data-key=\"adf5daed653b9fd8d1acd1891817397c\">policies<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Information management embraces all the generic concepts of management, including the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Planning\" title=\"Planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92c4f966837eaf2919da86f8cd081592\">planning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organizing_(management)\" title=\"Organizing (management)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cd45711cf899c086b2b19ff37049e4f\">organizing<\/a>, structuring, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">processing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internal_control\" title=\"Internal control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc2b13bf63f62b6536496273c99540b7\">controlling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evaluation\" title=\"Evaluation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b93e1d9f8da79dfe955829205bdd34d6\">evaluation<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_reporting\" title=\"Data reporting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5fe485ef0e846bfdb5536c95940c3c6d\">reporting<\/a> of information activities, all of which is needed in order to meet the needs of those with organisational roles or functions that depend on information. These generic concepts allow the information to be presented to the audience or the correct group of people. After individuals are able to put that information to use, it then gains more value.\n<\/p><p>Information management is closely related to, and overlaps with, the management of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System\" title=\"System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca080f9487afe3b315fe16a2d522534\">systems<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technology\" title=\"Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"826a00bce65740132769609e46bf6515\">technology<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">processes<\/a> and \u2013 where the availability of information is critical to organisational success \u2013 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strategy\" title=\"Strategy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d14f217dfcf48b91010a4808b3b96b34\">strategy<\/a>. This broad view of the realm of information management contrasts with the earlier, more traditional view, that the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_life_cycle\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Project life cycle\" data-key=\"500b6b7253cdee114cf6a7125d10b5dc\">life cycle<\/a> of managing information is an operational matter that requires specific procedures, organisational capabilities and standards that deal with information as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_(business)\" title=\"Product (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56bd07708a3bfd57d684969dc2feb35e\">product<\/a> or a service.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Emergent_ideas_out_of_data_management\">Emergent ideas out of data management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the 1970s, the management of information largely concerned matters closer to what would now be called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_management\" title=\"Data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c54f822d2961a56b862b2fe07cff86\">data management<\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Punched_cards\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Punched cards\" data-key=\"7d793b2d5c044c4755140ef13f5d055d\">punched cards<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetic_tape\" title=\"Magnetic tape\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"354f7c50b916fc5c5ee8b18c0df36061\">magnetic tapes<\/a> and other record-keeping <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_media\" title=\"Digital media\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6db40d4de22af3595ce808f237f41730\">media<\/a>, involving a life cycle of such formats requiring origination, distribution, backup, maintenance and disposal. At this time the huge potential of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">information technology<\/a> began to be recognised: for example a single <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integrated_circuit\" title=\"Integrated circuit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19f8493fc864521e5acaf7e300904967\">chip<\/a> storing a whole <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Book\" title=\"Book\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4b8fa6cacf899ea5a5e660fbeb8a1ea\">book<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_mail\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Electronic mail\" data-key=\"df5f7d1c0d36a8d0297229e4c0cbb86e\">electronic mail<\/a> moving messages instantly around the world, remarkable ideas at the time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Evans_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Evans-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> With the proliferation of information technology and the extending reach of information systems in the 1980s and 1990s,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Venkat0_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Venkat0-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> information management took on a new form. Progressive businesses such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/British_Petroleum\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"British Petroleum\" data-key=\"d01241b3f2f03cb7ccf55d2af2ecb413\">British Petroleum<\/a> transformed the vocabulary of what was then \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IT management\" data-key=\"631d810fa4bb0241ea04c7411fa521c4\">IT management<\/a>\", so that \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_analyst\" title=\"Systems analyst\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d737fcb0e3a2a71b4f55ac0f0108a9e\">systems analysts<\/a>\u201d became \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_analyst\" title=\"Business analyst\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f630dd4b0f073dc7bbea379c9933c185\">business analysts<\/a>\u201d, \u201cmonopoly supply\u201d became a mixture of \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insourcing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Insourcing\" data-key=\"28b1a92f6871505518cae1f88cf5ff42\">insourcing<\/a>\u201d and \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outsourcing\" title=\"Outsourcing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90924aa23289b1537d3c0f4b2790f737\">outsourcing<\/a>\u201d, and the large IT function was transformed into \u201clean teams\u201d that began to allow some agility in the processes that harness information for .<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cross_and_Earl_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cross_and_Earl-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The scope of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Senior_management\" title=\"Senior management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"650b0b3f18442b303d44af157f219c5a\">senior management<\/a> interest in information at British Petroleum extended from the creation of value through improved <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">business processes<\/a>, based upon the effective management of information, permitting the implementation of appropriate information systems (or \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">applications<\/a>\u201d) that were operated on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_infrastructure\" title=\"IT infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb183d32b0bc5a2502a2cc116200f0cd\">IT infrastructure<\/a> that was <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outsource\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Outsource\" data-key=\"0e0e3384baf564e70f2ba594f5ea729a\">outsourced<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cross_and_Earl_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cross_and_Earl-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> In this way, information management was no longer a simple job that could be performed by anyone who had nothing else to do, it became highly strategic and a matter for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Senior_management\" title=\"Senior management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"650b0b3f18442b303d44af157f219c5a\">senior management<\/a> attention. An understanding of the technologies involved, an ability to manage information systems <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project\" title=\"Project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f05b38496b9578ab9149bf3fa7c4ea82\">projects<\/a> and well, and a willingness to align technology and business strategies all became necessary.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward_and_Peppard-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Positioning_information_management_in_the_bigger_picture\">Positioning information management in the bigger picture<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the transitional period leading up to the strategic view of information management, Venkatraman (a strong advocate of this transition and transformation,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Venkat2_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Venkat2-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> proffered a simple arrangement of ideas that succinctly brought together the managements <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_management\" title=\"Data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c54f822d2961a56b862b2fe07cff86\">of data<\/a>, information, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">knowledge<\/a> (see the figure)) argued that:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Data that is maintained in IT infrastructure has to be <i>interpreted<\/i> in order to render information.<\/li>\n<li>The information in our information systems has to be <i>understood<\/i> in order to emerge as knowledge.<\/li>\n<li>Knowledge allows managers to <i>take effective decisions<\/i>.<\/li>\n<li>Effective decisions have to lead to <i>appropriate actions<\/i>.<\/li>\n<li>Appropriate actions are expected to deliver <i>meaningful results<\/i>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:DIKAR_model.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"96296c4546d4740628b5ed6f8485a01b\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/32\/DIKAR_model.jpg\/310px-DIKAR_model.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"310\" height=\"78\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>This simple model summarises a presentation by Venkatraman in 1996, as reported by Ward and Peppard (2002, page 207).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward_and_Peppard-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>This is often referred to as the DIKAR model: Data, Information, Knowledge, Action and Result,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Venkat1_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Venkat1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> it gives a strong clue as to the layers involved in aligning technology and organisational strategies, and it can be seen as a pivotal moment in changing attitudes to information management. The recognition that information management is an investment that must deliver meaningful results is important to all modern organisations that depend on information and good decision-making for their success.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bytheway_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bytheway-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Theoretical_background\">Theoretical background<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Behavioural_and_organisational_theories\">Behavioural and organisational theories<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>It is commonly believed that good information management is crucial to the smooth working of organisations, and although there is no commonly accepted <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory\" title=\"Theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a668aaa873d33987dd30beb37c0a7ef4\">theory<\/a> of information management <i>per se<\/i>, behavioural and organisational theories help. Following the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behavioural_science\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Behavioural science\" data-key=\"90b3d156c2dfebfdbe7867fc0e62f35f\">behavioural science<\/a> theory of management, mainly developed at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">Carnegie Mellon University<\/a> and prominently supported by March and Simon,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-March_and_Simon_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-March_and_Simon-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> most of what goes on in modern organizations is actually information handling and decision making. One crucial factor in information handling and decision making is an individual's ability to process information and to make decisions under limitations that might derive from the context: a person's age, the situational complexity, or a lack of requisite quality in the information that is at hand \u2013 all of which is exacerbated by the rapid advance of technology and the new kinds of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System\" title=\"System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca080f9487afe3b315fe16a2d522534\">system<\/a> that it enables, especially as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_web\" title=\"Social web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"159a2ea1073670d693eddde914a5af26\">social web<\/a> emerges as a phenomenon that business cannot ignore. And yet, well before there was any general recognition of the importance of information management in organisations, March and Simon <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-March_and_Simon_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-March_and_Simon-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> argued that organizations have to be considered as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cooperative_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cooperative systems\" data-key=\"38fa480222a631a284a84dc35a7663e9\">cooperative systems<\/a>, with a high level of information processing and a vast need for decision making at various levels. Instead of using the model of the \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economic_man\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Economic man\" data-key=\"89fd638753058f90ca7c386f3a63e0bb\">economic man<\/a>\", as advocated in classical theory <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Opp_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Opp-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> they proposed \"\" as an alternative, based on their argumentation about the cognitive limits of rationality. Additionally they proposed the notion of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Satisficing\" title=\"Satisficing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5520ef400b9cd347cc5509e826c50c1\">satisficing<\/a>, which entails searching through the available alternatives until an acceptability threshold is met - another idea that still has currency.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Winter_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Winter-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Economic_theory\">Economic theory<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In addition to the organisational factors mentioned by March and Simon, there are other issues that stem from economic and environmental dynamics. There is the cost of collecting and evaluating the information needed to take a decision, including the time and effort required.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hedberg_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hedberg-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transaction_cost\" title=\"Transaction cost\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e412057fcdb9d44cc5c485ca51cdfbcc\">transaction cost<\/a> associated with information processes can be high. In particular, established organizational rules and procedures can prevent the taking of the most appropriate decision, leading to sub-optimum outcomes \n.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mackenzie_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mackenzie-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mullins_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mullins-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> This is an issue that has been presented as a major problem with bureaucratic organizations that lose the economies of strategic change because of entrenched attitudes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Wigand_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Wigand-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Strategic_information_management\">Strategic information management<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>According to the Carnegie Mellon School an organization's ability to process information is at the core of organizational and managerial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competence_(human_resources)\" title=\"Competence (human resources)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5729e9fc50db78b1b54b6ce0361af82b\">competency<\/a>, and an organization's strategies must be designed to improve information processing capability <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cyert_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cyert-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> and as information systems that provide that capability became formalised and automated, competencies were severely tested at many levels.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Morton_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Morton-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> It was recognised that organisations needed to be able to learn and adapt in ways that were never so evident before <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Senge_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Senge-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> and academics began to organise and publish definitive works concerning the strategic management of information, and information systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward_and_Peppard-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Earl_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Earl-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> Concurrently, the ideas of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">business process<\/a> management <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hammer_and_Champy_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hammer_and_Champy-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">knowledge management<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nonaka_and_Takeuchi_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nonaka_and_Takeuchi-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> although much of the optimistic early thinking about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_redesign\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business process redesign\" data-key=\"9ba3a515a39bb2c268902ccdb10ae61e\">business process redesign<\/a> has since been discredited in the information management literature.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Belmiro_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Belmiro-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> In the strategic studies field, it is considered of the highest priority the understanding of the information environment, conceived as the aggregate of individuals, organizations, and systems that collect, process, disseminate, or act on information. This environment consists of three interrelated dimensions which continuously interact with individuals, organizations, and systems. These dimensions are the physical, informational, and cognitive.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Aligning_technology_and_business_strategy_with_information_management\">Aligning technology and business strategy with information management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Venkatraman has provided a simple view of the requisite capabilities of an organisation that wants to manage information well \u2013 the model (see above). He also worked with others to understand how technology and business strategies could be appropriately aligned in order to identify specific capabilities that are needed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Henderson_and_Venkat_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Henderson_and_Venkat-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> This work was paralleled by other writers in the world of consulting,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Zachman_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Zachman-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> practice <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cross_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cross-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> and academia.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward2_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward2-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"A_contemporary_portfolio_model_for_information\">A contemporary portfolio model for information<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Bytheway has collected and organised basic tools and techniques for information management in a single volume.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bytheway_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bytheway-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> At the heart of his view of information management is a portfolio model that takes account of the surging interest in external sources of information and the need to organise un-structured information external so as to make it useful (see the figure).\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:An_Information_Portfolio.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b447f31cf79a33974b7909db03a23a8\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7f\/An_Information_Portfolio.jpg\/290px-An_Information_Portfolio.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"290\" height=\"218\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>This portfolio model organizes issues of internal and external sourcing and management of information, that may be either structured or unstructured.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Such an information portfolio as this shows how information can be gathered and usefully organised, in four stages:\n<\/p><p><b>Stage 1<\/b>: Taking advantage of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Public information\" data-key=\"584f5c84022c095876963b5f9f49d0f1\">public information<\/a>: recognise and adopt well-structured external schemes of reference data, such as post codes, weather data, GPS positioning data and travel timetables, exemplified in the personal computing press.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ashbrook_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ashbrook-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>Stage 2<\/b>: Tagging the noise on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Wide_Web\" title=\"World Wide Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8167fa2a43229db150009f4a93e3a779\">World Wide Web<\/a>: use existing schemes such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Post_code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Post code\" data-key=\"a06f4a1d752a6d004541bbda24d6640b\">post codes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GPS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GPS\" data-key=\"943a7f53e8229a13fea22b2a9f534fb2\">GPS<\/a> data or more typically by adding \u201ctags\u201d, or construct a formal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(information_science)\" title=\"Ontology (information science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6cd018caae9a0c95e80b08c71758343\">ontology<\/a> that provides structure. Shirky provides an overview of these two approaches.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Shirky_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Shirky-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>Stage 3<\/b>: Sifting and analysing: in the wider world the generalised ontologies that are under development extend to hundreds of entities and hundreds of relations between them and provide the means to elicit meaning from large volumes of data. Structured data in databases works best when that structure reflects a higher-level information model \u2013 an ontology, or an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entity-relationship_model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Entity-relationship model\" data-key=\"5995c00d38259f6e453c0bbbbc01b04b\">entity-relationship model<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Noy_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Noy-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>Stage 4<\/b>: Structuring and archiving: with the large volume of data available from sources such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_web\" title=\"Social web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"159a2ea1073670d693eddde914a5af26\">social web<\/a> and from the miniature <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telemetry\" title=\"Telemetry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c545b141a6ba0ffe8a862c83b5264e29\">telemetry<\/a> systems used in personal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Health management\" data-key=\"f18b3aa0c354e5b8e3f23ec5e92ad377\">health management<\/a>, new ways to archive and then trawl data for meaningful information. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Map-reduce\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Map-reduce\" data-key=\"5507143955ac26f85d8addae62e029b4\">Map-reduce<\/a> methods, originating from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_programming\" title=\"Functional programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86692f4d835f0c297483717a66ba067f\">functional programming<\/a>, are a more recent way of eliciting information from large archival <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dataset\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dataset\" data-key=\"523df07b218122594119b45c82f363c6\">datasets<\/a> that is becoming interesting to regular businesses that have very large data resources to work with, but it requires advanced multi-processor resources.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Chu_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Chu-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Competencies_to_manage_information_well\">Competencies to manage information well<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 2004, the management system \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Management_Body_of_Knowledge\" title=\"Information Management Body of Knowledge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a248f133f63bb1d6e3553d8b14c22e69\">Information Management Body of Knowledge<\/a>\" was first published on the World Wide Web<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IMBOK_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IMBOK-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> \nand set out to show that the required management competencies to derive real benefits from an investment in information are complex and multi-layered. The framework model that is the basis for understanding competencies comprises six \u201cknowledge\u201d areas and four \u201cprocess\u201d areas:\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:IMBOK_Framework.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"830d9a3ee78d66b13da98c905fc58f65\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/ac\/IMBOK_Framework.jpg\/290px-IMBOK_Framework.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"290\" height=\"208\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>This framework is the basis of organising the \"Information Management Body of Knowledge\" first made available in 2004. This version is adapted by the addition of \"Business information\" in 2014.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<dl><dt>The information management knowledge areas<\/dt><\/dl>\n<p>The IMBOK is based on the argument that there are six areas of required management competency, two of which (\u201cbusiness process management\u201d and \u201cbusiness information management\u201d) are very closely related.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bytheway2_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bytheway2-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>Information technology<\/b>: The pace of change of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technology\" title=\"Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"826a00bce65740132769609e46bf6515\">technology<\/a> and the pressure to constantly acquire the newest technological products can undermine the stability of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrastructure\" title=\"Infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb70668db4564897263976d0920fec5\">infrastructure<\/a> that supports systems, and thereby optimises <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">business processes<\/a> and delivers benefits. It is necessary to manage the \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_side\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Supply side\" data-key=\"341cf6e837b17069b4bddfdaf14c45fb\">supply side<\/a>\u201d and recognise that technology is, increasingly, becoming a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commodity\" title=\"Commodity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"354a75e8afb2b7cb2ea3f6f5d4e0bc1a\">commodity<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Carr_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Carr-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Information system<\/b>: While historically information systems were developed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/In-house\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"In-house\" data-key=\"abbfc14c71f2a033559fb6e96b42c102\">in-house<\/a>, over the years it has become possible to acquire most of the software systems that an organisation needs from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">software package<\/a> industry. However, there is still the potential for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competitive_advantage\" title=\"Competitive advantage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99d28b128df96003b047fdd04394ebbc\">competitive advantage<\/a> from the implementation of new systems ideas that deliver to the strategic intentions of organisations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward_and_Peppard-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Business processes and Business information<\/b>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_system\" title=\"Information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142b46020d5e573e81dabce3b59c33ec\">Information systems<\/a> are applied to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">business processes<\/a> in order to improve them, and they bring data to the business that becomes useful as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business information\" data-key=\"48785a84955b0db9d17b4b6daf6e200b\">business information<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">Business process management<\/a> is still seen as a relatively new idea because it is not universally adopted, and it has been difficult in many cases; business <i>information<\/i> management is even more of a challenge.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Belmiro0_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Belmiro0-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Davenport_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Davenport-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Business benefit<\/b>: What are the benefits that we are seeking? It is necessary not only to be brutally honest about what <i>can<\/i> be achieved, but also to ensure the active management and assessment of benefit delivery. Since the emergence and popularisation of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Balanced_scorecard\" title=\"Balanced scorecard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95223a923460879784d4796e2928d658\">Balanced scorecard<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaplan_and_Norton_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaplan_and_Norton-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> there has been huge interest in business performance management but not much serious effort has been made to relate business performance management to the benefits of information technology investments and the introduction of new <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_system\" title=\"Information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142b46020d5e573e81dabce3b59c33ec\">information systems<\/a> until the turn of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Millennium\" title=\"Millennium\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe35b079354923f54c3bebf9b51a8b1f\">millennium<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward2_26-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward2-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Business strategy<\/b>: Although a long way from the workaday issues of managing information in organisations, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strategy\" title=\"Strategy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d14f217dfcf48b91010a4808b3b96b34\">strategy<\/a> in most organisations simply has to be informed by information technology and information systems opportunities, whether to address poor performance or to improve differentiation and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competition_(companies)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Competition (companies)\" data-key=\"30a9a9d579d77f9666629febf8fd49d6\">competitiveness<\/a>. Strategic analysis tools such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Value_chain\" title=\"Value chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3d880dcb63554da62a8d558a3c1217e\">value chain<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Critical_success_factor\" title=\"Critical success factor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3385e2f7d5460ddf6cb2046550e3803d\">critical success factor<\/a> analysis are directly dependent on proper attention to the information that is (or could be) managed <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward_and_Peppard-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>The information management processes<\/dt><\/dl>\n<p>Even with full capability and competency within the six knowledge areas, it is argued that things can still go wrong. The problem lies in the migration of ideas and information management value from one area of competency to another. Summarising what Bytheway explains in some detail (and supported by selected secondary references):<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bytheway3_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bytheway3-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>Projects<\/b>: Information technology is without value until it is engineered into information systems that meet the needs of the business by means of good <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_management\" title=\"Project management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6eafec51967ae43f1d3054bbbbcb85a\">project management<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schwalbe_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schwalbe-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Business change<\/b>: The best information systems succeed in delivering benefits through the achievement of change within the business systems, but people do not appreciate change that makes new demands upon their skills in the ways that new information systems often do. Contrary to common expectations, there is some evidence that the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_sector\" title=\"Public sector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a16b1fbf020611b1e8622b0002d0c24\">public sector<\/a> has succeeded with information technology induced .<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Scholl_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Scholl-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Business operations<\/b>: With new systems in place, with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">business processes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business information\" data-key=\"48785a84955b0db9d17b4b6daf6e200b\">business information<\/a> improved, and with staff finally ready and able to work with new processes, then the business can get to work, even when new systems extend far beyond the boundaries of a single business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Seed_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seed-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Performance management<\/b>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Investment\" title=\"Investment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a7abfb6ee06c9e2df07c109483a2b6\">Investments<\/a> are no longer solely about financial results, financial success must be balanced with internal efficiency, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_satisfaction\" title=\"Customer satisfaction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da943f056f158a35a0296f3fcbe30f94\">customer satisfaction<\/a>, and with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organisational_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Organisational learning\" data-key=\"e824ce539bb56b2443ed61332f1d732b\">organisational learning<\/a> and development.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaplan_and_Norton_36-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaplan_and_Norton-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Summary\">Summary<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are always many ways to see a business, and the information management viewpoint is only one way. It is important to remember that other areas of business activity will also contribute to strategy \u2013 it is not only good information management that moves a business forwards. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corporate_governance\" title=\"Corporate governance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8355325e7a974e27681abe41fba0897e\">Corporate governance<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_resource_management\" title=\"Human resource management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67af1c07f791dfa2ff0207e3a0ada027\">human resource management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_development\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Product development\" data-key=\"83ea5a64b25d10b04ef636a62fbb6245\">product development<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marketing\" title=\"Marketing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fc25da4af284af2b3cae5726440415e\">marketing<\/a> will all have an important role to play in strategic ways, and we must not see one domain of activity alone as the sole source of strategic success. On the other hand, corporate governance, human resource management, product development and marketing are all dependent on effective information management, and so in the final analysis our competency to manage information well, on the broad basis that is offered here, can be said to be predominant.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Operationalising_information_management\">Operationalising information management<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Managing_requisite_change\">Managing requisite change<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Organizations are often confronted with many information management challenges and issues at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_level\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Operational level\" data-key=\"4af1b4e0d4cbd9930895b7abf51abc2e\">operational level<\/a>, especially when <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organisational_change\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Organisational change\" data-key=\"dedc46bd3adcee43455019dc562527f4\">organisational change<\/a> is engendered. The novelty of new <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_architecture\" title=\"Systems architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e578d55a1b1faa6049ce08a6ef48e7a\">systems architectures<\/a> and a lack of experience with new styles of information management requires a level of organisational <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_management\" title=\"Change management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2164afa9532c821ea7b2c94786e71c\">change management<\/a> that is notoriously difficult to deliver. As a result of a general organisational reluctance to change, to enable new forms of information management, there might be (for example): a shortfall in the requisite resources, a failure to acknowledge new classes of information and the new procedures that use them, a lack of support from senior management leading to a loss of strategic vision, and even political manoeuvring that undermines the operation of the whole organisation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Knights_and_Murray_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Knights_and_Murray-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> However, the implementation of new forms of information management should normally lead to operational benefits.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_early_work_of_Galbraith\">The early work of Galbraith<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In early work, taking an information processing view of organisation design, Jay <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Galbraith\" title=\"Galbraith\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f0211219cf4edbded0a45a7f061d966\">Galbraith<\/a> has identified five tactical areas to increase information processing capacity and reduce the need for information processing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Galbraith_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Galbraith-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Developing, implementing, and monitoring all aspects of the \u201cenvironment\u201d of an organization.<\/li>\n<li>Creation of slack resources so as to decrease the load on the overall <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchy\" title=\"Hierarchy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8bde34faa63a301a4050750d3a51592\">hierarchy<\/a> of resources and to reduce information processing relating to overload.<\/li>\n<li>Creation of self-contained tasks with defined boundaries and that can achieve proper closure, and with all the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource\" title=\"Resource\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c7cd6da7942777a503a806b9efabd61\">resources<\/a> at hand required to perform the task.<\/li>\n<li>Recognition of lateral relations that cut across functional units, so as to move decision power to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">process<\/a> instead of fragmenting it within the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchy\" title=\"Hierarchy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8bde34faa63a301a4050750d3a51592\">hierarchy<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Investment in vertical information systems that route <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_flow\" title=\"Information flow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a64302060028fad9eb9fdd66270d37e3\">information flows<\/a> for a specific task (or set of tasks) in accordance to the applied <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_logic\" title=\"Business logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5ec7e1dc2b3980076ad94c1661ab098\">business logic<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_matrix_organisation\">The matrix organisation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The lateral relations concept leads to an organizational form that is different from the simple hierarchy, the \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Matrix_organization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Matrix organization\" data-key=\"85b20af5cfa81fab250959080ed37d41\">matrix organization<\/a>\u201d. This brings together the vertical (hierarchical) view of an organisation and the horizontal (product or project) view of the work that it does visible to the outside world. The creation of a matrix organization is one management response to a persistent fluidity of external demand, avoiding multifarious and spurious responses to episodic demands that tend to be dealt with individually.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Balanced_scorecard\" title=\"Balanced scorecard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95223a923460879784d4796e2928d658\">Balanced scorecard<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">Business process<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_management\" title=\"Content management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ddb6b50fbc33bcfbf5f77cb58c5ead1\">Content management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_management\" title=\"Data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c54f822d2961a56b862b2fe07cff86\">Data management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_excellence\" title=\"Information excellence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07eceb70649d5795b68c26907deddf3b\">Information excellence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Management_Body_of_Knowledge\" title=\"Information Management Body of Knowledge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a248f133f63bb1d6e3553d8b14c22e69\">Information Management Body of Knowledge<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Resources_Management_Journal\" title=\"Information Resources Management Journal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c15a5f8d7ebca51515ab64504e3c789\">Information Resources Management Journal<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_system\" title=\"Information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142b46020d5e573e81dabce3b59c33ec\">Information system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">Information technology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Global_Information_Management\" title=\"Journal of Global Information Management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1c8a08f009257c38bcda878da454b63\">Journal of Global Information Management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master_of_Information_Management\" title=\"Master of Information Management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32f3293665f7e130270618959719f33f\">Master of Information Management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_management\" title=\"Project management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6eafec51967ae43f1d3054bbbbcb85a\">Project management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Records_management\" title=\"Records management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"776f0cc59b663e870b7d26c6b5868575\">Records management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strategic_management\" title=\"Strategic management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c074b8c749a3415f43d9ec27f4e7375\">Strategic management<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Evans-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Evans_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Evans, C., 1979. <i>The Mighty Micro<\/i>, London: Victor Gollancz.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Venkat0-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Venkat0_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Venkatraman, N., 1994. IT-enabled business transformation: from automation to business scope redefinition. <i>Sloan Management Review<\/i>, 35(2), pp.73\u201387<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cross_and_Earl-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cross_and_Earl_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cross_and_Earl_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Cross, J. &amp; Earl, M., 1997. 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Using GPS to learn significant locations and predict movement across multiple users. <i>Personal and Ubiquitous Computing<\/i>, 7(5), pp.275\u2013286<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Shirky-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Shirky_28-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shirky, C., 2005. Shirky: Ontology is Overrated -- Categories, Links, and Tags. <i>Clay Shirky's Writings About the Internet<\/i>. Available at: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/shirky.com\/writings\/ontology_overrated.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/shirky.com\/writings\/ontology_overrated.html<\/a> [Accessed May 23, 2013]<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Noy-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Noy_29-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Noy, N.F., McGuinness, D.L. &amp; others, 2001. Ontology development 101: A guide to creating your first ontology, <i>Stanford knowledge systems laboratory technical report KSL-01-05 and Stanford medical informatics technical report SMI-2001-0880<\/i><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Chu-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Chu_30-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Chu, C. et al., 2007. Map-reduce for machine learning on multicore. <i>Advances in neural information processing systems<\/i>, 19, p.281<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IMBOK-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-IMBOK_31-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">IMBOK, 2004. <i>The Information Management Body of Knowledge<\/i>. Available at: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.imbok.org\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.imbok.org<\/a> [Accessed May 12, 2015]<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bytheway2-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bytheway2_32-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bytheway, A., 2015. <i>Investing in Information: the Information Management Body of Knowledge<\/i>, Geneva: Springer,\n p29<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Carr-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Carr_33-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Carr, N., 2003. IT doesn't matter. In <i>Wringing real value from IT<\/i>. HBR OnPoint, pp. 3\u201310<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Belmiro0-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Belmiro0_34-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Belmiro, T.R. et al., 2000. Are BPR practitioners really addressing business processes? <i>International Journal of Operations &amp; Production Management<\/i>, 20(10), pp.1183\u20131203<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Davenport-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Davenport_35-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Davenport, T.H. &amp; Short, J., 2003. Information technology and business process redesign. <i>Operations management: critical perspectives on business and management<\/i>, 1, p.97<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Kaplan_and_Norton-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Kaplan_and_Norton_36-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Kaplan_and_Norton_36-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Kaplan, R. &amp; Norton, D., 1996. <i>The balanced scorecard - translating strategy into action<\/i>, Boston MA: Harvard University Press<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bytheway3-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bytheway3_37-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bytheway, A., 2015. <i>Investing in Information: the Information Management Body of Knowledge<\/i>, Geneva: Springer,\n p31<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Schwalbe-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Schwalbe_38-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Schwalbe, K., 2013. <i>Information technology project management<\/i>, Cengage Learning<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Scholl-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Scholl_39-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Scholl, H.J., 2005. E-government-induced business process change (BPC): An empirical study of current practices. <i>International Journal of Electronic Government Research<\/i> (IJEGR), 1(2), pp.27\u201349<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Seed-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Seed_40-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Saeed, K.A., Malhotra, M.K. &amp; Grover, V., 2005. Examining the Impact of Interorganizational Systems on Process Efficiency and Sourcing Leverage in Buyer\u2013Supplier Dyads. <i>Decision Sciences<\/i>, 36(3), pp.365\u2013396<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Knights_and_Murray-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Knights_and_Murray_41-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Knights, D. &amp; Murray, F., 1994. <i>Managers Divided<\/i>, Chichester: John Wiley<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Galbraith-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Galbraith_42-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Galbraith, J.R., 1977. <i>Organization design<\/i>, Addison Wesley<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1134653256\" \/>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1409\nCached time: 20240108094411\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.325 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.473 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1997\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 102851\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 3582\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 9\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 64821\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.130\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4405095\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 351.259 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>19.75% 69.375 1 Template:Information_science\n19.32% 67.853 1 Template:Sidebar\n14.32% 50.295 1 Template:Short_description\n13.89% 48.802 8 Template:Navbox\n13.70% 48.119 1 Template:Commons_category\n13.69% 48.101 2 Template:Sister_project\n13.28% 46.632 2 Template:Side_box\n 9.33% 32.769 1 Template:Informatics\n 9.31% 32.707 1 Template:Authority_control\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:464877-0!canonical and timestamp 20240108094410 and revision id 1187447184. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_management\" data-key=\"6eb7b16b6cf9e903b35914f058a684c1\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110144004\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.185 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.408 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 116549\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 344.746 1 wikipedia:Information_management\n100.00% 344.746 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10408-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110144004 and revision id 45525. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73_images":[],"f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73_timestamp":1704907001,"86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_type":"article","86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_title":"Encryption","86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Encryption","86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_plaintext":"\n\nEncryptionFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchProcess of converting plaintext to ciphertext\nThis article is about algorithms for encryption and decryption. For an overview of cryptographic technology in general, see Cryptography. For the album by Pro-jekt, see Encryption (album).\n\"Encrypt\" redirects here. For the film, see Encrypt (film).\nA simple illustration of public-key cryptography, one of the most widely used forms of encryption\n\nIn cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding information. This process converts the original representation of the information, known as plaintext, into an alternative form known as ciphertext. Ideally, only authorized parties can decipher a ciphertext back to plaintext and access the original information. Encryption does not itself prevent interference but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor.\nFor technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses a pseudo-random encryption key generated by an algorithm. It is possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key but, for a well-designed encryption scheme, considerable computational resources and skills are required. An authorized recipient can easily decrypt the message with the key provided by the originator to recipients but not to unauthorized users.\nHistorically, various forms of encryption have been used to aid in cryptography. Early encryption techniques were often used in military messaging. Since then, new techniques have emerged and become commonplace in all areas of modern computing.[1] Modern encryption schemes use the concepts of public-key and symmetric-key.[1] Modern encryption techniques ensure security because modern computers are inefficient at cracking the encryption.\n\n\n\nHistory \nAncient \nOne of the earliest forms of encryption is symbol replacement, which was first found in the tomb of Khnumhotep II, who lived in 1900 BC Egypt. Symbol replacement encryption is \u201cnon-standard,\u201d which means that the symbols require a cipher or key to understand. This type of early encryption was used throughout Ancient Greece and Rome for military purposes.[2] One of the most famous military encryption developments was the Caesar Cipher, which was a system in which a letter in normal text is shifted down a fixed number of positions down the alphabet to get the encoded letter. A message encoded with this type of encryption could be decoded with the fixed number on the Caesar Cipher.[3]\nAround 800 AD, Arab mathematician Al-Kindi developed the technique of frequency analysis \u2013 which was an attempt to systematically crack Caesar ciphers.[2] This technique looked at the frequency of letters in the encrypted message to determine the appropriate shift. This technique was rendered ineffective after the creation of the polyalphabetic cipher by Leon Battista Alberti in 1465, which incorporated different sets of languages. In order for frequency analysis to be useful, the person trying to decrypt the message would need to know which language the sender chose.[2]\n\n 19th\u201320th century \nAround 1790, Thomas Jefferson theorized a cipher to encode and decode messages in order to provide a more secure way of military correspondence. The cipher, known today as the Wheel Cipher or the Jefferson Disk, although never actually built, was theorized as a spool that could jumble an English message up to 36 characters. The message could be decrypted by plugging in the jumbled message to a receiver with an identical cipher.[4]\nA similar device to the Jefferson Disk, the M-94, was developed in 1917 independently by US Army Major Joseph Mauborne. This device was used in U.S. military communications until 1942.[5]\nIn World War II, the Axis powers used a more advanced version of the M-94 called the Enigma Machine. The Enigma Machine was more complex because unlike the Jefferson Wheel and the M-94, each day the jumble of letters switched to a completely new combination. Each day's combination was only known by the Axis, so many thought the only way to break the code would be to try over 17,000 combinations within 24 hours.[6] The Allies used computing power to severely limit the number of reasonable combinations they needed to check every day, leading to the breaking of the Enigma Machine.\n\nModern \nToday, encryption is used in the transfer of communication over the Internet for security and commerce.[1] As computing power continues to increase, computer encryption is constantly evolving to prevent eavesdropping attacks.[7] With one of the first \"modern\" cipher suites, DES, utilizing a 56-bit key with 72,057,594,037,927,936 possibilities being able to be cracked in 22 hours and 15 minutes by EFF's DES cracker in 1999, which used a brute-force method of cracking. Modern encryption standards often use stronger key sizes often 256, like AES(256-bit mode), TwoFish, ChaCha20-Poly1305, Serpent(configurable up to 512-bit). Cipher suites utilizing a 128-bit or higher key, like AES, will not be able to be brute-forced due to the total amount of keys of 3.4028237e+38 possibilities. The most likely option for cracking ciphers with high key size is to find vulnerabilities in the cipher itself, like inherent biases and backdoors. For example, RC4, a stream cipher, was cracked due to inherent biases and vulnerabilities in the cipher.\n\nEncryption in cryptography \nIn the context of cryptography, encryption serves as a mechanism to ensure confidentiality.[1] Since data may be visible on the Internet, sensitive information such as passwords and personal communication may be exposed to potential interceptors.[1] The process of encrypting and decrypting messages involves keys. The two main types of keys in cryptographic systems are symmetric-key and public-key (also known as asymmetric-key).[8][9]\nMany complex cryptographic algorithms often use simple modular arithmetic in their implementations.[10]\n\nTypes \nIn symmetric-key schemes,[11] the encryption and decryption keys are the same. Communicating parties must have the same key in order to achieve secure communication. The German Enigma Machine utilized a new symmetric-key each day for encoding and decoding messages.\nIn public-key encryption schemes, the encryption key is published for anyone to use and encrypt messages. However, only the receiving party has access to the decryption key that enables messages to be read.[12] Public-key encryption was first described in a secret document in 1973;[13] beforehand, all encryption schemes were symmetric-key (also called private-key).[14]:\u200a478\u200a Although published subsequently, the work of Diffie and Hellman was published in a journal with a large readership, and the value of the methodology was explicitly described.[15] The method became known as the Diffie-Hellman key exchange.\nRSA (Rivest\u2013Shamir\u2013Adleman) is another notable public-key cryptosystem. Created in 1978, it is still used today for applications involving digital signatures.[16] Using number theory, the RSA algorithm selects two prime numbers, which help generate both the encryption and decryption keys.[17]\nA publicly available public-key encryption application called Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) was written in 1991 by Phil Zimmermann, and distributed free of charge with source code. PGP was purchased by Symantec in 2010 and is regularly updated.[18]\n\nUses \nEncryption has long been used by militaries and governments to facilitate secret communication. It is now commonly used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. For example, the Computer Security Institute reported that in 2007, 71% of companies surveyed utilized encryption for some of their data in transit, and 53% utilized encryption for some of their data in storage.[19] Encryption can be used to protect data \"at rest\", such as information stored on computers and storage devices (e.g. USB flash drives). In recent years, there have been numerous reports of confidential data, such as customers' personal records, being exposed through loss or theft of laptops or backup drives; encrypting such files at rest helps protect them if physical security measures fail.[20][21][22] Digital rights management systems, which prevent unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted material and protect software against reverse engineering (see also copy protection), is another somewhat different example of using encryption on data at rest.[23]\nEncryption is also used to protect data in transit, for example data being transferred via networks (e.g. the Internet, e-commerce), mobile telephones, wireless microphones, wireless intercom systems, Bluetooth devices and bank automatic teller machines. There have been numerous reports of data in transit being intercepted in recent years.[24] Data should also be encrypted when transmitted across networks in order to protect against eavesdropping of network traffic by unauthorized users.[25]\n\nData erasure \nMain article: Data erasure\nConventional methods for permanently deleting data from a storage device involve overwriting the device's whole content with zeros, ones, or other patterns \u2013 a process which can take a significant amount of time, depending on the capacity and the type of storage medium. Cryptography offers a way of making the erasure almost instantaneous. This method is called crypto-shredding. An example implementation of this method can be found on iOS devices, where the cryptographic key is kept in a dedicated 'effaceable storage'.[26] Because the key is stored on the same device, this setup on its own does not offer full privacy or security protection if an unauthorized person gains physical access to the device.\n\nLimitations \nEncryption is used in the 21st century to protect digital data and information systems. As computing power increased over the years, encryption technology has only become more advanced and secure. However, this advancement in technology has also exposed a potential limitation of today's encryption methods.\nThe length of the encryption key is an indicator of the strength of the encryption method.[27] For example, the original encryption key, DES (Data Encryption Standard), was 56 bits, meaning it had 2^56 combination possibilities. With today's computing power, a 56-bit key is no longer secure, being vulnerable to brute force attacks.[28]\nQuantum computing utilizes properties of quantum mechanics in order to process large amounts of data simultaneously. Quantum computing has been found to achieve computing speeds thousands of times faster than today's supercomputers.[29] This computing power presents a challenge to today's encryption technology. For example, RSA encryption utilizes the multiplication of very large prime numbers to create a semiprime number for its public key. Decoding this key without its private key requires this semiprime number to be factored, which can take a very long time to do with modern computers. It would take a supercomputer anywhere between weeks to months to factor in this key.[citation needed ] However, quantum computing can use quantum algorithms to factor this semiprime number in the same amount of time it takes for normal computers to generate it. This would make all data protected by current public-key encryption vulnerable to quantum computing attacks.[30] Other encryption techniques like elliptic curve cryptography and symmetric key encryption are also vulnerable to quantum computing.[citation needed ]\nWhile quantum computing could be a threat to encryption security in the future, quantum computing as it currently stands is still very limited. Quantum computing currently is not commercially available, cannot handle large amounts of code, and only exists as computational devices, not computers.[31] Furthermore, quantum computing advancements will be able to be utilized in favor of encryption as well. The National Security Agency (NSA) is currently preparing post-quantum encryption standards for the future.[32] Quantum encryption promises a level of security that will be able to counter the threat of quantum computing.[31]\n\nAttacks and countermeasures \nEncryption is an important tool but is not sufficient alone to ensure the security or privacy of sensitive information throughout its lifetime. Most applications of encryption protect information only at rest or in transit, leaving sensitive data in clear text and potentially vulnerable to improper disclosure during processing, such as by a cloud service for example. Homomorphic encryption and secure multi-party computation are emerging techniques to compute on encrypted data; these techniques are general and Turing complete but incur high computational and\/or communication costs.\nIn response to encryption of data at rest, cyber-adversaries have developed new types of attacks. These more recent threats to encryption of data at rest include cryptographic attacks,[33] stolen ciphertext attacks,[34] attacks on encryption keys,[35] insider attacks, data corruption or integrity attacks,[36] data destruction attacks, and ransomware attacks. Data fragmentation[37] and active defense[38] data protection technologies attempt to counter some of these attacks, by distributing, moving, or mutating ciphertext so it is more difficult to identify, steal, corrupt, or destroy.[39]\n\nThe debate around encryption \nThe question of balancing the need for national security with the right to privacy has been debated for years, since encryption has become critical in today's digital society. The modern encryption debate[40] started around the '90 when US government tried to ban cryptography because, according to them, it would threaten national security. The debate is polarized around two opposing views. Those who see strong encryption as a problem making it easier for criminals to hide their illegal acts online and others who argue that encryption keep digital communications safe. The debate heated up in 2014, when Big Tech like Apple and Google set encryption by default in their devices. This was the start of a series of controversies that puts governments, companies and internet users at stake.\n\nIntegrity protection of ciphertexts \nEncryption, by itself, can protect the confidentiality of messages, but other techniques are still needed to protect the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, verification of a message authentication code (MAC) or a digital signature usually done by a hashing algorithm or a PGP signature. Authenticated encryption algorithms are designed to provide both encryption and integrity protection together. Standards for cryptographic software and hardware to perform encryption are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single error in system design or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption. See for example traffic analysis, TEMPEST, or Trojan horse.[41]\nIntegrity protection mechanisms such as MACs and digital signatures must be applied to the ciphertext when it is first created, typically on the same device used to compose the message, to protect a message end-to-end along its full transmission path; otherwise, any node between the sender and the encryption agent could potentially tamper with it. Encrypting at the time of creation is only secure if the encryption device itself has correct keys and has not been tampered with. If an endpoint device has been configured to trust a root certificate that an attacker controls, for example, then the attacker can both inspect and tamper with encrypted data by performing a man-in-the-middle attack anywhere along the message's path. The common practice of TLS interception by network operators represents a controlled and institutionally sanctioned form of such an attack, but countries have also attempted to employ such attacks as a form of control and censorship.[42]\n\nCiphertext length and padding \nMain article: Padding (cryptography)\nEven when encryption correctly hides a message's content and it cannot be tampered with at rest or in transit, a message's length is a form of metadata that can still leak sensitive information about the message. For example, the well-known CRIME and BREACH attacks against HTTPS were side-channel attacks that relied on information leakage via the length of encrypted content.[43] Traffic analysis is a broad class of techniques that often employs message lengths to infer sensitive implementation about traffic flows by aggregating information about a large number of messages.\nPadding a message's payload before encrypting it can help obscure the cleartext's true length, at the cost of increasing the ciphertext's size and introducing or increasing bandwidth overhead. Messages may be padded randomly or deterministically, with each approach having different tradeoffs. Encrypting and padding messages to form padded uniform random blobs or PURBs is a practice guaranteeing that the cipher text leaks no metadata about its cleartext's content, and leaks asymptotically minimal \n \n \n \n O\n (\n log\n \u2061\n log\n \u2061\n M\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(\\log \\log M)}\n \n\n information via its length.[44]\n\n\nSee also \n\nCryptosystem\nCold boot attack\nCyberspace Electronic Security Act (US)\nDictionary attack\nDisk encryption\nEncrypted function\nExport of cryptography\nGeo-blocking\nIndistinguishability obfuscation\nKey management\nMultiple encryption\nPhysical Layer Encryption\nRainbow table\nRotor machine\nSubstitution cipher\nTelevision encryption\nTokenization (data security)\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c d e Kessler, Gary (November 17, 2006). \"An Overview of Cryptography\". Princeton University. \n\n^ a b c \"History of Cryptography\". Binance Academy. Archived from the original on 2020-04-26. Retrieved 2020-04-02 . \n\n^ \"Caesar Cipher in Cryptography\". GeeksforGeeks. 2016-06-02. Retrieved 2020-04-02 . \n\n^ \"Wheel Cipher\". www.monticello.org. Retrieved 2020-04-02 . \n\n^ \"M-94\". www.cryptomuseum.com. Retrieved 2020-04-02 . \n\n^ Hern, Alex (2014-11-14). \"How did the Enigma machine work?\". The Guardian. ISSN&#160;0261-3077. Retrieved 2020-04-02 . \n\n^ Unisys, Dr Glen E. Newton (2013-05-07). \"The Evolution of Encryption\". Wired. ISSN&#160;1059-1028. Retrieved 2020-04-02 . \n\n^ \"Key Cryptography \u2013 an overview | ScienceDirect Topics\". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2021-02-03 . \n\n^ Stubbs, Rob. \"Classification of Cryptographic Keys\". www.cryptomathic.com. Retrieved 2021-02-03 . \n\n^ \"Chapter 3. Modular Arithmetic\". www.doc.ic.ac.uk. Retrieved 2021-08-15 . \n\n^ \"Symmetric-key encryption software\". Archived from the original on 2022-03-10. Retrieved 2022-02-15 . \n\n^ Bellare, Mihir. \"Public-Key Encryption in a Multi-user Setting: Security Proofs and Improvements.\" Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2000. p. 1. \n\n^ \"Public-Key Encryption \u2013 how GCHQ got there first!\". gchq.gov.uk. Archived from the original on May 19, 2010. \n\n^ Goldreich, Oded. Foundations of Cryptography: Volume 2, Basic Applications. Vol. 2. Cambridge university press, 2004. \n\n^ Diffie, Whitfield; Hellman, Martin (1976), New directions in cryptography, vol.&#160;22, IEEE transactions on Information Theory, pp.&#160;644\u2013654 \n\n^ Kelly, Maria (December 7, 2009). \"The RSA Algorithm: A Mathematical History of the Ubiquitous Cryptological Algorithm\" (PDF) . Swarthmore College Computer Society. Retrieved March 30, 2022 . \n\n^ Prasetyo, Deny; Widianto, Eko Didik; Indasari, Ike Pratiwi (2019-09-06). \"Short Message Service Encoding Using the Rivest-Shamir-Adleman Algorithm\". Jurnal Online Informatika. 4 (1): 39. doi:10.15575\/join.v4i1.264 . ISSN&#160;2527-9165. \n\n^ Kirk, Jeremy (April 29, 2010). \"Symantec buys encryption specialist PGP for $300M\". Computerworld. Archived from the original on January 31, 2020. Retrieved January 31, 2020 . \n\n^ Robert Richardson, 2008 CSI Computer Crime and Security Survey at 19.i.cmpnet.com \n\n^ Keane, J. (13 January 2016). \"Why stolen laptops still cause data breaches, and what's being done to stop them\". PCWorld. IDG Communications, Inc. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Castricone, D.M. (2 February 2018). \"Health Care Group News: $3.5 M OCR Settlement for Five Breaches Affecting Fewer Than 500 Patients Each\". The National Law Review. National Law Forum LLC. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Bek, E. (19 May 2016). \"Protect Your Company from Theft: Self Encrypting Drives\". Western Digital Blog. Western Digital Corporation. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"DRM\". Electronic Frontier Foundation. \n\n^ Fiber Optic Networks Vulnerable to Attack, Information Security Magazine, November 15, 2006, Sandra Kay Miller \n\n^ \"Data Encryption in Transit Guideline | Information Security Office\". security.berkeley.edu. \n\n^ \"Welcome\". Apple Support. \n\n^ Abood, Omar (July 2018). \"A Survey on Cryptography Algorithms\". International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. 6: 495\u2013516 \u2013 via ResearchGate. \n\n^ \"Encryption methods: An overview\". IONOS Digital Guide. Retrieved 2022-10-07 . \n\n^ \"Quantum computers vastly outperform supercomputers when it comes to energy efficiency\". Physics World. 2020-05-01. Retrieved 2021-05-02 . \n\n^ Sharma, Moolchand; Choudhary, Vikas; Bhatia, R. S.; Malik, Sahil; Raina, Anshuman; Khandelwal, Harshit (2021-04-03). \"Leveraging the power of quantum computing for breaking RSA encryption\". Cyber-Physical Systems. 7 (2): 73\u201392. doi:10.1080\/23335777.2020.1811384. ISSN&#160;2333-5777. S2CID&#160;225312133. \n\n^ a b Solenov, Dmitry; Brieler, Jay; Scherrer, Jeffrey F. (2018). \"The Potential of Quantum Computing and Machine Learning to Advance Clinical Research and Change the Practice of Medicine\". Missouri Medicine. 115 (5): 463\u2013467. ISSN&#160;0026-6620. PMC&#160;6205278 . PMID&#160;30385997. \n\n^ \"Post-Quantum Cybersecurity Resources\". www.nsa.gov. Archived from the original on 2021-01-18. Retrieved 2021-01-16 . \n\n^ Yan Li; Nakul Sanjay Dhotre; Yasuhiro Ohara; Thomas M. Kroeger; Ethan L. Miller; Darrell D. E. Long. \"Horus: Fine-Grained Encryption-Based Security for Large-Scale Storage\" (PDF) . www.ssrc.ucsc.edu. Discussion of encryption weaknesses for petabyte scale datasets. \n\n^ \"The Padding Oracle Attack \u2013 why crypto is terrifying\". Robert Heaton. Retrieved 2016-12-25 . \n\n^ \"Researchers crack open unusually advanced malware that hid for 5 years\". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2016-12-25 . \n\n^ \"New cloud attack takes full control of virtual machines with little effort\". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2016-12-25 . \n\n^ Examples of data fragmentation technologies include Tahoe-LAFS and Storj. \n\n^ Burshteyn, Mike (2016-12-22). \"What does 'Active Defense' mean?\". CryptoMove. Retrieved 2016-12-25 . [permanent dead link ] \n\n^ CryptoMove Archived 2021-02-06 at the Wayback Machine is the first technology to continuously move, mutate, and re-encrypt ciphertext as a form of data protection. \n\n^ Catania, Simone. \"The Modern Encryption Debate: What's at Stake?\". CircleID. \n\n^ \"What is a Trojan Virus \u2013 Malware Protection \u2013 Kaspersky Lab US\". 3 October 2023. \n\n^ Kumar, Mohit (July 2019). \"Kazakhstan Begins Intercepting HTTPS Internet Traffic Of All Citizens Forcefully\". The Hacker News. \n\n^ Sheffer, Y.; Holz, R.; Saint-Andre, P. (February 2015). Summarizing Known Attacks on Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram TLS (DTLS) (Report). \n\n^ Nikitin, Kirill; Barman, Ludovic; Lueks, Wouter; Underwood, Matthew; Hubaux, Jean-Pierre; Ford, Bryan (2019). \"Reducing Metadata Leakage from Encrypted Files and Communication with PURBs\" (PDF) . Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PoPETS). 2019 (4): 6\u201333. arXiv:1806.03160 . doi:10.2478\/popets-2019-0056 . S2CID&#160;47011059. \n\n\nFurther reading \nFouch\u00e9 Gaines, Helen (1939), Cryptanalysis: A Study of Ciphers and Their Solution , New York: Dover Publications Inc, ISBN&#160;978-0486200972 \nKahn, David (1967), The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing (ISBN&#160;0-684-83130-9)\nPreneel, Bart (2000), \"Advances in Cryptology \u2013 EUROCRYPT 2000\", Springer Berlin Heidelberg, ISBN&#160;978-3-540-67517-4\nSinkov, Abraham (1966): Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach, Mathematical Association of America. ISBN&#160;0-88385-622-0\nTenzer, Theo (2021): SUPER SECRETO \u2013 The Third Epoch of Cryptography: Multiple, exponential, quantum-secure and above all, simple and practical Encryption for Everyone, Norderstedt, ISBN&#160;978-3-755-76117-4.\nLindell, Yehuda; Katz, Jonathan (2014), Introduction to modern cryptography, Hall\/CRC, ISBN&#160;978-1466570269 \nErmoshina, Ksenia; Musiani, Francesca (2022), Concealing for Freedom: The Making of Encryption, Secure Messaging and Digital Liberties (Foreword by Laura DeNardis)(open access) (PDF) , Manchester, UK: matteringpress.org, ISBN&#160;978-1-912729-22-7, archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-06-02 \n\n\n \nLook up encryption in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\n\n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Cryptographic algorithms .\n\nvteCryptographyGeneral\nHistory of cryptography\nOutline of cryptography\nCryptographic protocol\nAuthentication protocol\nCryptographic 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dialers\nMalware\nPayload\nPhishing\nPolymorphic engine\nPrivilege escalation\nRansomware\nRootkits\nBootkits\nScareware\nShellcode\nSpamming\nSocial engineering\nScreen scraping\nSpyware\nSoftware bugs\nTrojan horses\nHardware Trojans\nRemote access trojans\nVulnerability\nWeb shells\nWiper\nWorms\nSQL injection\nRogue security software\nZombie\nDefenses\nApplication security\nSecure coding\nSecure by default\nSecure by design\nMisuse case\nComputer access control\nAuthentication\nMulti-factor authentication\nAuthorization\nComputer security software\nAntivirus software\nSecurity-focused operating system\nData-centric security\nCode obfuscation\nData masking\nEncryption\nFirewall\nIntrusion detection system\nHost-based intrusion detection system (HIDS)\nAnomaly detection\nSecurity information and event management (SIEM)\nMobile secure gateway\nRuntime application self-protection\nSite isolation\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Encryption\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Encryption<\/a>\nCategory: Computer securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 8 May 2018, at 22:46.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 5,646 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Encryption rootpage-Encryption skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Encryption<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Process of converting plaintext to ciphertext<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">This article is about algorithms for encryption and decryption. For an overview of cryptographic technology in general, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">Cryptography<\/a>. For the album by Pro-jekt, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption_(album)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Encryption (album)\" data-key=\"ca230e0114fe543b63b9a24debc9bcd3\">Encryption (album)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"Encrypt\" redirects here. For the film, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encrypt_(film)\" title=\"Encrypt (film)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bbf5dcc537014bfc7ce0d92b11c11506\">Encrypt (film)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Public_key_encryption_keys.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c9b7cf75432fb451ab83f40451e16a4\"><img alt=\"Text being turned into nonsense, then gets converted back to original\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/70\/Public_key_encryption_keys.svg\/300px-Public_key_encryption_keys.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"127\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A simple illustration of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public-key_cryptography\" title=\"Public-key cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da4f15fe41ac17b9842b2d0202406ddb\">public-key cryptography<\/a>, one of the most widely used forms of encryption<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptography<\/a>, <b>encryption<\/b> is the process of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code\" title=\"Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d7f2acbf4789013eb45ff8df5bd466c\">encoding<\/a> information. This process converts the original representation of the information, known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plaintext\" title=\"Plaintext\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0624d1b7ef7d237e8eecb300c166f1a1\">plaintext<\/a>, into an alternative form known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ciphertext\" title=\"Ciphertext\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4ee67116f844470f23a8861408a639f\">ciphertext<\/a>. Ideally, only authorized parties can decipher a ciphertext back to plaintext and access the original information. Encryption does not itself prevent interference but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor.\n<\/p><p>For technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pseudo-random\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Pseudo-random\" data-key=\"4a8a469c826ad755a81e46641a3a58ce\">pseudo-random<\/a> encryption <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_(cryptography)\" title=\"Key (cryptography)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f386cde7c8c131fd3ca8b2e725775fcd\">key<\/a> generated by an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithm\" title=\"Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b91430604726f884a846b998f41902e\">algorithm<\/a>. It is possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key but, for a well-designed encryption scheme, considerable computational resources and skills are required. An authorized recipient can easily decrypt the message with the key provided by the originator to recipients but not to unauthorized users.\n<\/p><p>Historically, various forms of encryption have been used to aid in cryptography. Early encryption techniques were often used in military messaging. Since then, new techniques have emerged and become commonplace in all areas of modern computing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Modern encryption schemes use the concepts of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public-key_cryptography\" title=\"Public-key cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da4f15fe41ac17b9842b2d0202406ddb\">public-key<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symmetric-key_algorithm\" title=\"Symmetric-key algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c63e3e6e25fa44204806ac6afb489f41\">symmetric-key<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Modern encryption techniques ensure security because modern computers are inefficient at cracking the encryption.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ancient\">Ancient<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of the earliest forms of encryption is symbol replacement, which was first found in the tomb of Khnumhotep II, who lived in 1900 BC Egypt. Symbol replacement encryption is \u201cnon-standard,\u201d which means that the symbols require a cipher or key to understand. This type of early encryption was used throughout Ancient Greece and Rome for military purposes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> One of the most famous military encryption developments was the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caesar_Cipher\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Caesar Cipher\" data-key=\"99cd6c43b4c7c44a51e18032b59cb331\">Caesar Cipher<\/a>, which was a system in which a letter in normal text is shifted down a fixed number of positions down the alphabet to get the encoded letter. A message encoded with this type of encryption could be decoded with the fixed number on the Caesar Cipher.<b><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><\/b>\n<\/p><p>Around 800 AD, Arab mathematician <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Al-Kindi\" title=\"Al-Kindi\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa62a5b6982f838428e24ffa206f769d\">Al-Kindi<\/a> developed the technique of frequency analysis \u2013 which was an attempt to systematically crack Caesar ciphers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> This technique looked at the frequency of letters in the encrypted message to determine the appropriate shift. This technique was rendered ineffective after the creation of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alberti_cipher\" title=\"Alberti cipher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb1a5bdbdcb2c4c4b3d278e4a94feec9\">polyalphabetic cipher<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leon_Battista_Alberti\" title=\"Leon Battista Alberti\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72e0a6610376a1e2398a32ef2ddd4f96\">Leon Battista Alberti<\/a> in 1465, which incorporated different sets of languages. In order for frequency analysis to be useful, the person trying to decrypt the message would need to know which language the sender chose.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-19th.E2.80.9320th_century\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"19th\u201320th_century\">19th\u201320th century<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Around 1790, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thomas_Jefferson\" title=\"Thomas Jefferson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8dbd63aa84c983fa58ec1d8aae9152dc\">Thomas Jefferson<\/a> theorized a cipher to encode and decode messages in order to provide a more secure way of military correspondence. The cipher, known today as the Wheel Cipher or the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jefferson_disk\" title=\"Jefferson disk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1e50d6e55f5c37da52f741f725caedf\">Jefferson Disk<\/a>, although never actually built, was theorized as a spool that could jumble an English message up to 36 characters. The message could be decrypted by plugging in the jumbled message to a receiver with an identical cipher.<b><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/b>\n<\/p><p>A similar device to the Jefferson Disk, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/M-94\" title=\"M-94\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"537e64b8a81e33175a301a598c17be19\">M-94<\/a>, was developed in 1917 independently by US Army Major Joseph Mauborne. This device was used in U.S. military communications until 1942.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In World War II, the Axis powers used a more advanced version of the M-94 called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enigma_machine\" title=\"Enigma machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cba5c83fff0944112056b5beb1cda8c5\">Enigma Machine<\/a>. The Enigma Machine was more complex because unlike the Jefferson Wheel and the M-94, each day the jumble of letters switched to a completely new combination. Each day's combination was only known by the Axis, so many thought the only way to break the code would be to try over 17,000 combinations within 24 hours.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> The Allies used computing power to severely limit the number of reasonable combinations they needed to check every day, leading to the breaking of the Enigma Machine.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modern\">Modern<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Today, encryption is used in the transfer of communication over the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a> for security and commerce.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> As computing power continues to increase, computer encryption is constantly evolving to prevent <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eavesdropping\" title=\"Eavesdropping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a9d311dae84400cfc4f641ee9b1628\">eavesdropping<\/a> attacks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> With one of the first \"modern\" cipher suites, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Encryption_Standard\" title=\"Data Encryption Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04ce193ea3674be8a3acd30bb0bbbbc6\">DES<\/a>, utilizing a 56-bit key with 72,057,594,037,927,936 possibilities being able to be cracked in 22 hours and 15 minutes by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation\" title=\"Electronic Frontier Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"448ef28a1a41cd9c59b4b7b93093d3fe\">EFF's<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EFF_DES_cracker\" title=\"EFF DES cracker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7e4a2238a769e6fa783cb16742f93732\">DES cracker<\/a> in 1999, which used a brute-force method of cracking. Modern encryption standards often use stronger key sizes often 256, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_Encryption_Standard\" title=\"Advanced Encryption Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0411feeb59e8eb26837d638e589e3fb6\">AES<\/a>(256-bit mode), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Twofish\" title=\"Twofish\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27a04f2c31ad1b85a0b7fcd141cae536\">TwoFish<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ChaCha20-Poly1305\" title=\"ChaCha20-Poly1305\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"174308480b5da7a2ce7f18c236e293cd\">ChaCha20-Poly1305<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Serpent_(cipher)\" title=\"Serpent (cipher)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f0f363abebb61d67f56cf06167c1e2a\">Serpent<\/a>(configurable up to 512-bit). Cipher suites utilizing a 128-bit or higher key, like AES, will not be able to be brute-forced due to the total amount of keys of 3.4028237e+38 possibilities. The most likely option for cracking ciphers with high key size is to find vulnerabilities in the cipher itself, like inherent biases and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backdoor_(computing)\" title=\"Backdoor (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1d88a200650aff5c48f98c7ee2360cd\">backdoors<\/a>. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RC4\" title=\"RC4\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1b9efdd749c0ed1602fe67904c145d4\">RC4<\/a>, a stream cipher, was cracked due to inherent biases and vulnerabilities in the cipher.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Encryption_in_cryptography\">Encryption in cryptography<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In the context of cryptography, encryption serves as a mechanism to ensure <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" title=\"Information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">confidentiality<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Since data may be visible on the Internet, sensitive information such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password\" title=\"Password\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1a0d7ae6f26ce9e27f1556f4d98c342\">passwords<\/a> and personal communication may be exposed to potential <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eavesdropping\" title=\"Eavesdropping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a9d311dae84400cfc4f641ee9b1628\">interceptors<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_1-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The process of encrypting and decrypting messages involves <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_(cryptography)\" title=\"Key (cryptography)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f386cde7c8c131fd3ca8b2e725775fcd\">keys<\/a>. The two main types of keys in cryptographic systems are symmetric-key and public-key (also known as asymmetric-key).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many complex cryptographic algorithms often use simple <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_arithmetic\" title=\"Modular arithmetic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4afb4213f001aaf0fa9eb9d494c335e2\">modular arithmetic<\/a> in their implementations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types\">Types<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symmetric-key_algorithm\" title=\"Symmetric-key algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c63e3e6e25fa44204806ac6afb489f41\">symmetric-key<\/a> schemes,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> the encryption and decryption keys are the same. Communicating parties must have the same key in order to achieve secure communication. The German Enigma Machine utilized a new symmetric-key each day for encoding and decoding messages.\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public-key_encryption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Public-key encryption\" data-key=\"3bd918aa58eb76946bc123d65fba12ac\">public-key encryption<\/a> schemes, the encryption key is published for anyone to use and encrypt messages. However, only the receiving party has access to the decryption key that enables messages to be read.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Public-key encryption was first described in a secret document in 1973;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> beforehand, all encryption schemes were symmetric-key (also called private-key).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Goldreich_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Goldreich-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 478\">:\u200a478\u200a<\/span><\/sup> Although published subsequently, the work of Diffie and Hellman was published in a journal with a large readership, and the value of the methodology was explicitly described.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> The method became known as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diffie%E2%80%93Hellman_key_exchange\" title=\"Diffie\u2013Hellman key exchange\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3501e752ffcecf22f9a9fa4cfb36ca6\">Diffie-Hellman key exchange<\/a>.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RSA_(cryptosystem)\" title=\"RSA (cryptosystem)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd37c8ea7af66c73ac21e736c4e1ab0f\">RSA (Rivest\u2013Shamir\u2013Adleman)<\/a> is another notable public-key <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptosystem\" title=\"Cryptosystem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c28cabbd837aab6b948f1936c242a4f6\">cryptosystem<\/a>. Created in 1978, it is still used today for applications involving <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signature\" title=\"Digital signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4619b82a0e21434550c0eaa36d81c82d\">digital signatures<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Number_theory\" title=\"Number theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce016b10f03758c27ab2142affc02bbc\">number theory<\/a>, the RSA algorithm selects two <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prime_number\" title=\"Prime number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5578d6d6b4dbf7890ea32389e558c1c8\">prime numbers<\/a>, which help generate both the encryption and decryption keys.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A publicly available public-key encryption application called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pretty_Good_Privacy\" title=\"Pretty Good Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53b603ea3a39ecc964d1c8035196d426\">Pretty Good Privacy<\/a> (PGP) was written in 1991 by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phil_Zimmermann\" title=\"Phil Zimmermann\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a84a7982f7d720a6dac1045a5c78375\">Phil Zimmermann<\/a>, and distributed free of charge with source code. PGP was purchased by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NortonLifeLock\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NortonLifeLock\" data-key=\"2eee645ae189bf2070e32b7b609f0725\">Symantec<\/a> in 2010 and is regularly updated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Uses\">Uses<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Encryption has long been used by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military\" title=\"Military\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de82354cbb71572ffd905508c51d13c4\">militaries<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Government\" title=\"Government\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7e638d4b2b8da9f52dab28018527662\">governments<\/a> to facilitate secret communication. It is now commonly used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. For example, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Security_Institute\" title=\"Computer Security Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54b8c508ea46a03bba08658166c59d02\">Computer Security Institute<\/a> reported that in 2007, 71% of companies surveyed utilized encryption for some of their data in transit, and 53% utilized encryption for some of their data in storage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> Encryption can be used to protect data \"at rest\", such as information stored on computers and storage devices (e.g. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USB_flash_drives\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"USB flash drives\" data-key=\"e3069e86af0a980ecf76b49ff0c333ad\">USB flash drives<\/a>). In recent years, there have been numerous reports of confidential data, such as customers' personal records, being exposed through loss or theft of laptops or backup drives; encrypting such files at rest helps protect them if physical security measures fail.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KeaneWhyStolen16_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KeaneWhyStolen16-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CastriconeFebruary18_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CastriconeFebruary18-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BekProtect16_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BekProtect16-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_rights_management\" title=\"Digital rights management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a455d536292e2dd2b851a5943fde5d2\">Digital rights management<\/a> systems, which prevent unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted material and protect software against <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reverse_engineering\" title=\"Reverse engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ac5049f03992d4f5352d60ece45d8f2\">reverse engineering<\/a> (see also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copy_protection\" title=\"Copy protection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ffe85575b304125a2663e3b611f8a6\">copy protection<\/a>), is another somewhat different example of using encryption on data at rest.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Encryption is also used to protect data in transit, for example data being transferred via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">networks<\/a> (e.g. the Internet, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-commerce\" title=\"E-commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c03db4987b899365c11ec8496d2c7c99\">e-commerce<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_telephone\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mobile telephone\" data-key=\"034c5ff48d739dd4a4e6257b2c3446bf\">mobile telephones<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_microphone\" title=\"Wireless microphone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89831da511670fed8f7e7c520b5f4c00\">wireless microphones<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_intercom\" title=\"Wireless intercom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc9750838839ce770aed3ef0792ecec0\">wireless intercom<\/a> systems, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bluetooth\" title=\"Bluetooth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf7b2ce888d74d287b869156ab12eee2\">Bluetooth<\/a> devices and bank <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_teller_machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automatic teller machine\" data-key=\"1c6375d0887d7363a4ec4a38ada1a711\">automatic teller machines<\/a>. There have been numerous reports of data in transit being intercepted in recent years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> Data should also be encrypted when transmitted across networks in order to protect against <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eavesdropping\" title=\"Eavesdropping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a9d311dae84400cfc4f641ee9b1628\">eavesdropping<\/a> of network traffic by unauthorized users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_erasure\">Data erasure<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_erasure\" title=\"Data erasure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b04f48ca640263348a373366348c4d6\">Data erasure<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Conventional methods for permanently deleting data from a storage device involve overwriting the device's whole content with zeros, ones, or other patterns \u2013 a process which can take a significant amount of time, depending on the capacity and the type of storage medium. Cryptography offers a way of making the erasure almost instantaneous. This method is called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crypto-shredding\" title=\"Crypto-shredding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"916bc76b476efb109b418dde86123a3d\">crypto-shredding<\/a>. An example implementation of this method can be found on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IOS\" title=\"IOS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d92449bf346a22bfc5dca25cc426d93\">iOS<\/a> devices, where the cryptographic key is kept in a dedicated '<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/efface\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:efface\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">effaceable<\/a> storage'.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> Because the key is stored on the same device, this setup on its own does not offer full privacy or security protection if an unauthorized person gains physical access to the device.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Limitations\">Limitations<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Encryption is used in the 21st century to protect digital data and information systems. As computing power increased over the years, encryption technology has only become more advanced and secure. However, this advancement in technology has also exposed a potential limitation of today's encryption methods.\n<\/p><p>The length of the encryption key is an indicator of the strength of the encryption method.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> For example, the original encryption key, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Encryption_Standard\" title=\"Data Encryption Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04ce193ea3674be8a3acd30bb0bbbbc6\">DES<\/a> (Data Encryption Standard), was 56 bits, meaning it had 2^56 combination possibilities. With today's computing power, a 56-bit key is no longer secure, being vulnerable to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brute-force_attack\" title=\"Brute-force attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acbf8fbd896f0027ed3c0de3a4b970e1\">brute force attacks<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_computing\" title=\"Quantum computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26f081736579405317a25590d2820e72\">Quantum computing<\/a> utilizes properties of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_mechanics\" title=\"Quantum mechanics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e979d620d5dffc079bdf2c34259bdadd\">quantum mechanics<\/a> in order to process large amounts of data simultaneously. Quantum computing has been found to achieve computing speeds thousands of times faster than today's supercomputers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> This computing power presents a challenge to today's encryption technology. For example, RSA encryption utilizes the multiplication of very large prime numbers to create a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semiprime_number\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Semiprime number\" data-key=\"b94dc4282cf4d3bd760e07ead96eb314\">semiprime number<\/a> for its public key. Decoding this key without its private key requires this semiprime number to be factored, which can take a very long time to do with modern computers. It would take a supercomputer anywhere between weeks to months to factor in this key.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> However, quantum computing can use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_algorithm\" title=\"Quantum algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f0a9f5b91badbfc9303c8ad440cbf43\">quantum algorithms<\/a> to factor this semiprime number in the same amount of time it takes for normal computers to generate it. This would make all data protected by current public-key encryption vulnerable to quantum computing attacks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> Other encryption techniques like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Elliptic-curve_cryptography\" title=\"Elliptic-curve cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24994d522e3ac6bf28fd69ecd2513df2\">elliptic curve cryptography<\/a> and symmetric key encryption are also vulnerable to quantum computing.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While quantum computing could be a threat to encryption security in the future, quantum computing as it currently stands is still very limited. Quantum computing currently is not commercially available, cannot handle large amounts of code, and only exists as computational devices, not computers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> Furthermore, quantum computing advancements will be able to be utilized in favor of encryption as well. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Security_Agency\" title=\"National Security Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2897c7c54e158a987495468907ded569\">National Security Agency<\/a> (NSA) is currently preparing post-quantum encryption standards for the future.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> Quantum encryption promises a level of security that will be able to counter the threat of quantum computing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_31-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Attacks_and_countermeasures\">Attacks and countermeasures<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Encryption is an important tool but is not sufficient alone to ensure the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" title=\"Information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">security<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_privacy\" title=\"Information privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dbb3588f4b4f0d68b7d7359daea67bb\">privacy<\/a> of sensitive information throughout its lifetime. Most applications of encryption protect information only at rest or in transit, leaving sensitive data in clear text and potentially vulnerable to improper disclosure during processing, such as by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">cloud<\/a> service for example. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Homomorphic_encryption\" title=\"Homomorphic encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db9210a8b938492eab67beb240a75ad5\">Homomorphic encryption<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_multi-party_computation\" title=\"Secure multi-party computation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"82d6cab4e18929ec9e5df3b264800abc\">secure multi-party computation<\/a> are emerging techniques to compute on encrypted data; these techniques are general and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_completeness\" title=\"Turing completeness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8804d3c202c70b793467d5f2cf6d7e4e\">Turing complete<\/a> but incur high computational and\/or communication costs.\n<\/p><p>In response to encryption of data at rest, cyber-adversaries have developed new types of attacks. These more recent threats to encryption of data at rest include cryptographic attacks,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ciphertext_stealing\" title=\"Ciphertext stealing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63b1c6a39f4fccdbadfda709cd9bdad4\">stolen ciphertext attacks<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup> attacks on encryption keys,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insider_threat\" title=\"Insider threat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63686a2e70d02b6ccc42e748f9160e35\">insider attacks<\/a>, data corruption or integrity attacks,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> data destruction attacks, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ransomware\" title=\"Ransomware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9920028b76940c5bc43f59920d1c4eb\">ransomware<\/a> attacks. Data fragmentation<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_Defense\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Active Defense\" data-key=\"817bf205fe017deb78b5b711b5a81fda\">active defense<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> data protection technologies attempt to counter some of these attacks, by distributing, moving, or mutating ciphertext so it is more difficult to identify, steal, corrupt, or destroy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_debate_around_encryption\">The debate around encryption<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The question of balancing the need for national security with the right to privacy has been debated for years, since encryption has become critical in today's digital society. The modern encryption debate<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup> started around the '90 when US government tried to ban cryptography because, according to them, it would threaten national security. The debate is polarized around two opposing views. Those who see strong encryption as a problem making it easier for criminals to hide their illegal acts online and others who argue that encryption keep digital communications safe. The debate heated up in 2014, when Big Tech like Apple and Google set encryption by default in their devices. This was the start of a series of controversies that puts governments, companies and internet users at stake.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Integrity_protection_of_ciphertexts\">Integrity protection of ciphertexts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Encryption, by itself, can protect the confidentiality of messages, but other techniques are still needed to protect the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, verification of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_authentication_code\" title=\"Message authentication code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"280b01c541c4e665d23ec5bed7544d05\">message authentication code<\/a> (MAC) or a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signature\" title=\"Digital signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4619b82a0e21434550c0eaa36d81c82d\">digital signature<\/a> usually done by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hash_function\" title=\"Hash function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41a2b6efff3b63195b1820d4bedd197a\">hashing algorithm<\/a> or a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pretty_Good_Privacy\" title=\"Pretty Good Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53b603ea3a39ecc964d1c8035196d426\">PGP signature<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authenticated_encryption\" title=\"Authenticated encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcc13af4e1b61907b8fe4680cdb8f997\">Authenticated encryption<\/a> algorithms are designed to provide both encryption and integrity protection together. Standards for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptographic_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cryptographic software\" data-key=\"7a25d9e1740595802e2fc9d1117399f7\">cryptographic software<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hardware_encryption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hardware encryption\" data-key=\"b7e3b737c0591b7d76ce8053b0de6398\">hardware to perform encryption<\/a> are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single error in system design or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption. See for example <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic_analysis\" title=\"Traffic analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5302f8a0d0efa33a738b78b9adbf6cbc\">traffic analysis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tempest_(codename)\" title=\"Tempest (codename)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aacaaf27177344e0745beb2189e50e3c\">TEMPEST<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trojan_horse_(computing)\" title=\"Trojan horse (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a678695bce8d35b35440bc260712bbc\">Trojan horse<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Integrity protection mechanisms such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_authentication_code\" title=\"Message authentication code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"280b01c541c4e665d23ec5bed7544d05\">MACs<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signature\" title=\"Digital signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4619b82a0e21434550c0eaa36d81c82d\">digital signatures<\/a> must be applied to the ciphertext when it is first created, typically on the same device used to compose the message, to protect a message <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/End-to-end_principle\" title=\"End-to-end principle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47101ebb241a8c406fda27d566eca37a\">end-to-end<\/a> along its full transmission path; otherwise, any node between the sender and the encryption agent could potentially tamper with it. Encrypting at the time of creation is only secure if the encryption device itself has correct <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_(cryptography)\" title=\"Key (cryptography)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f386cde7c8c131fd3ca8b2e725775fcd\">keys<\/a> and has not been tampered with. If an endpoint device has been configured to trust a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Root_certificate\" title=\"Root certificate\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a387879ef47c3120faaaa6c514409669\">root certificate<\/a> that an attacker controls, for example, then the attacker can both inspect and tamper with encrypted data by performing a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Man-in-the-middle_attack\" title=\"Man-in-the-middle attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46cba3aa9167508aa88cfa87f3a41a2d\">man-in-the-middle attack<\/a> anywhere along the message's path. The common practice of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transport_Layer_Security#TLS_interception\" title=\"Transport Layer Security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7987aa6b355e07bda0aac6caca8a757c\">TLS interception<\/a> by network operators represents a controlled and institutionally sanctioned form of such an attack, but countries have also attempted to employ such attacks as a form of control and censorship.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ciphertext_length_and_padding\">Ciphertext length and padding<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Padding_(cryptography)\" title=\"Padding (cryptography)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34d79c2f3a35b8472f7aa88c6dc6b1f2\">Padding (cryptography)<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Even when encryption correctly hides a message's content and it cannot be tampered with at rest or in transit, a message's <i>length<\/i> is a form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">metadata<\/a> that can still leak sensitive information about the message. For example, the well-known <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CRIME\" title=\"CRIME\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7cfc1ecb3ff8b8863b9e0b6bdeec9ca0\">CRIME<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BREACH\" title=\"BREACH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be672c8e0a6266bc6cb5175e57ad7d40\">BREACH<\/a> attacks against <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTTPS\" title=\"HTTPS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"12d3d428d7a70406f198e258c806a867\">HTTPS<\/a> were <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Side-channel_attack\" title=\"Side-channel attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"608929fa77bf440ae36f455127ef1308\">side-channel attacks<\/a> that relied on information leakage via the length of encrypted content.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic_analysis\" title=\"Traffic analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5302f8a0d0efa33a738b78b9adbf6cbc\">Traffic analysis<\/a> is a broad class of techniques that often employs message lengths to infer sensitive implementation about traffic flows by aggregating information about a large number of messages.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Padding_(cryptography)\" title=\"Padding (cryptography)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34d79c2f3a35b8472f7aa88c6dc6b1f2\">Padding<\/a> a message's payload before encrypting it can help obscure the cleartext's true length, at the cost of increasing the ciphertext's size and introducing or increasing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overhead_(computing)\" title=\"Overhead (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0eefc68ed8ea0fc929e4eb9bd6c095b4\">bandwidth overhead<\/a>. Messages may be padded <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Padding_(cryptography)#Randomized_padding\" title=\"Padding (cryptography)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"230ed4ae98776c45de5a4f0b31b9e26a\">randomly<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Padding_(cryptography)#Deterministic_padding\" title=\"Padding (cryptography)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93904d489dd318316a3fe220d6f8600c\">deterministically<\/a>, with each approach having different tradeoffs. Encrypting and padding messages to form <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PURB_(cryptography)\" title=\"PURB (cryptography)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cf7b190ca34eef80c09a751dcf3bcc6\">padded uniform random blobs or PURBs<\/a> is a practice guaranteeing that the cipher text leaks no <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">metadata<\/a> about its cleartext's content, and leaks asymptotically minimal <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/80479022584a0f9fd3500c3c4b60b1e4f73b23c5\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.742ex; height:2.843ex;\" alt=\"{\\displaystyle O(\\log \\log M)}\" \/><\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entropy_(information_theory)\" title=\"Entropy (information theory)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afa8b90caae09d1f5303a587ee8dd770\">information<\/a> via its length.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 18em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptosystem\" title=\"Cryptosystem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c28cabbd837aab6b948f1936c242a4f6\">Cryptosystem<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cold_boot_attack\" title=\"Cold boot attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"31bf08880e2af84ab3be5222c11e0b2b\">Cold boot attack<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyberspace_Electronic_Security_Act\" title=\"Cyberspace Electronic Security Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40c6d483950eba625723916d06455d5b\">Cyberspace Electronic Security Act<\/a> (US)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dictionary_attack\" title=\"Dictionary attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0644c1b05720ee6bdc3b170ae88f146d\">Dictionary attack<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_encryption\" title=\"Disk encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"786d86cb44a83469c6c91a3df437222c\">Disk encryption<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encrypted_function\" title=\"Encrypted function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"39eb343879f9aeb27cd3b7dd5c13dd17\">Encrypted function<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Export_of_cryptography\" title=\"Export of cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"923e0397abf4d9185ec780f506774293\">Export of cryptography<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geo-blocking\" title=\"Geo-blocking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"75f7633e2945ef827f2b1c884c03018d\">Geo-blocking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Indistinguishability_obfuscation\" title=\"Indistinguishability obfuscation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdf5bf16bf31ad9c3477359c5401ea79\">Indistinguishability obfuscation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_management\" title=\"Key management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9c068d4680b0ef256209228831e12d2\">Key management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multiple_encryption\" title=\"Multiple encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1863e3e707756117925a447bffda2056\">Multiple encryption<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information-theoretic_security#Physical_layer_encryption\" title=\"Information-theoretic security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ba9ffbf1c87f410a68b762ba5c9ba9d\">Physical Layer Encryption<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rainbow_table\" title=\"Rainbow table\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b43ecb5ded0e8b704c5fe38b6425ea6\">Rainbow table<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rotor_machine\" title=\"Rotor machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5abc954f5ef4120e0efb6e8be6f1c85f\">Rotor machine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Substitution_cipher\" title=\"Substitution cipher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a41c2849c25cfcb88e1579fb2d65854\">Substitution cipher<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Television_encryption\" title=\"Television encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14aa875df91325dc7336e499732933ac\">Television encryption<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tokenization_(data_security)\" title=\"Tokenization (data security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3705e822f85c6d5382cc09ac9dc7285d\">Tokenization (data security)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-:1-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_1-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_1-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKessler2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kessler, Gary (November 17, 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.garykessler.net\/library\/crypto.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"An Overview of Cryptography\"<\/a>. <i>Princeton University<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Princeton+University&amp;rft.atitle=An+Overview+of+Cryptography&amp;rft.date=2006-11-17&amp;rft.aulast=Kessler&amp;rft.aufirst=Gary&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.garykessler.net%2Flibrary%2Fcrypto.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:4-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:4_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:4_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:4_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2020-04-02<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Binance+Academy&amp;rft.atitle=History+of+Cryptography&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.binance.vision%2Fsecurity%2Fhistory-of-cryptography&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.geeksforgeeks.org\/caesar-cipher-in-cryptography\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Caesar Cipher in Cryptography\"<\/a>. <i>GeeksforGeeks<\/i>. 2016-06-02<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2020-04-02<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=GeeksforGeeks&amp;rft.atitle=Caesar+Cipher+in+Cryptography&amp;rft.date=2016-06-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.geeksforgeeks.org%2Fcaesar-cipher-in-cryptography%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.monticello.org\/site\/research-and-collections\/wheel-cipher\" target=\"_blank\">\"Wheel Cipher\"<\/a>. <i>www.monticello.org<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2020-04-02<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.monticello.org&amp;rft.atitle=Wheel+Cipher&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.monticello.org%2Fsite%2Fresearch-and-collections%2Fwheel-cipher&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cryptomuseum.com\/crypto\/usa\/m94\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"M-94\"<\/a>. <i>www.cryptomuseum.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2020-04-02<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.cryptomuseum.com&amp;rft.atitle=M-94&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomuseum.com%2Fcrypto%2Fusa%2Fm94%2Findex.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHern2014\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Hern, Alex (2014-11-14). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2014\/nov\/14\/how-did-enigma-machine-work-imitation-game\" target=\"_blank\">\"How did the Enigma machine work?\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0261-3077\" target=\"_blank\">0261-3077<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Newton (2013-05-07). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/insights\/2013\/05\/the-evolution-of-encryption\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Evolution of Encryption\"<\/a>. <i>Wired<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1059-1028\" target=\"_blank\">1059-1028<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-10-07<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=IONOS+Digital+Guide&amp;rft.atitle=Encryption+methods%3A+An+overview&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ionos.com%2Fdigitalguide%2Fserver%2Fsecurity%2Fencryption-methods-an-overview%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/a\/quantum-computers-vastly-outperform-supercomputers-when-it-comes-to-energy-efficiency\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quantum computers vastly outperform supercomputers when it comes to energy efficiency\"<\/a>. <i>Physics World<\/i>. 2020-05-01<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-05-02<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Physics+World&amp;rft.atitle=Quantum+computers+vastly+outperform+supercomputers+when+it+comes+to+energy+efficiency&amp;rft.date=2020-05-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fa%2Fquantum-computers-vastly-outperform-supercomputers-when-it-comes-to-energy-efficiency%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSharmaChoudharyBhatiaMalik2021\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Sharma, Moolchand; Choudhary, Vikas; Bhatia, R. S.; Malik, Sahil; Raina, Anshuman; Khandelwal, Harshit (2021-04-03). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/23335777.2020.1811384\" target=\"_blank\">\"Leveraging the power of quantum computing for breaking RSA encryption\"<\/a>. <i>Cyber-Physical Systems<\/i>. <b>7<\/b> (2): 73\u201392. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F23335777.2020.1811384\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/23335777.2020.1811384<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2333-5777\" target=\"_blank\">2333-5777<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:225312133\" target=\"_blank\">225312133<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Cyber-Physical+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Leveraging+the+power+of+quantum+computing+for+breaking+RSA+encryption&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=73-92&amp;rft.date=2021-04-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225312133%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=2333-5777&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F23335777.2020.1811384&amp;rft.aulast=Sharma&amp;rft.aufirst=Moolchand&amp;rft.au=Choudhary%2C+Vikas&amp;rft.au=Bhatia%2C+R.+S.&amp;rft.au=Malik%2C+Sahil&amp;rft.au=Raina%2C+Anshuman&amp;rft.au=Khandelwal%2C+Harshit&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F23335777.2020.1811384&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:3-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_31-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:3_31-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSolenovBrielerScherrer2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Solenov, Dmitry; Brieler, Jay; Scherrer, Jeffrey F. 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Long. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ssrc.ucsc.edu\/Papers\/li-fast13.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Horus: Fine-Grained Encryption-Based Security for Large-Scale Storage\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>www.ssrc.ucsc.edu<\/i>. Discussion of encryption weaknesses for petabyte scale datasets.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.ssrc.ucsc.edu&amp;rft.atitle=Horus%3A+Fine-Grained+Encryption-Based+Security+for+Large-Scale+Storage&amp;rft.au=Yan+Li&amp;rft.au=Nakul+Sanjay+Dhotre&amp;rft.au=Yasuhiro+Ohara&amp;rft.au=Thomas+M.+Kroeger&amp;rft.au=Ethan+L.+Miller&amp;rft.au=Darrell+D.+E.+Long&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ssrc.ucsc.edu%2FPapers%2Fli-fast13.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/robertheaton.com\/2013\/07\/29\/padding-oracle-attack\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Padding Oracle Attack \u2013 why crypto is terrifying\"<\/a>. <i>Robert Heaton<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-12-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Robert+Heaton&amp;rft.atitle=The+Padding+Oracle+Attack+%E2%80%93+why+crypto+is+terrifying&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frobertheaton.com%2F2013%2F07%2F29%2Fpadding-oracle-attack%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/security\/2016\/08\/researchers-crack-open-unusually-advanced-malware-that-hid-for-5-years\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Researchers crack open unusually advanced malware that hid for 5 years\"<\/a>. <i>Ars Technica<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-12-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&amp;rft.atitle=Researchers+crack+open+unusually+advanced+malware+that+hid+for+5+years&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fsecurity%2F2016%2F08%2Fresearchers-crack-open-unusually-advanced-malware-that-hid-for-5-years%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/security\/2016\/08\/new-attack-steals-private-crypto-keys-by-corrupting-data-in-computer-memory\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"New cloud attack takes full control of virtual machines with little effort\"<\/a>. <i>Ars Technica<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-12-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&amp;rft.atitle=New+cloud+attack+takes+full+control+of+virtual+machines+with+little+effort&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fsecurity%2F2016%2F08%2Fnew-attack-steals-private-crypto-keys-by-corrupting-data-in-computer-memory%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Examples of data fragmentation technologies include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tahoe-LAFS\" title=\"Tahoe-LAFS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"647c5c04174250f24ee06894b4800f33\">Tahoe-LAFS<\/a> and <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/storj.io\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">Storj<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBurshteyn2016\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Burshteyn, Mike (2016-12-22). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.cryptomove.com\/what-does-active-defense-mean-4ecff93c4bc4\" target=\"_blank\">\"What does 'Active Defense' mean?\"<\/a>. <i>CryptoMove<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-12-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=CryptoMove&amp;rft.atitle=What+does+%27Active+Defense%27+mean%3F&amp;rft.date=2016-12-22&amp;rft.aulast=Burshteyn&amp;rft.aufirst=Mike&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.cryptomove.com%2Fwhat-does-active-defense-mean-4ecff93c4bc4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" title=\"Wikipedia:Link rot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\"&#160;Dead link tagged April 2023\">permanent dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-39\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cryptomove.com\" target=\"_blank\">CryptoMove<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210206131311\/https:\/\/www.cryptomove.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2021-02-06 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> is the first technology to continuously move, mutate, and re-encrypt ciphertext as a form of data protection.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCatania\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Catania, Simone. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/circleid.com\/posts\/20221102-the-modern-encryption-debate-whats-at-stake\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Modern Encryption Debate: What's at Stake?\"<\/a>. <i>CircleID<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=CircleID&amp;rft.atitle=The+Modern+Encryption+Debate%3A+What%27s+at+Stake%3F&amp;rft.aulast=Catania&amp;rft.aufirst=Simone&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcircleid.com%2Fposts%2F20221102-the-modern-encryption-debate-whats-at-stake&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#.VV3oaWDTvfY\">\"What is a Trojan Virus \u2013 Malware Protection \u2013 Kaspersky Lab US\"<\/a>. 3 October 2023.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+a+Trojan+Virus+%E2%80%93+Malware+Protection+%E2%80%93+Kaspersky+Lab+US&amp;rft.date=2023-10-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fusa.kaspersky.com%2Finternet-security-center%2Fthreats%2Ftrojans%23.VV3oaWDTvfY&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKumar2019\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Kumar, Mohit (July 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/thehackernews.com\/2019\/07\/kazakhstan-https-security-certificate.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Kazakhstan Begins Intercepting HTTPS Internet Traffic Of All Citizens Forcefully\"<\/a>. The Hacker News.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Kazakhstan+Begins+Intercepting+HTTPS+Internet+Traffic+Of+All+Citizens+Forcefully&amp;rft.date=2019-07&amp;rft.aulast=Kumar&amp;rft.aufirst=Mohit&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthehackernews.com%2F2019%2F07%2Fkazakhstan-https-security-certificate.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShefferHolzSaint-Andre2015\" class=\"citation report cs1\">Sheffer, Y.; Holz, R.; Saint-Andre, P. (February 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc7457\" target=\"_blank\">Summarizing Known Attacks on Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram TLS (DTLS)<\/a> (Report).<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Summarizing+Known+Attacks+on+Transport+Layer+Security+%28TLS%29+and+Datagram+TLS+%28DTLS%29&amp;rft.date=2015-02&amp;rft.aulast=Sheffer&amp;rft.aufirst=Y.&amp;rft.au=Holz%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Saint-Andre%2C+P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftools.ietf.org%2Fhtml%2Frfc7457&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-44\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNikitinBarmanLueksUnderwood2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Nikitin, Kirill; Barman, Ludovic; Lueks, Wouter; Underwood, Matthew; Hubaux, Jean-Pierre; Ford, Bryan (2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/petsymposium.org\/2019\/files\/papers\/issue4\/popets-2019-0056.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Reducing Metadata Leakage from Encrypted Files and Communication with PURBs\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PoPETS)<\/i>. <b>2019<\/b> (4): 6\u201333. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1806.03160\" target=\"_blank\">1806.03160<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2478%2Fpopets-2019-0056\" target=\"_blank\">10.2478\/popets-2019-0056<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:47011059\" target=\"_blank\">47011059<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+on+Privacy+Enhancing+Technologies+%28PoPETS%29&amp;rft.atitle=Reducing+Metadata+Leakage+from+Encrypted+Files+and+Communication+with+PURBs&amp;rft.volume=2019&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=6-33&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1806.03160&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A47011059%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2478%2Fpopets-2019-0056&amp;rft.aulast=Nikitin&amp;rft.aufirst=Kirill&amp;rft.au=Barman%2C+Ludovic&amp;rft.au=Lueks%2C+Wouter&amp;rft.au=Underwood%2C+Matthew&amp;rft.au=Hubaux%2C+Jean-Pierre&amp;rft.au=Ford%2C+Bryan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpetsymposium.org%2F2019%2Ffiles%2Fpapers%2Fissue4%2Fpopets-2019-0056.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Helen_Fouch%C3%A9_Gaines\" title=\"Helen Fouch\u00e9 Gaines\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf2d40dae7d615308b3fff34ced9ed78\">Fouch\u00e9 Gaines, Helen<\/a> (1939), <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/cryptanalysis00hele\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Cryptanalysis: A Study of Ciphers and Their Solution<\/i><\/a><\/span>, New York: Dover Publications Inc, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0486200972<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Cryptanalysis%3A+A+Study+of+Ciphers+and+Their+Solution&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Dover+Publications+Inc&amp;rft.date=1939&amp;rft.isbn=978-0486200972&amp;rft.aulast=Fouch%C3%A9+Gaines&amp;rft.aufirst=Helen&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcryptanalysis00hele&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Kahn_(writer)\" title=\"David Kahn (writer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc2ac2abed024b26753881f39a51138e\">Kahn, David<\/a> (1967), <i>The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing<\/i> (<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-684-83130-9)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bart_Preneel\" title=\"Bart Preneel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c02dc4961a853c869ce7874914eebf42\">Preneel, Bart<\/a> (2000), \"Advances in Cryptology \u2013 EUROCRYPT 2000\", Springer Berlin Heidelberg, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-3-540-67517-4<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abraham_Sinkov\" title=\"Abraham Sinkov\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45ce2558298e7eccd6376647409ce721\">Sinkov, Abraham<\/a> (1966): <i>Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach<\/i>, Mathematical Association of America. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-88385-622-0<\/li>\n<li>Tenzer, Theo (2021): <i>SUPER SECRETO \u2013 The Third Epoch of Cryptography: Multiple, exponential, quantum-secure and above all, simple and practical Encryption for Everyone<\/i>, Norderstedt, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-3-755-76117-4.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\">Lindell, Yehuda; Katz, Jonathan (2014), <i>Introduction to modern cryptography<\/i>, Hall\/CRC, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1466570269<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+modern+cryptography&amp;rft.pub=Hall%2FCRC&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=978-1466570269&amp;rft.aulast=Lindell&amp;rft.aufirst=Yehuda&amp;rft.au=Katz%2C+Jonathan&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\">Ermoshina, Ksenia; Musiani, Francesca (2022), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220602103410\/https:\/\/www.matteringpress.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Concealing-for-Freedom-ePDF.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Concealing for Freedom: The Making of Encryption, Secure Messaging and Digital Liberties (Foreword by Laura DeNardis)(open access)<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>, Manchester, UK: matteringpress.org, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-912729-22-7<\/bdi>, archived from <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.matteringpress.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Concealing-for-Freedom-ePDF.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 2022-06-02<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Concealing+for+Freedom%3A+The+Making+of+Encryption%2C+Secure+Messaging+and+Digital+Liberties+%28Foreword+by+Laura+DeNardis%29%28open+access%29&amp;rft.place=Manchester%2C+UK&amp;rft.pub=matteringpress.org&amp;rft.date=2022&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-912729-22-7&amp;rft.aulast=Ermoshina&amp;rft.aufirst=Ksenia&amp;rft.au=Musiani%2C+Francesca&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.matteringpress.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F05%2FConcealing-for-Freedom-ePDF.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1134653256\" \/>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw2303\nCached time: 20240102035000\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.589 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.815 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4655\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 122684\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 4603\/2097152 bytes\nHighest 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Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110062956\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.135 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.363 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 128144\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 323.792 1 wikipedia:Encryption\n100.00% 323.792 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10563-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110062955 and revision id 33196. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Encryption\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Encryption<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_images":[],"86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_timestamp":1704907001,"dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_type":"article","dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_title":"Electronic signature","dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature","dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_plaintext":"\n\nElectronic signatureFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchData in electronic form, which is logically associated with other data in electronic form\n\nAn electronic signature, or e-signature, is data that is logically associated with other data and which is used by the signatory to sign the associated data.[1][2][3] This type of signature has the same legal standing as a handwritten signature as long as it adheres to the requirements of the specific regulation under which it was created (e.g., eIDAS in the European Union, NIST-DSS in the USA or ZertES in Switzerland).[4][5]\nElectronic signatures are a legal concept distinct from digital signatures, a cryptographic mechanism often used to implement electronic signatures. While an electronic signature can be as simple as a name entered in an electronic document, digital signatures are increasingly used in e-commerce and in regulatory filings to implement electronic signatures in a cryptographically protected way. Standardization agencies like NIST or ETSI provide standards for their implementation (e.g., NIST-DSS, XAdES or PAdES).[4][6] The concept itself is not new, with common law jurisdictions having recognized telegraph signatures as far back as the mid-19th century and faxed signatures since the 1980s.\n\n\n\nDescription \nAn electronic signature is intended to provide a secure and accurate identification method for the signatory during a transaction.\nDefinitions of electronic signatures vary depending on the applicable jurisdiction. A common denominator in most countries is the level of an advanced electronic signature requiring that:\n\nThe signatory can be uniquely identified and linked to the signature\nThe signatory must have sole control of the private key that was used to create the electronic signature\nThe signature must be capable of identifying if its accompanying data has been tampered with after the message was signed\nIn the event that the accompanying data has been changed, the signature must be invalidated[7]\nElectronic signatures may be created with increasing levels of security, with each having its own set of requirements and means of creation on various levels that prove the validity of the signature. To provide an even stronger probative value than the above described advanced electronic signature, some countries like member states of the European Union or Switzerland introduced the qualified electronic signature. It is difficult to challenge the authorship of a statement signed with a qualified electronic signature - the statement is non-repudiable.[8] Technically, a qualified electronic signature is implemented through an advanced electronic signature that utilizes a digital certificate, which has been encrypted through a security signature-creating device[9] and which has been authenticated by a qualified trust service provider.[10]\n\nIn contract law \nSince well before the American Civil War began in 1861, morse code was used to send messages electrically via the telegraph. Some of these messages were agreements to terms that were intended as enforceable contracts. An early acceptance of the enforceability of telegraphic messages as electronic signatures came from a New Hampshire Supreme Court case, Howley v. Whipple, in 1869.[11][12]\nIn the 1980s, many companies and even some individuals began using fax machines for high-priority or time-sensitive delivery of documents. Although the original signature on the original document was on paper, the image of the signature and its transmission was electronic.[13]\nCourts in various jurisdictions have decided that enforceable legality of electronic signatures can include agreements made by email, entering a personal identification number (PIN) into a bank ATM, signing a credit or debit slip with a digital pen pad device (an application of graphics tablet technology) at a point of sale, installing software with a clickwrap software license agreement on the package, and signing electronic documents online.\nThe first agreement signed electronically by two sovereign nations was a Joint Communiqu\u00e9 recognizing the growing importance of the promotion of electronic commerce, signed by the United States and Ireland in 1998.[14]\n\nEnforceability \nIn 1996 the United Nations published the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce.[15] Article 7 of the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce was highly influential in the development of electronic signature laws around the world, including in the US.[16] In 2001, UNCITRAL concluded work on a dedicated text, the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Signatures,[17] which has been adopted in some 30 jurisdictions.[18] The latest UNCITRAL text dealing with electronic signatures is article 9, paragraph 3 of the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts, 2005, which establishes a mechanism for functional equivalence between electronic and handwritten signatures at the international level as well as for the cross-border recognition.\nCanadian law (PIPEDA) attempts to clarify the situation by first defining a generic electronic signature as \"a signature that consists of one or more letters, characters, numbers or other symbols in digital form incorporated in, attached to or associated with an electronic document,\" then defining a secure electronic signature as an electronic signature with specific properties. PIPEDA's secure electronic signature regulations refine the definition as being a digital signature applied and verified in a specific manner.[19]\nIn the European Union, EU Regulation No 910\/2014 on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the European internal market (eIDAS) sets the legal frame for electronic signatures. It repeals Directive 1999\/93\/EC.[2] The current and applicable version of eIDAS was published by the European Parliament and the European Council on July 23, 2014. Following Article 25 (1) of the eIDAS regulation, an advanced electronic signature shall \u201cnot be denied legal effect and admissibility as evidence in legal proceedings\". However it will reach a higher probative value when enhanced to the level of a qualified electronic signature. By requiring the use of a qualified electronic signature creation device[20] and being based on a certificate that has been issued by a qualified trust service provider, the upgraded advanced signature then carries according to Article 25 (2) of the eIDAS Regulation the same legal value as a handwritten signature.[2][7] However, this is only regulated in the European Union and similarly through ZertES in Switzerland. A qualified electronic signature is not defined in the United States.[21][22]\nThe U.S. Code defines an electronic signature for the purpose of US law as \"an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a contract or other record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\"[23] It may be an electronic transmission of the document which contains the signature, as in the case of facsimile transmissions, or it may be encoded message, such as telegraphy using Morse code.\nIn the United States, the definition of what qualifies as an electronic signature is wide and is set out in the Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (\"UETA\") released by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL) in 1999.[24] It was influenced by ABA committee white papers and the uniform law promulgated by NCCUSL. Under UETA, the term means \"an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\" This definition and many other core concepts of UETA are echoed in the U.S. ESign Act of 2000.[23] 48 US states, the District of Columbia, and the US Virgin Islands have enacted UETA.[25] Only New York and Illinois have not enacted UETA,[25] but each of those states has adopted its own electronic signatures statute.[26][27][28] As of June 11, 2020, Washington State Office of CIO adopted UETA.[29]\nIn Australia, an electronic signature is recognised as \"not necessarily the writing in of a name, but maybe any mark which identifies it as the act of the party.\u201d [30] Under the Electronic Transactions Acts in each Federal, State and Territory jurisdiction, an electronic signature may be considered enforceable if (a) there was a method used to identify the person and to indicate that person\u2019s intention in respect of the information communicated and the method was either: (i) as reliable as appropriate for the purpose for which the electronic communication was generated or communicated, in light of all the circumstances, including the relevant agreement; or (ii) proven in fact to have fulfilled the functions above by itself or together with further evidence and the person to whom the signature is required to be given consents to that method.[31]\n\nLegal definitions \nVarious laws have been passed internationally to facilitate commerce by using electronic records and signatures in interstate and foreign commerce. The intent is to ensure the validity and legal effect of contracts entered electronically. For instance,\n\nPIPEDA (Canadian federal law)\n(1) An electronic signature is \"a signature that consists of one or more letters, characters, numbers or other symbols in digital form incorporated in, attached to or associated with an electronic document\";\n(2) A secure electronic signature is an electronic signature that\n(a) is unique to the person making the signature;\n(b) the technology or process used to make the signature is under the sole control of the person making the signature;\n(c) the technology or process can be used to identify the person using the technology or process; and\n(d) the electronic signature can be linked with an electronic document in such a way that it can be used to determine whether the electronic document has been changed since the electronic signature was incorporated in, attached to, or associated with the electronic document.<\/dd>\nESIGN Act Sec 106 (US federal law)[32]\n(2) ELECTRONIC- The term 'electronic' means relating to technology having electrical, digital, magnetic, wireless, optical, electromagnetic, or similar capabilities.\n(4) ELECTRONIC RECORD- The term 'electronic record' means a contract or other record created, generated, sent, communicated, received, or stored by electronic means.\n(5) ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE- The term 'electronic signature' means an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a contract or other record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\nRegulation No 910\/2014 on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the internal market Art 3 (European Union regulation)\n(10) \u2018electronic signature\u2019 means data in electronic form which is attached to or logically associated with other data in electronic form and which is used by the signatory to sign;\n(11) \u2018advanced electronic signature\u2019 means an electronic signature which meets the requirements set out in Article 26;\n(12) \u2018qualified electronic signature\u2019 means an advanced electronic signature that is created by a qualified electronic signature creation device, and which is based on a qualified certificate for electronic signatures;\nGPEA Sec 1710 (US federal law)\n\n(1) ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE.\u2014the term \"electronic signature\" means a method of signing an electronic message that\u2014\n(A) identifies and authenticates a particular person as the source of the electronic message; and\n(B) indicates such person's approval of the information contained in the electronic message.\nUETA Sec 2 (US state law)\n\n(5) \"Electronic\" means relating to technology having electrical, digital, magnetic, wireless, optical, electromagnetic, or similar capabilities.\n(6) \"Electronic agent\" means a computer program or an electronic or other automated means used independently to initiate an action or respond to electronic records or performances in whole or in part, without review or action by an individual.\n(7) \"Electronic record\" means a record created, generated, sent, communicated, received, or stored by electronic means.\n(8) \"Electronic signature\" means an electronic sound, symbol, or process attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\nFederal Reserve 12 CFR 202 (US federal regulation)\nrefers to the ESIGN Act\nCommodity Futures Trading Commission 17 CFR Part 1 Sec. 1.3 (US federal regulations)\n\n(tt) Electronic signature means an electronic sound, symbol, or process attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\nFood and Drug Administration 21 CFR Sec. 11.3 (US federal regulations)\n\n(5) Digital signature means an electronic signature based upon cryptographic methods of originator authentication, computed by using a set of rules and a set of parameters such that the signer's identity and the integrity of the data can be verified.\n(7) Electronic signature means a computer data compilation of any symbol or series of symbols executed, adopted, or authorized by an individual to be the legally binding equivalent of the individual's handwritten signature.\nUnited States Patent and Trademark Office 37 CFR Sec. 1.4 (federal regulation)\n(d)(2) S-signature. An S-signature is a signature inserted between forwarding slash marks, but not a handwritten signature ... (i)The S-signature must consist only of letters, or Arabic numerals, or both, with appropriate spaces and commas, periods, apostrophes, or hyphens for punctuation... (e.g., \/Dr. James T. Jones, Jr.\/)...\n(iii) The signer's name must be:\n(A) Presented in printed or typed form preferably immediately below or adjacent to the S-signature, and\n(B) Reasonably specific enough so that the identity of the signer can be readily recognized.[33]\nLaws regarding their use \nSee also: Electronic signatures and law\nAustralia - Electronic Transactions Act 1999 (which incorporates amendments from Electronic Transactions Amendment Act 2011), Section 10 - Signatures specifically relates to electronic signatures.\nAzerbaijan - Electronic Signature and Electronic Document Law (2004)\nBrazil - 2020 Electronic signature Law (Lei de assinaturas eletr\u00f4nicas); Brazil's National Public Key Certificate Infrastructure Act (Infraestrutura de Chaves P\u00fablicas Brasileira - ICP-Brasil)\nBulgaria - Electronic Document and Electronic Certification Services Act\nCanada - PIPEDA, its regulations, and the Canada Evidence Act.\nChina - Law of the People's Republic of China on Electronic Signature (effective April 1, 2005)\nCosta Rica - Digital Signature Law 8454 (2005)\nCroatia 2002, updated 2008\nCzech Republic \u2013 currently directly applicable eIDAS and Z\u00e1kona o slu\u017eb\u00e1ch vytv\u00e1\u0159ej\u00edc\u00edch d\u016fv\u011bru pro elektronick\u00e9 transakce - 297\/2016 Sb. (effective from 19 September 2016), formerly Z\u00e1kon o elektronick\u00e9m podpisu - 227\/2000 Sb. (effective from 1 October 2000 until 19 September 2016 when it was derogated)\nEcuador \u2013 Ley de Comercio Electronico Firmas y Mensajes de Datos\nEuropean Union - eIDAS regulation on implementation within the EU is set out in the Digital Signatures and the Law.\nIndia - Information Technology Act\nIraq - Electronic Transactions and Electronic Signature Act No 78 in 2012\nIreland - Electronic Commerce Act 2000\nJapan - Law Concerning Electronic Signatures and Certification Services, 2000\nKazakhstan - Law on Electronic Document and Electronic Signature (07.01.2003)\nLithuania - Law on Electronic Identification and Trust Services for Electronic Transactions\nMexico - E-Commerce Act [2000]\nMalaysia - Digital Signature Act 1997 and Digital Signature Regulation 1998 (https:\/\/www.mcmc.gov.my\/sectors\/digital-signature)\nMoldova - Privind semn\u0103tura electronic\u0103 \u015fi documentul electronic (http:\/\/lex.justice.md\/md\/353612\/)\nNew Zealand - Contract and Commercial Law Act 2017\nParaguay - Ley 4017: De validez jur\u00eddica de la Firma Electr\u00f3nica, la Firma Digital, los Mensajes de Datos y el Expediente Electr\u00f3nico (12\/23\/2010) (in Spanish) , Ley 4610: Que modifica y amplia la Ley 4017\/10 (05\/07\/2012) (in Spanish) \nPeru - Ley N\u00ba 27269. Ley de Firmas y Certificados Digitales (28MAY2000) Archived 2014-04-29 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish) \nthe Philippines - Electronic Commerce Act of 2000\nPoland - Ustawa o podpisie elektronicznym (Dziennik Ustaw z 2001 r. Nr 130 poz. 1450) [34]\nRomania - Legea nr. 455 din 18 iulie 2001 privind semn\u0103tura electronic\u0103\nRussian Federation - Federal Law of Russian Federation about Electronic Signature (06.04.2011)\nSingapore - Electronic Transactions Act (2010) (background information, differences between ETA 1998 and ETA 2010)\nSlovakia - Z\u00e1kon \u010d.215\/2002 o elektronickom podpise\nSlovenia - Slovene Electronic Commerce and Electronic Signature Act\nSouth Africa - Electronic Communications and Transactions Act [No. 25 of 2002][35]\nSpain - Ley 6\/2020, de 11 de noviembre, reguladora de determinados aspectos de los servicios electr\u00f3nicos de confianza\nSwitzerland - ZertES\nRepublika Srpska (entity of the Bosnia and Herzegovina) 2005\nTurkey - Electronic Signature Law\nUkraine - Electronic Signature Law, 2003\nUK - s.7 Electronic Communications Act 2000\nU.S. - Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act\nU.S. - Uniform Electronic Transactions Act - adopted by 48 states\nU.S. - Government Paperwork Elimination Act (GPEA)\nU.S. - The Uniform Commercial Code (UCC)\nUsage \nIn 2016, Aberdeen Strategy and Research reported that 73% of \"best-in-class\" and 34% of all other respondents surveyed made use of electronic signature processes in supply chain and procurement, delivering benefits in the speed and efficiency of key procurement activities. The percentages of their survey respondents using electronic signatures in accounts payable and accounts receivable processes were a little lower, 53% of \"best-in-class\" respondents in each case.[36]\n\n Technological implementations (underlying technology) \nDigital signature \nFurther information: Digital signature\nA diagram showing how a digital signature is applied and then verified\n\nDigital signatures are cryptographic implementations of electronic signatures used as a proof of authenticity, data integrity and non-repudiation of communications conducted over the Internet. When implemented in compliance to digital signature standards, digital signing should offer end-to-end privacy with the signing process being user-friendly and secure. Digital signatures are generated and verified through standardized frameworks such as the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA)[6][37] by NIST or in compliance to the XAdES, PAdES or CAdES standards, specified by the ETSI.[38]\nThere are typically three algorithms involved with the digital signature process:\n\nKey generation \u2013 This algorithm provides a private key along with its corresponding public key.\nSigning \u2013 This algorithm produces a signature upon receiving a private key and the message that is being signed.\nVerification \u2013 This algorithm checks for the message's authenticity by verifying it along with the signature and public key.[39]\nThe process of digital signing requires that its accompanying public key can then authenticate the signature generated by both the fixed message and private key. Using these cryptographic algorithms, the user's signature cannot be replicated without having access to their private key.[39] A secure channel is not typically required. By applying asymmetric cryptography methods, the digital signature process prevents several common attacks where the attacker attempts to gain access through the following attack methods.[1]\nThe most relevant standards on digital signatures with respect to size of domestic markets are the Digital Signature Standard (DSS)[37] by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the eIDAS Regulation[2] enacted by the European Parliament.[4] OpenPGP is a non-proprietary protocol for email encryption through public key cryptography. It is supported by PGP and GnuPG, and some of the S\/MIME IETF standards and has evolved into the most popular email encryption standard in the world.[40]\n\nBiometric signature \nAn electronic signature may also refer to electronic forms of processing or verifying identity through the use of biometric \"signatures\" or biologically identifying qualities of an individual. Such signatures use the approach of attaching some biometric measurement to a document as evidence. Biometric signatures include fingerprints, hand geometry (finger lengths and palm size), iris patterns, voice characteristics, retinal patterns, or any other human body property. All of these are collected using electronic sensors of some kind.\nBiometric measurements of this type are useless as passwords because they can't be changed if compromised. However, they might be serviceable, except that to date, they have been so easily deceived that they can carry little assurance that the person who purportedly signed a document was actually the person who did. For example, a replay of the electronic signal produced and submitted to the computer system responsible for 'affixing' a signature to a document can be collected via wiretapping techniques.[citation needed ] Many commercially available fingerprint sensors have low resolution and can be deceived with inexpensive household items (for example, gummy bear candy gel).[41] In the case of a user's face image, researchers in Vietnam successfully demonstrated in late 2017 how a specially crafted mask could beat Apple's Face ID on iPhone X.[42]\n\nSee also \nLong-term validation\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b Turner, Dawn. \"What is a Digital Signature - What It Does, How It Works\". Cryptomathic. Archived from the original on February 9, 2016. Retrieved January 7, 2016 . \n\n^ a b c d \"REGULATION (EU) No 910\/2014 of 23 July 2014 on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the internal market and repealing Directive 1999\/93\/EC\". THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL. Archived from the original on January 15, 2018. Retrieved January 7, 2016 . \n\n^ \"What Are E-Signatures? | Signable |\". Archived from the original on July 31, 2017. Retrieved December 20, 2016 . \n\n^ a b c Turner, Dawn. \"Major Standards and Compliance of Digital Signatures - A World-Wide Consideration\". Cryptomathic. Archived from the original on February 9, 2016. Retrieved January 7, 2016 . \n\n^ \"Federal Rules of Evidence | Federal Rules of Evidence | LII \/ Legal Information Institute\". Law.cornell.edu. Archived from the original on November 25, 2011. Retrieved March 6, 2015 . \n\n^ a b JA, Ashiq. \"Recommendations for Providing Digital Signature Services\". Cryptomathic. Archived from the original on February 9, 2016. Retrieved January 7, 2016 . \n\n^ a b Turner, Dawn M. \"Advanced Electronic Signatures for eIDAS\". Cryptomathic. Archived from the original on June 30, 2016. Retrieved June 7, 2016 . \n\n^ Turner, Dawn M. \"Understanding eIDAS\". Cryptomathic. Archived from the original on April 20, 2016. Retrieved June 7, 2016 . \n\n^ Turner, Dawn M. \"Qualified Electronic Signatures for eIDAS\". Cryptomathic. Archived from the original on May 23, 2016. Retrieved June 7, 2016 . \n\n^ Turner, Dawn M. \"Trust Service Providers according to eIDAS\". Cryptomathic. Archived from the original on July 11, 2016. Retrieved June 23, 2016 . \n\n^ Howley v. Whipple, 48 N.H. 487, 488 (1869) \n\n^ \"Privacy Issues In Federal Systems: A Constitutional Perspective\". Retrieved March 6, 2015 . \n\n^ \"The History of Electronic Signature Laws\". Isaac Bowman. Archived from the original on March 11, 2015. Retrieved March 6, 2015 . \n\n^ [1] Archived March 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ \"UNCITRAL&#160;: Model Law on Electronic Commerce with Guide to Enactment 1996\" (PDF) . Uncitral.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 12, 2012. Retrieved March 6, 2015 . \n\n^ Gabriel, Henry. \"The New United States Uniform Electronic Transactions Act: Substantive Provisions, Drafting History and Comparison to the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce\" (PDF) . International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT). Archived (PDF) from the original on September 29, 2011. Retrieved April 30, 2011 . \n\n^ \"UNCITRAL&#160;: Model Law on Electronic Signatures with Guide to Enactment 2001\" (PDF) . Uncitral.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 2, 2012. Retrieved March 6, 2015 . \n\n^ \"Status\". Uncitral.org. Archived from the original on February 22, 2014. Retrieved March 6, 2015 . \n\n^ [2] Archived June 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ eIDAS regulation Article 3 (12) \n\n^ Tuner, Dawn M. \"Is the NIST Digital Signature Standard DSS legally binding?\". Cryptomathic. Archived from the original on June 30, 2016. Retrieved May 12, 2016 . \n\n^ Information Technology Laboratory National Institute of Standards and Technology. \"FEDERAL INFORMATION PROCESSING STANDARDS PUBLICATION (FIPS PUB 186 -4): Digital Signature Standard (DSS)\" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on December 27, 2016. Retrieved May 12, 2016 . \n\n^ a b \"Public Law 106-229&#160;: June 30, 2000&#160;: Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce act\" (PDF) . Frwebgate.access.gpo.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 22, 2011. Retrieved March 6, 2015 . \n\n^ \"Biddle Law Library: Library: \u2022 Penn Law\". Law.upenn.edu. Archived from the original on August 14, 2014. Retrieved March 6, 2015 . \n\n^ a b [3] Archived January 15, 2011, at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ [4] Archived May 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ \"Chapter 19.34 RCW: WASHINGTON ELECTRONIC AUTHENTICATION ACT\". Apps.leg.wa.gov. Archived from the original on February 28, 2015. Retrieved March 6, 2015 . \n\n^ \"5 ILCS 175\/ Electronic Commerce Security Act\". Ilga.gov. October 17, 2003. Archived from the original on October 26, 2011. Retrieved March 6, 2015 . \n\n^ \"Electronic Signature Guidelines\". Washington State Office of the Chief Information Officer. April 1, 2016. Archived from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved February 6, 2023 . \n\n^ Legal Services Board v Forster 26 VR 81\n[2009] VSC 645 \n\n^ AG. \"Electronic Transactions Act 1999\". www.legislation.gov.au. Archived from the original on June 3, 2021. Retrieved June 2, 2021 . \n\n^ \"Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act (\"ESIGN\")\". Isaac Bowman. Archived from the original on March 11, 2015. Retrieved March 6, 2015 . \n\n^ \"MPEP \u00a7501\". USPTO Manual of Patent Examining Procedures (MPEP). Archived from the original on February 17, 2012. Retrieved October 5, 2017 . \n\n^ [5] Archived September 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ \"Electronic Communications and Transactions Act 25 of 2002\". South African Government. Archived from the original on November 18, 2021. Retrieved November 18, 2021 . \n\n^ Barry, M., The Speed &amp; Efficiency of E-Signature in Procurement Archived April 22, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, Aberdeen Strategy and Research, published 1 April 2016, accessed 22 April 2021 \n\n^ a b \"FIPS PUB 186-4: Digital Signature Standard (DSS)\" (PDF) . National Institute of Standards and Technology. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 27, 2016. Retrieved January 7, 2016 . \n\n^ Turner, Dawn M. \"THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE AND A DIGITAL SIGNATURE\". Cryptomathic. Archived from the original on May 8, 2016. Retrieved April 21, 2016 . \n\n^ a b Turner, Dawn. \"What is a digital signature - what it does, how it work\". Cryptomathic. Archived from the original on February 9, 2016. Retrieved June 7, 2016 . \n\n^ \"Welcome to The OpenPGP Alliance\". OpenPGP Alliance. Archived from the original on January 11, 2016. Retrieved January 7, 2016 . \n\n^ Matsumoto (2002). \"Impact of artificial gummy fingers on fingerprint systems\". Proceedings of SPIE. pp.&#160;275\u2013289. CiteSeerX&#160;10.1.1.100.8172 . \n\n^ \"Bkav's new mask beats Face ID in \"twin way\": Severity level raised, do not use Face ID in business transactions\". News In Focus. Bkav Corporation. November 27, 2017. Archived from the original on May 8, 2018. Retrieved May 8, 2018 . \n\n\nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikibooks has a book on the topic of: Legal and Regulatory Issues in the Information Economy\n\nE-Sign Final Report (2005, European Union)\nJudicial Studies Board Digital Signature Guidelines\nDynamic signatures\nAuthority control databases: National \nFrance \nBnF data \nGermany \nJapan \nCzech Republic \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature<\/a>\nCategories: Computer securityRegulatory termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 8 May 2018, at 22:18.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 5,441 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Electronic_signature rootpage-Electronic_signature skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Electronic signature<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Data in electronic form, which is logically associated with other data in electronic form<\/div>\n<p>\nAn <b>electronic signature<\/b>, or <b>e-signature<\/b>, is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> that is logically associated with other data and which is used by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Signature\" title=\"Signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5630a314dd230c0753df2712cb6225b0\">signatory<\/a> to sign the associated data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eIDAS_Reference-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> This type of signature has the same legal standing as a handwritten signature as long as it adheres to the requirements of the specific regulation under which it was created (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EIDAS\" title=\"EIDAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9d362d5b2a606dc1dd4c99c6228635a\">eIDAS<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Signature_Standard\" title=\"Digital Signature Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e4add42df1782e56f054abd58f5c8c6\">NIST-DSS<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States\" title=\"United States\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f44266ab2da9382e3764bac08cfb4076\">USA<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZertES\" title=\"ZertES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d82b1f57d1830ff6455a0a4a64dbeb9\">ZertES<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Switzerland\" title=\"Switzerland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2046dc1f5faf03e4992722fe3080c906\">Switzerland<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Electronic signatures are a legal concept distinct from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signature\" title=\"Digital signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4619b82a0e21434550c0eaa36d81c82d\">digital signatures<\/a>, a cryptographic mechanism often used to implement electronic signatures. While an electronic signature can be as simple as a name entered in an electronic document, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signature\" title=\"Digital signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4619b82a0e21434550c0eaa36d81c82d\">digital signatures<\/a> are increasingly used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-commerce\" title=\"E-commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c03db4987b899365c11ec8496d2c7c99\">e-commerce<\/a> and in regulatory filings to implement electronic signatures in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptographically protected<\/a> way. Standardization agencies like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NIST\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NIST\" data-key=\"2c5730fa123ebb7598290eb8137b243f\">NIST<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ETSI\" title=\"ETSI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ac613e62f4ab5025b6ab7fb0a451ced\">ETSI<\/a> provide standards for their implementation (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Signature_Algorithm\" title=\"Digital Signature Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a664ffea168308e40cc41b137a6e7ada\">NIST-DSS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XAdES\" title=\"XAdES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2c625466a57ebc1b27fd03f74cc9e84\">XAdES<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PAdES\" title=\"PAdES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"280660caf4c5a05d16248846ab830c9c\">PAdES<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> The concept itself is not new, with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_law\" title=\"Common law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a29a38f5eb825f68b3bf7e9fbf62cf7\">common law<\/a> jurisdictions having recognized <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telegraph\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Telegraph\" data-key=\"1b6dd33f7cb0231aab417aa7ec6b1057\">telegraph<\/a> signatures as far back as the mid-19th century and faxed signatures since the 1980s.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Description\">Description<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>An electronic signature is intended to provide a secure and accurate identification method for the signatory during a transaction.\nDefinitions of electronic signatures vary depending on the applicable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jurisdiction_(area)\" title=\"Jurisdiction (area)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1eb8364673e990757b6a65373ab8b309\">jurisdiction<\/a>. A common denominator in most countries is the level of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_electronic_signature\" title=\"Advanced electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11fad4e12f103c751c96ad47b342e73a\">advanced electronic signature<\/a> requiring that:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Signature\" title=\"Signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5630a314dd230c0753df2712cb6225b0\">signatory<\/a> can be uniquely identified and linked to the signature<\/li>\n<li>The signatory must have sole control of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public-key_cryptography\" title=\"Public-key cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da4f15fe41ac17b9842b2d0202406ddb\">private key<\/a> that was used to create the electronic signature<\/li>\n<li>The signature must be capable of identifying if its accompanying data has been tampered with after the message was signed<\/li>\n<li>In the event that the accompanying data has been changed, the signature must be invalidated<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-AdvancedESig_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-AdvancedESig-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Electronic signatures may be created with increasing levels of security, with each having its own set of requirements and means of creation on various levels that prove the validity of the signature. To provide an even stronger <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relevance_(law)\" title=\"Relevance (law)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55dee8d04f13508fbf22bb640dc45fb8\">probative value<\/a> than the above described advanced electronic signature, some countries like member states of the European Union or Switzerland introduced the qualified electronic signature. It is difficult to challenge the authorship of a statement signed with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qualified_electronic_signature\" title=\"Qualified electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a833a0da84db3610fb612b4b9807028\">qualified electronic signature<\/a> - the statement is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-repudiation\" title=\"Non-repudiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"626625acb28e081c4e58d7fb46a4b9f5\">non-repudiable<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-Understanding-eIDAS_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-Understanding-eIDAS-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Technically, a qualified electronic signature is implemented through an advanced electronic signature that utilizes a digital certificate, which has been encrypted through a security signature-creating device<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-QualifiedElectronicSignature_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-QualifiedElectronicSignature-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> and which has been authenticated by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qualified_electronic_signature#Qualified_trust_service_providers\" title=\"Qualified electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63e2e9e08f3a43eabaeba9bc8423e077\">qualified trust service provider<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-TSPs_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-TSPs-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_contract_law\">In contract law<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Since well before the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American_Civil_War\" title=\"American Civil War\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6af713d0a793f227414e6af687a563e\">American Civil War<\/a> began in 1861, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morse_code\" title=\"Morse code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7a0a00c8e68667568ec0ea8d43aea88\">morse code<\/a> was used to send messages electrically via the telegraph. Some of these messages were agreements to terms that were intended as enforceable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contract\" title=\"Contract\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"643e0e1b184a88ea39aada3b3044cfb7\">contracts<\/a>. An early acceptance of the enforceability of telegraphic messages as electronic signatures came from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_Hampshire_Supreme_Court\" title=\"New Hampshire Supreme Court\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52d9f1b9d4d6e542bd96f374dbe235bf\">New Hampshire Supreme Court<\/a> case, Howley v. Whipple, in 1869.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the 1980s, many companies and even some individuals began using fax machines for high-priority or time-sensitive delivery of documents. Although the original signature on the original document was on paper, the image of the signature and its transmission was electronic.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ib_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ib-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Courts in various jurisdictions have decided that enforceable legality of electronic signatures can include agreements made by email, entering a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_identification_number\" title=\"Personal identification number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd9e61bd2753a6095d26d7c90c766088\">personal identification number<\/a> (PIN) into a bank <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_teller_machine\" title=\"Automated teller machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"197cd2560948dac5a517b166bd6f58c0\">ATM<\/a>, signing a credit or debit slip with a digital pen pad device (an application of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphics_tablet\" title=\"Graphics tablet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54aafa6f617e3b054b45ec5c5225d51d\">graphics tablet<\/a> technology) at a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Point_of_sale\" title=\"Point of sale\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e978e565243cc8deaef8586997eedbd7\">point of sale<\/a>, installing software with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clickwrap\" title=\"Clickwrap\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ae9d322034ee73835bcfe8ed2b8e97e\">clickwrap<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_license_agreement\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software license agreement\" data-key=\"ef8669bd713563e70690689f487a14cb\">software license agreement<\/a> on the package, and signing electronic documents online.\n<\/p><p>The first agreement signed electronically by two sovereign nations was a Joint Communiqu\u00e9 recognizing the growing importance of the promotion of electronic commerce, signed by the United States and Ireland in 1998.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Enforceability\">Enforceability<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 1996 the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Nations\" title=\"United Nations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58df5ccf06f9a41ee69f940e1168a8ac\">United Nations<\/a> published the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> Article 7 of the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce was highly influential in the development of electronic signature laws around the world, including in the US.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> In 2001, UNCITRAL concluded work on a dedicated text, the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Signatures,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> which has been adopted in some 30 jurisdictions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> The latest UNCITRAL text dealing with electronic signatures is article 9, paragraph 3 of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Use_of_Electronic_Communications_in_International_Contracts\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts\" data-key=\"3a1c56057f7c00b9cd8978177b9200f7\">United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts<\/a>, 2005, which establishes a mechanism for functional equivalence between electronic and handwritten signatures at the international level as well as for the cross-border recognition.\n<\/p><p>Canadian law (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_Information_Protection_and_Electronic_Documents_Act\" title=\"Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"281123a74d6f255d572e17bafd2474fe\">PIPEDA<\/a>) attempts to clarify the situation by first defining a generic electronic signature as \"a signature that consists of one or more letters, characters, numbers or other symbols in digital form incorporated in, attached to or associated with an electronic document,\" then defining a secure electronic signature as an electronic signature with specific properties. PIPEDA's secure electronic signature regulations refine the definition as being a digital signature applied and verified in a specific manner.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a>, EU <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulation_(European_Union)\" title=\"Regulation (European Union)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fa2b50e75038f90a9360b44d358c59b\">Regulation<\/a> No 910\/2014 on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the European <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Single_Market\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"European Single Market\" data-key=\"d26da61a25e2c1cc7ea217c7e32d0a5c\">internal market<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EIDAS\" title=\"EIDAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9d362d5b2a606dc1dd4c99c6228635a\">eIDAS<\/a>) sets the legal frame for electronic signatures. It repeals <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directive_(European_Union)\" title=\"Directive (European Union)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05c782d4ebddeb1a932f6a901167cb0f\">Directive<\/a> 1999\/93\/EC.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eIDAS_Reference-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> The current and applicable version of eIDAS was published by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Parliament\" title=\"European Parliament\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04c947c3fac4787cbde96ed2bb1695f8\">European Parliament<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Council\" title=\"European Council\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e63d10774798d1b83fab045229b9a79\">European Council<\/a> on July 23, 2014. Following Article 25 (1) of the eIDAS regulation, an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_electronic_signature\" title=\"Advanced electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11fad4e12f103c751c96ad47b342e73a\">advanced electronic signature<\/a> shall \u201cnot be denied legal effect and admissibility as evidence in legal proceedings\". However it will reach a higher <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relevance_(law)\" title=\"Relevance (law)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55dee8d04f13508fbf22bb640dc45fb8\">probative value<\/a> when enhanced to the level of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qualified_electronic_signature\" title=\"Qualified electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a833a0da84db3610fb612b4b9807028\">qualified electronic signature<\/a>. By requiring the use of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_signature_creation_device\" title=\"Secure signature creation device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c73ebd4104ff9db1a124178535ae3e25\">qualified electronic signature creation device<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> and being based on a certificate that has been issued by a qualified trust service provider, the upgraded advanced signature then carries according to Article 25 (2) of the eIDAS Regulation the same legal value as a handwritten signature.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eIDAS_Reference-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-AdvancedESig_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-AdvancedESig-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> However, this is only regulated in the European Union and similarly through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZertES\" title=\"ZertES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d82b1f57d1830ff6455a0a4a64dbeb9\">ZertES<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Switzerland\" title=\"Switzerland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2046dc1f5faf03e4992722fe3080c906\">Switzerland<\/a>. A qualified electronic signature is not defined in the United States.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TurnerDSS_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TurnerDSS-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DSS-Ref_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DSS-Ref-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The U.S. Code defines an electronic signature for the purpose of US law as \"an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a contract or other record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-US_ESIGN_Act_of_2000_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-US_ESIGN_Act_of_2000-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> It may be an electronic transmission of the document which contains the signature, as in the case of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facsimile\" title=\"Facsimile\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c3f3b25695e06c0b610558505d5f55a\">facsimile<\/a> transmissions, or it may be encoded message, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telegraphy\" title=\"Telegraphy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba2a464467be9030a23d9d5312bf533f\">telegraphy<\/a> using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morse_code\" title=\"Morse code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7a0a00c8e68667568ec0ea8d43aea88\">Morse code<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In the United States, the definition of what qualifies as an electronic signature is wide and is set out in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uniform_Electronic_Transactions_Act\" title=\"Uniform Electronic Transactions Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20cc6d7b3e6c7d8b7cdc27cebf7d3797\">Uniform Electronic Transactions Act<\/a> (\"UETA\") released by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL) in 1999.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> It was influenced by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American_Bar_Association\" title=\"American Bar Association\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f4ecf3e89b6e338c5c47221def7fc2f\">ABA<\/a> committee white papers and the uniform law promulgated by NCCUSL. Under UETA, the term means \"an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\" This definition and many other core concepts of UETA are echoed in the U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Signatures_in_Global_and_National_Commerce_Act\" title=\"Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"994c4661e49c6b179fe6d3242b38b23a\">ESign Act<\/a> of 2000.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-US_ESIGN_Act_of_2000_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-US_ESIGN_Act_of_2000-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> 48 US states, the District of Columbia, and the US Virgin Islands have enacted UETA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nccusl.org_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nccusl.org-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> Only New York and Illinois have not enacted UETA,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nccusl.org_25-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nccusl.org-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> but each of those states has adopted its own electronic signatures statute.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> As of June 11, 2020, Washington State Office of CIO adopted UETA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In Australia, an electronic signature is recognised as \"not necessarily the writing in of a name, but maybe any mark which identifies it as the act of the party.\u201d <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> Under the Electronic Transactions Acts in each Federal, State and Territory jurisdiction, an electronic signature may be considered enforceable if (a) there was a method used to identify the person and to indicate that person\u2019s intention in respect of the information communicated and the method was either: (i) as reliable as appropriate for the purpose for which the electronic communication was generated or communicated, in light of all the circumstances, including the relevant agreement; or (ii) proven in fact to have fulfilled the functions above by itself or together with further evidence and the person to whom the signature is required to be given consents to that method.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Legal_definitions\">Legal definitions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Various laws have been passed internationally to facilitate commerce by using electronic records and signatures in interstate and foreign commerce. The intent is to ensure the validity and legal effect of contracts entered electronically. For instance,\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PIPEDA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PIPEDA\" data-key=\"32579567ab9f30e34aecd16200b3b013\">PIPEDA<\/a> (Canadian federal law)<\/dt>\n<dd>(1) An electronic signature is \"a signature that consists of one or more letters, characters, numbers or other symbols in digital form incorporated in, attached to or associated with an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_document\" title=\"Electronic document\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7c91cfec24309af317a72bdf6e04634\">electronic document<\/a>\";<\/dd>\n<dd>(2) A secure electronic signature is an electronic signature that\n<dl><dd>(a) is unique to the person making the signature;<\/dd>\n<dd>(b) the technology or process used to make the signature is under the sole control of the person making the signature;<\/dd>\n<dd>(c) the technology or process can be used to identify the person using the technology or process; and<\/dd>\n<dd>(d) the electronic signature can be linked with an electronic document in such a way that it can be used to determine whether the electronic document has been changed since the electronic signature was incorporated in, attached to, or associated with the electronic document.<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Signatures_in_Global_and_National_Commerce_Act\" title=\"Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"994c4661e49c6b179fe6d3242b38b23a\">ESIGN Act<\/a> Sec 106 (US federal law)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup><\/dt>\n<dd>(2) ELECTRONIC- The term 'electronic' means relating to technology having electrical, digital, magnetic, wireless, optical, electromagnetic, or similar capabilities.<\/dd>\n<dd>(4) ELECTRONIC RECORD- The term 'electronic record' means a contract or other record created, generated, sent, communicated, received, or stored by electronic means.<\/dd>\n<dd>(5) ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE- The term 'electronic signature' means an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a contract or other record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EIDAS\" title=\"EIDAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9d362d5b2a606dc1dd4c99c6228635a\">Regulation No 910\/2014 on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the internal market<\/a> Art 3 (European Union regulation)<\/dt>\n<dd>(10) \u2018electronic signature\u2019 means data in electronic form which is attached to or logically associated with other data in electronic form and which is used by the signatory to sign;<\/dd>\n<dd>(11) \u2018advanced electronic signature\u2019 means an electronic signature which meets the requirements set out in Article 26;<\/dd>\n<dd>(12) \u2018qualified electronic signature\u2019 means an advanced electronic signature that is created by a qualified electronic signature creation device, and which is based on a qualified certificate for electronic signatures;<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gpea\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gpea\" data-key=\"b98e72e4ae5c9668e9a1ec069b67ed84\">GPEA<\/a> Sec 1710 (US federal law)<\/dt>\n<dd><\/dd>\n<dd>(1) ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE.\u2014the term \"electronic signature\" means a method of signing an electronic message that\u2014<\/dd>\n<dd>(A) identifies and authenticates a particular person as the source of the electronic message; and<\/dd>\n<dd>(B) indicates such person's approval of the information contained in the electronic message.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uniform_Electronic_Transactions_Act\" title=\"Uniform Electronic Transactions Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20cc6d7b3e6c7d8b7cdc27cebf7d3797\">UETA<\/a> Sec 2 (US state law)<\/dt>\n<dd><\/dd>\n<dd>(5) \"Electronic\" means relating to technology having electrical, digital, magnetic, wireless, optical, electromagnetic, or similar capabilities.<\/dd>\n<dd>(6) \"Electronic agent\" means a computer program or an electronic or other automated means used independently to initiate an action or respond to electronic records or performances in whole or in part, without review or action by an individual.<\/dd>\n<dd>(7) \"Electronic record\" means a record created, generated, sent, communicated, received, or stored by electronic means.<\/dd>\n<dd>(8) \"Electronic signature\" means an electronic sound, symbol, or process attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Reserve\" title=\"Federal Reserve\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"420b0bc6dbaa35aa00c20434d8f9132f\">Federal Reserve<\/a> 12 CFR 202 (US federal regulation)<\/dt>\n<dd>refers to the ESIGN Act<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commodity_Futures_Trading_Commission\" title=\"Commodity Futures Trading Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40a918b99de9c4080d0fc042ee926c45\">Commodity Futures Trading Commission<\/a> 17 CFR Part 1 Sec. 1.3 (US federal regulations)<\/dt>\n<dd><\/dd>\n<dd>(tt) Electronic signature means an electronic sound, symbol, or process attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> 21 CFR Sec. 11.3 (US federal regulations)<\/dt>\n<dd><\/dd>\n<dd>(5) Digital signature means an electronic signature based upon cryptographic methods of originator authentication, computed by using a set of rules and a set of parameters such that the signer's identity and the integrity of the data can be verified.<\/dd>\n<dd>(7) Electronic signature means a computer data compilation of any symbol or series of symbols executed, adopted, or authorized by an individual to be the legally binding equivalent of the individual's handwritten signature.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office\" title=\"United States Patent and Trademark Office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d1174b9e571e2d5a7d9e8af7ad4e80f\">United States Patent and Trademark Office<\/a> 37 CFR Sec. 1.4 (federal regulation)<\/dt>\n<dd>(d)(2) <i>S-signature.<\/i> An S-signature is a signature inserted between forwarding slash marks, but not a handwritten signature ... (i)The S-signature must consist only of letters, or Arabic numerals, or both, with appropriate spaces and commas, periods, apostrophes, or hyphens for punctuation... (e.g., \/Dr. James T. Jones, Jr.\/)...<\/dd>\n<dd>(iii) The signer's name must be:<\/dd>\n<dd>(A) Presented in printed or typed form preferably immediately below or adjacent to the S-signature, and<\/dd>\n<dd>(B) Reasonably specific enough so that the identity of the signer can be readily recognized.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-USPTO_Manual_of_Patent_Examining_Procedures_(MPEP)_\u00a7501_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-USPTO_Manual_of_Patent_Examining_Procedures_(MPEP)_\u00a7501-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laws_regarding_their_use\">Laws regarding their use<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_signatures_and_law\" title=\"Electronic signatures and law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8428b2a67a3b4f514330ea69b43f0fb2\">Electronic signatures and law<\/a><\/div>\n<ul><li>Australia - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.comlaw.gov.au\/Details\/C2011C00445\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Transactions Act 1999<\/a> (which incorporates amendments from Electronic Transactions Amendment Act 2011), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.comlaw.gov.au\/Details\/C2011C00445\/Html\/Text#_Toc296406959\" target=\"_blank\">Section 10 - Signatures<\/a> specifically relates to electronic signatures.<\/li>\n<li>Azerbaijan - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/e-qanun.az\/framework\/5916\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Signature and Electronic Document Law (2004)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Brazil - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.planalto.gov.br\/ccivil_03\/_ato2019-2022\/2020\/lei\/l14063.htm\" target=\"_blank\">2020 Electronic signature Law (Lei de assinaturas eletr\u00f4nicas)<\/a>; <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.planalto.gov.br\/ccivil_03\/MPV\/Antigas_2001\/2200-2.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Brazil's National Public Key Certificate Infrastructure Act (Infraestrutura de Chaves P\u00fablicas Brasileira - ICP-Brasil)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Bulgaria - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mlsp.government.bg\/uploads\/3\/zakonodatelstvo\/zakon-za-elektronniq-dokument-i-elektronnite-udostoveritelni-uslugi-zagl-izm-dv-br-85-ot-2017-g.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Document and Electronic Certification Services Act<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Canada - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/laws.justice.gc.ca\/eng\/acts\/P-8.6\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">PIPEDA<\/a>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/laws-lois.justice.gc.ca\/eng\/regulations\/SOR-2005-30\/?showtoc=&instrumentnumber=SOR-2005-30\" target=\"_blank\">its regulations<\/a>, and the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/laws-lois.justice.gc.ca\/eng\/acts\/c-5\/\" target=\"_blank\">Canada Evidence Act<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>China - Law of the People's Republic of China on Electronic Signature (effective April 1, 2005)<\/li>\n<li>Costa Rica - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pgrweb.go.cr\/scij\/Busqueda\/Normativa\/Normas\/nrm_texto_completo.aspx?nValor1=1&nValor2=55666\" target=\"_blank\">Digital Signature Law 8454<\/a> (2005)<\/li>\n<li>Croatia 2002, updated 2008<\/li>\n<li>Czech Republic \u2013 currently directly applicable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EIDAS\" title=\"EIDAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9d362d5b2a606dc1dd4c99c6228635a\">eIDAS<\/a> and <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/aplikace.mvcr.cz\/sbirka-zakonu\/ViewFile.aspx?type=z&id=61057\" target=\"_blank\">Z\u00e1kona o slu\u017eb\u00e1ch vytv\u00e1\u0159ej\u00edc\u00edch d\u016fv\u011bru pro elektronick\u00e9 transakce - 297\/2016 Sb.<\/a> (effective from 19 September 2016), formerly <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/aplikace.mvcr.cz\/sbirka-zakonu\/ViewFile.aspx?type=c&id=3456\" target=\"_blank\">Z\u00e1kon o elektronick\u00e9m podpisu - 227\/2000 Sb.<\/a> (effective from 1 October 2000 until 19 September 2016 when it was derogated)<\/li>\n<li>Ecuador \u2013 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.telecomunicaciones.gob.ec\/wp-content\/uploads\/downloads\/2012\/11\/Ley-de-Comercio-Electronico-Firmas-y-Mensajes-de-Datos.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Ley de Comercio Electronico Firmas y Mensajes de Datos<\/a><\/li>\n<li>European Union - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EIDAS\" title=\"EIDAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9d362d5b2a606dc1dd4c99c6228635a\">eIDAS<\/a> regulation on implementation within the EU is set out in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signatures_and_law#European_Union_and_the_European_Economic_Area\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital signatures and law\" data-key=\"8bdc840704f9415ee2fc4e3fe4fb32ef\">Digital Signatures and the Law<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>India - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Technology_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information Technology Act\" data-key=\"081bfa8abc365a0d27438478d71408d4\">Information Technology Act<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Iraq - Electronic Transactions and Electronic Signature Act No 78 in 2012<\/li>\n<li>Ireland - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.irishstatutebook.ie\/2000\/en\/act\/pub\/0027\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Commerce Act 2000<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Japan - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signatures_and_law#Japan\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital signatures and law\" data-key=\"9f246d3842c379578bc9a817f7529219\">Law Concerning Electronic Signatures and Certification Services, 2000<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Kazakhstan - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/adilet.zan.kz\/rus\/docs\/Z030000370_\" target=\"_blank\">Law on Electronic Document and Electronic Signature (07.01.2003)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Lithuania - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/e-seimas.lrs.lt\/portal\/legalAct\/en\/TAD\/c5174772ecd011e89d4ad92e8434e309\" target=\"_blank\">Law on Electronic Identification and Trust Services for Electronic Transactions<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Mexico - E-Commerce Act [2000]<\/li>\n<li>Malaysia - Digital Signature Act 1997 and Digital Signature Regulation 1998 (<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mcmc.gov.my\/sectors\/digital-signature\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.mcmc.gov.my\/sectors\/digital-signature<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>Moldova - Privind semn\u0103tura electronic\u0103 \u015fi documentul electronic (<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/lex.justice.md\/md\/353612\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/lex.justice.md\/md\/353612\/<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>New Zealand - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.legislation.govt.nz\/act\/public\/2017\/0005\/21.0\/whole.html\" target=\"_blank\">Contract and Commercial Law Act 2017<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Paraguay - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140413140957\/http:\/\/www.gacetaoficial.gov.py\/uploads\/pdf\/2013\/2013-11-07\/gaceta_777_FBEJJFBGFADFCKFFGECAGEBJKIDKKHCFIHEGBFCH.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Ley 4017: De validez jur\u00eddica de la Firma Electr\u00f3nica, la Firma Digital, los Mensajes de Datos y el Expediente Electr\u00f3nico (12\/23\/2010)<\/a> <span class=\"languageicon\">(in Spanish)<\/span>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150924020425\/http:\/\/www.gacetaoficial.gov.py\/uploads\/pdf\/2013\/2013-10-30\/gaceta_384_HFBIHEFKACGHEIACGCEEKCAKJIJIAAIHGJFCDKBE.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Ley 4610: Que modifica y amplia la Ley 4017\/10 (05\/07\/2012)<\/a> <span class=\"languageicon\">(in Spanish)<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Peru - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.congreso.gob.pe\/ntley\/Imagenes\/Leyes\/27269.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Ley N\u00ba 27269. Ley de Firmas y Certificados Digitales (28MAY2000)<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140429162134\/http:\/\/www.congreso.gob.pe\/ntley\/Imagenes\/Leyes\/27269.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2014-04-29 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> <span class=\"languageicon\">(in Spanish)<\/span><\/li>\n<li>the Philippines - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160331115837\/http:\/\/www.ncc.gov.ph\/files\/Ra8792.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Commerce Act of 2000<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Poland - Ustawa o podpisie elektronicznym (Dziennik Ustaw z 2001 r. Nr 130 poz. 1450) <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Romania - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mcsi.ro\/Minister\/Domenii-de-activitate-ale-MCSI\/Tehnologia-Informatiei\/Servicii-electronice\/Semnatura-electronica\/Legea-455-2001\" target=\"_blank\">Legea nr. 455 din 18 iulie 2001 privind semn\u0103tura electronic\u0103<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Russian Federation - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pravo.gov.ru\/proxy\/ips\/?docbody=&nd=102146610\" target=\"_blank\">Federal Law of Russian Federation about Electronic Signature (06.04.2011)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Singapore - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/sso.agc.gov.sg\/Act\/ETA2010\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Transactions Act (2010)<\/a> (<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.imda.gov.sg\/regulations-licensing-and-consultations\/acts-and-regulations\/electronic-transactions-act-and-regulations\" target=\"_blank\">background information<\/a>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.imda.gov.sg\/regulations-licensing-and-consultations\/acts-and-regulations\/electronic-transactions-act-and-regulations\/differences-between-eta-1998-and-eta-2010\" target=\"_blank\">differences between ETA 1998 and ETA 2010<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>Slovakia - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.zbierka.sk\/zz\/predpisy\/default.aspx?PredpisID=16414&FileName=02-z215&Rocnik=2002\" target=\"_blank\">Z\u00e1kon \u010d.215\/2002 o elektronickom podpise<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Slovenia - Slovene Electronic Commerce and Electronic Signature Act<\/li>\n<li>South Africa - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gov.za\/sites\/default\/files\/gcis_document\/201409\/a25-02.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Communications and Transactions Act [No. 25 of 2002]<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Spain - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.boe.es\/buscar\/act.php?id=BOE-A-2020-14046\" target=\"_blank\">Ley 6\/2020, de 11 de noviembre, reguladora de determinados aspectos de los servicios electr\u00f3nicos de confianza<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Switzerland - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZertES\" title=\"ZertES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d82b1f57d1830ff6455a0a4a64dbeb9\">ZertES<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Republika_Srpska\" title=\"Republika Srpska\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19fae3c74d365afdd2c149642ca512bd\">Republika Srpska<\/a> (entity of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina\" title=\"Bosnia and Herzegovina\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cf0c86fd946cd4b7ed856be32cfe05c\">Bosnia and Herzegovina<\/a>) 2005<\/li>\n<li>Turkey - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070927203050\/http:\/\/www.kamusm.gov.tr\/en\/Electronic_Signature_Law.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Signature Law<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Ukraine - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20071005001335\/http:\/\/www.ucrf.gov.ua\/uk\/doc\/laws\/1149760377\/\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Signature Law, 2003<\/a><\/li>\n<li>UK - s.7 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Communications_Act_2000\" title=\"Electronic Communications Act 2000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c09ceb7b354b5e3554a35b9c262eca5d\">Electronic Communications Act 2000<\/a><\/li>\n<li>U.S. - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Signatures_in_Global_and_National_Commerce_Act\" title=\"Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"994c4661e49c6b179fe6d3242b38b23a\">Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act<\/a><\/li>\n<li>U.S. - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uniform_Electronic_Transactions_Act\" title=\"Uniform Electronic Transactions Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20cc6d7b3e6c7d8b7cdc27cebf7d3797\">Uniform Electronic Transactions Act<\/a> - adopted by 48 states<\/li>\n<li>U.S. - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Government_Paperwork_Elimination_Act\" title=\"Government Paperwork Elimination Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1a60bcf526d5404e376b28c2f440ed3\">Government Paperwork Elimination Act<\/a> (GPEA)<\/li>\n<li>U.S. - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uniform_Commercial_Code\" title=\"Uniform Commercial Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e24c838c957e10a5ec1b015cadb9131\">The Uniform Commercial Code (UCC)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Usage\">Usage<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aberdeen_Group\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Aberdeen Group\" data-key=\"44f322950aaa855fa71a9750798fabe6\">Aberdeen Strategy and Research<\/a> reported that 73% of \"best-in-class\" and 34% of all other respondents surveyed made use of electronic signature processes in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain\" title=\"Supply chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e23757d3e834e0b4658459f0fd50db00\">supply chain<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Procurement\" title=\"Procurement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b2eeab44988b1a895617cc24455657b\">procurement<\/a>, delivering benefits in the speed and efficiency of key procurement activities. The percentages of their survey respondents using electronic signatures in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accounts_payable\" title=\"Accounts payable\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb3e6c055f023fba6681964a6c4a34eb\">accounts payable<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accounts_receivable\" title=\"Accounts receivable\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35a4c090ae5c0e4ec9756c60fa8526ea\">accounts receivable<\/a> processes were a little lower, 53% of \"best-in-class\" respondents in each case.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Technological_implementations_.28underlying_technology.29\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technological_implementations_(underlying_technology)\">Technological implementations (underlying technology)<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Digital_signature\">Digital signature<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signature\" title=\"Digital signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4619b82a0e21434550c0eaa36d81c82d\">Digital signature<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Digital_Signature_diagram.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5dbe2936a5a52d7258132c60c0cf711\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2b\/Digital_Signature_diagram.svg\/280px-Digital_Signature_diagram.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"280\" height=\"210\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A diagram showing how a digital signature is applied and then verified<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Digital signatures are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptographic<\/a> implementations of <b>electronic signatures<\/b> used as a proof of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authenticity_(philosophy)\" title=\"Authenticity (philosophy)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8d64ca56cc8bfa12aa40d60d9714958\">authenticity<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">data integrity<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-repudiation\" title=\"Non-repudiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"626625acb28e081c4e58d7fb46a4b9f5\">non-repudiation<\/a> of communications conducted over the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a>. When implemented in compliance to digital signature standards, digital signing should offer end-to-end privacy with the signing process being user-friendly and secure. Digital signatures are generated and verified through standardized frameworks such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Signature_Algorithm\" title=\"Digital Signature Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a664ffea168308e40cc41b137a6e7ada\">Digital Signature Algorithm<\/a> (DSA)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NIST\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NIST\" data-key=\"2c5730fa123ebb7598290eb8137b243f\">NIST<\/a> or in compliance to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XAdES\" title=\"XAdES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2c625466a57ebc1b27fd03f74cc9e84\">XAdES<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PAdES\" title=\"PAdES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"280660caf4c5a05d16248846ab830c9c\">PAdES<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CAdES_(computing)\" title=\"CAdES (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40c40f473076ba434e4f30ffa7a8bd8d\">CAdES<\/a> standards, specified by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ETSI\" title=\"ETSI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ac613e62f4ab5025b6ab7fb0a451ced\">ETSI<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner_Diff-Electronic-Digital-Sig_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner_Diff-Electronic-Digital-Sig-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There are typically three algorithms involved with the digital signature process:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Key generation \u2013 This algorithm provides a private key along with its corresponding public key.<\/li>\n<li>Signing \u2013 This algorithm produces a signature upon receiving a private key and the message that is being signed.<\/li>\n<li>Verification \u2013 This algorithm checks for the message's authenticity by verifying it along with the signature and public key.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-what-is-a-digsig_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-what-is-a-digsig-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The process of digital signing requires that its accompanying public key can then authenticate the signature generated by both the fixed message and private key. Using these cryptographic algorithms, the user's signature cannot be replicated without having access to their private key.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-what-is-a-digsig_39-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-what-is-a-digsig-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_channel\" title=\"Secure channel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb18227656feeee0a6b39ccaaf50c06a\">secure channel<\/a> is not typically required. By applying asymmetric cryptography methods, the digital signature process prevents several common attacks where the attacker attempts to gain access through the following attack methods.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The most relevant standards on digital signatures with respect to size of domestic markets are the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Signature_Algorithm\" title=\"Digital Signature Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a664ffea168308e40cc41b137a6e7ada\">Digital Signature Standard (DSS)<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS_37-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology\" title=\"National Institute of Standards and Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"420abb4c176d79852b635ba1191578a1\">National Institute of Standards and Technology<\/a> (NIST) and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EIDAS\" title=\"EIDAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9d362d5b2a606dc1dd4c99c6228635a\">eIDAS<\/a> Regulation<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eIDAS_Reference-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> enacted by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Parliament\" title=\"European Parliament\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04c947c3fac4787cbde96ed2bb1695f8\">European Parliament<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenPGP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OpenPGP\" data-key=\"b7a588503e8fa206d9d5813431fcb049\">OpenPGP<\/a> is a non-proprietary protocol for email encryption through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_key_cryptography\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Public key cryptography\" data-key=\"ebf8dd5d2155f0affe8642837207ec39\">public key cryptography<\/a>. It is supported by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pretty_Good_Privacy\" title=\"Pretty Good Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53b603ea3a39ecc964d1c8035196d426\">PGP<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GnuPG\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GnuPG\" data-key=\"d0b18a53bd68c9e39ba2a9ec9ac509c6\">GnuPG<\/a>, and some of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S\/MIME\" title=\"S\/MIME\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"409f65ba3af6c099907389d909cb1385\">S\/MIME<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IETF\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IETF\" data-key=\"e532f4fb10a864e40a224e94bfe75cb5\">IETF<\/a> standards and has evolved into the most popular email encryption standard in the world.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OpenPGPAllianceReference_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OpenPGPAllianceReference-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Biometric_signature\">Biometric signature<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An electronic signature may also refer to electronic forms of processing or verifying identity through the use of biometric \"signatures\" or biologically identifying qualities of an individual. Such signatures use the approach of attaching some biometric measurement to a document as evidence. Biometric signatures include fingerprints, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hand_geometry\" title=\"Hand geometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a335602053107c63ea834e180a862b84\">hand geometry<\/a> (finger lengths and palm size), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iris_recognition\" title=\"Iris recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e2d33cd9cb5fda002b102a8e527c5c\">iris patterns<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speaker_recognition\" title=\"Speaker recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49a5cd75e4e5ece8e506ae2f09e75f11\">voice characteristics<\/a>, retinal patterns, or any other human body property. All of these are collected using electronic sensors of some kind.\n<\/p><p>Biometric measurements of this type are useless as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Passwords\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Passwords\" data-key=\"b32824c0201e457566b990cae7ae6e2e\">passwords<\/a> because they can't be changed if compromised. However, they might be serviceable, except that to date, they have been so easily deceived that they can carry little assurance that the person who purportedly signed a document was actually the person who did. For example, a replay of the electronic signal produced and submitted to the computer system responsible for 'affixing' a signature to a document can be collected via wiretapping techniques.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Many commercially available fingerprint sensors have low resolution and can be deceived with inexpensive household items (for example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gummy_bear\" title=\"Gummy bear\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5ce35e6fded85ad02beb1b1bfa4fb6b\">gummy bear<\/a> candy gel).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> In the case of a user's face image, researchers in Vietnam successfully demonstrated in late 2017 how a specially crafted mask could beat <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apple_Inc.\" title=\"Apple Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"071b1bca39b3a61799e49233d2df16a3\">Apple's<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Face_ID\" title=\"Face ID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c32b8c1b02903455268d37f82817abb4\">Face ID<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPhone_X\" title=\"IPhone X\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e35379844819964b81e61ba84f99027f\">iPhone X<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BkavBkav17_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BkavBkav17-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Long-term_validation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Long-term validation\" data-key=\"3d4531f66460726e3778561fb2f8780b\">Long-term validation<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTurner\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Turner, Dawn. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/what-is-a-digital-signature-what-it-does-how-it-works\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is a Digital Signature - What It Does, How It Works\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160209203857\/http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/what-is-a-digital-signature-what-it-does-how-it-works\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on February 9, 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">January 7,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+a+Digital+Signature+-+What+It+Does%2C+How+It+Works&amp;rft.pub=Cryptomathic&amp;rft.aulast=Turner&amp;rft.aufirst=Dawn&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Fwhat-is-a-digital-signature-what-it-does-how-it-works&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-eIDAS_Reference-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=uriserv:OJ.L_.2014.257.01.0073.01.ENG\" target=\"_blank\">\"REGULATION (EU) No 910\/2014 of 23 July 2014 on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the internal market and repealing Directive 1999\/93\/EC\"<\/a>. THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180115001229\/http:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=uriserv:OJ.L_.2014.257.01.0073.01.ENG\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on January 15, 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">December 20,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=What+Are+E-Signatures%3F+%7C+Signable+%7C&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.signable.co.uk%2Fwhat-are-e-signatures&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig_4-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTurner\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Turner, Dawn. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/major-standards-and-compliance-of-digital-signatures-a-world-wide-consideration\" target=\"_blank\">\"Major Standards and Compliance of Digital Signatures - A World-Wide Consideration\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160209203857\/http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/major-standards-and-compliance-of-digital-signatures-a-world-wide-consideration\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on February 9, 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Law.cornell.edu. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#Rule1001\">Archived<\/a> from the original on November 25, 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">March 6,<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Federal+Rules+of+Evidence+%26%23124%3B+Federal+Rules+of+Evidence+%26%23124%3B+LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&amp;rft.pub=Law.cornell.edu&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Frules%2Ffre%2Frules.htm%23Rule1001&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJA\" class=\"citation web cs1\">JA, Ashiq. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/recommendations-for-providing-digital-signature-services\" target=\"_blank\">\"Recommendations for Providing Digital Signature Services\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160209203856\/http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/recommendations-for-providing-digital-signature-services\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on February 9, 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">January 7,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Recommendations+for+Providing+Digital+Signature+Services&amp;rft.pub=Cryptomathic&amp;rft.aulast=JA&amp;rft.aufirst=Ashiq&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Frecommendations-for-providing-digital-signature-services&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Turner-AdvancedESig-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner-AdvancedESig_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner-AdvancedESig_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTurner\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Turner, Dawn M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/advanced-electronic-signatures\" target=\"_blank\">\"Advanced Electronic Signatures for eIDAS\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160630080430\/http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/advanced-electronic-signatures\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on June 30, 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Cryptomathic. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160420084105\/http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/understanding-eidas\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on April 20, 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 7,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+eIDAS&amp;rft.pub=Cryptomathic&amp;rft.aulast=Turner&amp;rft.aufirst=Dawn+M.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Funderstanding-eidas&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Turner-QualifiedElectronicSignature-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner-QualifiedElectronicSignature_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTurner\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Turner, Dawn M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/qualified-electronic-signatures-for-eidas\" target=\"_blank\">\"Qualified Electronic Signatures for eIDAS\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160523061250\/http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/qualified-electronic-signatures-for-eidas\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on May 23, 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 7,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Qualified+Electronic+Signatures+for+eIDAS&amp;rft.pub=Cryptomathic&amp;rft.aulast=Turner&amp;rft.aufirst=Dawn+M.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Fqualified-electronic-signatures-for-eidas&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Turner-TSPs-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner-TSPs_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTurner\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Turner, Dawn M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/trust-service-providers-according-to-eidas\" target=\"_blank\">\"Trust Service Providers according to eIDAS\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160711110548\/http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/trust-service-providers-according-to-eidas\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on July 11, 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 23,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Trust+Service+Providers+according+to+eIDAS&amp;rft.pub=Cryptomathic&amp;rft.aulast=Turner&amp;rft.aufirst=Dawn+M.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Ftrust-service-providers-according-to-eidas&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Howley v. Whipple, 48 N.H. 487, 488 (1869)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#1b\">\"Privacy Issues In Federal Systems: A Constitutional Perspective\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Isaac Bowman. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.isaacbowman.com\/the-history-of-electronic-signature-laws\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on March 11, 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Isaac Bowman. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.isaacbowman.com\/electronic-signatures-in-global-and-national-commerce-act-esign\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on March 11, 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">March 6,<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Electronic+Signatures+in+Global+and+National+Commerce+Act+%28%22ESIGN%22%29&amp;rft.pub=Isaac+Bowman&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isaacbowman.com%2Felectronic-signatures-in-global-and-national-commerce-act-esign&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-USPTO_Manual_of_Patent_Examining_Procedures_(MPEP)_\u00a7501-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-USPTO_Manual_of_Patent_Examining_Procedures_(MPEP)_\u00a7501_33-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#sect501%7Cpublisher=USPTO\">\"MPEP \u00a7501\"<\/a>. <i>USPTO Manual of Patent Examining Procedures (MPEP)<\/i>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#sect501%7Cpublisher=USPTO\">Archived<\/a> from the original on February 17, 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">October 5,<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=USPTO+Manual+of+Patent+Examining+Procedures+%28MPEP%29&amp;rft.atitle=MPEP+%C2%A7501&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uspto.gov%2Fweb%2Foffices%2Fpac%2Fmpep%2Fdocuments%2F0500_501.htm%23sect501%257Cpublisher%3DUSPTO&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/www.abc.com.pl\/serwis\/du\/2001\/1450.htm\" target=\"_blank\">[5]<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110927073911\/http:\/\/www.abc.com.pl\/serwis\/du\/2001\/1450.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> September 27, 2011, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gov.za\/documents\/electronic-communications-and-transactions-act\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Communications and Transactions Act 25 of 2002\"<\/a>. <i>South African Government<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211118072909\/https:\/\/www.gov.za\/documents\/electronic-communications-and-transactions-act\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on November 18, 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">November 18,<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=South+African+Government&amp;rft.atitle=Electronic+Communications+and+Transactions+Act+25+of+2002&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.za%2Fdocuments%2Felectronic-communications-and-transactions-act&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Barry, M., <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aberdeen.com\/featured\/e-signature-in-procurement\/\" target=\"_blank\">The Speed &amp; Efficiency of E-Signature in Procurement<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210422050002\/https:\/\/www.aberdeen.com\/featured\/e-signature-in-procurement\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> April 22, 2021, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, Aberdeen Strategy and Research, published 1 April 2016, accessed 22 April 2021<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS_37-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS_37-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/FIPS\/NIST.FIPS.186-4.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"FIPS PUB 186-4: Digital Signature Standard (DSS)\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161227093019\/http:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/FIPS\/NIST.FIPS.186-4.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on December 27, 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">January 7,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=FIPS+PUB+186-4%3A+Digital+Signature+Standard+%28DSS%29&amp;rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnvlpubs.nist.gov%2Fnistpubs%2FFIPS%2FNIST.FIPS.186-4.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Turner_Diff-Electronic-Digital-Sig-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner_Diff-Electronic-Digital-Sig_38-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTurner\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Turner, Dawn M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/the-difference-between-an-electronic-signature-and-a-digital-signature\" target=\"_blank\">\"THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE AND A DIGITAL SIGNATURE\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160508200451\/http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/the-difference-between-an-electronic-signature-and-a-digital-signature\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on May 8, 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">April 21,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=THE+DIFFERENCE+BETWEEN+AN+ELECTRONIC+SIGNATURE+AND+A+DIGITAL+SIGNATURE&amp;rft.pub=Cryptomathic&amp;rft.aulast=Turner&amp;rft.aufirst=Dawn+M.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Fthe-difference-between-an-electronic-signature-and-a-digital-signature&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Turner-what-is-a-digsig-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner-what-is-a-digsig_39-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner-what-is-a-digsig_39-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTurner\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Turner, Dawn. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/what-is-a-digital-signature-what-it-does-how-it-works\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is a digital signature - what it does, how it work\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160209203857\/http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/what-is-a-digital-signature-what-it-does-how-it-works\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on February 9, 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 7,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+a+digital+signature+-+what+it+does%2C+how+it+work&amp;rft.pub=Cryptomathic&amp;rft.aulast=Turner&amp;rft.aufirst=Dawn&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Fwhat-is-a-digital-signature-what-it-does-how-it-works&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OpenPGPAllianceReference-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-OpenPGPAllianceReference_40-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/openpgp.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Welcome to The OpenPGP Alliance\"<\/a>. OpenPGP Alliance. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160111032333\/http:\/\/openpgp.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on January 11, 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">January 7,<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Welcome+to+The+OpenPGP+Alliance&amp;rft.pub=OpenPGP+Alliance&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopenpgp.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMatsumoto2002\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Matsumoto (2002). \"Impact of artificial gummy fingers on fingerprint systems\". <i>Proceedings of SPIE<\/i>. pp.&#160;275\u2013289. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CiteSeerX (identifier)\" data-key=\"d1ea3e5168e7880002688dac1448af19\">CiteSeerX<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.100.8172\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.100.8172<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.atitle=Impact+of+artificial+gummy+fingers+on+fingerprint+systems&amp;rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+SPIE&amp;rft.pages=275-289&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.100.8172%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft.au=Matsumoto&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BkavBkav17-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BkavBkav17_42-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bkav.com\/news-in-focus\/-\/view_content\/content\/103968\/bkav%E2%80%99s-new-mask-beats-face-id-in-twin-way-severity-level-raised-do-not-use-face-id-in-business-transactions\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bkav's new mask beats Face ID in \"twin way\": Severity level raised, do not use Face ID in business transactions\"<\/a>. <i>News In Focus<\/i>. Bkav Corporation. November 27, 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180508221113\/http:\/\/www.bkav.com\/news-in-focus\/-\/view_content\/content\/103968\/bkav%E2%80%99s-new-mask-beats-face-id-in-twin-way-severity-level-raised-do-not-use-face-id-in-business-transactions\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on May 8, 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">May 8,<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=News+In+Focus&amp;rft.atitle=Bkav%27s+new+mask+beats+Face+ID+in+%22twin+way%22%3A+Severity+level+raised%2C+do+not+use+Face+ID+in+business+transactions&amp;rft.date=2017-11-27&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bkav.com%2Fnews-in-focus%2F-%2Fview_content%2Fcontent%2F103968%2Fbkav%25E2%2580%2599s-new-mask-beats-face-id-in-twin-way-severity-level-raised-do-not-use-face-id-in-business-transactions&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/information_society\/eeurope\/2005\/all_about\/security\/electronic_sig_report.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">E-Sign Final Report<\/a> (2005, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090408073109\/http:\/\/www.jsboard.co.uk\/publications\/digisigs\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Judicial Studies Board Digital Signature Guidelines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/biometrics.gov\/Documents\/DynamicSig.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Dynamic signatures<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1492\nCached time: 20240105143236\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.566 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.710 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 2754\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 79346\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 2949\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 9\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 113275\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.391\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 23433655\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 650.185 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>37.85% 246.079 1 Template:Reflist\n28.81% 187.314 31 Template:Cite_web\n16.46% 107.021 1 Template:Authority_control\n14.92% 97.020 3 Template:In_lang\n12.02% 78.133 1 Template:Short_description\n 6.38% 41.502 8 Template:Main_other\n 5.95% 38.710 1 Template:SDcat\n 5.43% 35.295 1 Template:Citation_needed\n 4.89% 31.779 1 Template:Fix\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:627040-0!canonical and timestamp 20240105143236 and revision id 1193765272. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_signature\" data-key=\"d93c89da3c8f28e5d98d92e55b811ebe\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110154829\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.149 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.354 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 107301\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 314.583 1 wikipedia:Electronic_signature\n100.00% 314.583 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10562-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110154828 and revision id 33195. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_images":[],"dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_timestamp":1704907000,"4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_type":"article","4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_title":"Data visualization","4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_visualization","4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_plaintext":"\n\nData visualizationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_visualization?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_visualization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_visualization<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementInformaticsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 September 2022, at 18:17.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 6,112 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_visualization rootpage-Data_visualization skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data visualization<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_visualization?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_visualization\" data-key=\"e5477909db13f678e8054bd9dae16a17\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171640\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.101 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.171 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 100\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 166.851 1 wikipedia:Data_visualization\n100.00% 166.851 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10407-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171640 and revision id 49355. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_visualization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_visualization<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_images":[],"4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_timestamp":1704907000,"d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_type":"article","d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_title":"Data retention","d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_retention","d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_plaintext":"\n\nData retentionFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retention?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_retention\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_retention<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 5 March 2019, at 20:43.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,050 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_retention rootpage-Data_retention skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data retention<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retention?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retention\" data-key=\"7319085a4f0e9c849d3614b6d796cdb5\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171640\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.083 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.152 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 96\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 148.316 1 wikipedia:Data_retention\n100.00% 148.316 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10933-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171640 and revision id 35121. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_retention\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_retention<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_images":[],"d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_timestamp":1704907000,"19c0a64172f39c37880cceb6d0fbf452_type":"article","19c0a64172f39c37880cceb6d0fbf452_title":"Data recovery","19c0a64172f39c37880cceb6d0fbf452_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_recovery","19c0a64172f39c37880cceb6d0fbf452_plaintext":"\n\nData recoveryFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_recovery?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_recovery\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_recovery<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 September 2022, at 18:06.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,818 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","19c0a64172f39c37880cceb6d0fbf452_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_recovery rootpage-Data_recovery skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data recovery<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_recovery?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_recovery\" data-key=\"e46c5fd8cbb2d3afa17d209387676e2f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171640\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.081 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.150 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 95\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 146.228 1 wikipedia:Data_recovery\n100.00% 146.228 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8873-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171640 and revision id 49350. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_recovery\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_recovery<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","19c0a64172f39c37880cceb6d0fbf452_images":[],"19c0a64172f39c37880cceb6d0fbf452_timestamp":1704907000,"6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_type":"article","6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_title":"Data migration","6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_migration","6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_plaintext":"\n\nData migrationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_migration?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_migration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_migration<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 July 2018, at 18:07.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,697 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_migration rootpage-Data_migration skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data migration<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_migration?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_migration\" data-key=\"a21ff53cc2ece9b80869cfdffa779af0\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171639\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.082 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.150 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 96\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 146.615 1 wikipedia:Data_migration\n100.00% 146.615 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10693-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171639 and revision id 33599. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_migration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_migration<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_images":[],"6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_timestamp":1704906999,"b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_type":"article","b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_title":"Data mapping","b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mapping","b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_plaintext":"\n\nData mappingFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mapping?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mapping\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mapping<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 2 March 2019, at 22:30.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 1,922 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_mapping rootpage-Data_mapping skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data mapping<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mapping?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mapping\" data-key=\"5e27b9e9ae631a9edb1f50c395508f5f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171639\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.079 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.147 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 94\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 144.407 1 wikipedia:Data_mapping\n100.00% 144.407 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10928-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171639 and revision id 35093. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mapping\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mapping<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_images":[],"b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_timestamp":1704906999,"545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1_type":"article","545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1_title":"Data analysis","545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis","545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1_plaintext":"\n\nData analysisFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchThe process of analyzing data to discover useful information and support decision-making\nPart of a series on StatisticsData and information visualization\nMajor dimensions\nExploratory data analysis\nInformation design\nInteractive data visualization\nDescriptive statistics\nInferential statistics\nStatistical graphics\nPlot\nData analysis\nInfographic\nData science\nInformation art\n\nImportant figures\nTamara Munzner\nBen Shneiderman\nJohn Tukey\nEdward Tufte\nHans Rosling\nDavid McCandless\nEd Hawkins\nHadley Wickham\nLeland Wilkinson\nMike Bostock\nJeffrey Heer\nDietmar Offenhuber\nKim Albrecht\nMoritz Stefaner\nNadieh Bremer\nShirley Wu\nLev Manovich\n\nInformation graphic types\nLine chart\nBar chart\nHistogram\nScatter plot\nBox plot\nPareto chart\nPie chart\nArea chart\nTree map\nBubble chart\nStripe graphic\nControl chart\nRun chart\nStem-and-leaf display\nCartogram\nSmall multiple\nSparkline\nTable\nMarimekko chart\n\nRelated topics\nData\nInformation\nBig data\nDatabase\nChartjunk\nVisual perception\nRegression analysis\nStatistical model\nMisleading graph\nvte\nComputational physics \nMechanics\nElectromagnetics\nMultiphysics\nParticle physics\nThermodynamics\nSimulation\r\n\n\nPotentials\nMorse\/Long-range potential\nLennard-Jones potential\nYukawa potential\nMorse potential\n\nFluid dynamics\nFinite difference\nFinite volume\nFinite element\nBoundary element\nLattice Boltzmann\nRiemann solver\nDissipative particle dynamics\nSmoothed particle hydrodynamics\nTurbulence models\n\nMonte Carlo methods\nIntegration\nGibbs sampling\nMetropolis algorithm\n\nParticle\nN-body\nParticle-in-cell\nMolecular dynamics\n\nScientists\nGodunov\nUlam\nvon Neumann\nGalerkin\nLorenz\nWilson\nAlder\nRichtmyer\nvte\nData analysis is the process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision-making.[1] Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names, and is used in different business, science, and social science domains.[2] In today's business world, data analysis plays a role in making decisions more scientific and helping businesses operate more effectively.[3]\nData mining is a particular data analysis technique that focuses on statistical modeling and knowledge discovery for predictive rather than purely descriptive purposes, while business intelligence covers data analysis that relies heavily on aggregation, focusing mainly on business information.[4] In statistical applications, data analysis can be divided into descriptive statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA), and confirmatory data analysis (CDA).[5] EDA focuses on discovering new features in the data while CDA focuses on confirming or falsifying existing hypotheses.[6][7] Predictive analytics focuses on the application of statistical models for predictive forecasting or classification, while text analytics applies statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques to extract and classify information from textual sources, a species of unstructured data. All of the above are varieties of data analysis.[8]\nData integration is a precursor to data analysis, and data analysis is closely linked to data visualization and data dissemination.[9]\n\n\n\nThe process of data analysis \nData science process flowchart from Doing Data Science, by Schutt&#160;&amp; O'Neil (2013)\n\nAnalysis refers to dividing a whole into its separate components for individual examination.[10] Data analysis is a process for obtaining raw data, and subsequently converting it into information useful for decision-making by users.[1] Data is collected and analyzed to answer questions, test hypotheses, or disprove theories.[11]\n\nStatistician John Tukey, defined data analysis in 1961, as:\"Procedures for analyzing data, techniques for interpreting the results of such procedures, ways of planning the gathering of data to make its analysis easier, more precise or more accurate, and all the machinery and results of (mathematical) statistics which apply to analyzing data.\"[12]There are several phases that can be distinguished, described below. The phases are iterative, in that feedback from later phases may result in additional work in earlier phases.[13] The CRISP framework, used in data mining, has similar steps.\nData requirements \nThe data is necessary as inputs to the analysis, which is specified based upon the requirements of those directing the analytics (or customers, who will use the finished product of the analysis).[14][15] The general type of entity upon which the data will be collected is referred to as an experimental unit (e.g., a person or population of people). Specific variables regarding a population (e.g., age and income) may be specified and obtained. Data may be numerical or categorical (i.e., a text label for numbers).[13]\n\nData collection \nData is collected from a variety of sources.[16][17] A list of data sources are available for study &amp; research. The requirements may be communicated by analysts to custodians of the data; such as, Information Technology personnel within an organization.[18] The data may also be collected from sensors in the environment, including traffic cameras, satellites, recording devices, etc. It may also be obtained through interviews, downloads from online sources, or reading documentation.[13]\n\nData processing \nThe phases of the intelligence cycle used to convert raw information into actionable intelligence or knowledge are conceptually similar to the phases in data analysis.\n\nData, when initially obtained, must be processed or organized for analysis.[19][20] For instance, these may involve placing data into rows and columns in a table format (known as structured data) for further analysis, often through the use of spreadsheet or statistical software.[13]\n\nData cleaning \nMain article: Data cleansing\nOnce processed and organized, the data may be incomplete, contain duplicates, or contain errors.[21][22] The need for data cleaning will arise from problems in the way that the datum are entered and stored.[21] Data cleaning is the process of preventing and correcting these errors. Common tasks include record matching, identifying inaccuracy of data, overall quality of existing data, deduplication, and column segmentation.[23] Such data problems can also be identified through a variety of analytical techniques. For example; with financial information, the totals for particular variables may be compared against separately published numbers that are believed to be reliable.[24][25] Unusual amounts, above or below predetermined thresholds, may also be reviewed. There are several types of data cleaning, that are dependent upon the type of data in the set; this could be phone numbers, email addresses, employers, or other values.[26][27] Quantitative data methods for outlier detection, can be used to get rid of data that appears to have a higher likelihood of being input incorrectly.[28] Textual data spell checkers can be used to lessen the amount of mistyped words. However, it is harder to tell if the words themselves are correct.[29]\n\nExploratory data analysis \nOnce the datasets are cleaned, they can then be analyzed. Analysts may apply a variety of techniques, referred to as exploratory data analysis, to begin understanding the messages contained within the obtained data.[30] The process of data exploration may result in additional data cleaning or additional requests for data; thus, the initialization of the iterative phases mentioned in the lead paragraph of this section.[31] Descriptive statistics, such as, the average or median, can be generated to aid in understanding the data.[32][33] Data visualization is also a technique used, in which the analyst is able to examine the data in a graphical format in order to obtain additional insights, regarding the messages within the data.[13]\n\nModeling and algorithms \nMathematical formulas or models (also known as algorithms), may be applied to the data in order to identify relationships among the variables; for example, using correlation or causation.[34][35] In general terms, models may be developed to evaluate a specific variable based on other variable(s) contained within the dataset, with some residual error depending on the implemented model's accuracy (e.g., Data = Model + Error).[36][11]\nInferential statistics includes utilizing techniques that measure the relationships between particular variables.[37] For example, regression analysis may be used to model whether a change in advertising (independent variable X), provides an explanation for the variation in sales (dependent variable Y).[38] In mathematical terms, Y (sales) is a function of X (advertising).[39] It may be described as (Y = aX + b + error), where the model is designed such that (a) and (b) minimize the error when the model predicts Y for a given range of values of X.[40] Analysts may also attempt to build models that are descriptive of the data, in an aim to simplify analysis and communicate results.[11]\n\nData product \nA data product is a computer application that takes data inputs and generates outputs, feeding them back into the environment.[41] It may be based on a model or algorithm. For instance, an application that analyzes data about customer purchase history, and uses the results to recommend other purchases the customer might enjoy.[42][13]\n\nCommunication \nData visualization is used to help understand the results after data is analyzed.[43]\n\nMain article: Data and information visualization\nOnce data is analyzed, it may be reported in many formats to the users of the analysis to support their requirements.[44] The users may have feedback, which results in additional analysis. As such, much of the analytical cycle is iterative.[13]\nWhen determining how to communicate the results, the analyst may consider implementing a variety of data visualization techniques to help communicate the message more clearly and efficiently to the audience.[45] Data visualization uses information displays (graphics such as, tables and charts) to help communicate key messages contained in the data.[46] Tables are a valuable tool by enabling the ability of a user to query and focus on specific numbers; while charts (e.g., bar charts or line charts), may help explain the quantitative messages contained in the data.[47]\n\nQuantitative messages \nMain article: Data and information visualization\nA time series illustrated with a line chart demonstrating trends in U.S. federal spending and revenue over time.\nA scatterplot illustrating the correlation between two variables (inflation and unemployment) measured at points in time.\n\nStephen Few described eight types of quantitative messages that users may attempt to understand or communicate from a set of data and the associated graphs used to help communicate the message.[48] Customers specifying requirements and analysts performing the data analysis may consider these messages during the course of the process.[49]\n\nTime-series: A single variable is captured over a period of time, such as the unemployment rate over a 10-year period. A line chart may be used to demonstrate the trend.[50]\nRanking: Categorical subdivisions are ranked in ascending or descending order, such as a ranking of sales performance (the measure) by salespersons (the category, with each salesperson a categorical subdivision) during a single period.[51] A bar chart may be used to show the comparison across the salespersons.[52]\nPart-to-whole: Categorical subdivisions are measured as a ratio to the whole (i.e., a percentage out of 100%). A pie chart or bar chart can show the comparison of ratios, such as the market share represented by competitors in a market.[53]\nDeviation: Categorical subdivisions are compared against a reference, such as a comparison of actual vs. budget expenses for several departments of a business for a given time period. A bar chart can show the comparison of the actual versus the reference amount.[54]\nFrequency distribution: Shows the number of observations of a particular variable for a given interval, such as the number of years in which the stock market return is between intervals such as 0\u201310%, 11\u201320%, etc. A histogram, a type of bar chart, may be used for this analysis.[55]\nCorrelation: Comparison between observations represented by two variables (X,Y) to determine if they tend to move in the same or opposite directions. For example, plotting unemployment (X) and inflation (Y) for a sample of months. A scatter plot is typically used for this message.[56]\nNominal comparison: Comparing categorical subdivisions in no particular order, such as the sales volume by product code. A bar chart may be used for this comparison.[57]\nGeographic or geospatial: Comparison of a variable across a map or layout, such as the unemployment rate by state or the number of persons on the various floors of a building. A cartogram is a typical graphic used.[58][59]\nTechniques for analyzing quantitative data \nSee also: Problem solving\nAuthor Jonathan Koomey has recommended a series of best practices for understanding quantitative data.[60] These include:\n\nCheck raw data for anomalies prior to performing an analysis;\nRe-perform important calculations, such as verifying columns of data that are formula driven;\nConfirm main totals are the sum of subtotals;\nCheck relationships between numbers that should be related in a predictable way, such as ratios over time;\nNormalize numbers to make comparisons easier, such as analyzing amounts per person or relative to GDP or as an index value relative to a base year;\nBreak problems into component parts by analyzing factors that led to the results, such as DuPont analysis of return on equity.[25]\nFor the variables under examination, analysts typically obtain descriptive statistics for them, such as the mean (average), median, and standard deviation.[61] They may also analyze the distribution of the key variables to see how the individual values cluster around the mean.[62]\n\nAn illustration of the MECE principle used for data analysis. The consultants at McKinsey and Company named a technique for breaking a quantitative problem down into its component parts called the MECE principle.[63] Each layer can be broken down into its components; each of the sub-components must be mutually exclusive of each other and collectively add up to the layer above them.[64] The relationship is referred to as \"Mutually Exclusive and Collectively Exhaustive\" or MECE. For example, profit by definition can be broken down into total revenue and total cost.[65] In turn, total revenue can be analyzed by its components, such as the revenue of divisions A, B, and C (which are mutually exclusive of each other) and should add to the total revenue (collectively exhaustive).[66]\nAnalysts may use robust statistical measurements to solve certain analytical problems.[67] Hypothesis testing is used when a particular hypothesis about the true state of affairs is made by the analyst and data is gathered to determine whether that state of affairs is true or false.[68][69] For example, the hypothesis might be that \"Unemployment has no effect on inflation\", which relates to an economics concept called the Phillips Curve.[70] Hypothesis testing involves considering the likelihood of Type I and type II errors, which relate to whether the data supports accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.[71][72]\nRegression analysis may be used when the analyst is trying to determine the extent to which independent variable X affects dependent variable Y (e.g., \"To what extent do changes in the unemployment rate (X) affect the inflation rate (Y)?\").[73] This is an attempt to model or fit an equation line or curve to the data, such that Y is a function of X.[74][75]\nNecessary condition analysis (NCA) may be used when the analyst is trying to determine the extent to which independent variable X allows variable Y (e.g., \"To what extent is a certain unemployment rate (X) necessary for a certain inflation rate (Y)?\").[73] Whereas (multiple) regression analysis uses additive logic where each X-variable can produce the outcome and the X's can compensate for each other (they are sufficient but not necessary),[76] necessary condition analysis (NCA) uses necessity logic, where one or more X-variables allow the outcome to exist, but may not produce it (they are necessary but not sufficient). Each single necessary condition must be present and compensation is not possible.[77]\n\nAnalytical activities of data users \nUsers may have particular data points of interest within a data set, as opposed to the general messaging outlined above. Such low-level user analytic activities are presented in the following table. The taxonomy can also be organized by three poles of activities: retrieving values, finding data points, and arranging data points.[78][79][80][81]\n\n\n\n#\nTask\nGeneral\r\nDescription\nPro Forma\r\nAbstract\nExamples\n\n\n1\n\nRetrieve Value\n\nGiven a set of specific cases, find attributes of those cases.\n\nWhat are the values of attributes {X, Y, Z, ...} in the data cases {A, B, C, ...}?\n\n- What is the mileage per gallon of the Ford Mondeo?\n- How long is the movie Gone with the Wind?\n\n\n\n2\n\n Filter\n\nGiven some concrete conditions on attribute values, find data cases satisfying those conditions.\n\nWhich data cases satisfy conditions {A, B, C...}?\n\n- What Kellogg's cereals have high fiber?\n- What comedies have won awards?\n- Which funds underperformed the SP-500?\n\n\n\n3\n\nCompute Derived Value\n\nGiven a set of data cases, compute an aggregate numeric representation of those data cases.\n\nWhat is the value of aggregation function F over a given set S of data cases?\n\n- What is the average calorie content of Post cereals?\n- What is the gross income of all stores combined?\n- How many manufacturers of cars are there?\n\n\n\n4\n\nFind Extremum\n\nFind data cases possessing an extreme value of an attribute over its range within the data set.\n\nWhat are the top\/bottom N data cases with respect to attribute A?\n\n- What is the car with the highest MPG?\n- What director\/film has won the most awards?\n- What Marvel Studios film has the most recent release date?\n\n\n\n5\n\nSort\n\nGiven a set of data cases, rank them according to some ordinal metric.\n\nWhat is the sorted order of a set S of data cases according to their value of attribute A?\n\n- Order the cars by weight.\n- Rank the cereals by calories.\n\n\n\n6\n\nDetermine Range\n\nGiven a set of data cases and an attribute of interest, find the span of values within the set.\n\nWhat is the range of values of attribute A in a set S of data cases?\n\n- What is the range of film lengths?\n- What is the range of car horsepowers?\n- What actresses are in the data set?\n\n\n\n7\n\nCharacterize Distribution\n\nGiven a set of data cases and a quantitative attribute of interest, characterize the distribution of that attribute's values over the set.\n\nWhat is the distribution of values of attribute A in a set S of data cases?\n\n- What is the distribution of carbohydrates in cereals?\n- What is the age distribution of shoppers?\n\n\n\n8\n\nFind Anomalies\n\nIdentify any anomalies within a given set of data cases with respect to a given relationship or expectation, e.g. statistical outliers.\n\nWhich data cases in a set S of data cases have unexpected\/exceptional values?\n\n- Are there exceptions to the relationship between horsepower and acceleration?\n- Are there any outliers in protein?\n\n\n\n9\n\nCluster\n\nGiven a set of data cases, find clusters of similar attribute values.\n\nWhich data cases in a set S of data cases are similar in value for attributes {X, Y, Z, ...}?\n\n- Are there groups of cereals w\/ similar fat\/calories\/sugar?\n- Is there a cluster of typical film lengths?\n\n\n\n10\n\nCorrelate\n\nGiven a set of data cases and two attributes, determine useful relationships between the values of those attributes.\n\nWhat is the correlation between attributes X and Y over a given set S of data cases?\n\n- Is there a correlation between carbohydrates and fat?\n- Is there a correlation between country of origin and MPG?\n- Do different genders have a preferred payment method?\n- Is there a trend of increasing film length over the years?\n\n\n\n11\n\n Contextualization[81]\n\nGiven a set of data cases, find contextual relevancy of the data to the users.\n\nWhich data cases in a set S of data cases are relevant to the current users' context?\n\n- Are there groups of restaurants that have foods based on my current caloric intake?\n\n\nBarriers to effective analysis \nBarriers to effective analysis may exist among the analysts performing the data analysis or among the audience. Distinguishing fact from opinion, cognitive biases, and innumeracy are all challenges to sound data analysis.[82]\n\nConfusing fact and opinion \n\n\nYou are entitled to your own opinion, but you are not entitled to your own facts.\n\n\nDaniel Patrick Moynihan\n\n\nEffective analysis requires obtaining relevant facts to answer questions, support a conclusion or formal opinion, or test hypotheses.[83][84] Facts by definition are irrefutable, meaning that any person involved in the analysis should be able to agree upon them.[85] For example, in August 2010, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimated that extending the Bush tax cuts of 2001 and 2003 for the 2011\u20132020 time period would add approximately $3.3 trillion to the national debt.[86] Everyone should be able to agree that indeed this is what CBO reported; they can all examine the report. This makes it a fact. Whether persons agree or disagree with the CBO is their own opinion.[87]\nAs another example, the auditor of a public company must arrive at a formal opinion on whether financial statements of publicly traded corporations are \"fairly stated, in all material respects\".[88] This requires extensive analysis of factual data and evidence to support their opinion. When making the leap from facts to opinions, there is always the possibility that the opinion is erroneous.[89]\n\nCognitive biases \nThere are a variety of cognitive biases that can adversely affect analysis. For example, confirmation bias is the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.[90] In addition, individuals may discredit information that does not support their views.[91]\nAnalysts may be trained specifically to be aware of these biases and how to overcome them.[92] In his book Psychology of Intelligence Analysis, retired CIA analyst Richards Heuer wrote that analysts should clearly delineate their assumptions and chains of inference and specify the degree and source of the uncertainty involved in the conclusions.[93] He emphasized procedures to help surface and debate alternative points of view.[94]\n\nInnumeracy \nEffective analysts are generally adept with a variety of numerical techniques. However, audiences may not have such literacy with numbers or numeracy; they are said to be innumerate.[95] Persons communicating the data may also be attempting to mislead or misinform, deliberately using bad numerical techniques.[96]\nFor example, whether a number is rising or falling may not be the key factor. More important may be the number relative to another number, such as the size of government revenue or spending relative to the size of the economy (GDP) or the amount of cost relative to revenue in corporate financial statements.[97] This numerical technique is referred to as normalization[25] or common-sizing. There are many such techniques employed by analysts, whether adjusting for inflation (i.e., comparing real vs. nominal data) or considering population increases, demographics, etc.[98] Analysts apply a variety of techniques to address the various quantitative messages described in the section above.[99]\nAnalysts may also analyze data under different assumptions or scenario. For example, when analysts perform financial statement analysis, they will often recast the financial statements under different assumptions to help arrive at an estimate of future cash flow, which they then discount to present value based on some interest rate, to determine the valuation of the company or its stock.[100][101] Similarly, the CBO analyzes the effects of various policy options on the government's revenue, outlays and deficits, creating alternative future scenarios for key measures.[102]\n\nOther topics \nSmart buildings \nA data analytics approach can be used in order to predict energy consumption in buildings.[103] The different steps of the data analysis process are carried out in order to realise smart buildings, where the building management and control operations including heating, ventilation, air conditioning, lighting and security are realised automatically by miming the needs of the building users and optimising resources like energy and time.[104]\n\nAnalytics and business intelligence \nMain article: Analytics\nAnalytics is the \"extensive use of data, statistical and quantitative analysis, explanatory and predictive models, and fact-based management to drive decisions and actions.\" It is a subset of business intelligence, which is a set of technologies and processes that uses data to understand and analyze business performance to drive decision-making .[105]\n\nEducation \nAnalytic activities of data visualization users\n\nIn education, most educators have access to a data system for the purpose of analyzing student data.[106] These data systems present data to educators in an over-the-counter data format (embedding labels, supplemental documentation, and a help system and making key package\/display and content decisions) to improve the accuracy of educators\u2019 data analyses.[107]\n\nPractitioner notes \nThis section contains rather technical explanations that may assist practitioners but are beyond the typical scope of a Wikipedia article.[108]\n\nInitial data analysis \nThe most important distinction between the initial data analysis phase and the main analysis phase, is that during initial data analysis one refrains from any analysis that is aimed at answering the original research question.[109] The initial data analysis phase is guided by the following four questions:[110]\n\nQuality of data \nThe quality of the data should be checked as early as possible. Data quality can be assessed in several ways, using different types of analysis: frequency counts, descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, median), normality (skewness, kurtosis, frequency histograms), normal imputation is needed.[111]\n\nAnalysis of extreme observations: outlying observations in the data are analyzed to see if they seem to disturb the distribution.[112]\nComparison and correction of differences in coding schemes: variables are compared with coding schemes of variables external to the data set, and possibly corrected if coding schemes are not comparable.[113]\nTest for common-method variance.\nThe choice of analyses to assess the data quality during the initial data analysis phase depends on the analyses that will be conducted in the main analysis phase.[114]\n\nQuality of measurements \nThe quality of the measurement instruments should only be checked during the initial data analysis phase when this is not the focus or research question of the study.[115][116] One should check whether structure of measurement instruments corresponds to structure reported in the literature.\nThere are two ways to assess measurement quality:\n\nConfirmatory factor analysis\nAnalysis of homogeneity (internal consistency), which gives an indication of the reliability of a measurement instrument.[117] During this analysis, one inspects the variances of the items and the scales, the Cronbach's \u03b1 of the scales, and the change in the Cronbach's alpha when an item would be deleted from a scale[118]\nInitial transformations \nAfter assessing the quality of the data and of the measurements, one might decide to impute missing data, or to perform initial transformations of one or more variables, although this can also be done during the main analysis phase.[119]\r\n\nPossible transformations of variables are:[120]\n\nSquare root transformation (if the distribution differs moderately from normal)\nLog-transformation (if the distribution differs substantially from normal)\nInverse transformation (if the distribution differs severely from normal)\nMake categorical (ordinal \/ dichotomous) (if the distribution differs severely from normal, and no transformations help)\n Did the implementation of the study fulfill the intentions of the research design? \nOne should check the success of the randomization procedure, for instance by checking whether background and substantive variables are equally distributed within and across groups.[121] \r\nIf the study did not need or use a randomization procedure, one should check the success of the non-random sampling, for instance by checking whether all subgroups of the population of interest are represented in sample.[122]\r\nOther possible data distortions that should be checked are:\n\ndropout (this should be identified during the initial data analysis phase)\nItem non-response (whether this is random or not should be assessed during the initial data analysis phase)\nTreatment quality (using manipulation checks).[123]\nCharacteristics of data sample \nIn any report or article, the structure of the sample must be accurately described.[124][125] It is especially important to exactly determine the structure of the sample (and specifically the size of the subgroups) when subgroup analyses will be performed during the main analysis phase.[126]\r\nThe characteristics of the data sample can be assessed by looking at:\n\nBasic statistics of important variables\nScatter plots\nCorrelations and associations\nCross-tabulations[127]\nFinal stage of the initial data analysis \nDuring the final stage, the findings of the initial data analysis are documented, and necessary, preferable, and possible corrective actions are taken.[128]\r\nAlso, the original plan for the main data analyses can and should be specified in more detail or rewritten.[129][130]\r\n In order to do this, several decisions about the main data analyses can and should be made:\n\nIn the case of non-normals: should one transform variables; make variables categorical (ordinal\/dichotomous); adapt the analysis method?\nIn the case of missing data: should one neglect or impute the missing data; which imputation technique should be used?\nIn the case of outliers: should one use robust analysis techniques?\nIn case items do not fit the scale: should one adapt the measurement instrument by omitting items, or rather ensure comparability with other (uses of the) measurement instrument(s)?\nIn the case of (too) small subgroups: should one drop the hypothesis about inter-group differences, or use small sample techniques, like exact tests or bootstrapping?\nIn case the randomization procedure seems to be defective: can and should one calculate propensity scores and include them as covariates in the main analyses?[131]\nAnalysis \nSeveral analyses can be used during the initial data analysis phase:[132]\n\nUnivariate statistics (single variable)\nBivariate associations (correlations)\nGraphical techniques (scatter plots)\nIt is important to take the measurement levels of the variables into account for the analyses, as special statistical techniques are available for each level:[133]\n\nNominal and ordinal variables\nFrequency counts (numbers and percentages)\nAssociations\ncircumambulations (crosstabulations)\nhierarchical loglinear analysis (restricted to a maximum of 8 variables)\nloglinear analysis (to identify relevant\/important variables and possible confounders)\nExact tests or bootstrapping (in case subgroups are small)\nComputation of new variables\nContinuous variables\nDistribution\nStatistics (M, SD, variance, skewness, kurtosis)\nStem-and-leaf displays\nBox plots\nNonlinear analysis \nNonlinear analysis is often necessary when the data is recorded from a nonlinear system. Nonlinear systems can exhibit complex dynamic effects including bifurcations, chaos, harmonics and subharmonics that cannot be analyzed using simple linear methods. Nonlinear data analysis is closely related to nonlinear system identification.[134]\n\nMain data analysis \nIn the main analysis phase, analyses aimed at answering the research question are performed as well as any other relevant analysis needed to write the first draft of the research report.[135]\n\nExploratory and confirmatory approaches \nIn the main analysis phase, either an exploratory or confirmatory approach can be adopted. Usually the approach is decided before data is collected.[136] In an exploratory analysis no clear hypothesis is stated before analysing the data, and the data is searched for models that describe the data well.[137] In a confirmatory analysis clear hypotheses about the data are tested.[138]\nExploratory data analysis should be interpreted carefully. When testing multiple models at once there is a high chance on finding at least one of them to be significant, but this can be due to a type 1 error.[139] It is important to always adjust the significance level when testing multiple models with, for example, a Bonferroni correction.[140] Also, one should not follow up an exploratory analysis with a confirmatory analysis in the same dataset.[141] An exploratory analysis is used to find ideas for a theory, but not to test that theory as well.[141] When a model is found exploratory in a dataset, then following up that analysis with a confirmatory analysis in the same dataset could simply mean that the results of the confirmatory analysis are due to the same type 1 error that resulted in the exploratory model in the first place.[141] The confirmatory analysis therefore will not be more informative than the original exploratory analysis.[142]\n\nStability of results \nIt is important to obtain some indication about how generalizable the results are.[143] While this is often difficult to check, one can look at the stability of the results. Are the results reliable and reproducible? There are two main ways of doing that.[144]\n\nCross-validation. By splitting the data into multiple parts, we can check if an analysis (like a fitted model) based on one part of the data generalizes to another part of the data as well.[145] Cross-validation is generally inappropriate, though, if there are correlations within the data, e.g. with panel data.[146] Hence other methods of validation sometimes need to be used. For more on this topic, see statistical model validation.[147]\nSensitivity analysis. A procedure to study the behavior of a system or model when global parameters are (systematically) varied. One way to do that is via bootstrapping.[148]\nFree software for data analysis \nNotable free software for data analysis include:\n\nDevInfo \u2013 A database system endorsed by the United Nations Development Group for monitoring and analyzing human development.[149]\nELKI \u2013 Data mining framework in Java with data mining oriented visualization functions.\nKNIME \u2013 The Konstanz Information Miner, a user friendly and comprehensive data analytics framework.\nOrange \u2013 A visual programming tool featuring interactive data visualization and methods for statistical data analysis, data mining, and machine learning.\nPandas \u2013 Python library for data analysis.\nPAW \u2013 FORTRAN\/C data analysis framework developed at CERN.\nR \u2013 A programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics.[150]\nROOT \u2013 C++ data analysis framework developed at CERN.\nSciPy \u2013 Python library for data analysis.\nJulia \u2013 A programming language well-suited for numerical analysis and computational science.\nInternational data analysis contests \nDifferent companies or organizations hold data analysis contests to encourage researchers to utilize their data or to solve a particular question using data analysis.[151][152] A few examples of well-known international data analysis contests are as follows:[153] \n\nKaggle competition, which is held by Kaggle.[154]\nLTPP data analysis contest held by FHWA and ASCE.[155][156]\nSee also \n\nActuarial science\nAnalytics\nBig data\nBusiness intelligence\nCensoring (statistics)\nComputational physics\nComputational science\nData acquisition\nData blending\nData governance\nData mining\nData Presentation Architecture\nData science\nDigital signal processing\nDimensionality reduction\nEarly case assessment\nExploratory data analysis\nFourier analysis\nMachine learning\nMultilinear PCA\nMultilinear subspace learning\nMultiway data analysis\nNearest neighbor search\nNonlinear system identification\nPredictive analytics\nPrincipal component analysis\nQualitative research\nStructured data analysis (statistics)\nSystem identification\nTest method\nText mining\nUnstructured data\nWavelet\nList of big data companies\nList of datasets for machine-learning research\n\nReferences \nCitations \n\n\n^ a b \"Transforming Unstructured Data into Useful Information\", Big Data, Mining, and Analytics, Auerbach Publications, pp.&#160;227\u2013246, 2014-03-12, doi:10.1201\/b16666-14, ISBN&#160;978-0-429-09529-0, retrieved 2021-05-29 \n\n^ \"The Multiple Facets of Correlation Functions\", Data Analysis Techniques for Physical Scientists, Cambridge University Press, pp.&#160;526\u2013576, 2017, doi:10.1017\/9781108241922.013, ISBN&#160;978-1-108-41678-8, retrieved 2021-05-29 \n\n^ Xia, B. 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BMC Medical Research Methodology. 13 (1): 75. doi:10.1186\/1471-2288-13-75 . ISSN&#160;1471-2288. PMC&#160;3699399 . PMID&#160;23758852. \n\n^ a b c Mcardle, John J. (2008). \"Some ethical issues in confirmatory versus exploratory analysis\". PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037\/e503312008-001. Retrieved 2021-06-03 . \n\n^ Ad\u00e8r 2008b, pp.&#160;361\u2013362. \n\n^ Ad\u00e8r 2008b, pp.&#160;361\u2013371. \n\n^ Truswell IV, William H., ed. (2009), \"3 The Facelift: A Guide for Safe, Reliable, and Reproducible Results\", Surgical Facial Rejuvenation, Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag, doi:10.1055\/b-0034-73436, ISBN&#160;978-1-58890-491-1, retrieved 2021-06-03 \n\n^ \"Supplementary file 1. Cross-validation schema\". 6 December 2018. doi:10.7554\/elife.40224.014 . {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) \n\n^ Hsiao, Cheng (2014), \"Cross-Sectionally Dependent Panel Data\", Analysis of Panel Data, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.&#160;327\u2013368, doi:10.1017\/cbo9781139839327.012, ISBN&#160;978-1-139-83932-7, retrieved 2021-06-03 \n\n^ Hjorth, J.S. Urban (2017-10-19), \"Cross validation\", Computer Intensive Statistical Methods, Chapman and Hall\/CRC, pp.&#160;24\u201356, doi:10.1201\/9781315140056-3, ISBN&#160;978-1-315-14005-6, retrieved 2021-06-03 \n\n^ Sheikholeslami, Razi; Razavi, Saman; Haghnegahdar, Amin (2019-10-10). \"What should we do when a model crashes? Recommendations for global sensitivity analysis of Earth and environmental systems models\". Geoscientific Model Development. 12 (10): 4275\u20134296. Bibcode:2019GMD....12.4275S. doi:10.5194\/gmd-12-4275-2019 . ISSN&#160;1991-9603. S2CID&#160;204900339. \n\n^ \"Human development composite indices\". 2018-09-19. doi:10.18356\/ce6f8e92-en. S2CID&#160;240207510. Retrieved 2021-06-03 . {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) \n\n^ Wiley, Matt; Wiley, Joshua F. (2019), \"Multivariate Data Visualization\", Advanced R Statistical Programming and Data Models, Berkeley, CA: Apress, pp.&#160;33\u201359, doi:10.1007\/978-1-4842-2872-2_2, ISBN&#160;978-1-4842-2871-5, S2CID&#160;86629516, retrieved 2021-06-03 \n\n^ Orduna-Malea, Enrique; Alonso-Arroyo, Adolfo (2018), \"A cybermetric analysis model to measure private companies\", Cybermetric Techniques to Evaluate Organizations Using Web-Based Data, Elsevier, pp.&#160;63\u201376, doi:10.1016\/b978-0-08-101877-4.00003-x, ISBN&#160;978-0-08-101877-4, retrieved 2021-06-03 \n\n^ Leen, A.R. The consumer in Austrian economics and the Austrian perspective on consumer policy. Wageningen Universiteit. ISBN&#160;90-5808-102-8. OCLC&#160;1016689036. \n\n^ \"Examples of Survival Data Analysis\", Statistical Methods for Survival Data Analysis, Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics, Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc., 2003-06-30, pp.&#160;19\u201363, doi:10.1002\/0471458546.ch3, ISBN&#160;978-0-471-45854-8, retrieved 2021-06-03 \n\n^ \"The machine learning community takes on the Higgs\". Symmetry Magazine. July 15, 2014. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2015 . \n\n^ Nehme, Jean (September 29, 2016). \"LTPP International Data Analysis Contest\". Federal Highway Administration. Archived from the original on October 21, 2017. Retrieved October 22, 2017 . \n\n^ \"Data.Gov:Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP)\". May 26, 2016. Archived from the original on November 1, 2017. Retrieved November 10, 2017 . \n\n\nBibliography \nAd\u00e8r, Herman J. (2008a). \"Chapter 14: Phases and initial steps in data analysis\". In Ad\u00e8r, Herman J.; Mellenbergh, Gideon J.; Hand, David J (eds.). Advising on research methods&#160;: a consultant's companion. Huizen, Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Pub. pp.&#160;333\u2013356. ISBN&#160;9789079418015. OCLC&#160;905799857. \nAd\u00e8r, Herman J. (2008b). \"Chapter 15: The main analysis phase\". In Ad\u00e8r, Herman J.; Mellenbergh, Gideon J.; Hand, David J (eds.). Advising on research methods&#160;: a consultant's companion. Huizen, Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Pub. pp.&#160;357\u2013386. ISBN&#160;9789079418015. OCLC&#160;905799857. \nTabachnick, B.G. &amp; Fidell, L.S. (2007). Chapter 4: Cleaning up your act. Screening data prior to analysis. In B.G. Tabachnick &amp; L.S. Fidell (Eds.), Using Multivariate Statistics, Fifth Edition (pp.&#160;60\u2013116). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. \/ Allyn and Bacon.\nFurther reading \n\n\n \nWikiversity has learning resources about Data analysis\n\nAd\u00e8r, H.J. &amp; Mellenbergh, G.J. (with contributions by D.J. Hand) (2008). Advising on Research Methods: A Consultant's Companion. Huizen, the Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing. ISBN&#160;978-90-79418-01-5\nChambers, John M.; Cleveland, William S.; Kleiner, Beat; Tukey, Paul A. (1983). Graphical Methods for Data Analysis, Wadsworth\/Duxbury Press. ISBN&#160;0-534-98052-X\nFandango, Armando (2017). Python Data Analysis, 2nd Edition. Packt Publishers. ISBN&#160;978-1787127487\nJuran, Joseph M.; Godfrey, A. Blanton (1999). Juran's Quality Handbook, 5th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN&#160;0-07-034003-X\nLewis-Beck, Michael S. (1995). Data Analysis: an Introduction, Sage Publications Inc, ISBN&#160;0-8039-5772-6\nNIST\/SEMATECH (2008) Handbook of Statistical Methods,\nPyzdek, T, (2003). Quality Engineering Handbook, ISBN&#160;0-8247-4614-7\nRichard Veryard (1984). Pragmatic Data Analysis. Oxford&#160;: Blackwell Scientific Publications. ISBN&#160;0-632-01311-7\nTabachnick, B.G.; Fidell, L.S. (2007). Using Multivariate Statistics, 5th Edition. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. \/ Allyn and Bacon, ISBN&#160;978-0-205-45938-4\nvteData\nAugmentation\nAnalysis\nArchaeology\nBig\nCleansing\nCollection\nCompression\nCorruption\nCuration\nDegradation\nEditing\nETL\/ELT\nExtract\nTransform\nLoad\nFarming\nFormat management\nFusion\nIntegration\nIntegrity\nLibrary\nLineage\nLoss\nManagement\nMigration\nMining\nPhilanthropy\nPre-processing\nPreservation\nProcessing\nProtection (privacy)\nPublishing\nRecovery\nReduction\nRetention\nQuality\nScience\nScraping\nScrubbing\nSecurity\nStewardship\nStorage\nSynchronization\nValidation\nWarehouse\nWrangling\/munging\n\nAuthority control databases: National \nGermany \nCzech Republic \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis<\/a>\nCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 January 2022, at 00:05.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 10,176 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_analysis rootpage-Data_analysis skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data analysis<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">The process of analyzing data to discover useful information and support decision-making<\/div>\n<table class=\"sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a series on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">Statistics<\/a><\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\" style=\"background:#ddddff;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_and_information_visualization\" title=\"Data and information visualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5a690ebe79a4d48f4adbcb107b78c4e\">Data and information visualization<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\">\nMajor dimensions<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploratory_data_analysis\" title=\"Exploratory data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c528c5090304a5d47c36b6c6451163\">Exploratory data analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_design\" title=\"Information design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71b4a0abd9d67b7bcc3fbd16767292d0\">Information design<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interactive_data_visualization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Interactive data visualization\" data-key=\"74614ed087927d706732a0431772b9cc\">Interactive data visualization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Descriptive_statistics\" title=\"Descriptive statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ed440c9b335f031feb0de193efc6fea\">Descriptive statistics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_inference\" title=\"Statistical inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"531cc2121dc07b12e1541c66cca17129\">Inferential statistics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_graphics\" title=\"Statistical graphics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd16ccce765f1afc8a732df4eddc6be3\">Statistical graphics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plot_(graphics)\" title=\"Plot (graphics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6294ea37b3f8b16c00c03125d1c85cd\">Plot<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Data analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infographic\" title=\"Infographic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44e610a285ac7bf220d0c2341d0b4126\">Infographic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_science\" title=\"Data science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ca3033a747d64b89d986a08df1bf310\">Data science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_art\" title=\"Information art\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8baa98d3193a8caf39c453c209b7d77\">Information art<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\">\nImportant figures<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tamara_Munzner\" title=\"Tamara Munzner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec7383452158984e384665a7aa7bf8e0\">Tamara Munzner<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ben_Shneiderman\" title=\"Ben Shneiderman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"354351ed6962ff1fed9ea997edd2e3e6\">Ben Shneiderman<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Tukey\" title=\"John Tukey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86034d57ea6f01f8ccf80a3164d52949\">John Tukey<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Tufte\" title=\"Edward Tufte\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25b08cd23d77c100150453a3a6c1f1f4\">Edward Tufte<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Rosling\" title=\"Hans Rosling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbf27426ac565328bae9ec802bdd3b44\">Hans Rosling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_McCandless\" title=\"David McCandless\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95b656bea5ca60bdce87660616170eaa\">David McCandless<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ed_Hawkins_(climatologist)\" title=\"Ed Hawkins (climatologist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d118eec422a6be2d3b396cbf4c83d4da\">Ed Hawkins<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hadley_Wickham\" title=\"Hadley Wickham\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ccd4580345804d27d51ab2ba2362dd1\">Hadley Wickham<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leland_Wilkinson\" title=\"Leland Wilkinson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f115841d8f5091bc6708d2d123bb9ad3\">Leland Wilkinson<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mike_Bostock\" title=\"Mike Bostock\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ede89703451ae3defd6939e6ea5cedfa\">Mike Bostock<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jeffrey_Heer\" title=\"Jeffrey Heer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21c6e1f47f9f6a3216d269e822e70ff4\">Jeffrey Heer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><\/li>\n<li><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moritz_Stefaner\" title=\"Moritz Stefaner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c26385e8817e83fc2e222bf79806b7d\">Moritz Stefaner<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nadieh_Bremer\" title=\"Nadieh Bremer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64fa09fd29a520e6f8f4482fc9c8428c\">Nadieh Bremer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shirley_Wu\" title=\"Shirley Wu\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e21f2b942d16f4c4f3f5fa761faef9e9\">Shirley Wu<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lev_Manovich\" title=\"Lev Manovich\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c26ce96e80f20b266aae34039f26c491\">Lev Manovich<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\">\nInformation graphic types<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Line_chart\" title=\"Line chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a36b8d826ef3261874a9c4f9169d3826\">Line chart<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bar_chart\" title=\"Bar chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab04c618b4d6401bf00b3f792368d070\">Bar chart<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Histogram\" title=\"Histogram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48aef8539f0462f53d7ba1063d96879b\">Histogram<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scatter_plot\" title=\"Scatter plot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c01877b3fcfe4f14e522d15dfd0d9c75\">Scatter plot<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Box_plot\" title=\"Box plot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"081415cbe833218b65993bfdb137f4c0\">Box plot<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pareto_chart\" title=\"Pareto chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4646270a71b4558c23b8dbba973218f\">Pareto chart<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pie_chart\" title=\"Pie chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a44e62276cdd450ec12e48c977514e0e\">Pie chart<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Area_chart\" title=\"Area chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ab9c88bcea1478b2aeab2596b91e20d\">Area chart<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Treemapping\" title=\"Treemapping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f16bcd3aeb6fa8e82abc40393525287\">Tree map<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bubble_chart\" title=\"Bubble chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f24b4122b79892863b81814c22038aed\">Bubble chart<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warming_stripes\" title=\"Warming stripes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0be45ad1a4fe72f4178ed410b134a3b\">Stripe graphic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_chart\" title=\"Control chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"779020f7361a6f16693090d1945f5441\">Control chart<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Run_chart\" title=\"Run chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d45c1b3de5c3f7380949b4d4f2613de\">Run chart<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stem-and-leaf_display\" title=\"Stem-and-leaf display\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba34f4b0eef2556e55649a2d28dfd80c\">Stem-and-leaf display<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cartogram\" title=\"Cartogram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9bc221ef9b6e79c33ee5505c6218419e\">Cartogram<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Small_multiple\" title=\"Small multiple\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce2c134a5c75e54a195f038791d2933c\">Small multiple<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sparkline\" title=\"Sparkline\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9209425a98e26ab55178e8fb673328e5\">Sparkline<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Table_(information)\" title=\"Table (information)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b36a30c3007dbf9b6aa381f14ace9ce\">Table<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mosaic_plot\" title=\"Mosaic plot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9e157065d76ff58dbbb4c3971206775\">Marimekko chart<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\">\nRelated topics<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">Data<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">Information<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">Big data<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">Database<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chartjunk\" title=\"Chartjunk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4318aab164f841ac1765282426331d5b\">Chartjunk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visual_perception\" title=\"Visual perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e19934856b7256db88cda209a4459071\">Visual perception<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">Regression analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_model\" title=\"Statistical model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"471ef69d6cb5a7420b7742ce0844575d\">Statistical model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Misleading_graph\" title=\"Misleading graph\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcbe753b0c44c245027a391ddccd6886\">Misleading graph<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1045330069\" \/><table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_physics\" title=\"Computational physics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bbfde9dde94ad1204a8119d90c7690ba\">Computational physics<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><span class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Frameless\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Rayleigh-Taylor_instability.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"a16394c8d0823e0eba45b93af6d746b8\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/54\/Rayleigh-Taylor_instability.jpg\/220px-Rayleigh-Taylor_instability.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_mechanics\" title=\"Computational mechanics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32b25616a6045248b853b21485feb8be\">Mechanics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_electromagnetics\" title=\"Computational electromagnetics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41327480d9e16e357ac3454ffb09755f\">Electromagnetics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multiphysics_simulation\" title=\"Multiphysics simulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"532d71bcfec86f24859291253e561f40\">Multiphysics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_particle_physics\" title=\"Computational particle physics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e135fe990496889b60af7921607619\">Particle physics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_thermodynamics\" title=\"Computational thermodynamics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"479daa9a458e679754c4307598917f37\">Thermodynamics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_simulation\" title=\"Computer simulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd523e79626c192be0c793f9e09cc636\">Simulation<\/a><br \/><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\">Potentials<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morse\/Long-range_potential\" title=\"Morse\/Long-range potential\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"87e697e6ec8c1920f0accc8b76d0c2c8\">Morse\/Long-range potential<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lennard-Jones_potential\" title=\"Lennard-Jones potential\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4454ab6fe5751ef35675170faa6740b\">Lennard-Jones potential<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yukawa_potential\" title=\"Yukawa potential\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41f2c0df151fbc2cd6231acdfb216596\">Yukawa potential<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morse_potential\" title=\"Morse potential\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785b3aeaf686e612607aa41b4f809c25\">Morse potential<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_fluid_dynamics\" title=\"Computational fluid dynamics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0da06d3858d7e75638f5c15779e630f3\">Fluid dynamics<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Finite_difference_method\" title=\"Finite difference method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7b40e5d9b798f1a72dfd6bfb153a805\">Finite difference<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Finite_volume_method\" title=\"Finite volume method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff381ba7becb92cf857c907054e4cd9\">Finite volume<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Finite_element_method\" title=\"Finite element method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a79e92030eeb363219f165181ff8c70\">Finite element<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boundary_element_method\" title=\"Boundary element method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95132ddc04d0364dc58a7a0c30e48d3b\">Boundary element<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lattice_Boltzmann_methods\" title=\"Lattice Boltzmann methods\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13a2cbe9c3c0dcc91781f8626485a512\">Lattice Boltzmann<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Riemann_solver\" title=\"Riemann solver\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a46258ee04f90a0e9bae95c227942ab\">Riemann solver<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dissipative_particle_dynamics\" title=\"Dissipative particle dynamics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f3958358761061f5c599d2bf1b528bc\">Dissipative particle dynamics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smoothed-particle_hydrodynamics\" title=\"Smoothed-particle hydrodynamics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4727a7931e1d75fb4de3321965410631\">Smoothed particle hydrodynamics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turbulence_modeling\" title=\"Turbulence modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"39ecc821671b562278244937ce8e7b66\">Turbulence models<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monte_Carlo_method\" title=\"Monte Carlo method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"365236cda6a18201aea8d7c17ef96ad3\">Monte Carlo methods<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monte_Carlo_integration\" title=\"Monte Carlo integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ffbf0973fd0fbdd9d59a6ce561a2a0ad\">Integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gibbs_sampling\" title=\"Gibbs sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"922020f08c9b0f05ffa89f7588c22504\">Gibbs sampling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metropolis%E2%80%93Hastings_algorithm\" title=\"Metropolis\u2013Hastings algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb54cb2d556461900557ec4417228b4e\">Metropolis algorithm<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\">Particle<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/N-body_simulation\" title=\"N-body simulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10638dc0c7bbb37da6ffcd765b506549\">N-body<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particle-in-cell\" title=\"Particle-in-cell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f93936093b4614c8539f1a4030223297\">Particle-in-cell<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_dynamics\" title=\"Molecular dynamics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"780c8250c8ffee2b9a9917c59e754530\">Molecular dynamics<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\">Scientists<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sergei_K._Godunov\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sergei K. Godunov\" data-key=\"3ef075d716c98f834ca129cadfb23449\">Godunov<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stanislaw_Ulam\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Stanislaw Ulam\" data-key=\"fdaf4ffbc5c811e77ed8848fe2324e98\">Ulam<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_von_Neumann\" title=\"John von Neumann\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78b0f4499401beff324c91f311d1f122\">von Neumann<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boris_Galerkin\" title=\"Boris Galerkin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a675b86000bb171ea8356a3acaf36d3\">Galerkin<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Norton_Lorenz\" title=\"Edward Norton Lorenz\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44b69e7672c569d7640f4ab573fa33a1\">Lorenz<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kenneth_G._Wilson\" title=\"Kenneth G. Wilson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfd3fd120467c7d3b9b843bc71ada3c4\">Wilson<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Berni_Alder\" title=\"Berni Alder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa065d11b92a6f3d2786afab718b67ee\">Alder<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert_D._Richtmyer\" title=\"Robert D. Richtmyer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61884951afcc96d232d05bc75ecd5756\">Richtmyer<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><b>Data analysis<\/b> is the process of inspecting, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_cleansing\" title=\"Data cleansing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"303f88729b9598a891be17e734e10ebf\">cleansing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_transformation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data transformation\" data-key=\"4e65ce825992dab727e2d7e2b22a754b\">transforming<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_modeling\" title=\"Data modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeb367af0f28dde6b5d2b55e69b02ddb\">modeling<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> with the goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision-making.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Auerbach_Publications_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Auerbach_Publications-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names, and is used in different business, science, and social science domains.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> In today's business world, data analysis plays a role in making decisions more scientific and helping businesses operate more effectively.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">Data mining<\/a> is a particular data analysis technique that focuses on statistical modeling and knowledge discovery for predictive rather than purely descriptive purposes, while <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">business intelligence<\/a> covers data analysis that relies heavily on aggregation, focusing mainly on business information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> In statistical applications, data analysis can be divided into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Descriptive_statistics\" title=\"Descriptive statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ed440c9b335f031feb0de193efc6fea\">descriptive statistics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploratory_data_analysis\" title=\"Exploratory data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c528c5090304a5d47c36b6c6451163\">exploratory data analysis<\/a> (EDA), and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_hypothesis_testing\" title=\"Statistical hypothesis testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ec5d3afd79aa3395c3e8cbf984fb2e6\">confirmatory data analysis<\/a> (CDA).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> EDA focuses on discovering new features in the data while CDA focuses on confirming or falsifying existing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hypotheses\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hypotheses\" data-key=\"361a7e207ad6161800ca5225c179fd78\">hypotheses<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_analytics\" title=\"Predictive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34f7137f13e40b2fa7b28c33330ba3ab\">Predictive analytics<\/a> focuses on the application of statistical models for predictive forecasting or classification, while <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text_analytics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Text analytics\" data-key=\"aa1e661b0f6d373dc8fc6c6e38967908\">text analytics<\/a> applies statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques to extract and classify information from textual sources, a species of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unstructured_data\" title=\"Unstructured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2cf4a063df1dfbf948f0824b167984c\">unstructured data<\/a>. All of the above are varieties of data analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">Data integration<\/a> is a precursor to data analysis, and data analysis is closely linked to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_and_information_visualization\" title=\"Data and information visualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5a690ebe79a4d48f4adbcb107b78c4e\">data visualization<\/a> and data dissemination.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_process_of_data_analysis\">The process of data analysis<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Data_visualization_process_v1.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"57fafbefabe26d7e911fa28dd60d3066\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/ba\/Data_visualization_process_v1.png\/350px-Data_visualization_process_v1.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"350\" height=\"263\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Data science process flowchart from <i>Doing Data Science<\/i>, by Schutt&#160;&amp; O'Neil (2013)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><i>Analysis<\/i> refers to dividing a whole into its separate components for individual examination.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> <i>Data analysis<\/i> is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_theory\" title=\"Process theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7edca84c3aec951b912b30ab46ec5cf0\">process<\/a> for obtaining <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Raw_data\" title=\"Raw data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bada17841d7867b58c6b27f23b35442\">raw data<\/a>, and subsequently converting it into information useful for decision-making by users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Auerbach_Publications_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Auerbach_Publications-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> <i>Data<\/i> is collected and analyzed to answer questions, test hypotheses, or disprove theories.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Judd_and_McClelland_1989_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Judd_and_McClelland_1989-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>\nStatistician <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Tukey\" title=\"John Tukey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86034d57ea6f01f8ccf80a3164d52949\">John Tukey<\/a>, defined data analysis in 1961, as:<\/p><blockquote><p>\"Procedures for analyzing data, techniques for interpreting the results of such procedures, ways of planning the gathering of data to make its analysis easier, more precise or more accurate, and all the machinery and results of (mathematical) statistics which apply to analyzing data.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote><p>There are several phases that can be distinguished, described below. The phases are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iteration\" title=\"Iteration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85b99a797eeab998ceb6bc888721794f\">iterative<\/a>, in that feedback from later phases may result in additional work in earlier phases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross-industry_standard_process_for_data_mining\" title=\"Cross-industry standard process for data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e78640da9c7843e05c51a253f0a412e6\">CRISP framework<\/a>, used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a>, has similar steps.\n<\/p><h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_requirements\">Data requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The data is necessary as inputs to the analysis, which is specified based upon the requirements of those directing the analytics (or customers, who will use the finished product of the analysis).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> The general type of entity upon which the data will be collected is referred to as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_unit\" title=\"Statistical unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d146e5952537c777d8da8cee0599f9c3\">experimental unit<\/a> (e.g., a person or population of people). Specific variables regarding a population (e.g., age and income) may be specified and obtained. Data may be numerical or categorical (i.e., a text label for numbers).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_collection\">Data collection<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data is collected from a variety of sources.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_datasets_for_machine-learning_research\" title=\"List of datasets for machine-learning research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9429ca0cecce3817e6ad4b4da64a0438\">list of data sources<\/a> are available for study &amp; research. The requirements may be communicated by analysts to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_custodian\" title=\"Data custodian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7fe59feee151ab65820d35940a959c8\">custodians<\/a> of the data; such as, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_systems_technician\" title=\"Information systems technician\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1311b7d0a7db3782a11b0495adf06077\">Information Technology personnel<\/a> within an organization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> The data may also be collected from sensors in the environment, including traffic cameras, satellites, recording devices, etc. It may also be obtained through interviews, downloads from online sources, or reading documentation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_processing\">Data processing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Relationship_of_data,_information_and_intelligence.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"409d1239a4286ef8ca6dfeba3f8b9af0\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/ee\/Relationship_of_data%2C_information_and_intelligence.png\/350px-Relationship_of_data%2C_information_and_intelligence.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"350\" height=\"263\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>The phases of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligence_cycle\" title=\"Intelligence cycle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0fb052c931a7302ae7f317ab615a45bc\">intelligence cycle<\/a> used to convert raw information into actionable intelligence or knowledge are conceptually similar to the phases in data analysis.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Data, when initially obtained, must be processed or organized for analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> For instance, these may involve placing data into rows and columns in a table format (<i>known as<\/i> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_model\" title=\"Data model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0d92c5cb69a9ec47cdd2ea65f864bf1\">structured data<\/a>) for further analysis, often through the use of spreadsheet or statistical software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_cleaning\">Data cleaning<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_cleansing\" title=\"Data cleansing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"303f88729b9598a891be17e734e10ebf\">Data cleansing<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Once processed and organized, the data may be incomplete, contain duplicates, or contain errors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bohannon_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bohannon-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> The need for <i>data cleaning<\/i> will arise from problems in the way that the datum are entered and stored.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bohannon_21-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bohannon-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> Data cleaning is the process of preventing and correcting these errors. Common tasks include record matching, identifying inaccuracy of data, overall quality of existing data, deduplication, and column segmentation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> Such data problems can also be identified through a variety of analytical techniques. For example; with financial information, the totals for particular variables may be compared against separately published numbers that are believed to be reliable.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Koomey1_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Koomey1-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> Unusual amounts, above or below predetermined thresholds, may also be reviewed. There are several types of data cleaning, that are dependent upon the type of data in the set; this could be phone numbers, email addresses, employers, or other values.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> Quantitative data methods for outlier detection, can be used to get rid of data that appears to have a higher likelihood of being input incorrectly.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> Textual data spell checkers can be used to lessen the amount of mistyped words. However, it is harder to tell if the words themselves are correct.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Exploratory_data_analysis\">Exploratory data analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Once the datasets are cleaned, they can then be analyzed. Analysts may apply a variety of techniques, referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploratory_data_analysis\" title=\"Exploratory data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c528c5090304a5d47c36b6c6451163\">exploratory data analysis<\/a>, to begin understanding the messages contained within the obtained data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> The process of data exploration may result in additional data cleaning or additional requests for data; thus, the initialization of the <i>iterative phases<\/i> mentioned in the lead paragraph of this section.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Descriptive_statistics\" title=\"Descriptive statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ed440c9b335f031feb0de193efc6fea\">Descriptive statistics<\/a>, such as, the average or median, can be generated to aid in understanding the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_visualization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data visualization\" data-key=\"e5477909db13f678e8054bd9dae16a17\">Data visualization<\/a> is also a technique used, in which the analyst is able to examine the data in a graphical format in order to obtain additional insights, regarding the messages within the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modeling_and_algorithms\">Modeling and algorithms<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><b>Mathematical formulas<\/b> or <b>models<\/b> (also known as <b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithms\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Algorithms\" data-key=\"16cd99a9a13213c5ec49d9f3dfbdac17\">algorithms<\/a><\/b>), may be applied to the data in order to identify relationships among the variables; for example, using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Correlation_and_dependence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Correlation and dependence\" data-key=\"7d359339fb53d8487577b2abef4aa387\">correlation<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Causality\" title=\"Causality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d308e90367f67293ad5ece1c384b8de\">causation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> In general terms, models may be developed to evaluate a specific variable based on other variable(s) contained within the dataset, with some <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Residual_bit_error_rate\" title=\"Residual bit error rate\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ada558f3d999d3f9a2ba2f7f0f4c217f\">residual error<\/a><\/i> depending on the implemented model's accuracy (<i>e.g.<\/i>, Data = Model + Error).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Judd_and_McClelland_1989_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Judd_and_McClelland_1989-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inferential_statistics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inferential statistics\" data-key=\"3fc89dcebe71fea402bf31eabd270779\">Inferential statistics<\/a> includes utilizing techniques that measure the relationships between particular variables.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">regression analysis<\/a> may be used to model whether a change in advertising (<i>independent variable X<\/i>), provides an explanation for the variation in sales (<i>dependent variable Y<\/i>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> In mathematical terms, <i>Y<\/i> (sales) is a function of <i>X<\/i> (advertising).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> It may be described as (<i>Y<\/i> = <i>aX<\/i> + <i>b<\/i> + error), where the model is designed such that (<i>a<\/i>) and (<i>b<\/i>) minimize the error when the model predicts <i>Y<\/i> for a given range of values of <i>X<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup> Analysts may also attempt to build models that are descriptive of the data, in an aim to simplify analysis and communicate results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Judd_and_McClelland_1989_11-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Judd_and_McClelland_1989-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_product\">Data product<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A <b>data product<\/b> is a computer application that takes <i>data inputs<\/i> and generates <i>outputs<\/i>, feeding them back into the environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> It may be based on a model or algorithm. For instance, an application that analyzes data about customer purchase history, and uses the results to recommend other purchases the customer might enjoy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Communication\">Communication<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Social_Network_Analysis_Visualization.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"4aeefbdc4bba22da7e38da71e98ba9d6\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9b\/Social_Network_Analysis_Visualization.png\/250px-Social_Network_Analysis_Visualization.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"186\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_visualization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data visualization\" data-key=\"e5477909db13f678e8054bd9dae16a17\">Data visualization<\/a> is used to help understand the results after data is analyzed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_and_information_visualization\" title=\"Data and information visualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5a690ebe79a4d48f4adbcb107b78c4e\">Data and information visualization<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Once data is analyzed, it may be reported in many formats to the users of the analysis to support their requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> The users may have feedback, which results in additional analysis. As such, much of the analytical cycle is iterative.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>When determining how to communicate the results, the analyst may consider implementing a variety of data visualization techniques to help communicate the message more clearly and efficiently to the audience.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> Data visualization uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_displays\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information displays\" data-key=\"b44caf8bb6da68b6d1321e6f79d1a155\">information displays<\/a> (graphics such as, tables and charts) to help communicate key messages contained in the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Table_(information)\" title=\"Table (information)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b36a30c3007dbf9b6aa381f14ace9ce\">Tables<\/a> are a valuable tool by enabling the ability of a user to query and focus on specific numbers; while charts (e.g., bar charts or line charts), may help explain the quantitative messages contained in the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quantitative_messages\">Quantitative messages<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_and_information_visualization\" title=\"Data and information visualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5a690ebe79a4d48f4adbcb107b78c4e\">Data and information visualization<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Total_Revenues_and_Outlays_as_Percent_GDP_2013.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"509ae7f6b84ab3a7e9c47ad17f019a21\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fb\/Total_Revenues_and_Outlays_as_Percent_GDP_2013.png\/250px-Total_Revenues_and_Outlays_as_Percent_GDP_2013.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"118\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A time series illustrated with a line chart demonstrating trends in U.S. federal spending and revenue over time.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure class=\"mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:U.S._Phillips_Curve_2000_to_2013.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8be5e4ea638ad27a1da7d404e64be2a\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7e\/U.S._Phillips_Curve_2000_to_2013.png\/250px-U.S._Phillips_Curve_2000_to_2013.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"188\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A scatterplot illustrating the correlation between two variables (inflation and unemployment) measured at points in time.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Stephen Few described eight types of quantitative messages that users may attempt to understand or communicate from a set of data and the associated graphs used to help communicate the message.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup> Customers specifying requirements and analysts performing the data analysis may consider these messages during the course of the process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Time-series: A single variable is captured over a period of time, such as the unemployment rate over a 10-year period. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Line_chart\" title=\"Line chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a36b8d826ef3261874a9c4f9169d3826\">line chart<\/a> may be used to demonstrate the trend.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Ranking: Categorical subdivisions are ranked in ascending or descending order, such as a ranking of sales performance (the <i>measure<\/i>) by salespersons (the <i>category<\/i>, with each salesperson a <i>categorical subdivision<\/i>) during a single period.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bar_chart\" title=\"Bar chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab04c618b4d6401bf00b3f792368d070\">bar chart<\/a> may be used to show the comparison across the salespersons.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Part-to-whole: Categorical subdivisions are measured as a ratio to the whole (i.e., a percentage out of 100%). A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pie_chart\" title=\"Pie chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a44e62276cdd450ec12e48c977514e0e\">pie chart<\/a> or bar chart can show the comparison of ratios, such as the market share represented by competitors in a market.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Deviation: Categorical subdivisions are compared against a reference, such as a comparison of actual vs. budget expenses for several departments of a business for a given time period. A bar chart can show the comparison of the actual versus the reference amount.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Frequency distribution: Shows the number of observations of a particular variable for a given interval, such as the number of years in which the stock market return is between intervals such as 0\u201310%, 11\u201320%, etc. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Histogram\" title=\"Histogram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48aef8539f0462f53d7ba1063d96879b\">histogram<\/a>, a type of bar chart, may be used for this analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Correlation: Comparison between observations represented by two variables (X,Y) to determine if they tend to move in the same or opposite directions. For example, plotting unemployment (X) and inflation (Y) for a sample of months. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scatter_plot\" title=\"Scatter plot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c01877b3fcfe4f14e522d15dfd0d9c75\">scatter plot<\/a> is typically used for this message.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Nominal comparison: Comparing categorical subdivisions in no particular order, such as the sales volume by product code. A bar chart may be used for this comparison.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Geographic or geospatial: Comparison of a variable across a map or layout, such as the unemployment rate by state or the number of persons on the various floors of a building. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cartogram\" title=\"Cartogram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9bc221ef9b6e79c33ee5505c6218419e\">cartogram<\/a> is a typical graphic used.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Techniques_for_analyzing_quantitative_data\">Techniques for analyzing quantitative data<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Problem_solving\" title=\"Problem solving\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b49805ba94b1f0269d663f466de3b75d\">Problem solving<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Author <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jonathan_Koomey\" title=\"Jonathan Koomey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0edbf881a2a95907cc020c32d30d476\">Jonathan Koomey<\/a> has recommended a series of best practices for understanding quantitative data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup> These include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Check raw data for anomalies prior to performing an analysis;<\/li>\n<li>Re-perform important calculations, such as verifying columns of data that are formula driven;<\/li>\n<li>Confirm main totals are the sum of subtotals;<\/li>\n<li>Check relationships between numbers that should be related in a predictable way, such as ratios over time;<\/li>\n<li>Normalize numbers to make comparisons easier, such as analyzing amounts per person or relative to GDP or as an index value relative to a base year;<\/li>\n<li>Break problems into component parts by analyzing factors that led to the results, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DuPont_analysis\" title=\"DuPont analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b6d1ebd03ca3a036f5b064d31e0d150\">DuPont analysis<\/a> of return on equity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Koomey1_25-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Koomey1-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>For the variables under examination, analysts typically obtain <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Descriptive_statistics\" title=\"Descriptive statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ed440c9b335f031feb0de193efc6fea\">descriptive statistics<\/a> for them, such as the mean (average), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Median\" title=\"Median\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa73670f8591d8aff666bb47f654ca11\">median<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standard_deviation\" title=\"Standard deviation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e21b97a81718690e000500ebbaabae88\">standard deviation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup> They may also analyze the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability_distribution\" title=\"Probability distribution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52932bee13cadc2124255f38785465c7\">distribution<\/a> of the key variables to see how the individual values cluster around the mean.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<figure class=\"mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:US_Employment_Statistics_-_March_2015.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"26b28f7c43f28eee6a01e42533cb00b0\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/db\/US_Employment_Statistics_-_March_2015.png\/250px-US_Employment_Statistics_-_March_2015.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"142\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>An illustration of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MECE_principle\" title=\"MECE principle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb3fda77c0ab2e19d07b156e355fe623\">MECE principle<\/a> used for data analysis.<\/figcaption><\/figure><p> The consultants at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/McKinsey_and_Company\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"McKinsey and Company\" data-key=\"207b662da7067d3c4e3576e6a46c06d0\">McKinsey and Company<\/a> named a technique for breaking a quantitative problem down into its component parts called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MECE_principle\" title=\"MECE principle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb3fda77c0ab2e19d07b156e355fe623\">MECE principle<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup> Each layer can be broken down into its components; each of the sub-components must be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mutually_exclusive_events\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mutually exclusive events\" data-key=\"6524cb0305f4172d1798d89081eb3caa\">mutually exclusive<\/a> of each other and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collectively_exhaustive_events\" title=\"Collectively exhaustive events\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d41700387aacc85ec391c7fff165011\">collectively<\/a> add up to the layer above them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> The relationship is referred to as \"Mutually Exclusive and Collectively Exhaustive\" or MECE. For example, profit by definition can be broken down into total revenue and total cost.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup> In turn, total revenue can be analyzed by its components, such as the revenue of divisions A, B, and C (which are mutually exclusive of each other) and should add to the total revenue (collectively exhaustive).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Analysts may use robust statistical measurements to solve certain analytical problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hypothesis_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hypothesis testing\" data-key=\"df6f3a39fc38f5a0caddd5ed83315c61\">Hypothesis testing<\/a> is used when a particular hypothesis about the true state of affairs is made by the analyst and data is gathered to determine whether that state of affairs is true or false.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup> For example, the hypothesis might be that \"Unemployment has no effect on inflation\", which relates to an economics concept called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phillips_Curve\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Phillips Curve\" data-key=\"e2d918aaf525b92ca3397d7bd8b9e7a9\">Phillips Curve<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup> Hypothesis testing involves considering the likelihood of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Type_I_and_type_II_errors\" title=\"Type I and type II errors\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"335b59f29d038a08721fea480b157d69\">Type I and type II errors<\/a>, which relate to whether the data supports accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">Regression analysis<\/a> may be used when the analyst is trying to determine the extent to which independent variable X affects dependent variable Y (e.g., \"To what extent do changes in the unemployment rate (X) affect the inflation rate (Y)?\").<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Yanamandra_57\u201368_73-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Yanamandra_57\u201368-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> This is an attempt to model or fit an equation line or curve to the data, such that Y is a function of X.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.erim.eur.nl\/centres\/necessary-condition-analysis\/\" target=\"_blank\">Necessary condition analysis<\/a> (NCA) may be used when the analyst is trying to determine the extent to which independent variable X allows variable Y (e.g., \"To what extent is a certain unemployment rate (X) necessary for a certain inflation rate (Y)?\").<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Yanamandra_57\u201368_73-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Yanamandra_57\u201368-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> Whereas (multiple) regression analysis uses additive logic where each X-variable can produce the outcome and the X's can compensate for each other (they are sufficient but not necessary),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-76\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup> (NCA) uses necessity logic, where one or more X-variables allow the outcome to exist, but may not produce it (they are necessary but not sufficient). Each single necessary condition must be present and compensation is not possible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Analytical_activities_of_data_users\">Analytical activities of data users<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Users may have particular data points of interest within a data set, as opposed to the general messaging outlined above. Such low-level user analytic activities are presented in the following table. The taxonomy can also be organized by three poles of activities: retrieving values, finding data points, and arranging data points.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ConTaaS_81-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ConTaaS-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<th align=\"center\">#<\/th>\n<th width=\"160\">Task<\/th>\n<th>General<br \/>Description<\/th>\n<th>Pro Forma<br \/>Abstract<\/th>\n<th width=\"35%\">Examples\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">1\n<\/td>\n<td><b>Retrieve Value<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td>Given a set of specific cases, find attributes of those cases.\n<\/td>\n<td>What are the values of attributes {X, Y, Z, ...} in the data cases {A, B, C, ...}?\n<\/td>\n<td><i>- What is the mileage per gallon of the Ford Mondeo?<\/i>\n<p><i>- How long is the movie Gone with the Wind?<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">2\n<\/td>\n<td><b> Filter<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td>Given some concrete conditions on attribute values, find data cases satisfying those conditions.\n<\/td>\n<td>Which data cases satisfy conditions {A, B, C...}?\n<\/td>\n<td><i>- What Kellogg's cereals have high fiber?<\/i>\n<p><i>- What comedies have won awards?<\/i>\n<\/p><p><i>- Which funds underperformed the SP-500?<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">3\n<\/td>\n<td><b>Compute Derived Value<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td>Given a set of data cases, compute an aggregate numeric representation of those data cases.\n<\/td>\n<td>What is the value of aggregation function F over a given set S of data cases?\n<\/td>\n<td><i>- What is the average calorie content of Post cereals?<\/i>\n<p><i>- What is the gross income of all stores combined?<\/i>\n<\/p><p><i>- How many manufacturers of cars are there?<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">4\n<\/td>\n<td><b>Find Extremum<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td>Find data cases possessing an extreme value of an attribute over its range within the data set.\n<\/td>\n<td>What are the top\/bottom N data cases with respect to attribute A?\n<\/td>\n<td><i>- What is the car with the highest MPG?<\/i>\n<p><i>- What director\/film has won the most awards?<\/i>\n<\/p><p><i>- What Marvel Studios film has the most recent release date?<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">5\n<\/td>\n<td><b>Sort<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td>Given a set of data cases, rank them according to some ordinal metric.\n<\/td>\n<td>What is the sorted order of a set S of data cases according to their value of attribute A?\n<\/td>\n<td><i>- Order the cars by weight.<\/i>\n<p><i>- Rank the cereals by calories.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">6\n<\/td>\n<td><b>Determine Range<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td>Given a set of data cases and an attribute of interest, find the span of values within the set.\n<\/td>\n<td>What is the range of values of attribute A in a set S of data cases?\n<\/td>\n<td><i>- What is the range of film lengths?<\/i>\n<p><i>- What is the range of car horsepowers?<\/i>\n<\/p><p><i>- What actresses are in the data set?<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">7\n<\/td>\n<td><b>Characterize Distribution<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td>Given a set of data cases and a quantitative attribute of interest, characterize the distribution of that attribute's values over the set.\n<\/td>\n<td>What is the distribution of values of attribute A in a set S of data cases?\n<\/td>\n<td><i>- What is the distribution of carbohydrates in cereals?<\/i>\n<p><i>- What is the age distribution of shoppers?<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">8\n<\/td>\n<td><b>Find Anomalies<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td>Identify any anomalies within a given set of data cases with respect to a given relationship or expectation, e.g. statistical outliers.\n<\/td>\n<td>Which data cases in a set S of data cases have unexpected\/exceptional values?\n<\/td>\n<td><i>- Are there exceptions to the relationship between horsepower and acceleration?<\/i>\n<p><i>- Are there any outliers in protein?<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">9\n<\/td>\n<td><b>Cluster<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td>Given a set of data cases, find clusters of similar attribute values.\n<\/td>\n<td>Which data cases in a set S of data cases are similar in value for attributes {X, Y, Z, ...}?\n<\/td>\n<td><i>- Are there groups of cereals w\/ similar fat\/calories\/sugar?<\/i>\n<p><i>- Is there a cluster of typical film lengths?<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">10\n<\/td>\n<td><b>Correlate<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td>Given a set of data cases and two attributes, determine useful relationships between the values of those attributes.\n<\/td>\n<td>What is the correlation between attributes X and Y over a given set S of data cases?\n<\/td>\n<td><i>- Is there a correlation between carbohydrates and fat?<\/i>\n<p><i>- Is there a correlation between country of origin and MPG?<\/i>\n<\/p><p><i>- Do different genders have a preferred payment method?<\/i>\n<\/p><p><i>- Is there a trend of increasing film length over the years?<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">11\n<\/td>\n<td><b> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contextualization_(computer_science)\" title=\"Contextualization (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"693b38dc36a59ba6c8171e1d1e690716\">Contextualization<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ConTaaS_81-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ConTaaS-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup><\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td>Given a set of data cases, find contextual relevancy of the data to the users.\n<\/td>\n<td>Which data cases in a set S of data cases are relevant to the current users' context?\n<\/td>\n<td><i>- Are there groups of restaurants that have foods based on my current caloric intake?<\/i>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Barriers_to_effective_analysis\">Barriers to effective analysis<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Barriers to effective analysis may exist among the analysts performing the data analysis or among the audience. Distinguishing fact from opinion, cognitive biases, and innumeracy are all challenges to sound data analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-82\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Confusing_fact_and_opinion\">Confusing fact and opinion<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"quotebox pullquote floatright\" style=\"width:250px; ;\">\n<blockquote class=\"quotebox-quote left-aligned\" style=\"\">\n<p>You are entitled to your own opinion, but you are not entitled to your own facts.\n<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p><cite class=\"left-aligned\" style=\"\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Patrick_Moynihan\" title=\"Daniel Patrick Moynihan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"440c03bf3975882d9af69a28464b75ed\">Daniel Patrick Moynihan<\/a><\/cite>\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Effective analysis requires obtaining relevant <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fact\" title=\"Fact\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f75e4d2aa692939699ca721dd62299ce\">facts<\/a> to answer questions, support a conclusion or formal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Opinion\" title=\"Opinion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08b8539f11e712a6f348a6ef0e7a49dc\">opinion<\/a>, or test <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hypotheses\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hypotheses\" data-key=\"361a7e207ad6161800ca5225c179fd78\">hypotheses<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-84\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup> Facts by definition are irrefutable, meaning that any person involved in the analysis should be able to agree upon them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-85\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup> For example, in August 2010, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Congressional_Budget_Office\" title=\"Congressional Budget Office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e35158c7014ec1497df17c7f3638248\">Congressional Budget Office<\/a> (CBO) estimated that extending the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bush_tax_cuts\" title=\"Bush tax cuts\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b87ac03d4b0015fea8c1739d59eccf1d\">Bush tax cuts<\/a> of 2001 and 2003 for the 2011\u20132020 time period would add approximately $3.3 trillion to the national debt.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-86\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup> Everyone should be able to agree that indeed this is what CBO reported; they can all examine the report. This makes it a fact. Whether persons agree or disagree with the CBO is their own opinion.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As another example, the auditor of a public company must arrive at a formal opinion on whether financial statements of publicly traded corporations are \"fairly stated, in all material respects\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-88\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup> This requires extensive analysis of factual data and evidence to support their opinion. When making the leap from facts to opinions, there is always the possibility that the opinion is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Type_I_and_type_II_errors\" title=\"Type I and type II errors\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"335b59f29d038a08721fea480b157d69\">erroneous<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-89\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-89\">[89]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cognitive_biases\">Cognitive biases<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are a variety of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_bias\" title=\"Cognitive bias\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"500a0603c065a0c8a4106cbffcdf0e26\">cognitive biases<\/a> that can adversely affect analysis. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Confirmation_bias\" title=\"Confirmation bias\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a187fea43566247667f4a73013f41df2\">confirmation bias<\/a> is the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-90\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup> In addition, individuals may discredit information that does not support their views.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-91\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-91\">[91]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Analysts may be trained specifically to be aware of these biases and how to overcome them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-92\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-92\">[92]<\/a><\/sup> In his book <i>Psychology of Intelligence Analysis<\/i>, retired CIA analyst <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richards_Heuer\" title=\"Richards Heuer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0fd6f20593d1dcefa11ea22423909a73\">Richards Heuer<\/a> wrote that analysts should clearly delineate their assumptions and chains of inference and specify the degree and source of the uncertainty involved in the conclusions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">[93]<\/a><\/sup> He emphasized procedures to help surface and debate alternative points of view.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Heuer1_94-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Heuer1-94\">[94]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Innumeracy\">Innumeracy<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Effective analysts are generally adept with a variety of numerical techniques. However, audiences may not have such literacy with numbers or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Numeracy\" title=\"Numeracy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0cf266c5999f6b3979d242020381bca3\">numeracy<\/a>; they are said to be innumerate.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-95\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-95\">[95]<\/a><\/sup> Persons communicating the data may also be attempting to mislead or misinform, deliberately using bad numerical techniques.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-96\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-96\">[96]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>For example, whether a number is rising or falling may not be the key factor. More important may be the number relative to another number, such as the size of government revenue or spending relative to the size of the economy (GDP) or the amount of cost relative to revenue in corporate financial statements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-97\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-97\">[97]<\/a><\/sup> This numerical technique is referred to as normalization<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Koomey1_25-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Koomey1-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> or common-sizing. There are many such techniques employed by analysts, whether adjusting for inflation (i.e., comparing real vs. nominal data) or considering population increases, demographics, etc.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-98\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-98\">[98]<\/a><\/sup> Analysts apply a variety of techniques to address the various quantitative messages described in the section above.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-99\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-99\">[99]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Analysts may also analyze data under different assumptions or scenario. For example, when analysts perform <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_statement_analysis\" title=\"Financial statement analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4093551d8b5d4502e8b06ed64cf45ea\">financial statement analysis<\/a>, they will often recast the financial statements under different assumptions to help arrive at an estimate of future cash flow, which they then discount to present value based on some interest rate, to determine the valuation of the company or its stock.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-100\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-100\">[100]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-101\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-101\">[101]<\/a><\/sup> Similarly, the CBO analyzes the effects of various policy options on the government's revenue, outlays and deficits, creating alternative future scenarios for key measures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-102\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-102\">[102]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_topics\">Other topics<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Smart_buildings\">Smart buildings<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A data analytics approach can be used in order to predict energy consumption in buildings.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Towards_energy_efficiency_smart_buildings_models_based_on_intelligent_data_analytics_103-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Towards_energy_efficiency_smart_buildings_models_based_on_intelligent_data_analytics-103\">[103]<\/a><\/sup> The different steps of the data analysis process are carried out in order to realise smart buildings, where the building management and control operations including heating, ventilation, air conditioning, lighting and security are realised automatically by miming the needs of the building users and optimising resources like energy and time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-104\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-104\">[104]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Analytics_and_business_intelligence\">Analytics and business intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">Analytics<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Analytics is the \"extensive use of data, statistical and quantitative analysis, explanatory and predictive models, and fact-based management to drive decisions and actions.\" It is a subset of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">business intelligence<\/a>, which is a set of technologies and processes that uses data to understand and analyze business performance to drive decision-making .<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Competing_on_Analytics_2007_105-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Competing_on_Analytics_2007-105\">[105]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:User-activities.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"8565d7c79ebcf32f752e574588146100\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/80\/User-activities.png\/350px-User-activities.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"350\" height=\"279\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Analytic activities of data visualization users<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Education\" title=\"Education\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbbc153f260ebde12f0212089c53ed4c\">education<\/a>, most educators have access to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_system\" title=\"Data system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6c9e2da2f991aeb491590aa5040e790\">data system<\/a> for the purpose of analyzing student data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-106\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-106\">[106]<\/a><\/sup> These data systems present data to educators in an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Over-the-counter_data\" title=\"Over-the-counter data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd9e968e9c48ae21ea5184adbc2583c6\">over-the-counter data<\/a> format (embedding labels, supplemental documentation, and a help system and making key package\/display and content decisions) to improve the accuracy of educators\u2019 data analyses.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-107\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-107\">[107]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Practitioner_notes\">Practitioner notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This section contains rather technical explanations that may assist practitioners but are beyond the typical scope of a Wikipedia article.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-108\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-108\">[108]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Initial_data_analysis\">Initial data analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The most important distinction between the initial data analysis phase and the main analysis phase, is that during initial data analysis one refrains from any analysis that is aimed at answering the original research question.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-109\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-109\">[109]<\/a><\/sup> The initial data analysis phase is guided by the following four questions:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a337_110-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a337-110\">[110]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality_of_data\">Quality of data<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The quality of the data should be checked as early as possible. Data quality can be assessed in several ways, using different types of analysis: frequency counts, descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, median), normality (skewness, kurtosis, frequency histograms), normal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Imputation_(statistics)\" title=\"Imputation (statistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cac3618885e83dc38415ef4654a51499\">imputation<\/a> is needed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-111\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-111\">[111]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Analysis of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outlier\" title=\"Outlier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c6e5dd183434c0110fdb6173a7ce742\">extreme observations<\/a>: outlying observations in the data are analyzed to see if they seem to disturb the distribution.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-112\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-112\">[112]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Comparison and correction of differences in coding schemes: variables are compared with coding schemes of variables external to the data set, and possibly corrected if coding schemes are not comparable.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-113\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-113\">[113]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Test for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common-method_variance\" title=\"Common-method variance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0163b78534ff58095820b47ed70e8c0\">common-method variance<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The choice of analyses to assess the data quality during the initial data analysis phase depends on the analyses that will be conducted in the main analysis phase.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a338\u2013341_114-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a338\u2013341-114\">[114]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality_of_measurements\">Quality of measurements<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The quality of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Measuring_instrument\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Measuring instrument\" data-key=\"0f2980cc1a194de2311f9272c1aec302\">measurement instruments<\/a> should only be checked during the initial data analysis phase when this is not the focus or research question of the study.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-115\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-115\">[115]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-116\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-116\">[116]<\/a><\/sup> One should check whether structure of measurement instruments corresponds to structure reported in the literature.\n<\/p><p>There are two ways to assess measurement quality:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Confirmatory factor analysis<\/li>\n<li>Analysis of homogeneity (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internal_consistency\" title=\"Internal consistency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fedd9f28d01d3a19da6880beb81dc302\">internal consistency<\/a>), which gives an indication of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reliability_(statistics)\" title=\"Reliability (statistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ff51f1c06547401a95b01d553aae248\">reliability<\/a> of a measurement instrument.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-117\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-117\">[117]<\/a><\/sup> During this analysis, one inspects the variances of the items and the scales, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cronbach%27s_alpha\" title=\"Cronbach's alpha\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc4f4483f6d0908b146304d0969bbef8\">Cronbach's \u03b1<\/a> of the scales, and the change in the Cronbach's alpha when an item would be deleted from a scale<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a341\u2013342_118-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a341\u2013342-118\">[118]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Initial_transformations\">Initial transformations<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>After assessing the quality of the data and of the measurements, one might decide to impute missing data, or to perform initial transformations of one or more variables, although this can also be done during the main analysis phase.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a344_119-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a344-119\">[119]<\/a><\/sup><br \/>\nPossible transformations of variables are:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-120\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-120\">[120]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Square root transformation (if the distribution differs moderately from normal)<\/li>\n<li>Log-transformation (if the distribution differs substantially from normal)<\/li>\n<li>Inverse transformation (if the distribution differs severely from normal)<\/li>\n<li>Make categorical (ordinal \/ dichotomous) (if the distribution differs severely from normal, and no transformations help)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Did_the_implementation_of_the_study_fulfill_the_intentions_of_the_research_design.3F\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Did_the_implementation_of_the_study_fulfill_the_intentions_of_the_research_design?\">Did the implementation of the study fulfill the intentions of the research design?<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>One should check the success of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Randomization\" title=\"Randomization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"380476dfd74360d4fbc74e9179fd04fb\">randomization<\/a> procedure, for instance by checking whether background and substantive variables are equally distributed within and across groups.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-121\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-121\">[121]<\/a><\/sup> <br \/>If the study did not need or use a randomization procedure, one should check the success of the non-random sampling, for instance by checking whether all subgroups of the population of interest are represented in sample.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-122\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-122\">[122]<\/a><\/sup><br \/>Other possible data distortions that should be checked are:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dropout_(electronics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dropout (electronics)\" data-key=\"57599d1af840c33c6bca881fe814647c\">dropout<\/a> (this should be identified during the initial data analysis phase)<\/li>\n<li>Item <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Response_rate_(survey)\" title=\"Response rate (survey)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84a02a2c36c9846768d8b9de6805dde8\">non-response<\/a> (whether this is random or not should be assessed during the initial data analysis phase)<\/li>\n<li>Treatment quality (using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manipulation_check\" title=\"Manipulation check\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e28e4607efb4d91cf2f143e2b59577f0\">manipulation checks<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a344\u2013345_123-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a344\u2013345-123\">[123]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Characteristics_of_data_sample\">Characteristics of data sample<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In any report or article, the structure of the sample must be accurately described.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-124\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-124\">[124]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-125\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-125\">[125]<\/a><\/sup> It is especially important to exactly determine the structure of the sample (and specifically the size of the subgroups) when subgroup analyses will be performed during the main analysis phase.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-126\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-126\">[126]<\/a><\/sup><br \/>The characteristics of the data sample can be assessed by looking at:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Basic statistics of important variables<\/li>\n<li>Scatter plots<\/li>\n<li>Correlations and associations<\/li>\n<li>Cross-tabulations<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a345_127-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a345-127\">[127]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Final_stage_of_the_initial_data_analysis\">Final stage of the initial data analysis<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>During the final stage, the findings of the initial data analysis are documented, and necessary, preferable, and possible corrective actions are taken.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-128\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-128\">[128]<\/a><\/sup><br \/>Also, the original plan for the main data analyses can and should be specified in more detail or rewritten.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-129\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-129\">[129]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-130\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-130\">[130]<\/a><\/sup><br \/> In order to do this, several decisions about the main data analyses can and should be made:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>In the case of non-<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Normal_distribution\" title=\"Normal distribution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7696774f45f968982232ba74c650655\">normals<\/a>: should one <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_transformation_(statistics)\" title=\"Data transformation (statistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d538e2db9804dad7a1c342a8edd7d022\">transform<\/a> variables; make variables categorical (ordinal\/dichotomous); adapt the analysis method?<\/li>\n<li>In the case of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Missing_data\" title=\"Missing data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81968c8f00ac28e80b45858cbb0eac53\">missing data<\/a>: should one neglect or impute the missing data; which imputation technique should be used?<\/li>\n<li>In the case of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outlier\" title=\"Outlier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c6e5dd183434c0110fdb6173a7ce742\">outliers<\/a>: should one use robust analysis techniques?<\/li>\n<li>In case items do not fit the scale: should one adapt the measurement instrument by omitting items, or rather ensure comparability with other (uses of the) measurement instrument(s)?<\/li>\n<li>In the case of (too) small subgroups: should one drop the hypothesis about inter-group differences, or use small sample techniques, like exact tests or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bootstrapping_(statistics)\" title=\"Bootstrapping (statistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adeadfbbb4812f855896d499b8810c0\">bootstrapping<\/a>?<\/li>\n<li>In case the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Randomization\" title=\"Randomization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"380476dfd74360d4fbc74e9179fd04fb\">randomization<\/a> procedure seems to be defective: can and should one calculate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Propensity_score_matching\" title=\"Propensity score matching\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb30ca800f9ff1e6f6d552038e00ec63\">propensity scores<\/a> and include them as covariates in the main analyses?<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a345\u2013346_131-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a345\u2013346-131\">[131]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Analysis\">Analysis<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Several analyses can be used during the initial data analysis phase:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a346\u2013347_132-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a346\u2013347-132\">[132]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Univariate statistics (single variable)<\/li>\n<li>Bivariate associations (correlations)<\/li>\n<li>Graphical techniques (scatter plots)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>It is important to take the measurement levels of the variables into account for the analyses, as special statistical techniques are available for each level:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a349\u2013353_133-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a349\u2013353-133\">[133]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Nominal and ordinal variables\n<ul><li>Frequency counts (numbers and percentages)<\/li>\n<li>Associations\n<ul><li>circumambulations (crosstabulations)<\/li>\n<li>hierarchical loglinear analysis (restricted to a maximum of 8 variables)<\/li>\n<li>loglinear analysis (to identify relevant\/important variables and possible confounders)<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Exact tests or bootstrapping (in case subgroups are small)<\/li>\n<li>Computation of new variables<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Continuous variables\n<ul><li>Distribution\n<ul><li>Statistics (M, SD, variance, skewness, kurtosis)<\/li>\n<li>Stem-and-leaf displays<\/li>\n<li>Box plots<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Nonlinear_analysis\">Nonlinear analysis<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Nonlinear analysis is often necessary when the data is recorded from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nonlinear_system\" title=\"Nonlinear system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30ba2032b8725406d039778395a0647a\">nonlinear system<\/a>. Nonlinear systems can exhibit complex dynamic effects including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bifurcation_theory\" title=\"Bifurcation theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7772589469ff4c907a9529b36d083610\">bifurcations<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chaos_theory\" title=\"Chaos theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"551b2ad06dcbdb5b88913b98a62c6f37\">chaos<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harmonics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Harmonics\" data-key=\"d672bb7311cb8eb04d7fd91b7cbcec06\">harmonics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subharmonics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Subharmonics\" data-key=\"901139df1e520a1062a775007e55a5a8\">subharmonics<\/a> that cannot be analyzed using simple linear methods. Nonlinear data analysis is closely related to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nonlinear_system_identification\" title=\"Nonlinear system identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c67125b5281241b0fc94b7a894578188\">nonlinear system identification<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SAB1_134-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SAB1-134\">[134]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Main_data_analysis\">Main data analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the main analysis phase, analyses aimed at answering the research question are performed as well as any other relevant analysis needed to write the first draft of the research report.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008b363_135-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008b363-135\">[135]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Exploratory_and_confirmatory_approaches\">Exploratory and confirmatory approaches<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In the main analysis phase, either an exploratory or confirmatory approach can be adopted. Usually the approach is decided before data is collected.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-136\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-136\">[136]<\/a><\/sup> In an exploratory analysis no clear hypothesis is stated before analysing the data, and the data is searched for models that describe the data well.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-137\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-137\">[137]<\/a><\/sup> In a confirmatory analysis clear hypotheses about the data are tested.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-138\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-138\">[138]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploratory_data_analysis\" title=\"Exploratory data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c528c5090304a5d47c36b6c6451163\">Exploratory data analysis<\/a> should be interpreted carefully. When testing multiple models at once there is a high chance on finding at least one of them to be significant, but this can be due to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Type_1_error\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Type 1 error\" data-key=\"28a5b499aa856ea6fe186069c1590da8\">type 1 error<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-139\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-139\">[139]<\/a><\/sup> It is important to always adjust the significance level when testing multiple models with, for example, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bonferroni_correction\" title=\"Bonferroni correction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac018d9f5c4922d351327bb0a3ceec8d\">Bonferroni correction<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-140\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-140\">[140]<\/a><\/sup> Also, one should not follow up an exploratory analysis with a confirmatory analysis in the same dataset.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mcardle_2008_141-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mcardle_2008-141\">[141]<\/a><\/sup> An exploratory analysis is used to find ideas for a theory, but not to test that theory as well.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mcardle_2008_141-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mcardle_2008-141\">[141]<\/a><\/sup> When a model is found exploratory in a dataset, then following up that analysis with a confirmatory analysis in the same dataset could simply mean that the results of the confirmatory analysis are due to the same <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Type_1_error\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Type 1 error\" data-key=\"28a5b499aa856ea6fe186069c1590da8\">type 1 error<\/a> that resulted in the exploratory model in the first place.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mcardle_2008_141-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mcardle_2008-141\">[141]<\/a><\/sup> The confirmatory analysis therefore will not be more informative than the original exploratory analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008b361\u2013362_142-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008b361\u2013362-142\">[142]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stability_of_results\">Stability of results<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>It is important to obtain some indication about how generalizable the results are.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008b361\u2013371_143-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008b361\u2013371-143\">[143]<\/a><\/sup> While this is often difficult to check, one can look at the stability of the results. Are the results reliable and reproducible? There are two main ways of doing that.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-144\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-144\">[144]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross-validation_(statistics)\" title=\"Cross-validation (statistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f02ed4ea32a43eebb80fe23486adaa6\">Cross-validation<\/a><\/i>. By splitting the data into multiple parts, we can check if an analysis (like a fitted model) based on one part of the data generalizes to another part of the data as well.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-145\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-145\">[145]<\/a><\/sup> Cross-validation is generally inappropriate, though, if there are correlations within the data, e.g. with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Panel_data\" title=\"Panel data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3730491acd48198bf0c9c3bc9eb10abf\">panel data<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-146\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-146\">[146]<\/a><\/sup> Hence other methods of validation sometimes need to be used. For more on this topic, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_model_validation\" title=\"Statistical model validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f11f01d42457a4543b279ac733fe781\">statistical model validation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-147\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-147\">[147]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sensitivity_analysis\" title=\"Sensitivity analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68eaae9351f9725176ee3850a0bd1020\">Sensitivity analysis<\/a><\/i>. A procedure to study the behavior of a system or model when global parameters are (systematically) varied. One way to do that is via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bootstrapping_(statistics)\" title=\"Bootstrapping (statistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adeadfbbb4812f855896d499b8810c0\">bootstrapping<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-148\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-148\">[148]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Free_software_for_data_analysis\">Free software for data analysis<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Notable free software for data analysis include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DevInfo\" title=\"DevInfo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4f1453607bc3dd7626f86082e4a3b8e\">DevInfo<\/a> \u2013 A database system endorsed by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Nations_Development_Group\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"United Nations Development Group\" data-key=\"7ef8b7e696cb55168924337e581fe771\">United Nations Development Group<\/a> for monitoring and analyzing human development.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-149\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-149\">[149]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ELKI\" title=\"ELKI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5875eb65694616d929e61a21990b3fc3\">ELKI<\/a> \u2013 Data mining framework in Java with data mining oriented visualization functions.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KNIME\" title=\"KNIME\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1aba78fe28e4faf376abd3a46d64179\">KNIME<\/a> \u2013 The Konstanz Information Miner, a user friendly and comprehensive data analytics framework.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Orange_(software)\" title=\"Orange (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e31be634139ed2f50c915e71a4bc5a31\">Orange<\/a> \u2013 A visual programming tool featuring <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interactive_data_visualization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Interactive data visualization\" data-key=\"74614ed087927d706732a0431772b9cc\">interactive data visualization<\/a> and methods for statistical data analysis, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pandas_(software)\" title=\"Pandas (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4da4c3da599da885efff853c42b3609a\">Pandas<\/a> \u2013 Python library for data analysis.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physics_Analysis_Workstation\" title=\"Physics Analysis Workstation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aab68ca47dea16908109fea654dda3e3\">PAW<\/a> \u2013 FORTRAN\/C data analysis framework developed at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CERN\" title=\"CERN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37c614399434ee1540e49f897d9d8378\">CERN<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/R_(programming_language)\" title=\"R (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a8b10cb90b0f5b4c7dd2d246fda099e\">R<\/a> \u2013 A programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-150\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-150\">[150]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ROOT\" title=\"ROOT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7156f381cf47b633533a9c47747a4e44\">ROOT<\/a> \u2013 C++ data analysis framework developed at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CERN\" title=\"CERN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37c614399434ee1540e49f897d9d8378\">CERN<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SciPy\" title=\"SciPy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7af55a97c1bcfa327693857f32e6571a\">SciPy<\/a> \u2013 Python library for data analysis.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Julia_(programming_language)\" title=\"Julia (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3cf4516963cef5a3af9feb614d42da8a\">Julia<\/a> \u2013 A programming language well-suited for numerical analysis and computational science.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"International_data_analysis_contests\">International data analysis contests<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Different companies or organizations hold data analysis contests to encourage researchers to utilize their data or to solve a particular question using data analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-151\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-151\">[151]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-152\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-152\">[152]<\/a><\/sup> A few examples of well-known international data analysis contests are as follows:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-153\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-153\">[153]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Kaggle competition, which is held by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kaggle\" title=\"Kaggle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"106cae07b36f1a350795defd18429e27\">Kaggle<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-154\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-154\">[154]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LTPP_International_Data_Analysis_Contest\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LTPP International Data Analysis Contest\" data-key=\"218fe906a288b29647c8e743eff07821\">LTPP data analysis contest<\/a> held by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FHWA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"FHWA\" data-key=\"d1b6218f55c421693caa6a5eb7593604\">FHWA<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ASCE\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ASCE\" data-key=\"171e5c45a23ace77f30d3922cd4c4cd6\">ASCE<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nehme_2016-09-29_155-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nehme_2016-09-29-155\">[155]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-156\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-156\">[156]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 20em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Actuarial_science\" title=\"Actuarial science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5401f438e617ae57767aeb6ebd3c81f1\">Actuarial science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">Analytics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">Big data<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">Business intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Censoring_(statistics)\" title=\"Censoring (statistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee85b35548a8a405dccd62bba3cd3062\">Censoring (statistics)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_physics\" title=\"Computational physics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bbfde9dde94ad1204a8119d90c7690ba\">Computational physics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_science\" title=\"Computational science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0eb5c82f8ba46ea8e7035e052b3dab9a\">Computational science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_acquisition\" title=\"Data acquisition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c69cf13f66e36272b235f14e92f284c\">Data acquisition<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_blending\" title=\"Data blending\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0fb2b07018b912465de583c7d9ebf8d4\">Data blending<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_governance\" title=\"Data governance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43c48aa22b82686dee4ceb030a82935d\">Data governance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">Data mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Presentation_Architecture\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data Presentation Architecture\" data-key=\"5a2b0acd235e3b28775d59c2e6ebedbc\">Data Presentation Architecture<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_science\" title=\"Data science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ca3033a747d64b89d986a08df1bf310\">Data science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signal_processing\" title=\"Digital signal processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c5736009f3f29946c13a6540ee8d0ba\">Digital signal processing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dimensionality_reduction\" title=\"Dimensionality reduction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556ade3b4a0a6a8d8704fce11a66d19\">Dimensionality reduction<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Early_case_assessment\" title=\"Early case assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b172062b0a43145d02fd0513ccdbebb\">Early case assessment<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploratory_data_analysis\" title=\"Exploratory data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c528c5090304a5d47c36b6c6451163\">Exploratory data analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fourier_analysis\" title=\"Fourier analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"31154e0c820d3072c023b0ae4adaa4fa\">Fourier analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">Machine learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multilinear_principal_component_analysis\" title=\"Multilinear principal component analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a281d2838919ac1072054c720951673\">Multilinear PCA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multilinear_subspace_learning\" title=\"Multilinear subspace learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8f8d1fbfb2b57f6f056c13d55f2a12d\">Multilinear subspace learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multiway_data_analysis\" title=\"Multiway data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7639dc71d940dccc66bb47df26ae5d0\">Multiway data analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nearest_neighbor_search\" title=\"Nearest neighbor search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ca2a8b7814360f61c1fd1e9d0d13f02\">Nearest neighbor search<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nonlinear_system_identification\" title=\"Nonlinear system identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c67125b5281241b0fc94b7a894578188\">Nonlinear system identification<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_analytics\" title=\"Predictive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34f7137f13e40b2fa7b28c33330ba3ab\">Predictive analytics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Principal_component_analysis\" title=\"Principal component analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acf4c2c0901a58dc84cd686341a415e4\">Principal component analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qualitative_research\" title=\"Qualitative research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58c4f69d96980c31c8cb150a96f3a3d3\">Qualitative research<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structured_data_analysis_(statistics)\" title=\"Structured data analysis (statistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"421629772b3efe3d12fc56a91cd62c22\">Structured data analysis (statistics)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_identification\" title=\"System identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88eab779767fd3cba95d5ac732e9370b\">System identification<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test_method\" title=\"Test method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcdb3a33a2d418538a7207f41a38af15\">Test method<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text_mining\" title=\"Text mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"399bb009dd237bfe29b2ab9413a97271\">Text mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unstructured_data\" title=\"Unstructured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2cf4a063df1dfbf948f0824b167984c\">Unstructured data<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wavelet\" title=\"Wavelet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"15df93919fce1310cedecf7f6a140dc7\">Wavelet<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_big_data_companies\" title=\"List of big data companies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b186f6006d7d2c657af3406c0a2ccf13\">List of big data companies<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_datasets_for_machine-learning_research\" title=\"List of datasets for machine-learning research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9429ca0cecce3817e6ad4b4da64a0438\">List of datasets for machine-learning research<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Citations\">Citations<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Auerbach_Publications-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Auerbach_Publications_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Auerbach_Publications_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1201\/b16666-14\" target=\"_blank\">\"Transforming Unstructured Data into Useful Information\"<\/a>, <i>Big Data, Mining, and Analytics<\/i>, Auerbach Publications, pp.&#160;227\u2013246, 2014-03-12, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1201%2Fb16666-14\" target=\"_blank\">10.1201\/b16666-14<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-429-09529-0<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-05-29<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Big+Data%2C+Mining%2C+and+Analytics&amp;rft.atitle=Transforming+Unstructured+Data+into+Useful+Information&amp;rft.pages=227-246&amp;rft.date=2014-03-12&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1201%2Fb16666-14&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-429-09529-0&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1201%2Fb16666-14&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1017\/9781108241922.013\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Multiple Facets of Correlation Functions\"<\/a>, <i>Data Analysis Techniques for Physical Scientists<\/i>, Cambridge University Press, pp.&#160;526\u2013576, 2017, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017%2F9781108241922.013\" target=\"_blank\">10.1017\/9781108241922.013<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-108-41678-8<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-05-29<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span 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S., &amp; Gong, P. (2015). Review of business intelligence through data analysis. <i>Benchmarking<\/i>, <i>21<\/i>(2), 300-311. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108%2FBIJ-08-2012-0050\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/BIJ-08-2012-0050<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171018181046\/https:\/\/spotlessdata.com\/blog\/exploring-data-analysis\" target=\"_blank\">Exploring Data Analysis<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.4324\/9781410611420-6\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Coding and Exploratory Analysis (EDA) Rules for Data Coding Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) Statistical Assumptions\"<\/a>, <i>SPSS for Intermediate Statistics<\/i>, Routledge, pp.&#160;42\u201367, 2004-08-16, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324%2F9781410611420-6\" target=\"_blank\">10.4324\/9781410611420-6<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4106-1142-0<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-05-29<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=SPSS+for+Intermediate+Statistics&amp;rft.atitle=Data+Coding+and+Exploratory+Analysis+%28EDA%29+Rules+for+Data+Coding+Exploratory+Data+Analysis+%28EDA%29+Statistical+Assumptions&amp;rft.pages=42-67&amp;rft.date=2004-08-16&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781410611420-6&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4106-1142-0&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781410611420-6&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSpie2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Spie (2014-10-01). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1117\/2.4201410.10\" target=\"_blank\">\"New European ICT call focuses on PICs, lasers, data transfer\"<\/a>. <i>SPIE Professional<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1117%2F2.4201410.10\" target=\"_blank\">10.1117\/2.4201410.10<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1994-4403\" target=\"_blank\">1994-4403<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=SPIE+Professional&amp;rft.atitle=New+European+ICT+call+focuses+on+PICs%2C+lasers%2C+data+transfer&amp;rft.date=2014-10-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F2.4201410.10&amp;rft.issn=1994-4403&amp;rft.au=Spie&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1117%2F2.4201410.10&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSamandarSvantesson2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Samandar, Petersson; Svantesson, Sofia (2017). <i>Skapandet av f\u00f6rtroende inom eWOM&#160;: En studie av profilbildens effekt ur ett k\u00f6nsperspektiv<\/i>. H\u00f6gskolan i G\u00e4vle, F\u00f6retagsekonomi. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1233454128\" target=\"_blank\">1233454128<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Skapandet+av+f%C3%B6rtroende+inom+eWOM+%3A+En+studie+av+profilbildens+effekt+ur+ett+k%C3%B6nsperspektiv&amp;rft.pub=H%C3%B6gskolan+i+G%C3%A4vle%2C+F%C3%B6retagsekonomi&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1233454128&amp;rft.aulast=Samandar&amp;rft.aufirst=Petersson&amp;rft.au=Svantesson%2C+Sofia&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoodnight2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Goodnight, James (2011-01-13). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1002\/sam.10106\" target=\"_blank\">\"The forecast for predictive analytics: hot and getting hotter\"<\/a>. <i>Statistical Analysis and Data Mining: The ASA Data Science Journal<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (1): 9\u201310. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002%2Fsam.10106\" target=\"_blank\">10.1002\/sam.10106<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1932-1864\" target=\"_blank\">1932-1864<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:38571193\" target=\"_blank\">38571193<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Statistical+Analysis+and+Data+Mining%3A+The+ASA+Data+Science+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=The+forecast+for+predictive+analytics%3A+hot+and+getting+hotter&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=9-10&amp;rft.date=2011-01-13&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38571193%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=1932-1864&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fsam.10106&amp;rft.aulast=Goodnight&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1002%2Fsam.10106&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSherman2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Sherman, Rick (4 November 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/894555128\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Business intelligence guidebook: from data integration to analytics<\/i><\/a>. Amsterdam. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-12-411528-6<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/894555128\" target=\"_blank\">894555128<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Business+intelligence+guidebook%3A+from+data+integration+to+analytics&amp;rft.place=Amsterdam&amp;rft.date=2014-11-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F894555128&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-411528-6&amp;rft.aulast=Sherman&amp;rft.aufirst=Rick&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F894555128&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_book\" title=\"Template:Cite book\">cite book<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bfc82be2a8039a5c9ddc70b6cb10bda\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFField2009\" class=\"citation cs2\">Field, John (2009), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1017\/cbo9780511575945.008\" target=\"_blank\">\"Dividing listening into its components\"<\/a>, <i>Listening in the Language Classroom<\/i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.&#160;96\u2013109, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511575945.008\" target=\"_blank\">10.1017\/cbo9780511575945.008<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-511-57594-5<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-05-29<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Listening+in+the+Language+Classroom&amp;rft.atitle=Dividing+listening+into+its+components&amp;rft.pages=96-109&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511575945.008&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-511-57594-5&amp;rft.aulast=Field&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511575945.008&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Judd_and_McClelland_1989-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Judd_and_McClelland_1989_11-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Judd_and_McClelland_1989_11-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Judd_and_McClelland_1989_11-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJuddMcCleland1989\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Judd, Charles; McCleland, Gary (1989). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data Analysis\" data-key=\"a9da4db98f9c1663d96b2b6c8878a175\"><i>Data Analysis<\/i><\/a>. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-15-516765-0<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Analysis&amp;rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+Jovanovich&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rft.isbn=0-15-516765-0&amp;rft.aulast=Judd&amp;rft.aufirst=Charles&amp;rft.au=McCleland%2C+Gary&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTukey1962\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Tukey, John W. (March 1962). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/projecteuclid.org\/download\/pdf_1\/euclid.aoms\/1177704711\" target=\"_blank\">\"John Tukey-The Future of Data Analysis-July 1961\"<\/a>. <i>The Annals of Mathematical Statistics<\/i>. <b>33<\/b> (1): 1\u201367. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1214%2Faoms%2F1177704711\" target=\"_blank\">10.1214\/aoms\/1177704711<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200126232007\/https:\/\/projecteuclid.org\/download\/pdf_1\/euclid.aoms\/1177704711\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2020-01-26<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-01-01<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Annals+of+Mathematical+Statistics&amp;rft.atitle=John+Tukey-The+Future+of+Data+Analysis-July+1961&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=1-67&amp;rft.date=1962-03&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1214%2Faoms%2F1177704711&amp;rft.aulast=Tukey&amp;rft.aufirst=John+W.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprojecteuclid.org%2Fdownload%2Fpdf_1%2Feuclid.aoms%2F1177704711&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schutt_&amp;_O'Neil_13-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchuttO'Neil2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Schutt, Rachel; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cathy_O%27Neil\" title=\"Cathy O'Neil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3550e84a6c6dc2e8538b9fe479cd5d8\">O'Neil, Cathy<\/a> (2013). <i>Doing Data Science<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/O%27Reilly_Media\" title=\"O'Reilly Media\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b77a7740cb45cf1ff412fcf304745fe4\">O'Reilly Media<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-449-35865-5<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Doing+Data+Science&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-449-35865-5&amp;rft.aulast=Schutt&amp;rft.aufirst=Rachel&amp;rft.au=O%27Neil%2C+Cathy&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1002\/9781118986370.ch18\" target=\"_blank\">\"USE OF THE DATA\"<\/a>, <i>Handbook of Petroleum Product Analysis<\/i>, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc, pp.&#160;296\u2013303, 2015-02-06, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002%2F9781118986370.ch18\" target=\"_blank\">10.1002\/9781118986370.ch18<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-118-98637-0<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-05-29<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Handbook+of+Petroleum+Product+Analysis&amp;rft.atitle=USE+OF+THE+DATA&amp;rft.pages=296-303&amp;rft.date=2015-02-06&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118986370.ch18&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-118-98637-0&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1002%2F9781118986370.ch18&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAinsworth2019\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ainsworth, Penne (20 May 2019). <i>Introduction to accounting&#160;: an integrated approach<\/i>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-119-60014-5<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1097366032\" target=\"_blank\">1097366032<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+accounting+%3A+an+integrated+approach&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2019-05-20&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1097366032&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-119-60014-5&amp;rft.aulast=Ainsworth&amp;rft.aufirst=Penne&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMargo2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Margo, Robert A. (2000). <i>Wages and labor markets in the United States, 1820-1860<\/i>. 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(7 May 2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.11387%2Ftable-1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Table 1: Data type and sources of data collected for this research\"<\/a>. <i>PeerJ<\/i>. <b>9<\/b>: e11387. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.11387%2Ftable-1\" target=\"_blank\">10.7717\/peerj.11387\/table-1<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PeerJ&amp;rft.atitle=Table+1%3A+Data+type+and+sources+of+data+collected+for+this+research.&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.pages=e11387&amp;rft.date=2021-05-07&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7717%2Fpeerj.11387%2Ftable-1&amp;rft.aulast=Olusola&amp;rft.aufirst=Johnson+Adedeji&amp;rft.au=Shote%2C+Adebola+Adekunle&amp;rft.au=Ouigmane%2C+Abdellah&amp;rft.au=Isaifan%2C+Rima+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7717%252Fpeerj.11387%252Ftable-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMacPherson2019\" class=\"citation cs2\">MacPherson, Derek (2019-10-16), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.4324\/9780429437564-12\" target=\"_blank\">\"Information Technology Analysts' Perspectives\"<\/a>, <i>Data Strategy in Colleges and Universities<\/i>, Routledge, pp.&#160;168\u2013183, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324%2F9780429437564-12\" target=\"_blank\">10.4324\/9780429437564-12<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-429-43756-4<\/bdi>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:211738958\" target=\"_blank\">211738958<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-05-29<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Data+Strategy+in+Colleges+and+Universities&amp;rft.atitle=Information+Technology+Analysts%27+Perspectives&amp;rft.pages=168-183&amp;rft.date=2019-10-16&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211738958%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780429437564-12&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-429-43756-4&amp;rft.aulast=MacPherson&amp;rft.aufirst=Derek&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9780429437564-12&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNelson2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Nelson, Stephen L. (2014). <i>Excel data analysis for dummies<\/i>. 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Raw and processed values obtained through qPCR\"<\/a>. 30 August 2017. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554%2Felife.28468.029\" target=\"_blank\">10.7554\/elife.28468.029<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Figure+3%E2%80%94source+data+1.+Raw+and+processed+values+obtained+through+qPCR.&amp;rft.date=2017-08-30&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7554%2Felife.28468.029&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7554%252Felife.28468.029&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bohannon-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Bohannon_21-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Bohannon_21-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBohannon2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bohannon, John (2016-02-24). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.aaf4104\" target=\"_blank\">\"Many surveys, about one in five, may contain fraudulent data\"<\/a>. <i>Science<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.aaf4104\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.aaf4104<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0036-8075\" target=\"_blank\">0036-8075<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.atitle=Many+surveys%2C+about+one+in+five%2C+may+contain+fraudulent+data&amp;rft.date=2016-02-24&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aaf4104&amp;rft.issn=0036-8075&amp;rft.aulast=Bohannon&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.aaf4104&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJeannie_ScruggsGrossSlonim2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Jeannie Scruggs, Garber; Gross, Monty; Slonim, Anthony D. (2010). <i>Avoiding common nursing errors<\/i>. Wolters Kluwer Health\/Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-60547-087-0<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/338288678\" target=\"_blank\">338288678<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Avoiding+common+nursing+errors&amp;rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer+Health%2FLippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F338288678&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-60547-087-0&amp;rft.aulast=Jeannie+Scruggs&amp;rft.aufirst=Garber&amp;rft.au=Gross%2C+Monty&amp;rft.au=Slonim%2C+Anthony+D.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/research.microsoft.com\/en-us\/projects\/datacleaning\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Cleaning\"<\/a>. Microsoft Research. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131029200356\/http:\/\/research.microsoft.com\/en-us\/projects\/datacleaning\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 October 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 October<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Cleaning&amp;rft.pub=Microsoft+Research&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearch.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fprojects%2Fdatacleaning%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHancockCarter2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Hancock, R.G.V.; Carter, Tristan (February 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jas.2009.10.004\" target=\"_blank\">\"How reliable are our published archaeometric analyses? Effects of analytical techniques through time on the elemental analysis of obsidians\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Archaeological Science<\/i>. <b>37<\/b> (2): 243\u2013250. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2010JArSc..37..243H\" target=\"_blank\">2010JArSc..37..243H<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2009.10.004\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.jas.2009.10.004<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0305-4403\" target=\"_blank\">0305-4403<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science&amp;rft.atitle=How+reliable+are+our+published+archaeometric+analyses%3F+Effects+of+analytical+techniques+through+time+on+the+elemental+analysis+of+obsidians&amp;rft.volume=37&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=243-250&amp;rft.date=2010-02&amp;rft.issn=0305-4403&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2009.10.004&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010JArSc..37..243H&amp;rft.aulast=Hancock&amp;rft.aufirst=R.G.V.&amp;rft.au=Carter%2C+Tristan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2009.10.004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Koomey1-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Koomey1_25-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Koomey1_25-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Koomey1_25-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.perceptualedge.com\/articles\/b-eye\/quantitative_data.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Perceptual Edge-Jonathan Koomey-Best practices for understanding quantitative data-February 14, 2006\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141005075112\/http:\/\/www.perceptualedge.com\/articles\/b-eye\/quantitative_data.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on October 5, 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">November 12,<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Perceptual+Edge-Jonathan+Koomey-Best+practices+for+understanding+quantitative+data-February+14%2C+2006&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perceptualedge.com%2Farticles%2Fb-eye%2Fquantitative_data.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPelegAvdalimovFreud2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Peleg, Roni; Avdalimov, Angelika; Freud, Tamar (2011-03-23). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3076270\" target=\"_blank\">\"Providing cell phone numbers and email addresses to Patients: the physician's perspective\"<\/a>. <i>BMC Research Notes<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (1): 76. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186%2F1756-0500-4-76\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/1756-0500-4-76<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1756-0500\" target=\"_blank\">1756-0500<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3076270\" target=\"_blank\">3076270<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/21426591\" target=\"_blank\">21426591<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BMC+Research+Notes&amp;rft.atitle=Providing+cell+phone+numbers+and+email+addresses+to+Patients%3A+the+physician%27s+perspective&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=76&amp;rft.date=2011-03-23&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3076270%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=1756-0500&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21426591&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1756-0500-4-76&amp;rft.aulast=Peleg&amp;rft.aufirst=Roni&amp;rft.au=Avdalimov%2C+Angelika&amp;rft.au=Freud%2C+Tamar&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3076270&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoodman1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Goodman, Lenn Evan (1998). <i>Judaism, human rights, and human values<\/i>. Oxford University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-585-24568-1<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/45733915\" target=\"_blank\">45733915<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Judaism%2C+human+rights%2C+and+human+values&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45733915&amp;rft.isbn=0-585-24568-1&amp;rft.aulast=Goodman&amp;rft.aufirst=Lenn+Evan&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHanzo\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Hanzo, Lajos. <span class=\"cs1-lock-subscription\" title=\"Paid subscription required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1049\/iet-tv.44.786\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blind joint maximum likelihood channel estimation and data detection for single-input multiple-output systems\"<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1049%2Fiet-tv.44.786\" target=\"_blank\">10.1049\/iet-tv.44.786<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-05-29<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Blind+joint+maximum+likelihood+channel+estimation+and+data+detection+for+single-input+multiple-output+systems&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1049%2Fiet-tv.44.786&amp;rft.aulast=Hanzo&amp;rft.aufirst=Lajos&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1049%2Fiet-tv.44.786&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHellerstein2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Hellerstein, Joseph (27 February 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/db.cs.berkeley.edu\/jmh\/papers\/cleaning-unece.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quantitative Data Cleaning for Large Databases\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>EECS Computer Science Division<\/i>: 3. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131013011223\/http:\/\/db.cs.berkeley.edu\/jmh\/papers\/cleaning-unece.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 13 October 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 October<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=EECS+Computer+Science+Division&amp;rft.atitle=Quantitative+Data+Cleaning+for+Large+Databases&amp;rft.pages=3&amp;rft.date=2008-02-27&amp;rft.aulast=Hellerstein&amp;rft.aufirst=Joseph&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdb.cs.berkeley.edu%2Fjmh%2Fpapers%2Fcleaning-unece.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDavisPettengillLuoPayne2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Davis, Steve; Pettengill, James B.; Luo, Yan; Payne, Justin; Shpuntoff, Al; Rand, Hugh; Strain, Errol (26 August 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj-cs.20%2Fsupp-1\" target=\"_blank\">\"CFSAN SNP Pipeline: An automated method for constructing SNP matrices from next-generation sequence data\"<\/a>. <i>PeerJ Computer Science<\/i>. <b>1<\/b>: e20. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj-cs.20%2Fsupp-1\" target=\"_blank\">10.7717\/peerj-cs.20\/supp-1<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PeerJ+Computer+Science&amp;rft.atitle=CFSAN+SNP+Pipeline%3A+An+automated+method+for+constructing+SNP+matrices+from+next-generation+sequence+data&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.pages=e20&amp;rft.date=2015-08-26&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7717%2Fpeerj-cs.20%2Fsupp-1&amp;rft.aulast=Davis&amp;rft.aufirst=Steve&amp;rft.au=Pettengill%2C+James+B.&amp;rft.au=Luo%2C+Yan&amp;rft.au=Payne%2C+Justin&amp;rft.au=Shpuntoff%2C+Al&amp;rft.au=Rand%2C+Hugh&amp;rft.au=Strain%2C+Errol&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7717%252Fpeerj-cs.20%252Fsupp-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016\/s1359-6128(99)90509-8\" target=\"_blank\">\"FTC requests additional data\"<\/a>. <i>Pump Industry Analyst<\/i>. <b>1999<\/b> (48): 12. 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Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-19-875094-9<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/767569031\" target=\"_blank\">767569031<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Causation&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+Univ.+Press&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F767569031&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-875094-9&amp;rft.aulast=Sosa&amp;rft.aufirst=Ernest&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEvansDallasHanMurdock2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Evans, Michelle V.; Dallas, Tad A.; Han, Barbara A.; Murdock, Courtney C.; Drake, John M. (28 February 2017). Brady, Oliver (ed.). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554%2Felife.22053.004\" target=\"_blank\">\"Figure 2. Variable importance by permutation, averaged over 25 models\"<\/a>. <i>eLife<\/i>. <b>6<\/b>: e22053. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554%2Felife.22053.004\" target=\"_blank\">10.7554\/elife.22053.004<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=eLife&amp;rft.atitle=Figure+2.+Variable+importance+by+permutation%2C+averaged+over+25+models.&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.pages=e22053&amp;rft.date=2017-02-28&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7554%2Felife.22053.004&amp;rft.aulast=Evans&amp;rft.aufirst=Michelle+V.&amp;rft.au=Dallas%2C+Tad+A.&amp;rft.au=Han%2C+Barbara+A.&amp;rft.au=Murdock%2C+Courtney+C.&amp;rft.au=Drake%2C+John+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7554%252Felife.22053.004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWatsonHalperinAguilera-CastellsIacono2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Watson, Kevin; Halperin, Israel; Aguilera-Castells, Joan; Iacono, Antonio Dello (12 November 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.10361%2Ftable-3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Table 3: Descriptive (mean \u00b1 SD), inferential (95% CI) and qualitative statistics (ES) of all variables between self-selected and predetermined conditions\"<\/a>. <i>PeerJ<\/i>. <b>8<\/b>: e10361. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.10361%2Ftable-3\" target=\"_blank\">10.7717\/peerj.10361\/table-3<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PeerJ&amp;rft.atitle=Table+3%3A+Descriptive+%28mean+%C2%B1+SD%29%2C+inferential+%2895%25+CI%29+and+qualitative+statistics+%28ES%29+of+all+variables+between+self-selected+and+predetermined+conditions.&amp;rft.volume=8&amp;rft.pages=e10361&amp;rft.date=2020-11-12&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7717%2Fpeerj.10361%2Ftable-3&amp;rft.aulast=Watson&amp;rft.aufirst=Kevin&amp;rft.au=Halperin%2C+Israel&amp;rft.au=Aguilera-Castells%2C+Joan&amp;rft.au=Iacono%2C+Antonio+Dello&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7717%252Fpeerj.10361%252Ftable-3&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCort\u00e9s-MolinoAull\u00f3-MaestroFernandez-LuqueFlores-Moya2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Cort\u00e9s-Molino, \u00c1lvaro; Aull\u00f3-Maestro, Isabel; Fernandez-Luque, Ismael; Flores-Moya, Antonio; Carreira, Jos\u00e9 A.; Salvo, A. Enrique (22 October 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.10158%2Ftable-3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Table 3: Best regression models between LIDAR data (independent variable) and field-based Forestereo data (dependent variable), used to map spatial distribution of the main forest structure variables\"<\/a>. <i>PeerJ<\/i>. <b>8<\/b>: e10158. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.10158%2Ftable-3\" target=\"_blank\">10.7717\/peerj.10158\/table-3<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span 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(1985-04-01). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093\/geront\/25.2.209\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to Communicate Your Message to an Audience Effectively\"<\/a>. <i>The Gerontologist<\/i>. <b>25<\/b> (2): 209. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093%2Fgeront%2F25.2.209\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/geront\/25.2.209<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0016-9013\" target=\"_blank\">0016-9013<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Gerontologist&amp;rft.atitle=How+to+Communicate+Your+Message+to+an+Audience+Effectively&amp;rft.volume=25&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=209&amp;rft.date=1985-04-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgeront%2F25.2.209&amp;rft.issn=0016-9013&amp;rft.aulast=Yee&amp;rft.aufirst=D.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Fgeront%2F25.2.209&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBemowska-Ka\u0142abunW\u0105sowiczNapora-RutkowskiNowak-\u017byczy\u0144ska2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Bemowska-Ka\u0142abun, Olga; W\u0105sowicz, Pawe\u0142; Napora-Rutkowski, \u0141ukasz; Nowak-\u017byczy\u0144ska, Zuzanna; Wierzbicka, Ma\u0142gorzata (11 June 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7287%2Fpeerj.preprints.27793v1%2Fsupp-1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Supplemental Information 1: Raw data for charts and tables\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7287%2Fpeerj.preprints.27793v1%2Fsupp-1\" target=\"_blank\">10.7287\/peerj.preprints.27793v1\/supp-1<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Supplemental+Information+1%3A+Raw+data+for+charts+and+tables&amp;rft.date=2019-06-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7287%2Fpeerj.preprints.27793v1%2Fsupp-1&amp;rft.aulast=Bemowska-Ka%C5%82abun&amp;rft.aufirst=Olga&amp;rft.au=W%C4%85sowicz%2C+Pawe%C5%82&amp;rft.au=Napora-Rutkowski%2C+%C5%81ukasz&amp;rft.au=Nowak-%C5%BByczy%C5%84ska%2C+Zuzanna&amp;rft.au=Wierzbicka%2C+Ma%C5%82gorzata&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7287%252Fpeerj.preprints.27793v1%252Fsupp-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.4135\/9781529768749\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Visualizing Data About UK Museums: Bar Charts, Line Charts and Heat Maps<\/i><\/a>. 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4135%2F9781529768749\" target=\"_blank\">10.4135\/9781529768749<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781529768749<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:240967380\" target=\"_blank\">240967380<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Visualizing+Data+About+UK+Museums%3A+Bar+Charts%2C+Line+Charts+and+Heat+Maps&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240967380%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781529768749&amp;rft.isbn=9781529768749&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4135%2F9781529768749&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTunqui_Neira2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Tunqui Neira, Jos\u00e9 Manuel (2019-09-19). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194%2Fhess-2019-325-ac2\" target=\"_blank\">\"Thank you for your review. Please find in the attached pdf file a detailed response to the points you raised\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194%2Fhess-2019-325-ac2\" target=\"_blank\">10.5194\/hess-2019-325-ac2<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:241041810\" target=\"_blank\">241041810<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Thank+you+for+your+review.+Please+find+in+the+attached+pdf+file+a+detailed+response+to+the+points+you+raised.&amp;rft.date=2019-09-19&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5194%2Fhess-2019-325-ac2&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A241041810%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Tunqui+Neira&amp;rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9+Manuel&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5194%252Fhess-2019-325-ac2&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrackett1989\" class=\"citation cs2\">Brackett, John W. (1989), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007\/978-1-4613-9614-7_20\" target=\"_blank\">\"Performing Requirements Analysis Project Courses for External Customers\"<\/a>, <i>Issues in Software Engineering Education<\/i>, New York, NY: Springer New York, pp.&#160;276\u2013285, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9614-7_20\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-1-4613-9614-7_20<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4613-9616-1<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-03<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Issues+in+Software+Engineering+Education&amp;rft.atitle=Performing+Requirements+Analysis+Project+Courses+for+External+Customers&amp;rft.pages=276-285&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9614-7_20&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4613-9616-1&amp;rft.aulast=Brackett&amp;rft.aufirst=John+W.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9614-7_20&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWyckhuysWongtiemRaufThancharoen2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wyckhuys, Kris A. G.; Wongtiem, Prapit; Rauf, Aunu; Thancharoen, Anchana; Heimpel, George E.; Le, Nhung T. T.; Fanani, Muhammad Zainal; Gurr, Geoff M.; Lundgren, Jonathan G.; Burra, Dharani D.; Palao, Leo K.; Hyman, Glenn; Graziosi, Ignazio; Le, Vi X.; Cock, Matthew J. W.; Tscharntke, Teja; Wratten, Steve D.; Nguyen, Liem V.; You, Minsheng; Lu, Yanhui; Ketelaar, Johannes W.; Goergen, Georg; Neuenschwander, Peter (19 October 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.5796%2Ffig-2\" target=\"_blank\">\"Figure 2: Bi-monthly mealybug population fluctuations in southern Vietnam, over a 2-year time period\"<\/a>. <i>PeerJ<\/i>. <b>6<\/b>: e5796. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.5796%2Ffig-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.7717\/peerj.5796\/fig-2<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PeerJ&amp;rft.atitle=Figure+2%3A+Bi-monthly+mealybug+population+fluctuations+in+southern+Vietnam%2C+over+a+2-year+time+period.&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.pages=e5796&amp;rft.date=2018-10-19&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7717%2Fpeerj.5796%2Ffig-2&amp;rft.aulast=Wyckhuys&amp;rft.aufirst=Kris+A.+G.&amp;rft.au=Wongtiem%2C+Prapit&amp;rft.au=Rauf%2C+Aunu&amp;rft.au=Thancharoen%2C+Anchana&amp;rft.au=Heimpel%2C+George+E.&amp;rft.au=Le%2C+Nhung+T.+T.&amp;rft.au=Fanani%2C+Muhammad+Zainal&amp;rft.au=Gurr%2C+Geoff+M.&amp;rft.au=Lundgren%2C+Jonathan+G.&amp;rft.au=Burra%2C+Dharani+D.&amp;rft.au=Palao%2C+Leo+K.&amp;rft.au=Hyman%2C+Glenn&amp;rft.au=Graziosi%2C+Ignazio&amp;rft.au=Le%2C+Vi+X.&amp;rft.au=Cock%2C+Matthew+J.+W.&amp;rft.au=Tscharntke%2C+Teja&amp;rft.au=Wratten%2C+Steve+D.&amp;rft.au=Nguyen%2C+Liem+V.&amp;rft.au=You%2C+Minsheng&amp;rft.au=Lu%2C+Yanhui&amp;rft.au=Ketelaar%2C+Johannes+W.&amp;rft.au=Goergen%2C+Georg&amp;rft.au=Neuenschwander%2C+Peter&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7717%252Fpeerj.5796%252Ffig-2&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRiehl2014\" class=\"citation cs2\">Riehl, Emily (2014), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1017\/cbo9781107261457.019\" target=\"_blank\">\"A sampling of 2-categorical aspects of quasi-category theory\"<\/a>, <i>Categorical Homotopy Theory<\/i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.&#160;318\u2013336, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017%2Fcbo9781107261457.019\" target=\"_blank\">10.1017\/cbo9781107261457.019<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-107-26145-7<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-03<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Categorical+Homotopy+Theory&amp;rft.atitle=A+sampling+of+2-categorical+aspects+of+quasi-category+theory&amp;rft.pages=318-336&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781107261457.019&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-107-26145-7&amp;rft.aulast=Riehl&amp;rft.aufirst=Emily&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781107261457.019&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\">\"X-Bar Chart\". <i>Encyclopedia of Production and Manufacturing Management<\/i>. 2000. p.&#160;841. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F1-4020-0612-8_1063\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/1-4020-0612-8_1063<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-7923-8630-8<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=X-Bar+Chart&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Production+and+Manufacturing+Management&amp;rft.pages=841&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F1-4020-0612-8_1063&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7923-8630-8&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-53\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1787\/888933119055\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chart C5.3. Percentage of 15-19 year-olds not in education, by labour market status (2012)\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1787%2F888933119055\" target=\"_blank\">10.1787\/888933119055<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-03<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Chart+C5.3.+Percentage+of+15-19+year-olds+not+in+education%2C+by+labour+market+status+%282012%29&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2F888933119055&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1787%2F888933119055&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-54\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1787\/665527077310\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chart 7: Households: final consumption expenditure versus actual individual consumption\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1787%2F665527077310\" target=\"_blank\">10.1787\/665527077310<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-03<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Chart+7%3A+Households%3A+final+consumption+expenditure+versus+actual+individual+consumption&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2F665527077310&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1787%2F665527077310&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChaoJangJohnsonNguyen2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Chao, Luke H.; Jang, Jaebong; Johnson, Adam; Nguyen, Anthony; Gray, Nathanael S.; Yang, Priscilla L.; Harrison, Stephen C. (12 July 2018). Jahn, Reinhard; Schekman, Randy (eds.). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554%2Felife.36461.006\" target=\"_blank\">\"Figure 4. Frequency of hemifusion (measured as DiD fluorescence dequenching) as a function of number of bound Alexa-fluor-555\/3-110-22 molecules\"<\/a>. <i>eLife<\/i>. <b>7<\/b>: e36461. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554%2Felife.36461.006\" target=\"_blank\">10.7554\/elife.36461.006<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=eLife&amp;rft.atitle=Figure+4.+Frequency+of+hemifusion+%28measured+as+DiD+fluorescence+dequenching%29+as+a+function+of+number+of+bound+Alexa-fluor-555%2F3-110-22+molecules.&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.pages=e36461&amp;rft.date=2018-07-12&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7554%2Felife.36461.006&amp;rft.aulast=Chao&amp;rft.aufirst=Luke+H.&amp;rft.au=Jang%2C+Jaebong&amp;rft.au=Johnson%2C+Adam&amp;rft.au=Nguyen%2C+Anthony&amp;rft.au=Gray%2C+Nathanael+S.&amp;rft.au=Yang%2C+Priscilla+L.&amp;rft.au=Harrison%2C+Stephen+C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7554%252Felife.36461.006&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGarnierFouretDescoins2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Garnier, Elodie M.; Fouret, Nastasia; Descoins, M\u00e9d\u00e9ric (3 February 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.8341%2Ftable-2\" target=\"_blank\">\"Table 2: Graph comparison between Scatter plot, Violin + Scatter plot, Heatmap and ViSiElse graph\"<\/a>. <i>PeerJ<\/i>. <b>8<\/b>: e8341. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.8341%2Ftable-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.7717\/peerj.8341\/table-2<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PeerJ&amp;rft.atitle=Table+2%3A+Graph+comparison+between+Scatter+plot%2C+Violin+%2B+Scatter+plot%2C+Heatmap+and+ViSiElse+graph.&amp;rft.volume=8&amp;rft.pages=e8341&amp;rft.date=2020-02-03&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7717%2Fpeerj.8341%2Ftable-2&amp;rft.aulast=Garnier&amp;rft.aufirst=Elodie+M.&amp;rft.au=Fouret%2C+Nastasia&amp;rft.au=Descoins%2C+M%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7717%252Fpeerj.8341%252Ftable-2&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1037\/e539162010-006\" target=\"_blank\">\"Product comparison chart: Wearables\"<\/a>. <i>PsycEXTRA Dataset<\/i>. 2009. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037%2Fe539162010-006\" target=\"_blank\">10.1037\/e539162010-006<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Pires-Lopes, Vitor; G\u00f3mez-Campos, Rossana; Arruda, Miguel de; Andruske, Cynthia Lee; Pacheco-Carrillo, Jaime; Cossio-Bola\u00f1os, Marco Antonio (30 November 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.4032%2Ftable-1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Table 1: Descriptive statistics (mean \u00b1 standard-deviation) for somatic variables and physical fitness \u00edtems for males and females\"<\/a>. <i>PeerJ<\/i>. <b>5<\/b>: e4032. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.4032%2Ftable-1\" target=\"_blank\">10.7717\/peerj.4032\/table-1<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PeerJ&amp;rft.atitle=Table+1%3A+Descriptive+statistics+%28mean+%C2%B1+standard-deviation%29+for+somatic+variables+and+physical+fitness+%C3%ADtems+for+males+and+females.&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.pages=e4032&amp;rft.date=2017-11-30&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7717%2Fpeerj.4032%2Ftable-1&amp;rft.aulast=Hobold&amp;rft.aufirst=Edilson&amp;rft.au=Pires-Lopes%2C+Vitor&amp;rft.au=G%C3%B3mez-Campos%2C+Rossana&amp;rft.au=Arruda%2C+Miguel+de&amp;rft.au=Andruske%2C+Cynthia+Lee&amp;rft.au=Pacheco-Carrillo%2C+Jaime&amp;rft.au=Cossio-Bola%C3%B1os%2C+Marco+Antonio&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7717%252Fpeerj.4032%252Ftable-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAblinZoharZaraya-BlumBuskila2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Ablin, Jacob N.; 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(2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.2332756\" target=\"_blank\">\"Alpha and Beta Tests for Type I and Type II Inferential Errors Determination in Hypothesis Testing\"<\/a>. <i>SSRN Electronic Journal<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139%2Fssrn.2332756\" target=\"_blank\">10.2139\/ssrn.2332756<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1556-5068\" target=\"_blank\">1556-5068<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=SSRN+Electronic+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Alpha+and+Beta+Tests+for+Type+I+and+Type+II+Inferential+Errors+Determination+in+Hypothesis+Testing&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.2332756&amp;rft.issn=1556-5068&amp;rft.aulast=Louangrath&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul+I.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.2332756&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-72\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-72\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWalko2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Walko, Ann M. (2006). <i>Rejecting the second generation hypothesis&#160;: maintaining Estonian ethnicity in Lakewood, New Jersey<\/i>. AMS Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-404-19454-0<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/467107876\" target=\"_blank\">467107876<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Rejecting+the+second+generation+hypothesis+%3A+maintaining+Estonian+ethnicity+in+Lakewood%2C+New+Jersey&amp;rft.pub=AMS+Press&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F467107876&amp;rft.isbn=0-404-19454-0&amp;rft.aulast=Walko&amp;rft.aufirst=Ann+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Yanamandra_57\u201368-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Yanamandra_57\u201368_73-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Yanamandra_57\u201368_73-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFYanamandra2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Yanamandra, Venkataramana (September 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016\/j.eap.2015.07.004\" target=\"_blank\">\"Exchange rate changes and inflation in India: What is the extent of exchange rate pass-through to imports?\"<\/a>. <i>Economic Analysis and Policy<\/i>. <b>47<\/b>: 57\u201368. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.eap.2015.07.004\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.eap.2015.07.004<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0313-5926\" target=\"_blank\">0313-5926<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Economic+Analysis+and+Policy&amp;rft.atitle=Exchange+rate+changes+and+inflation+in+India%3A+What+is+the+extent+of+exchange+rate+pass-through+to+imports%3F&amp;rft.volume=47&amp;rft.pages=57-68&amp;rft.date=2015-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.eap.2015.07.004&amp;rft.issn=0313-5926&amp;rft.aulast=Yanamandra&amp;rft.aufirst=Venkataramana&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2Fj.eap.2015.07.004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-74\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMudiyanselageNawarathna\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Mudiyanselage, Nawarathna; Nawarathna, Pubudu Manoj. <i>Characterization of epigenetic changes and their connection to gene expression abnormalities in clear cell renal cell carcinoma<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1190697848\" target=\"_blank\">1190697848<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Characterization+of+epigenetic+changes+and+their+connection+to+gene+expression+abnormalities+in+clear+cell+renal+cell+carcinoma&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1190697848&amp;rft.aulast=Mudiyanselage&amp;rft.aufirst=Nawarathna&amp;rft.au=Nawarathna%2C+Pubudu+Manoj&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-75\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMoreno_DelgadoM\u00f8llerSterGiraldo2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Moreno Delgado, David; M\u00f8ller, Thor C.; Ster, Jeanne; Giraldo, Jes\u00fas; Maurel, Damien; Rovira, Xavier; Scholler, Pauline; Zwier, Jurriaan M.; Perroy, Julie; Durroux, Thierry; Trinquet, Eric; Prezeau, Laurent; Rondard, Philippe; Pin, Jean-Philippe (29 June 2017). Chao, Moses V (ed.). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554%2Felife.25233.027\" target=\"_blank\">\"Appendix 1\u2014figure 5. Curve data included in Appendix 1\u2014table 4 (solid points) and the theoretical curve by using the Hill equation parameters of Appendix 1\u2014table 5 (curve line)\"<\/a>. <i>eLife<\/i>. <b>6<\/b>: e25233. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554%2Felife.25233.027\" target=\"_blank\">10.7554\/elife.25233.027<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=eLife&amp;rft.atitle=Appendix+1%E2%80%94figure+5.+Curve+data+included+in+Appendix+1%E2%80%94table+4+%28solid+points%29+and+the+theoretical+curve+by+using+the+Hill+equation+parameters+of+Appendix+1%E2%80%94table+5+%28curve+line%29.&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.pages=e25233&amp;rft.date=2017-06-29&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7554%2Felife.25233.027&amp;rft.aulast=Moreno+Delgado&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.au=M%C3%B8ller%2C+Thor+C.&amp;rft.au=Ster%2C+Jeanne&amp;rft.au=Giraldo%2C+Jes%C3%BAs&amp;rft.au=Maurel%2C+Damien&amp;rft.au=Rovira%2C+Xavier&amp;rft.au=Scholler%2C+Pauline&amp;rft.au=Zwier%2C+Jurriaan+M.&amp;rft.au=Perroy%2C+Julie&amp;rft.au=Durroux%2C+Thierry&amp;rft.au=Trinquet%2C+Eric&amp;rft.au=Prezeau%2C+Laurent&amp;rft.au=Rondard%2C+Philippe&amp;rft.au=Pin%2C+Jean-Philippe&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7554%252Felife.25233.027&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-76\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFeinmann\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Feinmann, Jane. <span class=\"cs1-lock-subscription\" title=\"Paid subscription required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1049\/iet-tv.48.859\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Can Engineers and Journalists Help Each Other?\"<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1049%2Fiet-tv.48.859\" target=\"_blank\">10.1049\/iet-tv.48.859<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-03<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=How+Can+Engineers+and+Journalists+Help+Each+Other%3F&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1049%2Fiet-tv.48.859&amp;rft.aulast=Feinmann&amp;rft.aufirst=Jane&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1049%2Fiet-tv.48.859&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-77\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDul2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Dul, Jan (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.2588480\" target=\"_blank\">\"Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA): Logic and Methodology of 'Necessary But Not Sufficient' Causality\"<\/a>. <i>SSRN Electronic Journal<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139%2Fssrn.2588480\" target=\"_blank\">10.2139\/ssrn.2588480<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/1765%2F77890\" target=\"_blank\">1765\/77890<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1556-5068\" target=\"_blank\">1556-5068<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:219380122\" target=\"_blank\">219380122<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=SSRN+Electronic+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Necessary+Condition+Analysis+%28NCA%29%3A+Logic+and+Methodology+of+%27Necessary+But+Not+Sufficient%27+Causality&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1765%2F77890&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219380122%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=1556-5068&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.2588480&amp;rft.aulast=Dul&amp;rft.aufirst=Jan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.2588480&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Robert Amar, James Eagan, and John Stasko (2005) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cc.gatech.edu\/~stasko\/papers\/infovis05.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Low-Level Components of Analytic Activity in Information Visualization\"<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150213074349\/http:\/\/www.cc.gatech.edu\/~stasko\/papers\/infovis05.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2015-02-13 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">William Newman (1994) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mdnpress.com\/wmn\/pdfs\/chi94-pro-formas-2.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Preliminary Analysis of the Products of HCI Research, Using Pro Forma Abstracts\"<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160303212019\/http:\/\/www.mdnpress.com\/wmn\/pdfs\/chi94-pro-formas-2.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2016-03-03 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Mary Shaw (2002) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cs.cmu.edu\/~Compose\/ftp\/shaw-fin-etaps.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Makes Good Research in Software Engineering?\"<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181105042928\/http:\/\/www.cs.cmu.edu\/~Compose\/ftp\/shaw-fin-etaps.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2018-11-05 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ConTaaS-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ConTaaS_81-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ConTaaS_81-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFYavariJayaramanGeorgakopoulosNepal2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Yavari, Ali; Jayaraman, Prem Prakash; Georgakopoulos, Dimitrios; Nepal, Surya (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu\/handle\/10125\/41879\" target=\"_blank\"><i>ConTaaS: An Approach to Internet-Scale Contextualisation for Developing Efficient Internet of Things Applications<\/i><\/a>. Proceedings of the 50th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (2017). HICSS50. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.24251%2FHICSS.2017.715\" target=\"_blank\">10.24251\/HICSS.2017.715<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/10125%2F41879\" target=\"_blank\">10125\/41879<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780998133102<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180602050255\/https:\/\/scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu\/handle\/10125\/41879\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on June 2, 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">May 24,<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=ConTaaS%3A+An+Approach+to+Internet-Scale+Contextualisation+for+Developing+Efficient+Internet+of+Things+Applications&amp;rft.series=Proceedings+of+the+50th+Hawaii+International+Conference+on+System+Sciences+%282017%29&amp;rft.pub=HICSS50&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10125%2F41879&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.24251%2FHICSS.2017.715&amp;rft.isbn=9780998133102&amp;rft.aulast=Yavari&amp;rft.aufirst=Ali&amp;rft.au=Jayaraman%2C+Prem+Prakash&amp;rft.au=Georgakopoulos%2C+Dimitrios&amp;rft.au=Nepal%2C+Surya&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu%2Fhandle%2F10125%2F41879&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_book\" title=\"Template:Cite book\">cite book<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">|website=<\/code> ignored (<a href=\"#periodical_ignored\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-82\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016\/0167-9473(89)90021-2\" target=\"_blank\">\"Connectivity tool transfers data among database and statistical products\"<\/a>. <i>Computational Statistics &amp; Data Analysis<\/i>. <b>8<\/b> (2): 224. July 1989. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2F0167-9473%2889%2990021-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/0167-9473(89)90021-2<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0167-9473\" target=\"_blank\">0167-9473<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Computational+Statistics+%26+Data+Analysis&amp;rft.atitle=Connectivity+tool+transfers+data+among+database+and+statistical+products&amp;rft.volume=8&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=224&amp;rft.date=1989-07&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0167-9473%2889%2990021-2&amp;rft.issn=0167-9473&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2F0167-9473%2889%2990021-2&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-83\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.4324\/9780080544304-16\" target=\"_blank\">\"Information relevant to your job\"<\/a>, <i>Obtaining Information for Effective Management<\/i>, Routledge, pp.&#160;48\u201354, 2007-07-11, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324%2F9780080544304-16\" target=\"_blank\">10.4324\/9780080544304-16<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-08-054430-4<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-03<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Obtaining+Information+for+Effective+Management&amp;rft.atitle=Information+relevant+to+your+job&amp;rft.pages=48-54&amp;rft.date=2007-07-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780080544304-16&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-08-054430-4&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9780080544304-16&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-84\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLehmann2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lehmann, E. L. (2010). <i>Testing statistical hypotheses<\/i>. Springer. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4419-3178-8<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/757477004\" target=\"_blank\">757477004<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Testing+statistical+hypotheses&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F757477004&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4419-3178-8&amp;rft.aulast=Lehmann&amp;rft.aufirst=E.+L.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-85\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFielding2008\" class=\"citation cs2\">Fielding, Henry (2008-08-14), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093\/owc\/9780199536993.003.0193\" target=\"_blank\">\"Consisting partly of facts, and partly of observations upon them\"<\/a>, <i>Tom Jones<\/i>, Oxford University Press, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093%2Fowc%2F9780199536993.003.0193\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/owc\/9780199536993.003.0193<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-19-953699-3<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-03<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Tom+Jones&amp;rft.atitle=Consisting+partly+of+facts%2C+and+partly+of+observations+upon+them&amp;rft.date=2008-08-14&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fowc%2F9780199536993.003.0193&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-953699-3&amp;rft.aulast=Fielding&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Fowc%2F9780199536993.003.0193&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-86\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cbo.gov\/publication\/21670\" target=\"_blank\">\"Congressional Budget Office-The Budget and Economic Outlook-August 2010-Table 1.7 on Page 24\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 18 August 2010. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120227065029\/http:\/\/cbo.gov\/publication\/21670\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2012-02-27<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-03-31<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Congressional+Budget+Office-The+Budget+and+Economic+Outlook-August+2010-Table+1.7+on+Page+24&amp;rft.date=2010-08-18&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbo.gov%2Fpublication%2F21670&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-87\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1787\/9789264273856-table125-en\" target=\"_blank\">\"Students' sense of belonging, by immigrant background\"<\/a>. <i>PISA 2015 Results (Volume III)<\/i>. PISA. 2017-04-19. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1787%2F9789264273856-table125-en\" target=\"_blank\">10.1787\/9789264273856-table125-en<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9789264273818<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1996-3777\" target=\"_blank\">1996-3777<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PISA+2015+Results+%28Volume+III%29&amp;rft.atitle=Students%27+sense+of+belonging%2C+by+immigrant+background&amp;rft.date=2017-04-19&amp;rft.issn=1996-3777&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2F9789264273856-table125-en&amp;rft.isbn=9789264273818&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1787%2F9789264273856-table125-en&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-88\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-88\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGordon1990\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Gordon, Roger (March 1990). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3386\/w3303\" target=\"_blank\">\"Do Publicly Traded Corporations Act in the Public Interest?\"<\/a>. <i>National Bureau of Economic Research Working Papers<\/i>. Cambridge, MA. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3386%2Fw3303\" target=\"_blank\">10.3386\/w3303<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=National+Bureau+of+Economic+Research+Working+Papers&amp;rft.atitle=Do+Publicly+Traded+Corporations+Act+in+the+Public+Interest%3F&amp;rft.date=1990-03&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3386%2Fw3303&amp;rft.aulast=Gordon&amp;rft.aufirst=Roger&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.3386%2Fw3303&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-89\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-89\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMinardi2010\" class=\"citation cs2\">Minardi, Margot (2010-09-24), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195379372.003.0003\" target=\"_blank\">\"Facts and Opinion\"<\/a>, <i>Making Slavery History<\/i>, Oxford University Press, pp.&#160;13\u201342, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195379372.003.0003\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195379372.003.0003<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-19-537937-2<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-03<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Making+Slavery+History&amp;rft.atitle=Facts+and+Opinion&amp;rft.pages=13-42&amp;rft.date=2010-09-24&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195379372.003.0003&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-537937-2&amp;rft.aulast=Minardi&amp;rft.aufirst=Margot&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195379372.003.0003&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-90\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-90\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRivard2014\" class=\"citation thesis cs1\">Rivard, Jillian R (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.25148\/etd.fi14071109\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Confirmation bias in witness interviewing: Can interviewers ignore their preconceptions?<\/i><\/a> (Thesis). 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-10-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=cia.gov&amp;rft.atitle=Introduction&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fstatic%2F9a5f1162fd0932c29bfed1c030edf4ae%2FPyschology-of-Intelligence-Analysis.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-95\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-95\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1787\/888934081549\" target=\"_blank\">\"Figure 6.7. Differences in literacy scores across OECD countries generally mirror those in numeracy\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1787%2F888934081549\" target=\"_blank\">10.1787\/888934081549<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-03<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Figure+6.7.+Differences+in+literacy+scores+across+OECD+countries+generally+mirror+those+in+numeracy&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2F888934081549&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1787%2F888934081549&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-96\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-96\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141029014527\/http:\/\/www.bloombergview.com\/articles\/2014-10-28\/bad-math-that-passes-for-insight\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bloomberg-Barry Ritholz-Bad Math that Passes for Insight-October 28, 2014\"<\/a>. 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(1960-04-21). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2172\/10170345\" target=\"_blank\">\"Analysis of dimensional distortion data from initial 24 quality certification tubes\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2172%2F10170345\" target=\"_blank\">10.2172\/10170345<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:110058009\" target=\"_blank\">110058009<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Analysis+of+dimensional+distortion+data+from+initial+24+quality+certification+tubes&amp;rft.date=1960-04-21&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2172%2F10170345&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A110058009%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Jaech&amp;rft.aufirst=J.L.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2172%2F10170345&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a337-110\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a337_110-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAd\u00e8r2008a\">Ad\u00e8r 2008a<\/a>, p.&#160;337.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-111\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-111\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKjellThompson2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kjell, Oscar N. E.; Thompson, Sam (19 December 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.231%2Ftable-1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Descriptive statistics indicating the mean, standard deviation and frequency of missing values for each condition (N = number of participants), and for the dependent variables (DV)\"<\/a>. <i>PeerJ<\/i>. <b>1<\/b>: e231. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.231%2Ftable-1\" target=\"_blank\">10.7717\/peerj.231\/table-1<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PeerJ&amp;rft.atitle=Descriptive+statistics+indicating+the+mean%2C+standard+deviation+and+frequency+of+missing+values+for+each+condition+%28N+%3D+number+of+participants%29%2C+and+for+the+dependent+variables+%28DV%29&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.pages=e231&amp;rft.date=2013-12-19&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7717%2Fpeerj.231%2Ftable-1&amp;rft.aulast=Kjell&amp;rft.aufirst=Oscar+N.+E.&amp;rft.au=Thompson%2C+Sam&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7717%252Fpeerj.231%252Ftable-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-112\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-112\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1520\/e0178-16a\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Practice for Dealing With Outlying Observations<\/i><\/a>, ASTM International, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1520%2Fe0178-16a\" target=\"_blank\">10.1520\/e0178-16a<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-03<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Practice+for+Dealing+With+Outlying+Observations&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1520%2Fe0178-16a&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1520%2Fe0178-16a&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-113\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-113\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.4135\/9781412985628.n5\" target=\"_blank\">\"Alternative Coding Schemes for Dummy Variables\"<\/a>, <i>Regression with Dummy Variables<\/i>, Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc., pp.&#160;64\u201375, 1993, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4135%2F9781412985628.n5\" target=\"_blank\">10.4135\/9781412985628.n5<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-8039-5128-0<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-03<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Regression+with+Dummy+Variables&amp;rft.atitle=Alternative+Coding+Schemes+for+Dummy+Variables&amp;rft.pages=64-75&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412985628.n5&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8039-5128-0&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4135%2F9781412985628.n5&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a338\u2013341-114\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a338\u2013341_114-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAd\u00e8r2008a\">Ad\u00e8r 2008a<\/a>, pp.&#160;338\u2013341.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-115\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-115\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDanilyuk1960\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Danilyuk, P. M. (July 1960). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007\/bf00977716\" target=\"_blank\">\"Computing the displacement of the initial contour of gears when they are checked by means of balls\"<\/a>. <i>Measurement Techniques<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (7): 585\u2013587. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fbf00977716\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/bf00977716<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0543-1972\" target=\"_blank\">0543-1972<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:121058145\" target=\"_blank\">121058145<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Measurement+Techniques&amp;rft.atitle=Computing+the+displacement+of+the+initial+contour+of+gears+when+they+are+checked+by+means+of+balls&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=585-587&amp;rft.date=1960-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A121058145%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0543-1972&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00977716&amp;rft.aulast=Danilyuk&amp;rft.aufirst=P.+M.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fbf00977716&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-116\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-116\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNewman1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Newman, Isadore (1998). <i>Qualitative-quantitative research methodology&#160;: exploring the interactive continuum<\/i>. Southern Illinois University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-585-17889-5<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/44962443\" target=\"_blank\">44962443<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Qualitative-quantitative+research+methodology+%3A+exploring+the+interactive+continuum&amp;rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44962443&amp;rft.isbn=0-585-17889-5&amp;rft.aulast=Newman&amp;rft.aufirst=Isadore&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-117\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-117\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTerwilligerLele1979\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Terwilliger, James S.; Lele, Kaustubh (June 1979). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1745-3984.1979.tb00091.x\" target=\"_blank\">\"Some Relationships Among Internal Consistency, Reproducibility, and Homogeneity\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Educational Measurement<\/i>. <b>16<\/b> (2): 101\u2013108. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111%2Fj.1745-3984.1979.tb00091.x\" target=\"_blank\">10.1111\/j.1745-3984.1979.tb00091.x<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0022-0655\" target=\"_blank\">0022-0655<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Educational+Measurement&amp;rft.atitle=Some+Relationships+Among+Internal+Consistency%2C+Reproducibility%2C+and+Homogeneity&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=101-108&amp;rft.date=1979-06&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1745-3984.1979.tb00091.x&amp;rft.issn=0022-0655&amp;rft.aulast=Terwilliger&amp;rft.aufirst=James+S.&amp;rft.au=Lele%2C+Kaustubh&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1111%2Fj.1745-3984.1979.tb00091.x&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a341\u2013342-118\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a341\u2013342_118-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAd\u00e8r2008a\">Ad\u00e8r 2008a<\/a>, pp.&#160;341\u2013342.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a344-119\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a344_119-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAd\u00e8r2008a\">Ad\u00e8r 2008a<\/a>, p.&#160;344.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-120\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-120\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Tabachnick &amp; Fidell, 2007, p. 87-88.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-121\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-121\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTchakarova2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Tchakarova, Kalina (October 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.5553\/eelc\/187791072020005003006\" target=\"_blank\">\"2020\/31 Comparing job descriptions is insufficient for 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rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:229008899\" target=\"_blank\">229008899<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=European+Employment+Law+Cases&amp;rft.atitle=2020%2F31+Comparing+job+descriptions+is+insufficient+for+checking+whether+work+is+equally+valuable+%28BG%29&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=168-170&amp;rft.date=2020-10&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A229008899%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=1877-9107&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5553%2Feelc%2F187791072020005003006&amp;rft.aulast=Tchakarova&amp;rft.aufirst=Kalina&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.5553%2Feelc%2F187791072020005003006&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-122\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a 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cs1\">Sandberg, Margareta (June 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1136\/aim.24.2.92\" target=\"_blank\">\"Acupuncture Procedures Must be Accurately Described\"<\/a>. <i>Acupuncture in Medicine<\/i>. <b>24<\/b> (2): 92\u201394. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136%2Faim.24.2.92\" target=\"_blank\">10.1136\/aim.24.2.92<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0964-5284\" target=\"_blank\">0964-5284<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/16783285\" target=\"_blank\">16783285<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:30286074\" target=\"_blank\">30286074<\/a>.<\/cite><span 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href=\"#cite_ref-126\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFothHedrickEzcurra2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Foth, Christian; Hedrick, Brandon P.; Ezcurra, Martin D. (18 January 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.1589%2Ffig-4\" target=\"_blank\">\"Figure 4: Centroid size regression analyses for the main sample\"<\/a>. <i>PeerJ<\/i>. <b>4<\/b>: e1589. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717%2Fpeerj.1589%2Ffig-4\" target=\"_blank\">10.7717\/peerj.1589\/fig-4<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PeerJ&amp;rft.atitle=Figure+4%3A+Centroid+size+regression+analyses+for+the+main+sample.&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.pages=e1589&amp;rft.date=2016-01-18&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7717%2Fpeerj.1589%2Ffig-4&amp;rft.aulast=Foth&amp;rft.aufirst=Christian&amp;rft.au=Hedrick%2C+Brandon+P.&amp;rft.au=Ezcurra%2C+Martin+D.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7717%252Fpeerj.1589%252Ffig-4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a345-127\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a345_127-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAd\u00e8r2008a\">Ad\u00e8r 2008a<\/a>, p.&#160;345.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-128\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-128\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs2\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2307\/j.ctv6cfncp.26\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Final Years (1975-84)\"<\/a>, <i>The Road Not Taken<\/i>, Boydell &amp; Brewer, pp.&#160;853\u2013922, 2018-06-18, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307%2Fj.ctv6cfncp.26\" target=\"_blank\">10.2307\/j.ctv6cfncp.26<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-57647-332-0<\/bdi>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:242072487\" target=\"_blank\">242072487<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-06-03<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Road+Not+Taken&amp;rft.atitle=The+Final+Years+%281975-84%29&amp;rft.pages=853-922&amp;rft.date=2018-06-18&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A242072487%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv6cfncp.26&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-57647-332-0&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv6cfncp.26&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-129\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-129\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFitzmaurice2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Fitzmaurice, Kathryn (17 March 2015). <i>Destiny, rewritten<\/i>. HarperCollins. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-06-162503-9<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/905090570\" target=\"_blank\">905090570<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Destiny%2C+rewritten&amp;rft.pub=HarperCollins&amp;rft.date=2015-03-17&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F905090570&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-06-162503-9&amp;rft.aulast=Fitzmaurice&amp;rft.aufirst=Kathryn&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-130\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-130\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554%2Felife.24102.023\" target=\"_blank\">\"Supplementary file 4. Raw data and R-based analyses\"<\/a>. 7 March 2017. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554%2Felife.24102.023\" target=\"_blank\">10.7554\/elife.24102.023<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Supplementary+file+4.+Raw+data+and+R-based+analyses&amp;rft.date=2017-03-07&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7554%2Felife.24102.023&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7554%252Felife.24102.023&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a345\u2013346-131\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a345\u2013346_131-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAd\u00e8r2008a\">Ad\u00e8r 2008a<\/a>, pp.&#160;345\u2013346.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a346\u2013347-132\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a346\u2013347_132-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAd\u00e8r2008a\">Ad\u00e8r 2008a<\/a>, pp.&#160;346\u2013347.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a349\u2013353-133\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAd\u00e8r2008a349\u2013353_133-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAd\u00e8r2008a\">Ad\u00e8r 2008a<\/a>, pp.&#160;349\u2013353.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SAB1-134\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SAB1_134-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Billings S.A. \"Nonlinear System Identification: NARMAX Methods in the Time, Frequency, and Spatio-Temporal Domains\". 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July 15, 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210416100455\/https:\/\/www.symmetrymagazine.org\/article\/july-2014\/the-machine-learning-community-takes-on-the-higgs\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 16 April 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 January<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Symmetry+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=The+machine+learning+community+takes+on+the+Higgs&amp;rft.date=2014-07-15&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.symmetrymagazine.org%2Farticle%2Fjuly-2014%2Fthe-machine-learning-community-takes-on-the-higgs%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Nehme_2016-09-29-155\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Nehme_2016-09-29_155-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNehme2016\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Nehme, Jean (September 29, 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fhwa.dot.gov\/research\/tfhrc\/programs\/infrastructure\/pavements\/ltpp\/2016_2017_asce_ltpp_contest_guidelines.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">\"LTPP International Data Analysis Contest\"<\/a>. Federal Highway Administration. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171021010012\/https:\/\/www.fhwa.dot.gov\/research\/tfhrc\/programs\/infrastructure\/pavements\/ltpp\/2016_2017_asce_ltpp_contest_guidelines.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on October 21, 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">October 22,<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=LTPP+International+Data+Analysis+Contest&amp;rft.pub=Federal+Highway+Administration&amp;rft.date=2016-09-29&amp;rft.aulast=Nehme&amp;rft.aufirst=Jean&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fhwa.dot.gov%2Fresearch%2Ftfhrc%2Fprograms%2Finfrastructure%2Fpavements%2Fltpp%2F2016_2017_asce_ltpp_contest_guidelines.cfm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-156\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-156\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fhwa.dot.gov\/research\/tfhrc\/programs\/infrastructure\/pavements\/ltpp\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data.Gov:Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP)\"<\/a>. May 26, 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171101191727\/https:\/\/www.fhwa.dot.gov\/research\/tfhrc\/programs\/infrastructure\/pavements\/ltpp\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on November 1, 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">November 10,<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Data.Gov%3ALong-Term+Pavement+Performance+%28LTPP%29&amp;rft.date=2016-05-26&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fhwa.dot.gov%2Fresearch%2Ftfhrc%2Fprograms%2Finfrastructure%2Fpavements%2Fltpp%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bibliography\">Bibliography<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAd\u00e8r2008a\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herman_J._Ad%C3%A8r\" title=\"Herman J. Ad\u00e8r\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4782e1249ef5cae05211c5c5b903277e\">Ad\u00e8r, Herman J.<\/a> (2008a). \"Chapter 14: Phases and initial steps in data analysis\". In Ad\u00e8r, Herman J.; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gideon_J._Mellenbergh\" title=\"Gideon J. Mellenbergh\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1672e3e57798496ddda09d34f246ebb3\">Mellenbergh, Gideon J.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Hand_(statistician)\" title=\"David Hand (statistician)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9a78c8fb552ae99805e36a45f7eeeb7\">Hand, David J<\/a> (eds.). <i>Advising on research methods&#160;: a consultant's companion<\/i>. Huizen, Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Pub. pp.&#160;333\u2013356. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9789079418015<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/905799857\" target=\"_blank\">905799857<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+14%3A+Phases+and+initial+steps+in+data+analysis&amp;rft.btitle=Advising+on+research+methods+%3A+a+consultant%27s+companion&amp;rft.place=Huizen%2C+Netherlands&amp;rft.pages=333-356&amp;rft.pub=Johannes+van+Kessel+Pub&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F905799857&amp;rft.isbn=9789079418015&amp;rft.aulast=Ad%C3%A8r&amp;rft.aufirst=Herman+J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAd\u00e8r2008b\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herman_J._Ad%C3%A8r\" title=\"Herman J. Ad\u00e8r\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4782e1249ef5cae05211c5c5b903277e\">Ad\u00e8r, Herman J.<\/a> (2008b). \"Chapter 15: The main analysis phase\". In Ad\u00e8r, Herman J.; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gideon_J._Mellenbergh\" title=\"Gideon J. Mellenbergh\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1672e3e57798496ddda09d34f246ebb3\">Mellenbergh, Gideon J.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Hand_(statistician)\" title=\"David Hand (statistician)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9a78c8fb552ae99805e36a45f7eeeb7\">Hand, David J<\/a> (eds.). <i>Advising on research methods&#160;: a consultant's companion<\/i>. Huizen, Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Pub. pp.&#160;357\u2013386. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9789079418015<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/905799857\" target=\"_blank\">905799857<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+15%3A+The+main+analysis+phase&amp;rft.btitle=Advising+on+research+methods+%3A+a+consultant%27s+companion&amp;rft.place=Huizen%2C+Netherlands&amp;rft.pages=357-386&amp;rft.pub=Johannes+van+Kessel+Pub&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F905799857&amp;rft.isbn=9789079418015&amp;rft.aulast=Ad%C3%A8r&amp;rft.aufirst=Herman+J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li>Tabachnick, B.G. &amp; Fidell, L.S. (2007). Chapter 4: Cleaning up your act. Screening data prior to analysis. In B.G. Tabachnick &amp; L.S. Fidell (Eds.), Using Multivariate Statistics, Fifth Edition (pp.&#160;60\u2013116). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. \/ Allyn and Bacon.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ad%C3%A8r,_H.J.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ad\u00e8r, H.J.\" data-key=\"713e023799ee07ffc9617ebf49b878fe\">Ad\u00e8r, H.J.<\/a> &amp; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gideon_J._Mellenbergh\" title=\"Gideon J. Mellenbergh\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1672e3e57798496ddda09d34f246ebb3\">Mellenbergh, G.J.<\/a> (with contributions by D.J. Hand) (2008). <i>Advising on Research Methods: A Consultant's Companion<\/i>. Huizen, the Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-90-79418-01-5<\/li>\n<li>Chambers, John M.; Cleveland, William S.; Kleiner, Beat; Tukey, Paul A. (1983). <i>Graphical Methods for Data Analysis<\/i>, Wadsworth\/Duxbury Press. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-534-98052-X<\/li>\n<li>Fandango, Armando (2017). <i>Python Data Analysis, 2nd Edition<\/i>. Packt Publishers. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1787127487<\/li>\n<li>Juran, Joseph M.; Godfrey, A. Blanton (1999). <i>Juran's Quality Handbook, 5th Edition.<\/i> New York: McGraw Hill. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-07-034003-X<\/li>\n<li>Lewis-Beck, Michael S. (1995). <i>Data Analysis: an Introduction<\/i>, Sage Publications Inc, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-8039-5772-6<\/li>\n<li>NIST\/SEMATECH (2008) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.itl.nist.gov\/div898\/handbook\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Handbook of Statistical Methods<\/i><\/a>,<\/li>\n<li>Pyzdek, T, (2003). <i>Quality Engineering Handbook<\/i>, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-8247-4614-7<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richard_Veryard\" title=\"Richard Veryard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32a613999cf408a7bfb9d4f537bbaef5\">Richard Veryard<\/a> (1984). <i>Pragmatic Data Analysis<\/i>. Oxford&#160;: Blackwell Scientific Publications. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-632-01311-7<\/li>\n<li>Tabachnick, B.G.; Fidell, L.S. (2007). <i>Using Multivariate Statistics, 5th Edition<\/i>. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. \/ Allyn and Bacon, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-205-45938-4<\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw2388\nCached time: 20240102044422\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 1.315 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.492 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 10023\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 339455\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 3587\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 6\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 483310\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.851\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 9828510\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 1307.143 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>62.22% 813.263 1 Template:Reflist\n25.48% 333.036 63 Template:Cite_journal\n15.82% 206.789 35 Template:Citation\n 8.82% 115.298 28 Template:Cite_book\n 8.14% 106.458 12 Template:Sfn\n 5.54% 72.390 1 Template:Data_Visualization\n 5.27% 68.929 1 Template:Sidebar\n 4.11% 53.766 1 Template:Short_description\n 3.30% 43.131 1 Template:Authority_control\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:2720954-0!canonical and timestamp 20240102044421 and revision id 1189725692. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_analysis\" data-key=\"fe81497dd8621498e1de0a68d203fd37\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110072110\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.310 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.676 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 348225\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 528.540 1 wikipedia:Data_analysis\n100.00% 528.540 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3360-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110072110 and revision id 45637. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1_images":[],"545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1_timestamp":1704906998,"6679e77e1dd923e89b04f0e19ea06240_type":"article","6679e77e1dd923e89b04f0e19ea06240_title":"Computer security","6679e77e1dd923e89b04f0e19ea06240_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Computer_security","6679e77e1dd923e89b04f0e19ea06240_plaintext":"\n\nComputer securityFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchProtection of computer systems from information disclosure, theft or damage\n\n\n\nPart of a series onComputer hacking\nHistory\nPhreaking\nCryptovirology\nHacking of consumer electronics\nList of hackers\n\nHacker culture and ethic\nHackathon\nHacker Manifesto\nHackerspace\nHacktivism\nMaker culture\nTypes of hackers\nBlack hat\nGrey hat\nWhite hat\n\nConferences\nBlack Hat Briefings\nChaos Communication Congress\nDEF CON\nHackers on Planet Earth\nSecurity BSides\nShmooCon\nSummercon\n\nComputer crime\nCrimeware\nList of computer criminals\nScript kiddie\n\nHacking tools\nExploit\nforensics-focused operating systems\nPayload\nSocial engineering\nVulnerability\n\nPractice sites\nHackThisSite\nZone-H\n\nMalware\nRootkit\nBackdoor\nTrojan horse\nVirus\nWorm\nSpyware\nRansomware\nLogic bomb\nBotnet\nKeystroke logging\nHIDS\nWeb shell\nRCE\n\nComputer security\nApplication security\nCloud computing security\nNetwork security\n\nGroups\nAnonymous\nChaos Computer Club\nHomebrew Computer Club (defunct)\nLegion of Doom (defunct)\nLulzSec (defunct)\nMasters of Deception (defunct)\nRed team \/ Blue team\n\nPublications\n2600: The Hacker Quarterly\nHacker News\nNuts and Volts\nPhrack\nvte\nOperating systems \nCommon features\nProcess management\nInterrupts\nMemory management\nFile system\nDevice drivers\nNetworking\nSecurity\nInput\/output\nvte\nWhile most aspects of computer security involve digital measures such as electronic passwords and encryption, physical security measures such as metal locks are still used to prevent unauthorized tampering.\n\nComputer security, cybersecurity, digital security or information technology security (IT security) is the protection of computer systems and networks from attacks by malicious actors that may result in unauthorized information disclosure, theft of, or damage to hardware, software, or data, as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the services they provide.[1][2]\nThe field is significant due to the expanded reliance on computer systems, the Internet,[3] and wireless network standards such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. Also, due to the growth of smart devices, including smartphones, televisions, and the various devices that constitute the Internet of things (IoT). Cybersecurity is one of the most significant challenges of the contemporary world, due to both the complexity of information systems and the societies they support. Security is of especially high importance for systems that govern large-scale systems with far-reaching physical effects, such as power distribution, elections, and finance.[4][5]\n\n\n\nVulnerabilities and attacks \nMain article: Vulnerability (computing)\nA vulnerability is a weakness in design, implementation, operation, or internal control of a computer or system. Most of the vulnerabilities that have been discovered are documented in the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) database.[6] An exploitable vulnerability is one for which at least one working attack or exploit exists.[7] Vulnerabilities can be researched, reverse-engineered, hunted, or exploited using automated tools or customized scripts.[8][9]\nVarious people or parties are vulnerable to cyber attacks, however different groups are likely to experience different types of attacks more than others.[10]\nIn April 2023 the United Kingdom Department for Science, Innovation &amp; Technology released a report on cyber attacks over the last 12 months.[11] They surveyed 2,263 UK businesses, 1,174 UK registered charities and 554 education institutions. The research found that \"32% of businesses and 24% of charities overall recall any breaches or attacks from the last 12 months.\" These figures were much higher for \"medium businesses (59%), large businesses (69%) and high-income charities with \u00a3500,000 or more in annual income (56%).\"[11] Yet, although medium or large businesses are more often the victims, since larger companies have generally improved their security over the last decade, small and midsize businesses (SMBs) have also become increasing vulnerable as they often \"do not have advanced tools to defend the business.\"[10] SMBs are most likely to be affected by malware, ransomware, phishing, man-in-the-middle attacks, and Denial-of Service (DoS) Attacks.[10]\nNormal internet users are most likely to be affected by \"un-targeted\" cyber attacks.[12] These are where attackers indiscriminately target as many devices, services or users as possible. They do this using techniques that take advantage of the \"openness\" of the Internet. These strategies mostly include phishing, ransomware, water holing and scanning.[12]\nTo secure a computer system, it is important to understand the attacks that can be made against it, and these threats can typically be classified into one of the following categories:\n\nBackdoor \nA backdoor in a computer system, a cryptosystem, or an algorithm, is any secret method of bypassing normal authentication or security controls. These weaknesses may exist for many reasons, including original design or poor configuration.[13] Due to the nature of backdoors, they are of greater concern to companies and databases as opposed to individuals.\nBackdoors may be added by an authorized party to allow some legitimate access, or by an attacker for malicious reasons. Criminals often use malware to install backdoors, giving them remote administrative access to a system.[14] Once they have access, cybercriminals can \"modify files, steal personal information, install unwanted software, and even take control of the entire computer.\"[14]\nBackdoors can be very hard to detect, and are usually discovered by someone who has access to the application source code or intimate knowledge of the operating system of the computer.\n\nDenial-of-service attack \nDenial of service attacks (DoS) are designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users.[15] Attackers can deny service to individual victims, such as by deliberately entering a wrong password enough consecutive times to cause the victim's account to be locked, or they may overload the capabilities of a machine or network and block all users at once. While a network attack from a single IP address can be blocked by adding a new firewall rule, many forms of Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks are possible, where the attack comes from a large number of points. In this case defending against these attacks is much more difficult. Such attacks can originate from the zombie computers of a botnet or from a range of other possible techniques, including distributed reflective denial of service (DRDoS), where innocent systems are fooled into sending traffic to the victim.[15] With such attacks, the amplification factor makes the attack easier for the attacker because they have to use little bandwidth themselves. To understand why attackers may carry out these attacks, see the 'attacker motivation' section.\n\nDirect-access attacks \nA direct-access attack is when an unauthorized user (an attacker) gains physical access to a computer, most likely to directly copy data from it or to steal information.[16] Attackers may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing software worms, keyloggers, covert listening devices or using wireless microphones. Even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be bypassed by booting another operating system or tool from a CD-ROM or other bootable media. Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module are designed to prevent these attacks.\nDirect service attackers are related in concept to direct memory attacks that allows an attacker to gain direct access to a computer's memory.[17] The attacks \"take advantage of a feature of modern computers that allow certain devices, such as external hard drives, graphics cards or network cards, to access the computer's memory directly.\"[17]\nTo help prevent these attacks, computer users must ensure that they have a strong passwords, that their computer is locked at all times when they are not using it, and that they keep their computer with them at all times when traveling.[17]\n\nEavesdropping \nEavesdropping is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private computer conversation (communication), usually between hosts on a network. It typically occurs when a user connects to a network where traffic is not secured or encrypted and sends sensitive business data to a colleague, which when listened to by an attacker could be exploited.[18] Data transmitted across an \"open network\" allows an attacker to exploit a vulnerability and intercept it via various methods.\nUnlike malware, direct-access attacks, or other forms of cyber attacks, eavesdropping attacks are unlikely to negatively affect the performance of networks or devices, making them difficult to notice.[18] In fact, \"the attacker does not need to have any ongoing connection to the software at all. The attacker can insert the software onto a compromised device, perhaps by direct insertion or perhaps by a virus or other malware, and then come back some time later to retrieve any data that is found or trigger the software to send the data at some determined time.\"[19]\nUsing a virtual private network (VPN), which encrypts data between two points, is one of the most common forms of protection against eavesdropping. Using the best form of encryption possible for wireless networks is best practice, as well as using HTTPS instead of an unencrypted HTTP.[20]\nPrograms such as Carnivore and NarusInSight have been used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and NSA to eavesdrop on the systems of internet service providers. Even machines that operate as a closed system (i.e., with no contact with the outside world) can be eavesdropped upon by monitoring the faint electromagnetic transmissions generated by the hardware. TEMPEST is a specification by the NSA referring to these attacks.\n\nMalware \nMalicious software (malware) is any software code or computer program \"intentionally written to harm a computer system or its users.\"[21] Once present on a computer, it can leak sensitive details such as personal information, business information and passwords, can give control of the system to the attacker, and can corrupt or delete data permanently.[22] Another type of malware is ransomware, which is when \"malware installs itself onto a victim's machine, encrypts their files, and then turns around and demands a ransom (usually in Bitcoin) to return that data to the user.\"[23]\nTypes of malware include some of the following:\n\nViruses are a specific type of malware, and are normally a malicious code that hijacks software with the intension to \"do damage and spread copies of itself.\" Copies are made with the aim to spread to other programs on a computer.[21]\nWorms are similar to viruses, however viruses can only function when a user runs (opens) a compromised program. Worms are self-replicating malware that spread between programs, apps and devices without the need for human interaction.[21]\nTrojan horses are programs that pretend to be helpful or hide themselves within desired or legitimate software to \"trick users into installing them.\" Once installed, a RAT (remote access trojan) can create a secret backdoor on the affected device to cause damage.[21]\nSpyware is a type of malware that secretly gathers information on an infected computers and transmits the sensitive information back to the attacker. One of the most common forms of spyware are known as keyloggers, which is a kind of malware which recorders all of a users keyboard inputs\/keystrokes, used to \"allow hackers to harvest usernames, passwords, bank account and credit card numbers.\"[21]\nScareware, as the name suggests, is a form of malware which uses social engineering (manipulation) to scare, shock, trigger anxiety, or suggest the perception of a threat in order to manipulate users into buying or installing unwanted software. These attacks often begin with a \"sudden pop-up with an urgent message, usually warning the user that they've broken the law or their device has a virus.\"[21]\n Multi-vector, polymorphic attacks \nSurfacing in 2017, a new class of multi-vector,[24] polymorphic[25] cyber threats combine several types of attacks and change form to avoid cybersecurity controls as they spread.\nMulti-vector polymorphic attacks, as the name describes, are both multi-vectored and polymorphic.[26] Firstly, they are a singular attack that involves multiple methods of attack. In this sense, they are \u201cmulti-vectored (i.e. the attack can use multiple means of propagation such as via the Web, email and applications.\" However, they are also multi-staged, meaning that \u201cthey can infiltrate networks and move laterally inside the network.\u201d[26] The attacks can be polymorphic, meaning that the cyberattacks used such as viruses, worms or trojans \u201cconstantly change (\u201cmorph\u201d) making it nearly impossible to detect them using signature-based defences.\u201d[26]\n\nPhishing \nAn example of a phishing email, disguised as an official email from a (fictional) bank. The sender is attempting to trick the recipient into revealing confidential information by confirming it at the phisher's website. Note the misspelling of the words received and discrepancy as recieved and discrepency, respectively. Although the URL of the bank's webpage appears to be legitimate, the hyperlink points at the phisher's webpage.\n\nPhishing is the attempt of acquiring sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and credit card details directly from users by deceiving the users.[27] Phishing is typically carried out by email spoofing, instant messaging, text message, or on a phone call. They often directs users to enter details at a fake website whose look and feel are almost identical to the legitimate one.[28] The fake website often asks for personal information, such as login details and passwords. This information can then be used to gain access to the individual's real account on the real website.\nPreying on a victim's trust, phishing can be classified as a form of social engineering. Attackers can use creative ways to gain access to real accounts. A common scam is for attackers to send fake electronic invoices[29] to individuals showing that they recently purchased music, apps, or others, and instructing them to click on a link if the purchases were not authorized. A more strategic type of phishing is spear-phishing which leverages personal or organization-specific details to make the attacker appear like a trusted source. Spear-phishing attacks target specific individuals, rather than the broad net cast by phishing attempts.[30]\n\nPrivilege escalation \nPrivilege escalation describes a situation where an attacker with some level of restricted access is able to, without authorization, elevate their privileges or access level.[31] For example, a standard computer user may be able to exploit a vulnerability in the system to gain access to restricted data; or even become root and have full unrestricted access to a system. The severity of attacks can range from attacks simply sending an unsolicited email to a ransomware attack on large amounts of data. Privilege escalation usually starts with social engineering techniques, often phishing.[31]\nPrivilege escalation can be separated into to strategies, horizontal and vertical privilege escalation:\n\nHorizontal escalation (or account takeover) is where an attacker gains access to a normal user account that has relatively low-level privileges. This may be through stealing the user's username and password. Once they have access, they have gained a \u201cfoothold,\u201d and using this foothold the attacker then may move around the network of users at this same lower level, gaining access to information of this similar privilege.[31]\nVertical escalation however targets people higher up in a company and often with more administrative power, such as an employee in IT with a higher privilege. Using this privileged account will then enable to attacker to invade other accounts.[31]\nSide-channel attack \nMain article: Side-channel attack\nAny computational system affects its environment in some form. This effect it has on its environment includes a wide range of criteria, which can range from electromagnetic radiation to residual effect on RAM cells which as a consequence make a Cold boot attack possible, to hardware implementation faults that allow for access and or guessing of other values that normally should be inaccessible. In Side-channel attack scenarios, the attacker would gather such information about a system or network to guess its internal state and as a result access the information which is assumed by the victim to be secure.\n\nSocial engineering \nSocial engineering, in the context of computer security, aims to convince a user to disclose secrets such as passwords, card numbers, etc. or grant physical access by, for example, impersonating a senior executive, bank, a contractor, or a customer.[32] This generally involves exploiting people's trust, and relying on their cognitive biases. A common scam involves emails sent to accounting and finance department personnel, impersonating their CEO and urgently requesting some action. One of the main techniques of social engineering are phishing attacks.\nIn early 2016, the FBI reported that such business email compromise (BEC) scams had cost US businesses more than $2 billion in about two years.[33]\nIn May 2016, the Milwaukee Bucks NBA team was the victim of this type of cyber scam with a perpetrator impersonating the team's president Peter Feigin, resulting in the handover of all the team's employees' 2015 W-2 tax forms.[34]\n\nSpoofing \nMain article: Spoofing attack\nSpoofing is an act of pretending to be a valid entity through the falsification of data (such as an IP address or username), in order to gain access to information or resources that one is otherwise unauthorized to obtain. Spoofing is closely related to phishing.[35][36] There are several types of spoofing, including:\n\nEmail spoofing, is where an attacker forges the sending (From, or source) address of an email.\nIP address spoofing, where an attacker alters the source IP address in a network packet to hide their identity or impersonate another computing system.\nMAC spoofing, where an attacker modifies the Media Access Control (MAC) address of their network interface controller to obscure their identity, or to pose as another.\nBiometric spoofing, where an attacker produces a fake biometric sample to pose as another user.[37]\nAddress Resolution Protocol (ARP) spoofing, where an attacker sends spoofed address resolution protocol onto a local area network to associate their Media Access Control address with a different host's IP address. This causes data to be sent to the attacker rather than the intended host.\nIn 2018, the cybersecurity firm Trellix published research on the life-threatening risk of spoofing in the healthcare industry.[38]\n\nTampering \nTampering describes a malicious modification or alteration of data. An intentional but unauthorized act resulting in the modification of a system, components of systems, its intended behavior, or data. So-called Evil Maid attacks and security services planting of surveillance capability into routers are examples.[39]\n\nHTML smuggling \nHTML smuggling allows an attacker to \"smuggle\" a malicious code inside a particular HTML or web page.[40] HTML files can carry payloads concealed as benign, inert data in order to defeat content filters. These payloads can be reconstructed on the other side of the filter.[41]\nWhen a target user opens the HTML, the malicious code is activated; the web browser then \"decodes\" the script, which then unleashes the malware onto the target's device.[40]\n\nInformation security practices \nEmployee behavior can have a big impact on information security in organizations. Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness toward information security within an organization. Information security culture is the \"...totality of patterns of behavior in an organization that contributes to the protection of information of all kinds.\"[42]\nAndersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of their organization's information security effort and often take actions that impede organizational changes.[43] Indeed, the Verizon Data Breach Investigations Report 2020, which examined 3,950 security breaches, discovered 30% of cybersecurity incidents involved internal actors within a company.[44] Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In \"Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change\", authors commented, \"It's a never-ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance.\" To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation.[45]\n\nPre-evaluation: To identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze the current security policies.\nStrategic planning: To come up with a better awareness program, clear targets need to be set. Assembling a team of skilled professionals is helpful to achieve it.\nOperative planning: A good security culture can be established based on internal communication, management buy-in, security awareness and a training program.[45]\nImplementation: Four stages should be used to implement the information security culture. They are:\nCommitment of the management\nCommunication with organizational members\nCourses for all organizational members\nCommitment of the employees[45]\nPost-evaluation: To assess the success of the planning and implementation, and to identify unresolved areas of concern.\n Computer protection (countermeasures) \nIn computer security, a countermeasure is an action, device, procedure or technique that reduces a threat, a vulnerability, or an attack by eliminating or preventing it, by minimizing the harm it can cause, or by discovering and reporting it so that corrective action can be taken.[46][47][48]\nSome common countermeasures are listed in the following sections:\n\nSecurity by design \nMain article: Secure by design\nSecurity by design, or alternately secure by design, means that the software has been designed from the ground up to be secure. In this case, security is considered a main feature.\nThe UK government's National Cyber Security Centre separate secure cyber design principles into five sections:[49]\n\nBefore a secure system is created or updated, companies should ensure they understand the fundamentals and the context around the system they are trying to create, and to identify any apart weaknesses in a system.\nCompanies should design and centre their security around techniques and defences which make attacking their data or systems inherently more challenging for attackers.\nCompanies should ensure that their core services that rely on technology are protected so that the technology is always available.\nAlthough systems can be created which are safe against a multitude of attacks, that does not mean that attacks will not be attempted. Despite one's security, all companies' systems should aim to be able to detect and spot attacks as soon as they occur to ensure the most effective response to them.\nCompanies should create secure systems designed so that any attack that is \"successful\" has a loss severity.\nThese design principles of security by design can include some of the following techniques:\n\nThe principle of least privilege, where each part of the system has only the privileges that are needed for its function. That way, even if an attacker gains access to that part, they only have limited access to the whole system.\nAutomated theorem proving to prove the correctness of crucial software subsystems.\nCode reviews and unit testing, approaches to make modules more secure where formal correctness proofs are not possible.\nDefense in depth, where the design is such that more than one subsystem needs to be violated to compromise the integrity of the system and the information it holds.\nDefault secure settings, and design to fail secure rather than fail insecure (see fail-safe for the equivalent in safety engineering). Ideally, a secure system should require a deliberate, conscious, knowledgeable and free decision on the part of legitimate authorities in order to make it insecure.\nAudit trails track system activity so that when a security breach occurs, the mechanism and extent of the breach can be determined. Storing audit trails remotely, where they can only be appended to, can keep intruders from covering their tracks.\nFull disclosure of all vulnerabilities, to ensure that the window of vulnerability is kept as short as possible when bugs are discovered.\nSecurity architecture \nSecurity architecture can be defined as the \"practice of designing computer systems to achieve security goals.\"[50] These goals have overlap with the principles of \"security by design\" explored above, including to \"make initial compromise of the system difficult,\" and to \"limit the impact of any compromise.\"[50] In practice, the role of a security architect would be to ensure the structure of a system reinforces the security of the system, and that new changes are safe and meet the security requirements of the organisation.[51][52]\nSimilarly, Techopedia defines security architecture as \"a unified security design that addresses the necessities and potential risks involved in a certain scenario or environment. It also specifies when and where to apply security controls. The design process is generally reproducible.\" The key attributes of security architecture are:[53]\n\nthe relationship of different components and how they depend on each other.\ndetermination of controls based on risk assessment, good practices, finances, and legal matters.\nthe standardization of controls.\nPracticing security architecture provides the right foundation to systematically address business, IT and security concerns in an organization.\n\nSecurity measures \nA state of computer security is the conceptual ideal, attained by the use of the three processes: threat prevention, detection, and response. These processes are based on various policies and system components, which include the following:\n\nLimiting the access of individuals using user account access controls and using cryptography can protect systems files and data, respectively.\nFirewalls are by far the most common prevention systems from a network security perspective as they can (if properly configured) shield access to internal network services, and block certain kinds of attacks through packet filtering. Firewalls can be both hardware and software-based. Firewalls monitor and control incoming and outgoing traffic of a computer network and establish a barrier between a trusted network and an untrusted network.[54]\nIntrusion Detection System (IDS) products are designed to detect network attacks in-progress and assist in post-attack forensics, while audit trails and logs serve a similar function for individual systems.\nResponse is necessarily defined by the assessed security requirements of an individual system and may cover the range from simple upgrade of protections to notification of legal authorities, counter-attacks, and the like. In some special cases, the complete destruction of the compromised system is favored, as it may happen that not all the compromised resources are detected.\nCyber security awareness training to cope with cyber threats and attacks.[55]\nForward web proxy solutions can prevent the client to visit malicious web pages and inspect the content before downloading to the client machines.\nToday, computer security consists mainly of preventive measures, like firewalls or an exit procedure. A firewall can be defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or a network and another network, such as the Internet. They can be implemented as software running on the machine, hooking into the network stack (or, in the case of most UNIX-based operating systems such as Linux, built into the operating system kernel) to provide real-time filtering and blocking.[54] Another implementation is a so-called physical firewall, which consists of a separate machine filtering network traffic. Firewalls are common amongst machines that are permanently connected to the Internet.\nSome organizations are turning to big data platforms, such as Apache Hadoop, to extend data accessibility and machine learning to detect advanced persistent threats.[56]\nIn order to ensure adequate security, the confidentiality, integrity and availability of a network, better known as the CIA triad, must be protected and is considered the foundation to information security.[57] To achieve those objectives, administrative, physical and technical security measures should be employed. The amount of security afforded to an asset can only be determined when its value is known.[58]\n\nVulnerability management \nMain article: Vulnerability management\nVulnerability management is the cycle of identifying, fixing or mitigating vulnerabilities,[59] especially in software and firmware. Vulnerability management is integral to computer security and network security.\nVulnerabilities can be discovered with a vulnerability scanner, which analyzes a computer system in search of known vulnerabilities,[60] such as open ports, insecure software configuration, and susceptibility to malware. In order for these tools to be effective, they must be kept up to date with every new update the vendor release. Typically, these updates will scan for the new vulnerabilities that were introduced recently.\nBeyond vulnerability scanning, many organizations contract outside security auditors to run regular penetration tests against their systems to identify vulnerabilities. In some sectors, this is a contractual requirement.[61]\n\nReducing vulnerabilities \nThe act of assessing and reducing vulnerabilities to cyber attacks is commonly referred to as information technology security assessments. They aims to assess systems for risk and to predict and test for their vulnerabilities. While formal verification of the correctness of computer systems is possible,[62][63] it is not yet common. Operating systems formally verified include seL4,[64] and SYSGO's PikeOS[65][66] \u2013 but these make up a very small percentage of the market.\nIt is possible to reduce an attacker's chances by keeping systems up to date with security patches and updates and\/or hiring people with expertise in security. Large companies with significant threats can hire Security Operations Centre (SOC) Analysts. These are specialists in cyber defences, with their role ranging from \"conducting threat analysis to investigating reports of any new issues and preparing and testing disaster recovery plans.\"[67]\nWhilst no measures can completely guarantee the prevention of an attack, these measures can help mitigate the damage of possible attacks. The effects of data loss\/damage can be also reduced by careful backing up and insurance.\nOutside of formal assessments, there are various methods of reducing vulnerabilities. Two factor authentication is a method for mitigating unauthorized access to a system or sensitive information.[68] It requires something you know; a password or PIN, and something you have; a card, dongle, cellphone, or another piece of hardware. This increases security as an unauthorized person needs both of these to gain access.\nProtecting against social engineering and direct computer access (physical) attacks can only be occur by non-computer means, which can be difficult to enforce, relative to the sensitivity of the information. Training is often involved to help mitigate this risk by improving people's knowledge of how to protect themselves and by increasing people's awareness of threats.[69] However, even in highly disciplined environments (e.g. military organizations), social engineering attacks can still be difficult to foresee and prevent.\nInoculation, derived from inoculation theory, seeks to prevent social engineering and other fraudulent tricks or traps by instilling a resistance to persuasion attempts through exposure to similar or related attempts.[70]\n\nHardware protection mechanisms \nSee also: Computer security compromised by hardware failure\nHardware-based or assisted computer security also offers an alternative to software-only computer security. Using devices and methods such as dongles, trusted platform modules, intrusion-aware cases, drive locks, disabling USB ports, and mobile-enabled access may be considered more secure due to the physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access) required in order to be compromised. Each of these is covered in more detail below.\n\nUSB dongles are typically used in software licensing schemes to unlock software capabilities,[citation needed ] but they can also be seen as a way to prevent unauthorized access to a computer or other device's software. The dongle, or key, essentially creates a secure encrypted tunnel between the software application and the key. The principle is that an encryption scheme on the dongle, such as Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) provides a stronger measure of security since it is harder to hack and replicate the dongle than to simply copy the native software to another machine and use it. Another security application for dongles is to use them for accessing web-based content such as cloud software or Virtual Private Networks (VPNs).[71] In addition, a USB dongle can be configured to lock or unlock a computer.[72]\nTrusted platform modules (TPMs) secure devices by integrating cryptographic capabilities onto access devices, through the use of microprocessors, or so-called computers-on-a-chip. TPMs used in conjunction with server-side software offer a way to detect and authenticate hardware devices, preventing unauthorized network and data access.[73]\nComputer case intrusion detection refers to a device, typically a push-button switch, which detects when a computer case is opened. The firmware or BIOS is programmed to show an alert to the operator when the computer is booted up the next time.\nDrive locks are essentially software tools to encrypt hard drives, making them inaccessible to thieves.[74] Tools exist specifically for encrypting external drives as well.[75]\nDisabling USB ports is a security option for preventing unauthorized and malicious access to an otherwise secure computer. Infected USB dongles connected to a network from a computer inside the firewall are considered by the magazine Network World as the most common hardware threat facing computer networks.\nDisconnecting or disabling peripheral devices ( like camera, GPS, removable storage etc.), that are not in use.[76]\nMobile-enabled access devices are growing in popularity due to the ubiquitous nature of cell phones. Built-in capabilities such as Bluetooth, the newer Bluetooth low energy (LE), near-field communication (NFC) on non-iOS devices and biometric validation such as thumbprint readers, as well as QR code reader software designed for mobile devices, offer new, secure ways for mobile phones to connect to access control systems. These control systems provide computer security and can also be used for controlling access to secure buildings.[77]\nIOMMUs allow for hardware-based sandboxing of components in mobile and desktop computers by utilizing direct memory access protections.[78][79]\nPhysical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) can be used as a digital fingerprint or a unique identifier to integrated circuits and hardware, providing users the ability to secure the hardware supply chains going into their systems.[80][81]\nSecure operating systems \nMain article: Security-evaluated operating system\nOne use of the term computer security refers to technology that is used to implement secure operating systems. Using secure operating systems is a good way of ensuring computer security. These are systems that have achieved certification from an external security-auditing organization, the most popular evaluations are Common Criteria (CC).[82]\n\nSecure coding \nMain article: Secure coding\nIn software engineering, secure coding aims to guard against the accidental introduction of security vulnerabilities. It is also possible to create software designed from the ground up to be secure. Such systems are secure by design. Beyond this, formal verification aims to prove the correctness of the algorithms underlying a system;[83]\nimportant for cryptographic protocols for example.\n\nCapabilities and access control lists \nMain articles: Access control list, Role-based access control, and Capability-based security\nWithin computer systems, two of the main security models capable of enforcing privilege separation are access control lists (ACLs) and role-based access control (RBAC).\nAn access-control list (ACL), with respect to a computer file system, is a list of permissions associated with an object. An ACL specifies which users or system processes are granted access to objects, as well as what operations are allowed on given objects.\nRole-based access control is an approach to restricting system access to authorized users,[84][85][86] used by the majority of enterprises with more than 500 employees,[87] and can implement mandatory access control (MAC) or discretionary access control (DAC).\nA further approach, capability-based security has been mostly restricted to research operating systems. Capabilities can, however, also be implemented at the language level, leading to a style of programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented design. An open-source project in the area is the E language.\n\nUser security training \nThe end-user is widely recognized as the weakest link in the security chain[88] and it is estimated that more than 90% of security incidents and breaches involve some kind of human error.[89][90] Among the most commonly recorded forms of errors and misjudgment are poor password management, sending emails containing sensitive data and attachments to the wrong recipient, the inability to recognize misleading URLs and to identify fake websites and dangerous email attachments. A common mistake that users make is saving their user id\/password in their browsers to make it easier to log in to banking sites. This is a gift to attackers who have obtained access to a machine by some means. The risk may be mitigated by the use of two-factor authentication.[91]\nAs the human component of cyber risk is particularly relevant in determining the global cyber risk[92] an organization is facing, security awareness training, at all levels, not only provides formal compliance with regulatory and industry mandates but is considered essential[93] in reducing cyber risk and protecting individuals and companies from the great majority of cyber threats.\nThe focus on the end-user represents a profound cultural change for many security practitioners, who have traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively from a technical perspective, and moves along the lines suggested by major security centers[94] to develop a culture of cyber awareness within the organization, recognizing that a security-aware user provides an important line of defense against cyber attacks.\n\nDigital hygiene \nRelated to end-user training, digital hygiene or cyber hygiene is a fundamental principle relating to information security and, as the analogy with personal hygiene shows, is the equivalent of establishing simple routine measures to minimize the risks from cyber threats. The assumption is that good cyber hygiene practices can give networked users another layer of protection, reducing the risk that one vulnerable node will be used to either mount attacks or compromise another node or network, especially from common cyberattacks.[95] Cyber hygiene should also not be mistaken for proactive cyber defence, a military term.[96]\nThe most common acts of digital hygiene can include updating malware protection, cloud back-ups, passwords, and ensuring restricted admin rights and network firewalls.[97] As opposed to a purely technology-based defense against threats, cyber hygiene mostly regards routine measures that are technically simple to implement and mostly dependent on discipline[98] or education.[99] It can be thought of as an abstract list of tips or measures that have been demonstrated as having a positive effect on personal and\/or collective digital security. As such, these measures can be performed by laypeople, not just security experts.\nCyber hygiene relates to personal hygiene as computer viruses relate to biological viruses (or pathogens). However, while the term computer virus was coined almost simultaneously with the creation of the first working computer viruses,[100] the term cyber hygiene is a much later invention, perhaps as late as 2000[101] by Internet pioneer Vint Cerf. It has since been adopted by the Congress[102] and Senate of the United States,[103] the FBI,[104] EU institutions[95] and heads of state.[96]\n\nDifficulty of responding to breaches \nResponding to attempted security breaches is often very difficult for a variety of reasons, including:\n\nIdentifying attackers is difficult, as they may operate through proxies, temporary anonymous dial-up accounts, wireless connections, and other anonymizing procedures which make back-tracing difficult - and are often located in another jurisdiction. If they successfully breach security, they have also often gained enough administrative access to enable them to delete logs to cover their tracks.\nThe sheer number of attempted attacks, often by automated vulnerability scanners and computer worms, is so large that organizations cannot spend time pursuing each.\nLaw enforcement officers often lack the skills, interest or budget to pursue attackers. In addition, the identification of attackers across a network may require logs from various points in the network and in many countries, which may be difficult or time-consuming to obtain.\nWhere an attack succeeds and a breach occurs, many jurisdictions now have in place mandatory security breach notification laws.\n\nTypes of security and privacy \n\nAccess control\nAnti-keyloggers\nAnti-malware\nAnti-spyware\nAnti-subversion software\nAnti-tamper software\nAnti-theft\nAntivirus software\nCryptographic software\nComputer-aided dispatch (CAD)\nFirewall\nIntrusion detection system (IDS)\nIntrusion prevention system (IPS)\nLog management software\nParental control\nRecords management\nSandbox\nSecurity information management\nSecurity information and event management (SIEM)\nSoftware and operating system updating\nVulnerability Management\n\nSystems at risk \nThe growth in the number of computer systems and the increasing reliance upon them by individuals, businesses, industries, and governments means that there are an increasing number of systems at risk.\n\nFinancial systems \nThe computer systems of financial regulators and financial institutions like the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, SWIFT, investment banks, and commercial banks are prominent hacking targets for cybercriminals interested in manipulating markets and making illicit gains.[105] Websites and apps that accept or store credit card numbers, brokerage accounts, and bank account information are also prominent hacking targets, because of the potential for immediate financial gain from transferring money, making purchases, or selling the information on the black market.[106] In-store payment systems and ATMs have also been tampered with in order to gather customer account data and PINs.\nThe UCLA Internet Report: Surveying the Digital Future (2000) found that the privacy of personal data created barriers to online sales and that more than nine out of 10 internet users were somewhat or very concerned about credit card security.[107]\nThe most common web technologies for improving security between browsers and websites are named SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), and its successor TLS (Transport Layer Security), identity management and authentication services, and domain name services allow companies and consumers to engage in secure communications and commerce. Several versions of SSL and TLS are commonly used today in applications such as web browsing, e-mail, internet faxing, instant messaging, and VoIP (voice-over-IP). There are various interoperable implementations of these technologies, including at least one implementation that is open source. Open source allows anyone to view the application's source code, and look for and report vulnerabilities.\nThe credit card companies Visa and MasterCard cooperated to develop the secure EMV chip which is embedded in credit cards. Further developments include the Chip Authentication Program where banks give customers hand-held card readers to perform online secure transactions. Other developments in this arena include the development of technology such as Instant Issuance which has enabled shopping mall kiosks acting on behalf of banks to issue on-the-spot credit cards to interested customers.\n\nUtilities and industrial equipment \nComputers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of telecommunications, the power grid, nuclear power plants, and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks. The Internet is a potential attack vector for such machines if connected, but the Stuxnet worm demonstrated that even equipment controlled by computers not connected to the Internet can be vulnerable. In 2014, the Computer Emergency Readiness Team, a division of the Department of Homeland Security, investigated 79 hacking incidents at energy companies.[108]\n\nAviation \nThe aviation industry is very reliant on a series of complex systems which could be attacked.[109] A simple power outage at one airport can cause repercussions worldwide,[110] much of the system relies on radio transmissions which could be disrupted,[111] and controlling aircraft over oceans is especially dangerous because radar surveillance only extends 175 to 225 miles offshore.[112] There is also potential for attack from within an aircraft.[113]\nImplementing fixes in aerospace systems poses a unique challenge because efficient air transportation is heavily affected by weight and volume. Improving security by adding physical devices to airplanes could increase their unloaded weight, and could potentially reduce cargo or passenger capacity. [114]\nIn Europe, with the (Pan-European Network Service)[115] and NewPENS,[116] and in the US with the NextGen program,[117] air navigation service providers are moving to create their own dedicated networks.\nMany modern passports are now biometric passports, containing an embedded microchip that stores a digitized photograph and personal information such as name, gender, and date of birth. In addition, more countries[which? ] are introducing facial recognition technology to reduce identity-related fraud. The introduction of the ePassport has assisted border officials in verifying the identity of the passport holder, thus allowing for quick passenger processing.[118] Plans are under way in the US, the UK, and Australia to introduce SmartGate kiosks with both retina and fingerprint recognition technology.[119] The airline industry is moving from the use of traditional paper tickets towards the use of electronic tickets (e-tickets). These have been made possible by advances in online credit card transactions in partnership with the airlines. Long-distance bus companies[which? ] are also switching over to e-ticketing transactions today.\nThe consequences of a successful attack range from loss of confidentiality to loss of system integrity, air traffic control outages, loss of aircraft, and even loss of life.\n\nConsumer devices \nDesktop computers and laptops are commonly targeted to gather passwords or financial account information or to construct a botnet to attack another target. Smartphones, tablet computers, smart watches, and other mobile devices such as quantified self devices like activity trackers have sensors such as cameras, microphones, GPS receivers, compasses, and accelerometers which could be exploited, and may collect personal information, including sensitive health information. WiFi, Bluetooth, and cell phone networks on any of these devices could be used as attack vectors, and sensors might be remotely activated after a successful breach.[120]\nThe increasing number of home automation devices such as the Nest thermostat are also potential targets.[120]\n\nHealthcare \nToday many health-care providers and health insurance companies use the internet to provide enhanced products and services, for example through use of tele-health to potentially offer better quality and access to healthcare, or fitness trackers to lower insurance premiums.\nThe health care company Humana partners with WebMD, Oracle Corporation, EDS and Microsoft to enable its members to access their health care records, as well as to provide an overview of health care plans.[121] Patient records are increasingly being placed on secure in-house networks, alleviating the need for extra storage space.[122]\n\nLarge corporations \nLarge corporations are common targets. In many cases attacks are aimed at financial gain through identity theft and involve data breaches. Examples include the loss of millions of clients' credit card and financial details by Home Depot,[123] Staples,[124] Target Corporation,[125] and Equifax.[126]\nMedical records have been targeted in general identify theft, health insurance fraud, and impersonating patients to obtain prescription drugs for recreational purposes or resale.[127] Although cyber threats continue to increase, 62% of all organizations did not increase security training for their business in 2015.[128]\nNot all attacks are financially motivated, however: security firm HBGary Federal had a serious series of attacks in 2011 from hacktivist group Anonymous in retaliation for the firm's CEO claiming to have infiltrated their group,[129][130] and Sony Pictures was hacked in 2014 with the apparent dual motive of embarrassing the company through data leaks and crippling the company by wiping workstations and servers.[131][132]\n\nAutomobiles \nSee also: Autonomous car \u00a7&#160;Potential disadvantages, Automated driving system \u00a7&#160;Risks and liabilities, and Automotive hacking\nVehicles are increasingly computerized, with engine timing, cruise control, anti-lock brakes, seat belt tensioners, door locks, airbags and advanced driver-assistance systems on many models. Additionally, connected cars may use WiFi and Bluetooth to communicate with onboard consumer devices and the cell phone network.[133] Self-driving cars are expected to be even more complex. All of these systems carry some security risks, and such issues have gained wide attention.[134][135][136]\nSimple examples of risk include a malicious compact disc being used as an attack vector,[137] and the car's onboard microphones being used for eavesdropping. However, if access is gained to a car's internal controller area network, the danger is much greater[133] \u2013 and in a widely publicized 2015 test, hackers remotely carjacked a vehicle from 10 miles away and drove it into a ditch.[138][139]\nManufacturers are reacting in numerous ways, with Tesla in 2016 pushing out some security fixes over the air into its cars' computer systems.[140] In the area of autonomous vehicles, in September 2016 the United States Department of Transportation announced some initial safety standards, and called for states to come up with uniform policies.[141][142][143]\nAdditionally, e-Drivers' licenses are being developed using the same technology. For example, Mexico's licensing authority (ICV) has used a smart card platform to issue the first e-Drivers' licenses to the city of Monterrey, in the state of Nuevo Le\u00f3n.[144]\n\nShipping \nShipping companies[145] have adopted RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) technology as an efficient, digitally secure, tracking device. Unlike a barcode, RFID can be read up to 20 feet away. RFID is used by FedEx[146] and UPS.[147]\n\nGovernment \nGovernment and military computer systems are commonly attacked by activists[148][149][150] and foreign powers.[151][152][153][154] Local and regional government infrastructure such as traffic light controls, police and intelligence agency communications, personnel records, as well as student records.[155]\nThe FBI, CIA, and Pentagon, all utilize secure controlled access technology for any of their buildings. However, the use of this form of technology is spreading into the entrepreneurial world. More and more companies are taking advantage of the development of digitally secure controlled access technology. GE's ACUVision, for example, offers a single panel platform for access control, alarm monitoring and digital recording.[156]\n\nInternet of things and physical vulnerabilities \nThe Internet of things (IoT) is the network of physical objects such as devices, vehicles, and buildings that are embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and network connectivity that enables them to collect and exchange data.[157] Concerns have been raised that this is being developed without appropriate consideration of the security challenges involved.[158][159]\nWhile the IoT creates opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems,[160][161]\nit also provides opportunities for misuse. In particular, as the Internet of Things spreads widely, cyberattacks are likely to become an increasingly physical (rather than simply virtual) threat.[162] If a front door's lock is connected to the Internet, and can be locked\/unlocked from a phone, then a criminal could enter the home at the press of a button from a stolen or hacked phone. People could stand to lose much more than their credit card numbers in a world controlled by IoT-enabled devices. Thieves have also used electronic means to circumvent non-Internet-connected hotel door locks.[163]\n\nAn attack that targets physical infrastructure and\/or human lives is sometimes referred to as a cyber-kinetic attack. As IoT devices and appliances gain currency, cyber-kinetic attacks can become pervasive and significantly damaging.\n\nMedical systems \nSee also: Medical device hijack and Medical data breach\nMedical devices have either been successfully attacked or had potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated, including both in-hospital diagnostic equipment[164] and implanted devices including pacemakers[165] and insulin pumps.[166] There are many reports of hospitals and hospital organizations getting hacked, including ransomware attacks,[167][168][169][170] Windows XP exploits,[171][172] viruses,[173][174] and data breaches of sensitive data stored on hospital servers.[175][168][176][177] On 28 December 2016 the US Food and Drug Administration released its recommendations for how medical device manufacturers should maintain the security of Internet-connected devices \u2013 but no structure for enforcement.[178][179]\n\nEnergy sector \nIn distributed generation systems, the risk of a cyber attack is real, according to Daily Energy Insider. An attack could cause a loss of power in a large area for a long period of time, and such an attack could have just as severe consequences as a natural disaster. The District of Columbia is considering creating a Distributed Energy Resources (DER) Authority within the city, with the goal being for customers to have more insight into their own energy use and giving the local electric utility, Pepco, the chance to better estimate energy demand. The D.C. proposal, however, would \"allow third-party vendors to create numerous points of energy distribution, which could potentially create more opportunities for cyber attackers to threaten the electric grid.\"[180]\n\nTelecommunications \nPerhaps the most widely known digitally secure telecommunication device is the SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card, a device that is embedded in most of the world's cellular devices before any service can be obtained. The SIM card is just the beginning of this digitally secure environment.\nThe Smart Card Web Servers draft standard (SCWS) defines the interfaces to an HTTP server in a smart card.[181] Tests are being conducted to secure OTA (\"over-the-air\") payment and credit card information from and to a mobile phone. \nCombination SIM\/DVD devices are being developed through Smart Video Card technology which embeds a DVD-compliant optical disc into the card body of a regular SIM card.\n\nOther telecommunication developments involving digital security include mobile signatures, which use the embedded SIM card to generate a legally binding electronic signature.\n\nCost and impact of security breaches \nSerious financial damage has been caused by security breaches, but because there is no standard model for estimating the cost of an incident, the only data available is that which is made public by the organizations involved. \"Several computer security consulting firms produce estimates of total worldwide losses attributable to virus and worm attacks and to hostile digital acts in general. The 2003 loss estimates by these firms range from $13 billion (worms and viruses only) to $226 billion (for all forms of covert attacks). The reliability of these estimates is often challenged; the underlying methodology is basically anecdotal.\"[182]\nHowever, reasonable estimates of the financial cost of security breaches can actually help organizations make rational investment decisions. According to the classic Gordon-Loeb Model analyzing the optimal investment level in information security, one can conclude that the amount a firm spends to protect information should generally be only a small fraction of the expected loss (i.e., the expected value of the loss resulting from a cyber\/information security breach).[183]\n\nAttacker motivation \nAs with physical security, the motivations for breaches of computer security vary between attackers. Some are thrill-seekers or vandals, some are activists, others are criminals looking for financial gain. State-sponsored attackers are now common and well resourced but started with amateurs such as Markus Hess who hacked for the KGB, as recounted by Clifford Stoll in The Cuckoo's Egg.\nAttackers motivations can vary for all types of attacks from pleasure to for political goals.[15] For example, \"hacktivists\" may target a company a company or organisation that carries out activities they do not agree with. This would be to create bad publicity for the company by having its website crash.\nHigh capability hackers, often with larger backing or state sponsorship, may attack based on the demands of their financial backers. These attacks are more likely to attempt more serious attack. An example of a more serious attack was the 2015 Ukraine power grid hack, which reportedly utilised the spear-phising, destruction of files, and denial-of-service attacks to carry out the full attack.[184][185]\nAdditionally, recent attacker motivations can be traced back to extremist organizations seeking to gain political advantage or disrupt social agendas.[186] The growth of the internet, mobile technologies, and inexpensive computing devices have led to a rise in capabilities but also to the risk to environments that are deemed as vital to operations. All critical targeted environments are susceptible to compromise and this has led to a series of proactive studies on how to migrate the risk by taking into consideration motivations by these types of actors. Several stark differences exist between the hacker motivation and that of nation state actors seeking to attack based on an ideological preference.[187]\nA standard part of threat modeling for any particular system is to identify what might motivate an attack on that system, and who might be motivated to breach it. The level and detail of precautions will vary depending on the system to be secured. A home personal computer, bank, and classified military network face very different threats, even when the underlying technologies in use are similar.[188]\n\nComputer security incident management \nComputer security incident management is an organized approach to addressing and managing the aftermath of a computer security incident or compromise with the goal of preventing a breach or thwarting a cyberattack. An incident that is not identified and managed at the time of intrusion typically escalates to a more damaging event such as a data breach or system failure. The intended outcome of a computer security incident response plan is to contain the incident, limit damage and assist recovery to business as usual. Responding to compromises quickly can mitigate exploited vulnerabilities, restore services and processes and minimize losses.[189]\nIncident response planning allows an organization to establish a series of best practices to stop an intrusion before it causes damage. Typical incident response plans contain a set of written instructions that outline the organization's response to a cyberattack. Without a documented plan in place, an organization may not successfully detect an intrusion or compromise and stakeholders may not understand their roles, processes and procedures during an escalation, slowing the organization's response and resolution.\nThere are four key components of a computer security incident response plan:\n\nPreparation: Preparing stakeholders on the procedures for handling computer security incidents or compromises\nDetection and analysis: Identifying and investigating suspicious activity to confirm a security incident, prioritizing the response based on impact and coordinating notification of the incident\nContainment, eradication and recovery: Isolating affected systems to prevent escalation and limit impact, pinpointing the genesis of the incident, removing malware, affected systems and bad actors from the environment and restoring systems and data when a threat no longer remains\nPost incident activity: Post mortem analysis of the incident, its root cause and the organization's response with the intent of improving the incident response plan and future response efforts.[190]\nNotable attacks and breaches \nFurther information: List of cyber-attacks and List of data breaches\nSome illustrative examples of different types of computer security breaches are given below.\n\nRobert Morris and the first computer worm \nMain article: Morris worm\nIn 1988, 60,000 computers were connected to the Internet, and most were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations. On 2 November 1988, many started to slow down, because they were running a malicious code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers \u2013 the first internet computer worm.[191] The software was traced back to 23-year-old Cornell University graduate student Robert Tappan Morris who said \"he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet\".[191]\n\nRome Laboratory \nIn 1994, over a hundred intrusions were made by unidentified crackers into the Rome Laboratory, the US Air Force's main command and research facility. Using trojan horses, hackers were able to obtain unrestricted access to Rome's networking systems and remove traces of their activities. The intruders were able to obtain classified files, such as air tasking order systems data and furthermore able to penetrate connected networks of National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Goddard Space Flight Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, some Defense contractors, and other private sector organizations, by posing as a trusted Rome center user.[192]\n\nTJX customer credit card details \nIn early 2007, American apparel and home goods company TJX announced that it was the victim of an unauthorized computer systems intrusion[193] and that the hackers had accessed a system that stored data on credit card, debit card, check, and merchandise return transactions.[194]\n\nStuxnet attack \nIn 2010, the computer worm known as Stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one-fifth of Iran's nuclear centrifuges.[195] It did so by disrupting industrial programmable logic controllers (PLCs) in a targeted attack. This is generally believed to have been launched by Israel and the United States to disrupt Iran's nuclear program[196][197][198][199] \u2013 although neither has publicly admitted this.\n\nGlobal surveillance disclosures \nMain article: Global surveillance disclosures (2013\u2013present)\nIn early 2013, documents provided by Edward Snowden were published by The Washington Post and The Guardian[200][201] exposing the massive scale of NSA global surveillance. There were also indications that the NSA may have inserted a backdoor in a NIST standard for encryption.[202] This standard was later withdrawn due to widespread criticism.[203] The NSA additionally were revealed to have tapped the links between Google's data centers.[204]\n\nTarget and Home Depot breaches \nA Ukrainian hacker known as Rescator broke into Target Corporation computers in 2013, stealing roughly 40 million credit cards,[205] and then Home Depot computers in 2014, stealing between 53 and 56 million credit card numbers.[206] Warnings were delivered at both corporations, but ignored; physical security breaches using self checkout machines are believed to have played a large role. \"The malware utilized is absolutely unsophisticated and uninteresting,\" says Jim Walter, director of threat intelligence operations at security technology company McAfee \u2013 meaning that the heists could have easily been stopped by existing antivirus software had administrators responded to the warnings. The size of the thefts has resulted in major attention from state and Federal United States authorities and the investigation is ongoing.\n\nOffice of Personnel Management data breach \nIn April 2015, the Office of Personnel Management discovered it had been hacked more than a year earlier in a data breach, resulting in the theft of approximately 21.5&#160;million personnel records handled by the office.[207] The Office of Personnel Management hack has been described by federal officials as among the largest breaches of government data in the history of the United States.[208] Data targeted in the breach included personally identifiable information such as Social Security numbers, names, dates and places of birth, addresses, and fingerprints of current and former government employees as well as anyone who had undergone a government background check.[209][210] It is believed the hack was perpetrated by Chinese hackers.[211]\n\nAshley Madison breach \nMain article: Ashley Madison Data Breach\nIn July 2015, a hacker group is known as The Impact Team successfully breached the extramarital relationship website Ashley Madison, created by Avid Life Media. The group claimed that they had taken not only company data but user data as well. After the breach, The Impact Team dumped emails from the company's CEO, to prove their point, and threatened to dump customer data unless the website was taken down permanently.[212] When Avid Life Media did not take the site offline the group released two more compressed files, one 9.7GB and the second 20GB. After the second data dump, Avid Life Media CEO Noel Biderman resigned; but the website remained to function.\n\nColonial Pipeline ransomware attack \nMain article: Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack\nIn June 2021, the cyber attack took down the largest fuel pipeline in the U.S. and led to shortages across the East Coast.[213]\n\nLegal issues and global regulation \nInternational legal issues of cyber attacks are complicated in nature. There is no global base of common rules to judge, and eventually punish, cybercrimes and cybercriminals - and where security firms or agencies do locate the cybercriminal behind the creation of a particular piece of malware or form of cyber attack, often the local authorities cannot take action due to lack of laws under which to prosecute.[214][215] Proving attribution for cybercrimes and cyberattacks is also a major problem for all law enforcement agencies. \"Computer viruses switch from one country to another, from one jurisdiction to another \u2013 moving around the world, using the fact that we don't have the capability to globally police operations like this. So the Internet is as if someone [had] given free plane tickets to all the online criminals of the world.\"[214] The use of techniques such as dynamic DNS, fast flux and bullet proof servers add to the difficulty of investigation and enforcement.\n\nRole of government \nThe role of the government is to make regulations to force companies and organizations to protect their systems, infrastructure and information from any cyberattacks, but also to protect its own national infrastructure such as the national power-grid.[216]\nThe government's regulatory role in cyberspace is complicated. For some, cyberspace was seen as a virtual space that was to remain free of government intervention, as can be seen in many of today's libertarian blockchain and bitcoin discussions.[217]\nMany government officials and experts think that the government should do more and that there is a crucial need for improved regulation, mainly due to the failure of the private sector to solve efficiently the cybersecurity problem. R. Clarke said during a panel discussion at the RSA Security Conference in San Francisco, he believes that the \"industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If the industry doesn't respond (to the threat), you have to follow through.\"[218] On the other hand, executives from the private sector agree that improvements are necessary, but think that government intervention would affect their ability to innovate efficiently. Daniel R. McCarthy analyzed this public-private partnership in cybersecurity and reflected on the role of cybersecurity in the broader constitution of political order.[219]\nOn 22 May 2020, the UN Security Council held its second ever informal meeting on cybersecurity to focus on cyber challenges to international peace. According to UN Secretary-General Ant\u00f3nio Guterres, new technologies are too often used to violate rights.[220]\n\nInternational actions \nMany different teams and organizations exist, including:\n\nThe Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams (FIRST) is the global association of CSIRTs.[221] The US-CERT, AT&amp;T, Apple, Cisco, McAfee, Microsoft are all members of this international team.[222]\nThe Council of Europe helps protect societies worldwide from the threat of cybercrime through the Convention on Cybercrime.[223]\nThe purpose of the Messaging Anti-Abuse Working Group (MAAWG) is to bring the messaging industry together to work collaboratively and to successfully address the various forms of messaging abuse, such as spam, viruses, denial-of-service attacks and other messaging exploitations.[224] France Telecom, Facebook, AT&amp;T, Apple, Cisco, Sprint are some of the members of the MAAWG.[225]\nENISA&#160;: The European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA) is an agency of the European Union with the objective to improve network and information security in the European Union.\nEurope \nOn 14 April 2016, the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union adopted the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). The GDPR, which came into force on 25 May 2018, grants individuals within the European Union (EU) and the European Economic Area (EEA) the right to the protection of personal data. The regulation requires that any entity that processes personal data incorporate data protection by design and by default. It also requires that certain organizations appoint a Data Protection Officer (DPO).\n\nNational actions \nComputer emergency response teams \nMain article: Computer emergency response team\nMost countries have their own computer emergency response team to protect network security.\n\nCanada \nSince 2010, Canada has had a cybersecurity strategy.[226][227] This functions as a counterpart document to the National Strategy and Action Plan for Critical Infrastructure.[228] The strategy has three main pillars: securing government systems, securing vital private cyber systems, and helping Canadians to be secure online.[227][228] There is also a Cyber Incident Management Framework to provide a coordinated response in the event of a cyber incident.[229][230]\nThe Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre (CCIRC) is responsible for mitigating and responding to threats to Canada's critical infrastructure and cyber systems. It provides support to mitigate cyber threats, technical support to respond &amp; recover from targeted cyber attacks, and provides online tools for members of Canada's critical infrastructure sectors.[231] It posts regular cybersecurity bulletins[232] &amp; operates an online reporting tool where individuals and organizations can report a cyber incident.[233]\nTo inform the general public on how to protect themselves online, Public Safety Canada has partnered with STOP.THINK.CONNECT, a coalition of non-profit, private sector, and government organizations,[234] and launched the Cyber Security Cooperation Program.[235][236] They also run the GetCyberSafe portal for Canadian citizens, and Cyber Security Awareness Month during October.[237]\nPublic Safety Canada aims to begin an evaluation of Canada's cybersecurity strategy in early 2015.[228]\n\nAustralia \nAustralian federal government announced an $18.2 million investment to fortify the cybersecurity resilience of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and enhance their capabilities in responding to cyber threats. This financial backing is an integral component of the soon-to-be-unveiled 2023-2030 Australian Cyber Security Strategy, slated for release within the current week. A substantial allocation of $7.2 million is earmarked for the establishment of a voluntary cyber health check program, facilitating businesses in conducting a comprehensive and tailored self-assessment of their cybersecurity upskill.\nThis avant-garde health assessment serves as a diagnostic tool, enabling enterprises to ascertain the robustness of Australia's cyber security regulations. Furthermore, it affords them access to a repository of educational resources and materials, fostering the acquisition of skills necessary for an elevated cybersecurity posture. This groundbreaking initiative was jointly disclosed by Minister for Cyber Security Clare O'Neil and Minister for Small Business Julie Collins.\n[238]\n\n\nAmerica \nThe United States has its first fully formed cyber plan in 15 years, as a result of the release of this National Cyber plan.[239] In this policy, the US says it will: Protect the country by keeping networks, systems, functions, and data safe; Promote American wealth by building a strong digital economy and encouraging strong domestic innovation; Peace and safety should be kept by making it easier for the US to stop people from using computer tools for bad things, working with friends and partners to do this; and Increase the United States' impact around the world to support the main ideas behind an open, safe, reliable, and compatible Internet.[240] The new U.S. cyber strategy[241] seeks to allay some of those concerns by promoting responsible behavior in cyberspace, urging nations to adhere to a set of norms, both through international law and voluntary standards. It also calls for specific measures to harden U.S. government networks from attacks, like the June 2015 intrusion into the U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM), which compromised the records of about 4.2 million current and former government employees. And the strategy calls for the U.S. to continue to name and shame bad cyber actors, calling them out publicly for attacks when possible, along with the use of economic sanctions and diplomatic pressure.[242]\n\nIndia \nSome provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000.[243]\nThe National Cyber Security Policy 2013 is a policy framework by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) which aims to protect the public and private infrastructure from cyberattacks, and safeguard \"information, such as personal information (of web users), financial and banking information and sovereign data\". CERT- In is the nodal agency which monitors the cyber threats in the country. The post of National Cyber Security Coordinator has also been created in the Prime Minister's Office (PMO).\nThe Indian Companies Act 2013 has also introduced cyber law and cybersecurity obligations on the part of Indian directors. Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000 Update in 2013.[244]\n\nSouth Korea \nFollowing cyberattacks in the first half of 2013, when the government, news media, television stations, and bank websites were compromised, the national government committed to the training of 5,000 new cybersecurity experts by 2017. The South Korean government blamed its northern counterpart for these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in 2009, 2011,[245] and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the accusations.[246]\n\nUnited States \nLegislation \nThe 1986 18&#160;U.S.C.&#160;\u00a7&#160;1030, the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act is the key legislation. It prohibits unauthorized access or damage of protected computers as defined in 18 U.S.C.&#160;\u00a7&#160;1030(e)(2) . Although various other measures have been proposed[247][248] \u2013 none has succeeded.\nIn 2013, executive order 13636 Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity was signed, which prompted the creation of the NIST Cybersecurity Framework.\nIn response to the Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack[249] President Joe Biden signed Executive Order 14028[250] on May 12, 2021, to increase software security standards for sales to the government, tighten detection and security on existing systems, improve information sharing and training, establish a Cyber Safety Review Board, and improve incident response.\n\nStandardized government testing services \nThe General Services Administration (GSA) has[when? ] standardized the penetration test service as a pre-vetted support service, to rapidly address potential vulnerabilities, and stop adversaries before they impact US federal, state and local governments. These services are commonly referred to as Highly Adaptive Cybersecurity Services (HACS).\n\nFurther information: Penetration test \u00a7&#160;Standardized government penetration test services\nAgencies \nThe Department of Homeland Security has a dedicated division responsible for the response system, risk management program and requirements for cybersecurity in the United States called the National Cyber Security Division.[251][252] The division is home to US-CERT operations and the National Cyber Alert System.[252] The National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center brings together government organizations responsible for protecting computer networks and networked infrastructure.[253]\nThe third priority of the FBI is to: \"Protect the United States against cyber-based attacks and high-technology crimes\",[254] and they, along with the National White Collar Crime Center (NW3C), and the Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) are part of the multi-agency task force, The Internet Crime Complaint Center, also known as IC3.[255]\nIn addition to its own specific duties, the FBI participates alongside non-profit organizations such as InfraGard.[256][257]\nThe Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section (CCIPS) operates in the United States Department of Justice Criminal Division. The CCIPS is in charge of investigating computer crime and intellectual property crime and is specialized in the search and seizure of digital evidence in computers and networks.[258] In 2017, CCIPS published A Framework for a Vulnerability Disclosure Program for Online Systems to help organizations \"clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure and discovery conduct, thereby substantially reducing the likelihood that such described activities will result in a civil or criminal violation of law under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (18 U.S.C. \u00a7 1030).\"[259]\nThe United States Cyber Command, also known as USCYBERCOM, \"has the mission to direct, synchronize, and coordinate cyberspace planning and operations to defend and advance national interests in collaboration with domestic and international partners.\"[260] It has no role in the protection of civilian networks.[261][262]\nThe U.S. Federal Communications Commission's role in cybersecurity is to strengthen the protection of critical communications infrastructure, to assist in maintaining the reliability of networks during disasters, to aid in swift recovery after, and to ensure that first responders have access to effective communications services.[263]\nThe Food and Drug Administration has issued guidance for medical devices,[264] and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration[265] is concerned with automotive cybersecurity. After being criticized by the Government Accountability Office,[266] and following successful attacks on airports and claimed attacks on airplanes, the Federal Aviation Administration has devoted funding to securing systems on board the planes of private manufacturers, and the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System.[267] Concerns have also been raised about the future Next Generation Air Transportation System.[268]\nThe US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in information assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information Technology (IT) certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network infrastructure defense have minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA). Andersson and Reimers (2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's A+ and Security+ through the ICS2.org's CISSP, etc.[269]\n\nComputer emergency readiness team \nComputer emergency response team is a name given to expert groups that handle computer security incidents. In the US, two distinct organizations exist, although they do work closely together.\n\nUS-CERT: part of the National Cyber Security Division of the United States Department of Homeland Security.[270]\nCERT\/CC: created by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and run by the Software Engineering Institute (SEI).\n U.S. NRC, 10 CFR 73.54 Cybersecurity \nIn the context of U.S. nuclear power plants, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) outlines cybersecurity requirements under 10 CFR Part 73, specifically in \u00a773.54.[271]\n\nNEI 08-09: Cybersecurity Plan for Nuclear Power Plants \nThe Nuclear Energy Institute's NEI 08-09 document, Cyber Security Plan for Nuclear Power Reactors,[272] outlines a comprehensive framework for cybersecurity in the nuclear power industry. Drafted with input from the U.S. NRC , this guideline is instrumental in aiding licensees to comply with the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) , which mandates robust protection of digital computers and equipment and communications systems at nuclear power plants against cyber threats.[273]\n\nModern warfare \nMain article: Cyberwarfare\nThere is growing concern that cyberspace will become the next theater of warfare. As Mark Clayton from The Christian Science Monitor wrote in a 2015 article titled \"The New Cyber Arms Race\":\n\nIn the future, wars will not just be fought by soldiers with guns or with planes that drop bombs. They will also be fought with the click of a mouse a half a world away that unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs that disrupt or destroy critical industries like utilities, transportation, communications, and energy. Such attacks could also disable military networks that control the movement of troops, the path of jet fighters, the command and control of warships.[274]\nThis has led to new terms such as cyberwarfare and cyberterrorism. The United States Cyber Command was created in 2009[275] and many other countries have similar forces.\nThere are a few critical voices that question whether cybersecurity is as significant a threat as it is made out to be.[276][277][278]\n\nCareers \nCybersecurity is a fast-growing field of IT concerned with reducing organizations' risk of hack or data breaches.[279] According to research from the Enterprise Strategy Group, 46% of organizations say that they have a \"problematic shortage\" of cybersecurity skills in 2016, up from 28% in 2015.[280] Commercial, government and non-governmental organizations all employ cybersecurity professionals. The fastest increases in demand for cybersecurity workers are in industries managing increasing volumes of consumer data such as finance, health care, and retail.[281] However, the use of the term cybersecurity is more prevalent in government job descriptions.[282]\nTypical cybersecurity job titles and descriptions include:[283]\n\nSecurity analyst \nAnalyzes and assesses vulnerabilities in the infrastructure (software, hardware, networks), investigates using available tools and countermeasures to remedy the detected vulnerabilities and recommends solutions and best practices. Analyzes and assesses damage to the data\/infrastructure as a result of security incidents, examines available recovery tools and processes, and recommends solutions. Tests for compliance with security policies and procedures. May assist in the creation, implementation, or management of security solutions.\nSecurity engineer \nPerforms security monitoring, security and data\/logs analysis, and forensic analysis, to detect security incidents, and mount the incident response. Investigates and utilizes new technologies and processes to enhance security capabilities and implement improvements. May also review code or perform other security engineering methodologies.\nSecurity architect \nDesigns a security system or major components of a security system, and may head a security design team building a new security system.[284]\n Chief Information Security Officer (CISO) \nA high-level management position responsible for the entire information security division\/staff. The position may include hands-on technical work.[285]\n Chief Security Officer (CSO) \nA high-level management position responsible for the entire security division\/staff. A newer position is now deemed needed as security risks grow.\n Data Protection Officer (DPO) \nA DPO is tasked with monitoring compliance with the UK GDPR and other data protection laws, our data protection policies, awareness-raising, training, and audits.[286]\n Security Consultant\/Specialist\/Intelligence \nBroad titles that encompass any one or all of the other roles or titles tasked with protecting computers, networks, software, data or information systems against viruses, worms, spyware, malware, intrusion detection, unauthorized access, denial-of-service attacks, and an ever-increasing list of attacks by hackers acting as individuals or as part of organized crime or foreign governments.\nStudent programs are also available for people interested in beginning a career in cybersecurity.[287][288] Meanwhile, a flexible and effective option for information security professionals of all experience levels to keep studying is online security training, including webcasts.[289][290] A wide range of certified courses are also available.[291]\nIn the United Kingdom, a nationwide set of cybersecurity forums, known as the U.K Cyber Security Forum, were established supported by the Government's cybersecurity strategy[292] in order to encourage start-ups and innovation and to address the skills gap[293] identified by the U.K Government.\nIn Singapore, the Cyber Security Agency has issued a Singapore Operational Technology (OT) Cybersecurity Competency Framework (OTCCF). The framework defines emerging cybersecurity roles in Operational Technology. The OTCCF was endorsed by the Infocomm Media Development Authority (IMDA). It outlines the different OT cybersecurity job positions as well as the technical skills and core competencies necessary. It also depicts the many career paths available, including vertical and lateral advancement opportunities.[294]\n\nTerminology \nThe following terms used with regards to computer security are explained below:\n\nAccess authorization restricts access to a computer to a group of users through the use of authentication systems. These systems can protect either the whole computer, such as through an interactive login screen, or individual services, such as a FTP server. There are many methods for identifying and authenticating users, such as passwords, identification cards, smart cards, and biometric systems.\nAnti-virus software consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, thwart, and eliminate computer viruses and other malicious software (malware).\nApplications are executable code, so general corporate practice is to restrict or block users the power to install them; to install them only when there is a demonstrated need (e.g. software needed to perform assignments); to install only those which are known to be reputable (preferably with access to the computer code used to create the application,- and to reduce the attack surface by installing as few as possible. They are typically run with least privilege, with a robust process in place to identify, test and install any released security patches or updates for them.\nFor example, programs can be installed into an individual user's account, which limits the program's potential access, as well as being a means control which users have specific exceptions to policy. In Linux], FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and other Unix-like operating systems there is an option to further restrict an application using chroot or other means of restricting the application to its own 'sandbox'. For example. Linux provides namespaces, and Cgroups to further restrict the access of an application to system resources.\nGeneralized security frameworks such as SELinux or AppArmor help administrators control access.\nJava and other languages which compile to Java byte code and run in the Java virtual machine can have their access to other applications controlled at the virtual machine level.\nSome software can be run in software containers which can even provide their own set of system libraries, limiting the software's, or anyone controlling it, access to the server's versions of the libraries.\nAuthentication techniques can be used to ensure that communication end-points are who they say they are.\nAutomated theorem proving and other verification tools can be used to enable critical algorithms and code used in secure systems to be mathematically proven to meet their specifications.\nBackups are one or more copies kept of important computer files. Typically, multiple copies will be kept at different locations so that if a copy is stolen or damaged, other copies will still exist.\nCapability and access control list techniques can be used to ensure privilege separation and mandatory access control. Capabilities vs. ACLs discusses their use.\nChain of trust techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all software loaded has been certified as authentic by the system's designers.\nConfidentiality is the nondisclosure of information except to another authorized person.[295]\nCryptographic techniques can be used to defend data in transit between systems, reducing the probability that the data exchange between systems can be intercepted or modified.\nCyberwarfare is an Internet-based conflict that involves politically motivated attacks on information and information systems. Such attacks can, for example, disable official websites and networks, disrupt or disable essential services, steal or alter classified data, and cripple financial systems.\nData integrity is the accuracy and consistency of stored data, indicated by an absence of any alteration in data between two updates of a data record.[296]\nCryptographic techniques involve transforming information, scrambling it, so it becomes unreadable during transmission. The intended recipient can unscramble the message; ideally, eavesdroppers cannot.\n\nEncryption is used to protect the confidentiality of a message. Cryptographically secure ciphers are designed to make any practical attempt of breaking them infeasible. Symmetric-key ciphers are suitable for bulk encryption using shared keys, and public-key encryption using digital certificates can provide a practical solution for the problem of securely communicating when no key is shared in advance.\nEndpoint security software aids networks in preventing malware infection and data theft at network entry points made vulnerable by the prevalence of potentially infected devices such as laptops, mobile devices, and USB drives.[297]\nFirewalls serve as a gatekeeper system between networks, allowing only traffic that matches defined rules. They often include detailed logging, and may include intrusion detection and intrusion prevention features. They are near-universal between company local area networks and the Internet, but can also be used internally to impose traffic rules between networks if network segmentation is configured.\nA hacker is someone who seeks to breach defenses and exploit weaknesses in a computer system or network.\nHoney pots are computers that are intentionally left vulnerable to attack by crackers. They can be used to catch crackers and to identify their techniques.\nIntrusion-detection systems are devices or software applications that monitor networks or systems for malicious activity or policy violations.\nA microkernel is an approach to operating system design which has only the near-minimum amount of code running at the most privileged level \u2013 and runs other elements of the operating system such as device drivers, protocol stacks and file systems, in the safer, less privileged user space.\nPinging. The standard ping application can be used to test if an IP address is in use. If it is, attackers may then try a port scan to detect which services are exposed.\nA port scan is used to probe an IP address for open ports to identify accessible network services and applications.\nA key logger is spyware that silently captures and stores each keystroke that a user types on the computer's keyboard.\nSocial engineering is the use of deception to manipulate individuals to breach security.\nLogic bombs is a type of malware added to a legitimate program that lies dormant until it is triggered by a specific event.\nZero trust security means that no one is trusted by default from inside or outside the network, and verification is required from everyone trying to gain access to resources on the network.\nHistory \nSince the Internet's arrival and with the digital transformation initiated in recent years, the notion of cybersecurity has become a familiar subject in both our professional and personal lives. Cybersecurity and cyber threats have been consistently present for the last 60 years of technological change. In the 1970s and 1980s, computer security was mainly limited to academia until the conception of the Internet, where, with increased connectivity, computer viruses and network intrusions began to take off. After the spread of viruses in the 1990s, the 2000s marked the institutionalization of organized attacks such as distributed denial of service.[298] This led to the formalization of cybersecurity as a professional discipline.[299]\nThe April 1967 session organized by Willis Ware at the Spring Joint Computer Conference, and the later publication of the Ware Report, were foundational moments in the history of the field of computer security.[300] Ware's work straddled the intersection of material, cultural, political, and social concerns.[300]\nA 1977 NIST publication[301] introduced the CIA triad of confidentiality, integrity, and availability as a clear and simple way to describe key security goals.[302] While still relevant, many more elaborate frameworks have since been proposed.[303][304]\nHowever, in the 1970s and 1980s, there were no grave computer threats because computers and the internet were still developing, and security threats were easily identifiable. More often, threats came from malicious insiders who gained unauthorized access to sensitive documents and files. Although malware and network breaches existed during the early years, they did not use them for financial gain. By the second half of the 1970s, established computer firms like IBM started offering commercial access control systems and computer security software products.[305]\nOne of the earliest examples of an attack on a computer network was the computer worm Creeper written by Bob Thomas at BBN, which propagated through the ARPANET in 1971.[citation needed ] The program was purely experimental in nature and carried no malicious payload. A later program, Reaper, was created by Ray Tomlinson in 1972 and used to destroy Creeper.[citation needed ]\nBetween September 1986 and June 1987, a group of German hackers performed the first documented case of cyber espionage.[citation needed ] The group hacked into American defense contractors, universities, and military base networks and sold gathered information to the Soviet KGB. The group was led by Markus Hess, who was arrested on 29 June 1987. He was convicted of espionage (along with two co-conspirators) on 15 Feb 1990.\nIn 1988, one of the first computer worms, called the Morris worm, was distributed via the Internet. It gained significant mainstream media attention.[citation needed ]\nIn 1993, Netscape started developing the protocol SSL, shortly after the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) launched Mosaic 1.0, the first web browser, in 1993.[citation needed ] Netscape had SSL version 1.0 ready in 1994, but it was never released to the public due to many serious security vulnerabilities. These weaknesses included replay attacks and a vulnerability that allowed hackers to alter unencrypted communications sent by users. However, in February 1995, Netscape launched Version 2.0.[306]\nThe National Security Agency (NSA) is responsible for the protection of U.S. information systems and also for collecting foreign intelligence.[307] The agency analyzes commonly used software and system configurations to find security flaws, which it can use for offensive purposes against competitors of the United States.[308]\nNSA contractors created and sold click-and-shoot attack tools to US agencies and close allies, but eventually, the tools made their way to foreign adversaries.[citation needed ] In 2016, NSAs own hacking tools were hacked, and they have been used by Russia and North Korea.[citation needed ] NSA's employees and contractors have been recruited at high salaries by adversaries, anxious to compete in cyberwarfare.[citation needed ] In 2007, the United States and Israel began exploiting security flaws in the Microsoft Windows operating system to attack and damage equipment used in Iran to refine nuclear materials. Iran responded by heavily investing in their own cyberwarfare capability, which it began using against the United States.[308]\n\nNotable scholars \n\nRoss J. Anderson\nAnnie Anton\nAdam Back\nDaniel J. Bernstein\nMatt Blaze\nStefan Brands\nL. Jean Camp\nLorrie Cranor\nDorothy E. Denning\nPeter J. Denning\nCynthia Dwork\nChuck Easttom\nDeborah Estrin\nJoan Feigenbaum\nIan Goldberg\nShafi Goldwasser\nLawrence A. Gordon\nPeter Gutmann\nPaul Kocher\nMonica S. Lam\nButler Lampson\nBrian LaMacchia\nSusan Landau\nCarl Landwehr\nKevin Mitnick\nPeter G. Neumann\nSusan Nycum\nPaul C. van Oorschot\nRoger R. Schell\nBruce Schneier\nDawn Song\nGene Spafford\nSalvatore J. Stolfo\nWillis Ware\nMoti Yung\nSee also \n\nAttack tree&#160;\u2013 Conceptual diagrams showing how an asset, or target, might be attacked\nBicycle attack&#160;\u2013 Method of discovering password length\nCAPTCHA&#160;\u2013 Test to determine whether a user is human\nCenter for Internet Security&#160;\u2013 Nonprofit organization focused on cybersecurity\nCloud computing security&#160;\u2013 Methods used to protect cloud based assets\nComparison of antivirus software\nContent Disarm &amp; Reconstruction&#160;\u2013 Policy-based removal of components\nContent Security Policy&#160;\u2013 Computer security standard to prevent cross-site scripting and related attacks\nCountermeasure (computer)&#160;\u2013 Process to reduce a security threat\nCyber insurance&#160;\u2013 Information technology risk insurance\nCyber self-defense&#160;\u2013 Self-defense against cyberattack\nCyberbiosecurity&#160;\u2013 Emerging field of computer security\nCybersecurity information technology list\nDancing pigs&#160;\u2013 Users' disregard for IT security\nData security&#160;\u2013 Protection of digital data\nDefense strategy (computing)&#160;\u2013 Concept to reduce computer security risks\nFault tolerance&#160;\u2013 Resilience of systems to component failures or errors\nHardware security&#160;\u2013 Security architecture implemented in hardware\nHuman\u2013computer interaction (security)&#160;\u2013 Academic discipline studying the relationship between computer systems and their usersPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nIdentity management&#160;\u2013 Technical and Policy systems to give users appropriate access\nIdentity-based security&#160;\u2013 Access control by authenticated ID\nInformation security awareness&#160;\u2013 part of information security that focuses on raising consciousness regarding potential risks of the rapidly evolving forms of information and the accompanying threatsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback \nInternet privacy&#160;\u2013 Right or mandate of personal privacy concerning the internet\nInternet safety&#160;\u2013 Being aware of safety and security risks on the Internet\nInternet security&#160;\u2013 Branch of computer security\nIT risk&#160;\u2013 Any risk related to information technology\nIT security standards&#160;\u2013 Technology standards and techniquesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets \nKill chain&#160;\u2013 Military concept for attack sequence\nList of computer security certifications\nList of cyber warfare forces\nOpen security&#160;\u2013 Open source approach to computer security\nOutline of computer security&#160;\u2013 Overview of and topical guide to computer security\nOWASP&#160;\u2013 Computer security organization\nPhysical information security&#160;\u2013 Common ground of physical and information security\nPrivacy software&#160;\u2013 Layer to protect users' privacy\nSecurity through obscurity&#160;\u2013 Reliance on design or implementation secrecy for security\nSeparation of protection and security&#160;\u2013 Mechanism v. policy design choice\nSoftware-defined perimeter&#160;\u2013 Approach to computer security from the US Defense Information Systems Agency\nReferences \n\n\n^ Schatz, Daniel; Bashroush, Rabih; Wall, Julie (2017). \"Towards a More Representative Definition of Cyber Security\". 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Retrieved 16 January 2021 . \n\n^ Perrin, Chad (30 June 2008). \"The CIA Triad\". techrepublic.com. Retrieved 31 May 2012 . \n\n^ Stoneburner, G.; Hayden, C.; Feringa, A. (2004). Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security (PDF) (Report). csrc.nist.gov. doi:10.6028\/NIST.SP.800-27rA. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 October 2004. Note: this document has been superseded by later versions. \n\n^ Yost, Jeffrey R. (April 2015). \"The Origin and Early History of the Computer Security Software Products Industry\". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 37 (2): 46\u201358. doi:10.1109\/MAHC.2015.21. ISSN&#160;1934-1547. S2CID&#160;18929482. \n\n^ \"Web Design Museum - Netscape Navigator 2.0\". Retrieved 4 December 2023 . \n\n^ Nakashima, Ellen (26 January 2008). \"Bush Order Expands Network Monitoring: Intelligence Agencies to Track Intrusions\". The Washington Post. Retrieved 8 February 2021 . \n\n^ a b Nicole Perlroth (7 February 2021). \"How the U.S. Lost to Hackers\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021 . \n\n\nFurther reading \nLibrary resources about \r\n Computer security \nResources in your library\nResources in other libraries\n\nBranch, Jordan (24 September 2020). \"What's in a Name? Metaphors and Cybersecurity\". International Organization. Cambridge University Press (CUP). 75 (1): 39\u201370. doi:10.1017\/s002081832000051x. ISSN&#160;0020-8183. S2CID&#160;224886794. \nCostigan, Sean; Hennessy, Michael (2016). Cybersecurity: A Generic Reference Curriculum (PDF) . NATO. ISBN&#160;978-9284501960. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 March 2017. \nFuller, Christopher J (11 June 2018). \"The Roots of the United States' Cyber (In)Security\" (DOC) . Diplomatic History. Oxford University Press (OUP). 43 (1): 157\u2013185. doi:10.1093\/dh\/dhy038. ISSN&#160;0145-2096. \nBob, Yonah Jeremy (21 August 2021). \"Ex-IDF cyber intel. official reveals secrets behind cyber offense\". The Jerusalem Post. \nKim, Peter (2014). The Hacker Playbook: Practical Guide To Penetration Testing. Seattle: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN&#160;978-1494932633. \nLee, Newton (2015). Counterterrorism and Cybersecurity: Total Information Awareness (2nd&#160;ed.). Springer. ISBN&#160;978-3319172439. \nMontagnani, Maria Lill\u00e0; Cavallo, Mirta Antonella (2018). \"Cybersecurity and Liability in a Big Data World\". Market and Competition Law Review. Elsevier BV. 2 (2): 71\u201398. doi:10.2139\/ssrn.3220475. ISSN&#160;1556-5068. S2CID&#160;216704215. SSRN&#160;3220475. \nShariati, Marzieh; Bahmani, Faezeh; Shams, Fereidoon (2011). \"Enterprise information security, a review of architectures and frameworks from interoperability perspective\". Procedia Computer Science. Elsevier BV. 3: 537\u2013543. doi:10.1016\/j.procs.2010.12.089 . ISSN&#160;1877-0509. \nSinger, P. W.; Friedman, Allan (2014). Cybersecurity and Cyberwar: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press. ISBN&#160;978-0199918119. \nWu, Chwan-Hwa (John); Irwin, J. David (2013). Introduction to Computer Networks and Cybersecurity. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN&#160;978-1466572133. \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Computer security .\n\nvteInformation securityRelated security categories\nComputer security\nAutomotive security\nCybercrime\nCybersex trafficking\nComputer fraud\nCybergeddon\nCyberterrorism\nCyberwarfare\nElectronic warfare\nInformation warfare\nInternet security\nMobile security\nNetwork security\nCopy protection\nDigital rights management\nvectorial versionThreats\nAdware\nAdvanced persistent threat\nArbitrary code execution\nBackdoors\nHardware backdoors\nCode injection\nCrimeware\nCross-site scripting\nCross-site leaks\nDOM clobbering\nHistory sniffing\nCryptojacking malware\nBotnets\nData breach\nDrive-by download\nBrowser helper objects\nViruses\nData scraping\nDenial of service\nEavesdropping\nEmail fraud\nEmail spoofing\nExploits\nHacktivism\nKeyloggers\nLogic bombs\nTime bombs\nFork bombs\nZip bombs\nFraudulent dialers\nMalware\nPayload\nPhishing\nPolymorphic engine\nPrivilege 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pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 21 June 2016, at 21:13.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 15,054 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","6679e77e1dd923e89b04f0e19ea06240_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Computer_security rootpage-Computer_security skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Computer security<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Protection of computer systems from information disclosure, theft or damage<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of a series on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_hacker\" title=\"Security hacker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdfe421068ad083a75ed9384d2b204bc\">Computer hacking<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_security_hacking_incidents\" title=\"List of security hacking incidents\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc59da2152addb28c377c7f4c8b3db29\">History<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phreaking\" title=\"Phreaking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92db1548916d139cd95d1dc06b10d85f\">Phreaking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptovirology\" title=\"Cryptovirology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a568bcaad176e42341a3eab6bd2cef1\">Cryptovirology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacking_of_consumer_electronics\" title=\"Hacking of consumer electronics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de6cd07472d0e7a4f60705739677d41\">Hacking of consumer electronics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_hackers\" title=\"List of hackers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d644e723046137b752b2b8f9b736800\">List of hackers<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacker_culture\" title=\"Hacker culture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6b696ed15e00d031ccd7e0400879133\">Hacker culture<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacker_ethic\" title=\"Hacker ethic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bc0285ce46b28f11de711478d7edc5b\">ethic<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hackathon\" title=\"Hackathon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1707e16b06b24311235710e40c86411\">Hackathon<\/a><\/li>\n<li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacker_Manifesto\" title=\"Hacker Manifesto\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b2ae738e3aac19e26ba21ea10e9b816\">Hacker Manifesto<\/a><\/i><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hackerspace\" title=\"Hackerspace\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54f3f6a835054d5d27f601b9d44b70be\">Hackerspace<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacktivism\" title=\"Hacktivism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88206f4895d4ab09a7862e0746de37f7\">Hacktivism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maker_culture\" title=\"Maker culture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d088a1174a5d7168d1c698cb1b845f4a\">Maker culture<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacker\" title=\"Hacker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cba04173cfc5578ce8e60371390b450\">hackers<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black_hat_(computer_security)\" title=\"Black hat (computer security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f5c8361d39033744cf70502b243f372\">Black hat<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grey_hat\" title=\"Grey hat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d43fb0d14e9df1df5960f3e48034e2f4\">Grey hat<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/White_hat_(computer_security)\" title=\"White hat (computer security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7dec2384575d67f976f00df607f0bbb\">White hat<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security_conference\" title=\"Computer security conference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"328ac54d6de91c25877730c63d4d57df\">Conferences<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black_Hat_Briefings\" title=\"Black Hat Briefings\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a8f0d795e8ce9f5ef0aad7f574d6887\">Black Hat Briefings<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chaos_Communication_Congress\" title=\"Chaos Communication Congress\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab16b00ec9d83c133f0f449219469905\">Chaos Communication Congress<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DEF_CON\" title=\"DEF CON\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb561a4ba4f97b08f5fa203317308539\">DEF CON<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hackers_on_Planet_Earth\" title=\"Hackers on Planet Earth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f10fe76718cb525f5069bf294ae3c77\">Hackers on Planet Earth<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_BSides\" title=\"Security BSides\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a527d9a039dce0a69c2c40d85b08f27\">Security BSides<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ShmooCon\" title=\"ShmooCon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acf0ddbf849f42aab493b5e629044443\">ShmooCon<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Summercon\" title=\"Summercon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d26b96985e1b26ed33a0911941b19181\">Summercon<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_crime\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer crime\" data-key=\"a9ca9f69c950f71afe46a48164866a29\">Computer crime<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crimeware\" title=\"Crimeware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dbdc345fe278d93e27fecc7166aec58\">Crimeware<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_computer_criminals\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"List of computer criminals\" data-key=\"b31a1286e727f822bb3f5ddbaf6259f4\">List of computer criminals<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Script_kiddie\" title=\"Script kiddie\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e08bc29f8894a890580ca8a3af78a327\">Script kiddie<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacking_tool\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hacking tool\" data-key=\"7fc80ec75121153cbdbdccace7d5a8d2\">Hacking tools<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploit_(computer_security)\" title=\"Exploit (computer security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f4ac5071aa2dbae29311466c786264c\">Exploit<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_digital_forensics_tools#Forensics-focused_operating_systems\" title=\"List of digital forensics tools\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3688196f85645b341527cce6155607dc\">forensics-focused operating systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Payload_(computing)\" title=\"Payload (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d7df51d39057c17d3d077728df7ba70\">Payload<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_engineering_(security)\" title=\"Social engineering (security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18c53a8e46796d2a2daa3a1642612677\">Social engineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_(computing)\" title=\"Vulnerability (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba3eca3995690776a2ec5d3a458bb68e\">Vulnerability<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacker_culture\" title=\"Hacker culture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6b696ed15e00d031ccd7e0400879133\">Practice sites<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HackThisSite\" title=\"HackThisSite\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0fbd59a4bccd2a92e175a182b74e809\">HackThisSite<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zone-H\" title=\"Zone-H\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f9fc3d64dc70af7ad6500d304a082af\">Zone-H<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malware\" title=\"Malware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed66ca98570d7dd0ef9f856c47815b11\">Malware<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rootkit\" title=\"Rootkit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7793d0bd5b59ddf8ae3408cb4ba7e1b\">Rootkit<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backdoor_(computing)\" title=\"Backdoor (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1d88a200650aff5c48f98c7ee2360cd\">Backdoor<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trojan_horse_(computing)\" title=\"Trojan horse (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a678695bce8d35b35440bc260712bbc\">Trojan horse<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_virus\" title=\"Computer virus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91d7100dd3499b98a5308377a38a7b58\">Virus<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_worm\" title=\"Computer worm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a91f5f0c8645bb8a187c68b0ba5df098\">Worm<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spyware\" title=\"Spyware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35cbf77d8b2af97b4856b34e7f0202dd\">Spyware<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ransomware\" title=\"Ransomware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9920028b76940c5bc43f59920d1c4eb\">Ransomware<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_bomb\" title=\"Logic bomb\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c82b8e7d1dff56c2bfb5227bb34c438f\">Logic bomb<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Botnet\" title=\"Botnet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"124987189c20f2fe1fb1ef537a96bfeb\">Botnet<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Keystroke_logging\" title=\"Keystroke logging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63f144f442786c865b77430e137c765c\">Keystroke logging<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Host-based_intrusion_detection_system\" title=\"Host-based intrusion detection system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2dac3e30970488b90a784c6eb4ecb8b7\">HIDS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_shell\" title=\"Web shell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfe3808630390b79893bd4780a90c9d5\">Web shell<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arbitrary_code_execution\" title=\"Arbitrary code execution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19deeabcaa279b61ce2ef1bf1634e305\">RCE<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;\"><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Computer security<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_security\" title=\"Application security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58af074101b32ff0ed2601987d6030d0\">Application security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing_security\" title=\"Cloud computing security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76abf4f9c445efd4445b612b97f4184a\">Cloud computing security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_security\" title=\"Network security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd28fe06f1e45ea385d35225e5d4effc\">Network security<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacker_group\" title=\"Hacker group\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32c1f6de23255d42262e3cb171df969e\">Groups<\/a><\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anonymous_(group)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Anonymous (group)\" data-key=\"6187f00a1533fae243d8a58d50dd1cf5\">Anonymous<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chaos_Computer_Club\" title=\"Chaos Computer Club\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b7cfde2c2cd3e018ee6862fd682f26f\">Chaos Computer Club<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Homebrew_Computer_Club\" title=\"Homebrew Computer Club\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ef74d0030c515b471de93e69609a37d\">Homebrew Computer Club<\/a> (defunct)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legion_of_Doom_(hacking)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Legion of Doom (hacking)\" data-key=\"c72b9f2e8d63c9b73c02979e34384c49\">Legion of Doom<\/a> (defunct)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LulzSec\" title=\"LulzSec\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6a91294f06a4315614c77112a04a01d\">LulzSec<\/a> (defunct)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Masters_of_Deception\" title=\"Masters of Deception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"883d454b38156071ff4173633c21539e\">Masters of Deception<\/a> (defunct)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Red_team\" title=\"Red team\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5360f930e3b23321ae07fa42c72d6565\">Red team<\/a> \/ <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blue_team_(computer_security)\" title=\"Blue team (computer security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e045e9b88b4afc1dd663f7923c686e32\">Blue team<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<div class=\"sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed\"><div class=\"sidebar-list-title\" style=\"border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;\">Publications<\/div><div class=\"sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2600:_The_Hacker_Quarterly\" title=\"2600: The Hacker Quarterly\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"002ab7daf49c97357f289f899af766b0\">2600: The Hacker Quarterly<\/a><\/i><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacker_News\" title=\"Hacker News\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f031690ae5ec79057e1044a3ccdce5e2\">Hacker News<\/a><\/li>\n<li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuts_and_Volts\" title=\"Nuts and Volts\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9a7d5fd978d30e379f014956d356498\">Nuts and Volts<\/a><\/i><\/li>\n<li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phrack\" title=\"Phrack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"627a29e2c09b495cb7c5ed24e92e2283\">Phrack<\/a><\/i><\/li><\/ul><\/div><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1045330069\" \/><table class=\"sidebar nomobile nowraplinks\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">Operating systems<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><figure class=\"mw-halign-center noresize mw-ext-imagemap-desc-bottom-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e1\/Operating_system_placement.svg\/165px-Operating_system_placement.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"165\" height=\"244\" class=\"mw-file-element\" usemap=\"#ImageMap_4c9a165895b5ed35\" resource=\"\/wiki\/File:Operating_system_placement.svg\" \/><\/span><map name=\"ImageMap_4c9a165895b5ed35\"><area href=\"\/wiki\/User_(computing)\" shape=\"rect\" coords=\"1,1,165,59\" alt=\"User\" title=\"User\" \/><area href=\"\/wiki\/Application_software\" shape=\"rect\" coords=\"1,60,165,119\" alt=\"Application\" title=\"Application\" \/><area href=\"\/wiki\/Operating_system\" shape=\"rect\" coords=\"1,119,165,178\" alt=\"Operating system\" title=\"Operating system\" \/><area href=\"\/wiki\/Computer_hardware\" shape=\"rect\" coords=\"1,179,165,237\" alt=\"Hardware\" title=\"Hardware\" \/><\/map><figcaption><\/figcaption><\/figure><\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\" style=\"font-size:110%;\">\nCommon features<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content hlist\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_management_(computing)\" title=\"Process management (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1929ff139b96637125f31e05e9b7ec3\">Process management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interrupt\" title=\"Interrupt\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b0c31d13a1ecef110bfd671cb2edb49\">Interrupts<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memory_management\" title=\"Memory management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f28db0cecdddeb844141823ada36ed1\">Memory management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_system\" title=\"File system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7687f830dfdbe09200697ca00721f7b3\">File system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Device_driver\" title=\"Device driver\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5b8fe800282335fbca804fd4958c600\">Device drivers<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">Networking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Input\/output\" title=\"Input\/output\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52f8bc60be30c4a0fe544943142caa2b\">Input\/output<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Computer_locked.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"907bce6076ee781ce93211d3462fab9a\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d3\/Computer_locked.jpg\/200px-Computer_locked.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"284\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>While most aspects of computer security involve digital measures such as electronic passwords and encryption, physical security measures such as metal locks are still used to prevent unauthorized tampering.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><b>Computer security<\/b>, <b>cybersecurity<\/b>, <b>digital security<\/b> or <b>information technology security<\/b> (<b>IT security<\/b>) is the protection of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer system\" data-key=\"49eba49cde7ee0d508d5b64acba7d82b\">computer systems<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">networks<\/a> from attacks by malicious actors that may result in unauthorized information disclosure, theft of, or damage to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_hardware\" title=\"Computer hardware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3af5473d082dc42736a8f0e670ebb91\">hardware<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data (computing)\" data-key=\"b35ce82cf67e83d52fc0d43220569462\">data<\/a>, as well as from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denial-of-service_attack\" title=\"Denial-of-service attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60592f037a0652dd16c640127be8ca89\">disruption<\/a> or misdirection of the services they provide.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The field is significant due to the expanded reliance on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer systems\" data-key=\"322ca12f0515a790080d3d7f74669b61\">computer systems<\/a>, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_network\" title=\"Wireless network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ec9be1fac887fbbc24eac079410e455\">wireless network<\/a> standards such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bluetooth\" title=\"Bluetooth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf7b2ce888d74d287b869156ab12eee2\">Bluetooth<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wi-Fi\" title=\"Wi-Fi\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdb282d61ec9d86932b6b3179e79ecf1\">Wi-Fi<\/a>. Also, due to the growth of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_device\" title=\"Smart device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"550c59d2aa221343650682cc88bcaa2d\">smart devices<\/a>, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smartphone\" title=\"Smartphone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49a2d39877c99c533d1236c163ea0100\">smartphones<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Television\" title=\"Television\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47448aaa4c16ad23be27e63e489b590e\">televisions<\/a>, and the various devices that constitute the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_things\" title=\"Internet of things\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08e522f905854fe34747cc25ffb62f63\">Internet of things<\/a> (IoT). Cybersecurity is one of the most significant challenges of the contemporary world, due to both the complexity of information systems and the societies they support. Security is of especially high importance for systems that govern large-scale systems with far-reaching physical effects, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_power_distribution\" title=\"Electric power distribution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96df69cefaf15aed56a711b0b0429d4b\">power distribution<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Election_security\" title=\"Election security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2857e492c5caa3e1c179299b9a1c795\">elections<\/a>, and finance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Vulnerabilities_and_attacks\">Vulnerabilities and attacks<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_(computing)\" title=\"Vulnerability (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba3eca3995690776a2ec5d3a458bb68e\">Vulnerability (computing)<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A vulnerability is a weakness in design, implementation, operation, or internal control of a computer or system. Most of the vulnerabilities that have been discovered are documented in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_Vulnerabilities_and_Exposures\" title=\"Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"679bcb185c6d3e1ee473a44627e32f41\">Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures<\/a> (CVE) database.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> An <i>exploitable<\/i> vulnerability is one for which at least one working attack or <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploit_(computer_security)\" title=\"Exploit (computer security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f4ac5071aa2dbae29311466c786264c\">exploit<\/a><\/i> exists.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Vulnerabilities can be researched, reverse-engineered, hunted, or exploited using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_threat\" title=\"Automated threat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8dd3a2b7b3c79c55e9834627c0f1f28\">automated tools<\/a> or customized scripts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Various people or parties are vulnerable to cyber attacks, however different groups are likely to experience different types of attacks more than others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-crowdstrike.com_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-crowdstrike.com-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In April 2023 the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Kingdom_Government\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"United Kingdom Government\" data-key=\"a31fa8d0441a7ac588f6f5b7d8997f27\">United Kingdom<\/a> Department for Science, Innovation &amp; Technology released a report on cyber attacks over the last 12 months.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cyber_breaches_2023_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cyber_breaches_2023-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> They surveyed 2,263 UK businesses, 1,174 UK registered charities and 554 education institutions. The research found that \"32% of businesses and 24% of charities overall recall any breaches or attacks from the last 12 months.\" These figures were much higher for \"medium businesses (59%), large businesses (69%) and high-income charities with \u00a3500,000 or more in annual income (56%).\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cyber_breaches_2023_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cyber_breaches_2023-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Yet, although medium or large businesses are more often the victims, since larger companies have generally improved their security over the last decade, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Small_and_medium-sized_enterprises\" title=\"Small and medium-sized enterprises\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d972d3123e5a424830a05d58c90b1e2e\">small and midsize businesses<\/a> (SMBs) have also become increasing vulnerable as they often \"do not have advanced tools to defend the business.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-crowdstrike.com_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-crowdstrike.com-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> SMBs are most likely to be affected by malware, ransomware, phishing, man-in-the-middle attacks, and Denial-of Service (DoS) Attacks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-crowdstrike.com_10-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-crowdstrike.com-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Normal internet users are most likely to be affected by \"un-targeted\" cyber attacks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cyber_attacks_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cyber_attacks-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> These are where attackers indiscriminately target as many devices, services or users as possible. They do this using techniques that take advantage of the \"openness\" of the Internet. These strategies mostly include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phishing\" title=\"Phishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c8238cbe6d3bb4c5c9496327b378d3b\">phishing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ransomware\" title=\"Ransomware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9920028b76940c5bc43f59920d1c4eb\">ransomware<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Watering_hole_attack\" title=\"Watering hole attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbd7870dfea9e495da3ec1a28d90b165\">water holing<\/a> and scanning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cyber_attacks_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cyber_attacks-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>To secure a computer system, it is important to understand the attacks that can be made against it, and these <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Threat_(computer)\" title=\"Threat (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d5165b429cff5ef72f0996f714d481\">threats<\/a> can typically be classified into one of the following categories:\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Backdoor\">Backdoor<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backdoor_(computing)\" title=\"Backdoor (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1d88a200650aff5c48f98c7ee2360cd\">backdoor<\/a> in a computer system, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptosystem\" title=\"Cryptosystem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c28cabbd837aab6b948f1936c242a4f6\">cryptosystem<\/a>, or an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithm\" title=\"Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b91430604726f884a846b998f41902e\">algorithm<\/a>, is any secret method of bypassing normal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">authentication<\/a> or security controls. These weaknesses may exist for many reasons, including original design or poor configuration.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> Due to the nature of backdoors, they are of greater concern to companies and databases as opposed to individuals.\n<\/p><p>Backdoors may be added by an authorized party to allow some legitimate access, or by an attacker for malicious reasons. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cybercrime\" title=\"Cybercrime\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69fca3089ebc060286871719535eefa3\">Criminals<\/a> often use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malware\" title=\"Malware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed66ca98570d7dd0ef9f856c47815b11\">malware<\/a> to install backdoors, giving them remote administrative access to a system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McAfee-2023_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McAfee-2023-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Once they have access, cybercriminals can \"modify files, steal personal information, install unwanted software, and even take control of the entire computer.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McAfee-2023_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McAfee-2023-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Backdoors can be very hard to detect, and are usually discovered by someone who has access to the application source code or intimate knowledge of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating system<\/a> of the computer.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Denial-of-service_attack\">Denial-of-service attack<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denial_of_service_attacks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Denial of service attacks\" data-key=\"8dabfb0d1f58ef2035945c6b3c1a71a1\">Denial of service attacks<\/a> (DoS) are designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DoS_guidance_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DoS_guidance-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> Attackers can deny service to individual victims, such as by deliberately entering a wrong password enough consecutive times to cause the victim's account to be locked, or they may overload the capabilities of a machine or network and block all users at once. While a network attack from a single <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IP_address\" title=\"IP address\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40883980a0cbe2c89a23dfaa0ca04d81\">IP address<\/a> can be blocked by adding a new firewall rule, many forms of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_denial_of_service#Distributed_attack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed denial of service\" data-key=\"4b76197e6496adf3c8cfc706a64cb290\">Distributed denial of service<\/a> (DDoS) attacks are possible, where the attack comes from a large number of points. In this case defending against these attacks is much more difficult. Such attacks can originate from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zombie_computer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Zombie computer\" data-key=\"84197aa5ccbf34381c146a655711c135\">zombie computers<\/a> of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Botnet\" title=\"Botnet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"124987189c20f2fe1fb1ef537a96bfeb\">botnet<\/a> or from a range of other possible techniques, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_reflective_denial_of_service\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed reflective denial of service\" data-key=\"0e2b4bdcaa9ae6dbdc0c37b2117f8673\">distributed reflective denial of service<\/a> (DRDoS), where innocent systems are fooled into sending traffic to the victim.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DoS_guidance_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DoS_guidance-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> With such attacks, the amplification factor makes the attack easier for the attacker because they have to use little bandwidth themselves. To understand why attackers may carry out these attacks, see the 'attacker motivation' section.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Direct-access_attacks\">Direct-access attacks<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A direct-access attack is when an unauthorized user (an attacker) gains physical access to a computer, most likely to directly copy data from it or to steal information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Attackers may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_worm\" title=\"Computer worm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a91f5f0c8645bb8a187c68b0ba5df098\">software worms<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Keystroke_logging\" title=\"Keystroke logging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63f144f442786c865b77430e137c765c\">keyloggers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Covert_listening_device\" title=\"Covert listening device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84dbe02e6407a2eba1ebacd04d32937e\">covert listening devices<\/a> or using wireless microphones. Even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be bypassed by booting another operating system or tool from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CD-ROM\" title=\"CD-ROM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59cbab1d1b1834d2744a304e03a37881\">CD-ROM<\/a> or other bootable media. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_encryption\" title=\"Disk encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"786d86cb44a83469c6c91a3df437222c\">Disk encryption<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trusted_Platform_Module\" title=\"Trusted Platform Module\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258ef6bcdd5e93646156b13017c0b0a7\">Trusted Platform Module<\/a> are designed to prevent these attacks.\n<\/p><p>Direct service attackers are related in concept to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DMA_attack\" title=\"DMA attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b42f0d2b7143d12ff86f4afd749b38fe\">direct memory attacks<\/a> that allows an attacker to gain direct access to a computer's memory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kroll_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kroll-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> The attacks \"take advantage of a feature of modern computers that allow certain devices, such as external hard drives, graphics cards or network cards, to access the computer's memory directly.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kroll_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kroll-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>To help prevent these attacks, computer users must ensure that they have a strong passwords, that their computer is locked at all times when they are not using it, and that they keep their computer with them at all times when traveling.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kroll_17-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kroll-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Eavesdropping\">Eavesdropping<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eavesdropping\" title=\"Eavesdropping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a9d311dae84400cfc4f641ee9b1628\">Eavesdropping<\/a> is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private computer conversation (communication), usually between hosts on a network. It typically occurs when a user connects to a network where traffic is not secured or encrypted and sends sensitive business data to a colleague, which when listened to by an attacker could be exploited.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fortinet_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fortinet-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> Data transmitted across an \"open network\" allows an attacker to exploit a vulnerability and intercept it via various methods.\n<\/p><p>Unlike <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malware\" title=\"Malware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed66ca98570d7dd0ef9f856c47815b11\">malware<\/a>, direct-access attacks, or other forms of cyber attacks, eavesdropping attacks are unlikely to negatively affect the performance of networks or devices, making them difficult to notice.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fortinet_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fortinet-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> In fact, \"the attacker does not need to have any ongoing connection to the software at all. The attacker can insert the software onto a compromised device, perhaps by direct insertion or perhaps by a virus or other malware, and then come back some time later to retrieve any data that is found or trigger the software to send the data at some determined time.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_private_network\" title=\"Virtual private network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6afbff675ea96146a59e5832f243fc0a\">virtual private network<\/a> (VPN), which encrypts data between two points, is one of the most common forms of protection against eavesdropping. Using the best form of encryption possible for wireless networks is best practice, as well as using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTTPS\" title=\"HTTPS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"12d3d428d7a70406f198e258c806a867\">HTTPS<\/a> instead of an unencrypted <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTTP\" title=\"HTTP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"023e3eb0e18e5fa9398182a87216766c\">HTTP<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Programs such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnivore_(FBI)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Carnivore (FBI)\" data-key=\"ebb81705096b8e279e46c42c3fe86d4e\">Carnivore<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Narus_(company)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Narus (company)\" data-key=\"bd2b8edff2f6394b8af63465c8a2e6a2\">NarusInSight<\/a> have been used by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation\" title=\"Federal Bureau of Investigation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08cb2f20ea0a4832a7374b41d5852f66\">Federal Bureau of Investigation<\/a> (FBI) and NSA to eavesdrop on the systems of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_service_provider\" title=\"Internet service provider\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f9d9e4f7009df2d06a1ede76c8391ebd\">internet service providers<\/a>. Even machines that operate as a closed system (i.e., with no contact with the outside world) can be eavesdropped upon by monitoring the faint <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetism\" title=\"Electromagnetism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fe8021e0f901a74c1897ff5388518d1\">electromagnetic<\/a> transmissions generated by the hardware. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tempest_(codename)\" title=\"Tempest (codename)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aacaaf27177344e0745beb2189e50e3c\">TEMPEST<\/a> is a specification by the NSA referring to these attacks.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Malware\">Malware<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Malicious software (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malware\" title=\"Malware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed66ca98570d7dd0ef9f856c47815b11\">malware<\/a>) is any software code or computer program \"intentionally written to harm a computer system or its users.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Malware-IBM_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Malware-IBM-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> Once present on a computer, it can leak sensitive details such as personal information, business information and passwords, can give control of the system to the attacker, and can corrupt or delete data permanently.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> Another type of malware is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ransomware\" title=\"Ransomware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9920028b76940c5bc43f59920d1c4eb\">ransomware<\/a>, which is when \"malware installs itself onto a victim's machine, encrypts their files, and then turns around and demands a ransom (usually in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bitcoin\" title=\"Bitcoin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ab9b93a16ebeb6b4782bed8f08f90b0\">Bitcoin<\/a>) to return that data to the user.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Types of malware include some of the following:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_virus\" title=\"Computer virus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91d7100dd3499b98a5308377a38a7b58\">Viruses<\/a> are a specific type of malware, and are normally a malicious code that hijacks software with the intension to \"do damage and spread copies of itself.\" Copies are made with the aim to spread to other programs on a computer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Malware-IBM_21-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Malware-IBM-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_worm\" title=\"Computer worm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a91f5f0c8645bb8a187c68b0ba5df098\">Worms<\/a> are similar to viruses, however viruses can only function when a user runs (opens) a compromised program. Worms are self-replicating malware that spread between programs, apps and devices <i>without<\/i> the need for human interaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Malware-IBM_21-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Malware-IBM-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trojan_horse_(computing)\" title=\"Trojan horse (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a678695bce8d35b35440bc260712bbc\">Trojan horses<\/a> are programs that pretend to be helpful or hide themselves within desired or legitimate software to \"trick users into installing them.\" Once installed, a RAT (remote access trojan) can create a secret backdoor on the affected device to cause damage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Malware-IBM_21-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Malware-IBM-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spyware\" title=\"Spyware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35cbf77d8b2af97b4856b34e7f0202dd\">Spyware<\/a> is a type of malware that secretly gathers information on an infected computers and transmits the sensitive information back to the attacker. One of the most common forms of spyware are known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Keystroke_logging\" title=\"Keystroke logging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63f144f442786c865b77430e137c765c\">keyloggers<\/a>, which is a kind of malware which recorders all of a users keyboard inputs\/keystrokes, used to \"allow hackers to harvest usernames, passwords, bank account and credit card numbers.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Malware-IBM_21-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Malware-IBM-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scareware\" title=\"Scareware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a8fd8c74f4ce4200f40fb2111dc227d\">Scareware<\/a>, as the name suggests, is a form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malware\" title=\"Malware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed66ca98570d7dd0ef9f856c47815b11\">malware<\/a> which uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_engineering_(security)\" title=\"Social engineering (security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18c53a8e46796d2a2daa3a1642612677\">social engineering<\/a> (manipulation) to scare, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acute_stress_reaction\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Acute stress reaction\" data-key=\"009e77ab074163d14a87754d1b720668\">shock<\/a>, trigger <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anxiety\" title=\"Anxiety\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ff2c8a05b73a9b8b419efcaea59ed4d\">anxiety<\/a>, or suggest the perception of a threat in order to manipulate users into buying or installing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Potentially_unwanted_program\" title=\"Potentially unwanted program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98c0a511029ac66adad607137e3f1379\">unwanted software<\/a>. These attacks often begin with a \"sudden pop-up with an urgent message, usually warning the user that they've broken the law or their device has a virus.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Malware-IBM_21-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Malware-IBM-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Multi-vector.2C_polymorphic_attacks\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Multi-vector,_polymorphic_attacks\">Multi-vector, polymorphic attacks<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Surfacing in 2017, a new class of multi-vector,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> polymorphic<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> cyber threats combine several types of attacks and change form to avoid cybersecurity controls as they spread.\n<\/p><p>Multi-vector polymorphic attacks, as the name describes, are both multi-vectored and polymorphic.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tounsi-2019_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tounsi-2019-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> Firstly, they are a singular attack that involves multiple methods of attack. In this sense, they are \u201cmulti-vectored (i.e. the attack can use multiple means of propagation such as via the Web, email and applications.\" However, they are also multi-staged, meaning that \u201cthey can infiltrate networks and move laterally inside the network.\u201d<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tounsi-2019_26-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tounsi-2019-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> The attacks can be polymorphic, meaning that the cyberattacks used such as viruses, worms or trojans \u201cconstantly change (\u201cmorph\u201d) making it nearly impossible to detect them using signature-based defences.\u201d<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tounsi-2019_26-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tounsi-2019-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Phishing\">Phishing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:PhishingTrustedBank.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"68b2d88b2300190e5777bb6ed3fa338c\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d0\/PhishingTrustedBank.png\/220px-PhishingTrustedBank.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"163\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>An example of a phishing email, disguised as an official <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Email\" title=\"Email\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d5abd02ca0ff73bc0596c3ae672ec7e\">email<\/a> from a (fictional) bank. The sender is attempting to trick the recipient into revealing confidential information by confirming it at the phisher's website. Note the misspelling of the words <i>received<\/i> and <i>discrepancy<\/i> as rec<i>ie<\/i>ved and discrep<i>e<\/i>ncy, respectively. Although the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/URL\" title=\"URL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ccf24934de321a1c78c6cfe66f753ac\">URL<\/a> of the bank's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Webpage\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Webpage\" data-key=\"d773a2a6acd93b6084dee7fe8ac8bf1b\">webpage<\/a> appears to be legitimate, the hyperlink points at the phisher's webpage.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phishing\" title=\"Phishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c8238cbe6d3bb4c5c9496327b378d3b\">Phishing<\/a> is the attempt of acquiring sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and credit card details directly from users by deceiving the users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> Phishing is typically carried out by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Email_spoofing\" title=\"Email spoofing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca4b2c2201a66dfea399a7e17c04ce0\">email spoofing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instant_messaging\" title=\"Instant messaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d4d94e28454df237e19617998f09bf3\">instant messaging<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text_messaging\" title=\"Text messaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51178d6f5c9ed860fbc01c38a7d9eac2\">text message<\/a>, or on a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telephone_call\" title=\"Telephone call\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52ed0dfb46b54ba1f48c7d0dcf02c7c3\">phone<\/a> call. They often directs users to enter details at a fake website whose <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Look_and_feel\" title=\"Look and feel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"070be5c9cd4f0086eb0fd640b389f0bd\">look and feel<\/a> are almost identical to the legitimate one.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> The fake website often asks for personal information, such as login details and passwords. This information can then be used to gain access to the individual's real account on the real website.\n<\/p><p>Preying on a victim's trust, phishing can be classified as a form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_engineering_(security)\" title=\"Social engineering (security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18c53a8e46796d2a2daa3a1642612677\">social engineering<\/a>. Attackers can use creative ways to gain access to real accounts. A common scam is for attackers to send fake electronic invoices<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> to individuals showing that they recently purchased music, apps, or others, and instructing them to click on a link if the purchases were not authorized. A more strategic type of phishing is spear-phishing which leverages personal or organization-specific details to make the attacker appear like a trusted source. Spear-phishing attacks target specific individuals, rather than the broad net cast by phishing attempts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Privilege_escalation\">Privilege escalation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privilege_escalation\" title=\"Privilege escalation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8758bb21f4119a7aaee5593ce5d9d6a\">Privilege escalation<\/a> describes a situation where an attacker with some level of restricted access is able to, without authorization, elevate their privileges or access level.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Privilege_escalation_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Privilege_escalation-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> For example, a standard computer user may be able to exploit a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_(computing)\" title=\"Vulnerability (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba3eca3995690776a2ec5d3a458bb68e\">vulnerability<\/a> in the system to gain access to restricted data; or even become <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superuser\" title=\"Superuser\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48f932bab9633992491863fab3d57ef3\">root<\/a><\/i> and have full unrestricted access to a system. The severity of attacks can range from attacks simply sending an unsolicited email to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ransomware\" title=\"Ransomware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9920028b76940c5bc43f59920d1c4eb\">ransomware attack<\/a> on large amounts of data. Privilege escalation usually starts with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_engineering_(security)\" title=\"Social engineering (security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18c53a8e46796d2a2daa3a1642612677\">social engineering<\/a> techniques, often <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phishing\" title=\"Phishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c8238cbe6d3bb4c5c9496327b378d3b\">phishing<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Privilege_escalation_31-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Privilege_escalation-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Privilege escalation can be separated into to strategies, horizontal and vertical privilege escalation:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Horizontal escalation (or account takeover) is where an attacker gains access to a normal user account that has relatively low-level privileges. This may be through stealing the user's username and password. Once they have access, they have gained a \u201cfoothold,\u201d and using this foothold the attacker then may move around the network of users at this same lower level, gaining access to information of this similar privilege.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Privilege_escalation_31-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Privilege_escalation-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Vertical escalation however targets people higher up in a company and often with more administrative power, such as an employee in IT with a higher privilege. Using this privileged account will then enable to attacker to invade other accounts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Privilege_escalation_31-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Privilege_escalation-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Side-channel_attack\">Side-channel attack<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Side-channel_attack\" title=\"Side-channel attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"608929fa77bf440ae36f455127ef1308\">Side-channel attack<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Any computational system affects its environment in some form. This effect it has on its environment includes a wide range of criteria, which can range from electromagnetic radiation to residual effect on RAM cells which as a consequence make a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cold_boot_attack\" title=\"Cold boot attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"31bf08880e2af84ab3be5222c11e0b2b\">Cold boot attack<\/a> possible, to hardware implementation faults that allow for access and or guessing of other values that normally should be inaccessible. In Side-channel attack scenarios, the attacker would gather such information about a system or network to guess its internal state and as a result access the information which is assumed by the victim to be secure.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Social_engineering\">Social engineering<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_engineering_(security)\" title=\"Social engineering (security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18c53a8e46796d2a2daa3a1642612677\">Social engineering<\/a>, in the context of computer security, aims to convince a user to disclose secrets such as passwords, card numbers, etc. or grant physical access by, for example, impersonating a senior executive, bank, a contractor, or a customer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> This generally involves exploiting people's trust, and relying on their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_bias\" title=\"Cognitive bias\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"500a0603c065a0c8a4106cbffcdf0e26\">cognitive biases<\/a>. A common scam involves emails sent to accounting and finance department personnel, impersonating their CEO and urgently requesting some action. One of the main techniques of social engineering are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phishing\" title=\"Phishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c8238cbe6d3bb4c5c9496327b378d3b\">phishing<\/a> attacks.\n<\/p><p>In early 2016, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FBI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"FBI\" data-key=\"aaac8225548bb08e2dffe344645bccbd\">FBI<\/a> reported that such <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_email_compromise\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business email compromise\" data-key=\"a67ceef419dc90fbd670e9c4f26cd800\">business email compromise<\/a> (BEC) scams had cost US businesses more than $2 billion in about two years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In May 2016, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Milwaukee_Bucks\" title=\"Milwaukee Bucks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b550c033b3c82aac1597c3871d817f3\">Milwaukee Bucks<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NBA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NBA\" data-key=\"e51a1f0095d1275d5343ba1605f64da3\">NBA<\/a> team was the victim of this type of cyber scam with a perpetrator impersonating the team's president , resulting in the handover of all the team's employees' 2015 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Form_W-2\" title=\"Form W-2\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7525eed481665cd764233a3528ad9254\">W-2<\/a> tax forms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Spoofing\">Spoofing<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spoofing_attack\" title=\"Spoofing attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48c7f8cf1e07ba3eb0a07b14848b008c\">Spoofing attack<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Spoofing is an act of pretending to be a valid entity through the falsification of data (such as an IP address or username), in order to gain access to information or resources that one is otherwise unauthorized to obtain. Spoofing is closely related to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phishing\" title=\"Phishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c8238cbe6d3bb4c5c9496327b378d3b\">phishing<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> There are several types of spoofing, including:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Email_spoofing\" title=\"Email spoofing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca4b2c2201a66dfea399a7e17c04ce0\">Email spoofing<\/a>, is where an attacker forges the sending (<i>From<\/i>, or source) address of an email.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IP_address_spoofing\" title=\"IP address spoofing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3df561f1c5c3cfa402ef1f7500e256b\">IP address spoofing<\/a>, where an attacker alters the source IP address in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_packet\" title=\"Network packet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dbda86865ce9fc8ed03ddd36e5e9e71c\">network packet<\/a> to hide their identity or impersonate another computing system.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MAC_spoofing\" title=\"MAC spoofing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d74c4362d98e2f9030bf4add7f60f845\">MAC spoofing<\/a>, where an attacker modifies the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MAC_address\" title=\"MAC address\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78ff6ca548d3df989f1c5fdd2d33a840\">Media Access Control (MAC) address<\/a> of their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_interface_controller\" title=\"Network interface controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40a27d35e96bc43144322785ac6efe0e\">network interface controller<\/a> to obscure their identity, or to pose as another.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biometrics\" title=\"Biometrics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4f35a99c6e99677482bfa536211b504\">Biometric<\/a> spoofing, where an attacker produces a fake biometric sample to pose as another user.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Address_Resolution_Protocol\" title=\"Address Resolution Protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19fe016bb02c03440558aeb7f7e9c7f7\">Address Resolution Protocol<\/a> (ARP) spoofing, where an attacker sends spoofed address resolution protocol onto a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_area_network\" title=\"Local area network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27704f795ba72a77fd1013022ee668e5\">local area network<\/a> to associate their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MAC_address\" title=\"MAC address\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78ff6ca548d3df989f1c5fdd2d33a840\">Media Access Control address<\/a> with a different host's IP address. This causes data to be sent to the attacker rather than the intended host.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In 2018, the cybersecurity firm <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trellix\" title=\"Trellix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfd7146ecb3d7247fc9fca32fba12548\">Trellix<\/a> published research on the life-threatening risk of spoofing in the healthcare industry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Tampering\">Tampering<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tampering_(crime)\" title=\"Tampering (crime)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8e8108e07a71b99378339a420bfd6f1\">Tampering<\/a> describes a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evasion_(network_security)\" title=\"Evasion (network security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d01faf11c4d2d01039df0f596290dea\">malicious modification<\/a> or alteration of data. An intentional but unauthorized act resulting in the modification of a system, components of systems, its intended behavior, or data. So-called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evil_Maid_attack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Evil Maid attack\" data-key=\"b5eed938b70aa726a179673745c98476\">Evil Maid attacks<\/a> and security services planting of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surveillance\" title=\"Surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b2e3ae2beab3ec421b301bf765e28f8\">surveillance<\/a> capability into routers are examples.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"HTML_smuggling\">HTML smuggling<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTML\" title=\"HTML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2129f27a9bbb49d279dab0e89f49c23c\">HTML<\/a> smuggling allows an attacker to \"smuggle\" a malicious code inside a particular HTML or web page.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Intelligence-2021_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Intelligence-2021-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTML\" title=\"HTML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2129f27a9bbb49d279dab0e89f49c23c\">HTML<\/a> files can carry payloads concealed as benign, inert data in order to defeat <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_filter\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Content filter\" data-key=\"aca69c171659b5ab2e3cb29e1291ed76\">content filters<\/a>. These payloads can be reconstructed on the other side of the filter.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>When a target user opens the HTML, the malicious code is activated; the web browser then \"decodes\" the script, which then unleashes the malware onto the target's device.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Intelligence-2021_40-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Intelligence-2021-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Information_security_practices\">Information security practices<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Employee behavior can have a big impact on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" title=\"Information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">information security<\/a> in organizations. Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness toward information security within an organization. Information security culture is the \"...totality of patterns of behavior in an organization that contributes to the protection of information of all kinds.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of their organization's information security effort and often take actions that impede organizational changes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> Indeed, the Verizon Data Breach Investigations Report 2020, which examined 3,950 security breaches, discovered 30% of cybersecurity incidents involved internal actors within a company.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In \"Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change\", authors commented, \"It's a never-ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance.\" To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Pre-evaluation: To identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze the current security policies.<\/li>\n<li>Strategic planning: To come up with a better awareness program, clear targets need to be set. Assembling a team of skilled professionals is helpful to achieve it.<\/li>\n<li>Operative planning: A good security culture can be established based on internal communication, management buy-in, security awareness and a training program.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_45-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Implementation: Four stages should be used to implement the information security culture. They are:<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dd><ol><li>Commitment of the management<\/li>\n<li>Communication with organizational members<\/li>\n<li>Courses for all organizational members<\/li>\n<li>Commitment of the employees<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_45-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol><\/dd><\/dl>\n<ul><li>Post-evaluation: To assess the success of the planning and implementation, and to identify unresolved areas of concern.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Computer_protection_.28countermeasures.29\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Computer_protection_(countermeasures)\">Computer protection (countermeasures)<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In computer security, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Countermeasure_(computer)\" title=\"Countermeasure (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"786c1827cd50ca51d3c796640418a445\">countermeasure<\/a> is an action, device, procedure or technique that reduces a threat, a vulnerability, or an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attack_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Attack (computing)\" data-key=\"65af10c2d279bcbb392e72b46725835a\">attack<\/a> by eliminating or preventing it, by minimizing the harm it can cause, or by discovering and reporting it so that corrective action can be taken.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Some common countermeasures are listed in the following sections:\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_by_design\">Security by design<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_by_design\" title=\"Secure by design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94e074b7207a0f4c8ed2ccf0ca6b2d6d\">Secure by design<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Security by design, or alternately secure by design, means that the software has been designed from the ground up to be secure. In this case, security is considered a main feature.\n<\/p><p>The UK government's National Cyber Security Centre separate secure cyber design principles into five sections:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Before a secure system is created or updated, companies should ensure they understand the fundamentals and the context around the system they are trying to create, and to identify any apart weaknesses in a system.<\/li>\n<li>Companies should design and centre their security around techniques and defences which make attacking their data or systems inherently more challenging for attackers.<\/li>\n<li>Companies should ensure that their core services that rely on technology are protected so that the technology is always available.<\/li>\n<li>Although systems can be created which are safe against a multitude of attacks, that does not mean that attacks will not be attempted. Despite one's security, all companies' systems should aim to be able to detect and spot attacks as soon as they occur to ensure the most effective response to them.<\/li>\n<li>Companies should create secure systems designed so that any attack that is \"successful\" has a loss severity.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>These design principles of security by design can include some of the following techniques:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Principle_of_least_privilege\" title=\"Principle of least privilege\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76e1ae0b7577f7325933b66ea83206f3\">principle of least privilege<\/a>, where each part of the system has only the privileges that are needed for its function. That way, even if an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacker_(computer_security)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hacker (computer security)\" data-key=\"451128bf11e718a1cc4e2e4e24e268cf\">attacker<\/a> gains access to that part, they only have limited access to the whole system.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_theorem_proving\" title=\"Automated theorem proving\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70283ba307cba4927c2ddd74c3e82e5c\">Automated theorem proving<\/a> to prove the correctness of crucial software subsystems.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_review\" title=\"Code review\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e5c46432156b951f11c8b9b588274a6\">Code reviews<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unit_testing\" title=\"Unit testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccd96295ece3bd8cce89bb756eedce3f\">unit testing<\/a>, approaches to make modules more secure where formal correctness proofs are not possible.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defense_in_depth_(computing)\" title=\"Defense in depth (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f19c946c8f3003cd31960f9b5665cfbc\">Defense in depth<\/a>, where the design is such that more than one subsystem needs to be violated to compromise the integrity of the system and the information it holds.<\/li>\n<li>Default secure settings, and design to <i>fail secure<\/i> rather than <i>fail insecure<\/i> (see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fail-safe\" title=\"Fail-safe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f9d3b8a530aede7594807b55a97bc068\">fail-safe<\/a> for the equivalent in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Safety_engineering\" title=\"Safety engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3563c863ee119cfc6afbe6dd5c28d2f2\">safety engineering<\/a>). Ideally, a secure system should require a deliberate, conscious, knowledgeable and free decision on the part of legitimate authorities in order to make it insecure.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20dda7b1dead7c17c90c4498b0afe092\">Audit trails<\/a> track system activity so that when a security breach occurs, the mechanism and extent of the breach can be determined. Storing audit trails remotely, where they can only be appended to, can keep intruders from covering their tracks.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Full_disclosure_(computer_security)\" title=\"Full disclosure (computer security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74564fd293081a83e28794382c02cb4e\">Full disclosure<\/a> of all vulnerabilities, to ensure that the <i>window of vulnerability<\/i> is kept as short as possible when bugs are discovered.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_architecture\">Security architecture<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Security architecture can be defined as the \"practice of designing computer systems to achieve security goals.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NSCS_security_arch_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NSCS_security_arch-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> These goals have overlap with the principles of \"security by design\" explored above, including to \"make initial compromise of the system difficult,\" and to \"limit the impact of any compromise.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NSCS_security_arch_50-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NSCS_security_arch-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> In practice, the role of a security architect would be to ensure the structure of a system reinforces the security of the system, and that new changes are safe and meet the security requirements of the organisation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Similarly, Techopedia defines security architecture as \"a unified security design that addresses the necessities and potential risks involved in a certain scenario or environment. It also specifies when and where to apply security controls. The design process is generally reproducible.\" The key attributes of security architecture are:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the relationship of different components and how they depend on each other.<\/li>\n<li>determination of controls based on risk assessment, good practices, finances, and legal matters.<\/li>\n<li>the standardization of controls.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Practicing security architecture provides the right foundation to systematically address business, IT and security concerns in an organization.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_measures\">Security measures<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A state of computer security is the conceptual ideal, attained by the use of the three processes: threat prevention, detection, and response. These processes are based on various policies and system components, which include the following:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Limiting the access of individuals using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_account\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"User account\" data-key=\"05ccd67466a494ea279e48247a7d9149\">user account<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control\" title=\"Access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f978f594d7eee9299dbb3da18ee80a8c\">access controls<\/a> and using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptography<\/a> can protect systems files and data, respectively.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(networking)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Firewall (networking)\" data-key=\"7da6d7805097a24a8974213a1734d7b4\">Firewalls<\/a> are by far the most common prevention systems from a network security perspective as they can (if properly configured) shield access to internal network services, and block certain kinds of attacks through packet filtering. Firewalls can be both hardware and software-based. Firewalls monitor and control incoming and outgoing traffic of a computer network and establish a barrier between a trusted network and an untrusted network.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Oppliger-1997_54-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Oppliger-1997-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intrusion_Detection_System\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intrusion Detection System\" data-key=\"4bcb3c65afe13b8df4e154a120052a60\">Intrusion Detection System<\/a> (IDS) products are designed to detect network attacks in-progress and assist in post-attack <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Forensics\" data-key=\"25a83223d39e4a1adbdf2c37a13d177f\">forensics<\/a>, while <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20dda7b1dead7c17c90c4498b0afe092\">audit trails<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_logging\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data logging\" data-key=\"6f35e436f4029d12a6aec3a969831fc5\">logs<\/a> serve a similar function for individual systems.<\/li>\n<li><i>Response<\/i> is necessarily defined by the assessed security requirements of an individual system and may cover the range from simple upgrade of protections to notification of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legal\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Legal\" data-key=\"1bd28b6fd166d646443ca8c9848a2680\">legal<\/a> authorities, counter-attacks, and the like. In some special cases, the complete destruction of the compromised system is favored, as it may happen that not all the compromised resources are detected.<\/li>\n<li>Cyber security awareness training to cope with cyber threats and attacks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Forward web <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proxy_server\" title=\"Proxy server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edf34c1abc2be6c66c85a0664509090d\">proxy<\/a> solutions can prevent the client to visit malicious web pages and inspect the content before downloading to the client machines.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Today, computer security consists mainly of preventive measures, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(computing)\" title=\"Firewall (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"853725a035c106719dbf2660d8eca0b8\">firewalls<\/a> or an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exit_procedure\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Exit procedure\" data-key=\"f816adba8e2519d17e5cbc245ca40387\">exit procedure<\/a>. A firewall can be defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or a network and another network, such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a>. They can be implemented as software running on the machine, hooking into the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_stack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Network stack\" data-key=\"6fa02b4f29d0255e16affc8c16be6669\">network stack<\/a> (or, in the case of most <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UNIX\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UNIX\" data-key=\"649f20d5e34d4bb08a62e0b6c275ded5\">UNIX<\/a>-based operating systems such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linux\" title=\"Linux\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccfb1826b029961cb72ef84704ee2bcb\">Linux<\/a>, built into the operating system <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel_(operating_system)\" title=\"Kernel (operating system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3dbab0bae21ff324d2076fb5a226f96c\">kernel<\/a>) to provide real-time filtering and blocking.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Oppliger-1997_54-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Oppliger-1997-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup> Another implementation is a so-called <i>physical firewall<\/i>, which consists of a separate machine filtering network traffic. Firewalls are common amongst machines that are permanently connected to the Internet.\n<\/p><p>Some organizations are turning to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">big data<\/a> platforms, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Hadoop\" title=\"Apache Hadoop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"422aec57862284d9ac3d173de7387d06\">Apache Hadoop<\/a>, to extend data accessibility and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a> to detect <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_persistent_threat\" title=\"Advanced persistent threat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88d45e599556f052d8f5b617b0bf6e86\">advanced persistent threats<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In order to ensure adequate security, the confidentiality, integrity and availability of a network, better known as the CIA triad, must be protected and is considered the foundation to information security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> To achieve those objectives, administrative, physical and technical security measures should be employed. The amount of security afforded to an asset can only be determined when its value is known.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Vulnerability_management\">Vulnerability management<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_management\" title=\"Vulnerability management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c157872e47c254570df23270a4a86fc3\">Vulnerability management<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Vulnerability management is the cycle of identifying, fixing or mitigating <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_vulnerability\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software vulnerability\" data-key=\"6ec6011bb42cc6f05fd53ac73b8b30b9\">vulnerabilities<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup> especially in software and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firmware\" title=\"Firmware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a60b2ef8d43ef18ef0ca19038532ed0\">firmware<\/a>. Vulnerability management is integral to computer security and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_security\" title=\"Network security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd28fe06f1e45ea385d35225e5d4effc\">network security<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Vulnerabilities can be discovered with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_scanner\" title=\"Vulnerability scanner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"066ed2d3c61ea0e8d99c85c1c6d44125\">vulnerability scanner<\/a>, which analyzes a computer system in search of known vulnerabilities,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_port\" title=\"Open port\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed85ade54c63461ca3a70e0813b26ff4\">open ports<\/a>, insecure software configuration, and susceptibility to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malware\" title=\"Malware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed66ca98570d7dd0ef9f856c47815b11\">malware<\/a>. In order for these tools to be effective, they must be kept up to date with every new update the vendor release. Typically, these updates will scan for the new vulnerabilities that were introduced recently.\n<\/p><p>Beyond vulnerability scanning, many organizations contract outside security auditors to run regular <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Penetration_test\" title=\"Penetration test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44dca4a1522ae55cbe5d49e703a38983\">penetration tests<\/a> against their systems to identify vulnerabilities. In some sectors, this is a contractual requirement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reducing_vulnerabilities\">Reducing vulnerabilities<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The act of assessing and reducing vulnerabilities to cyber attacks is commonly referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology_security_assessment\" title=\"Information technology security assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f1c66b52efef2d1772050139059adb7\">information technology security assessments<\/a>. They aims to assess systems for risk and to predict and test for their vulnerabilities. While <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Formal_verification\" title=\"Formal verification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"80e1d97143204b1e3ea94ee0f00982ff\">formal verification<\/a> of the correctness of computer systems is possible,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup> it is not yet common. Operating systems formally verified include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SeL4\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SeL4\" data-key=\"88e3f05d42029ff429c9de0ed7d2ab79\">seL4<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SYSGO\" title=\"SYSGO\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9fae7eb264ec7abe08477771f289b5e7\">SYSGO<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PikeOS\" title=\"PikeOS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9371e6e4596b59241d9bc879f367c679\">PikeOS<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup> \u2013 but these make up a very small percentage of the market.\n<\/p><p>It is possible to reduce an attacker's chances by keeping systems up to date with security patches and updates and\/or hiring people with expertise in security. Large companies with significant threats can hire Security Operations Centre (SOC) Analysts. These are specialists in cyber defences, with their role ranging from \"conducting threat analysis to investigating reports of any new issues and preparing and testing disaster recovery plans.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Whilst no measures can completely guarantee the prevention of an attack, these measures can help mitigate the damage of possible attacks. The effects of data loss\/damage can be also reduced by careful <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa4b45de245f1a05a108097855baf547\">backing up<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insurance\" title=\"Insurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d77f0f5d6a8807cf42570e516d2f5319\">insurance<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Outside of formal assessments, there are various methods of reducing vulnerabilities. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Two_factor_authentication\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Two factor authentication\" data-key=\"274baa111b715780c1254cbc23e6bdf5\">Two factor authentication<\/a> is a method for mitigating unauthorized access to a system or sensitive information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup> It requires <i>something you know<\/i>; a password or PIN, and <i>something you have<\/i>; a card, dongle, cellphone, or another piece of hardware. This increases security as an unauthorized person needs both of these to gain access.\n<\/p><p>Protecting against social engineering and direct computer access (physical) attacks can only be occur by non-computer means, which can be difficult to enforce, relative to the sensitivity of the information. Training is often involved to help mitigate this risk by improving people's knowledge of how to protect themselves and by increasing people's awareness of threats.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup> However, even in highly disciplined environments (e.g. military organizations), social engineering attacks can still be difficult to foresee and prevent.\n<\/p><p>Inoculation, derived from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inoculation_theory\" title=\"Inoculation theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25eb4f223ee202e985290a6c93bba747\">inoculation theory<\/a>, seeks to prevent social engineering and other fraudulent tricks or traps by instilling a resistance to persuasion attempts through exposure to similar or related attempts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hardware_protection_mechanisms\">Hardware protection mechanisms<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security_compromised_by_hardware_failure\" title=\"Computer security compromised by hardware failure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9f8adf72451ba36aea52b4c906c97ff\">Computer security compromised by hardware failure<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Hardware-based or assisted computer security also offers an alternative to software-only computer security. Using devices and methods such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dongle\" title=\"Dongle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab2024ebe71ccddfe89f210599143945\">dongles<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trusted_platform_module\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Trusted platform module\" data-key=\"32355afc16b060c89a480f1ce0ab694b\">trusted platform modules<\/a>, intrusion-aware cases, drive locks, disabling USB ports, and mobile-enabled access may be considered more secure due to the physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access) required in order to be compromised. Each of these is covered in more detail below.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>USB <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dongle\" title=\"Dongle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab2024ebe71ccddfe89f210599143945\">dongles<\/a> are typically used in software licensing schemes to unlock software capabilities,<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2019)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> but they can also be seen as a way to prevent unauthorized access to a computer or other device's software. The dongle, or key, essentially creates a secure encrypted tunnel between the software application and the key. The principle is that an encryption scheme on the dongle, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_Encryption_Standard\" title=\"Advanced Encryption Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0411feeb59e8eb26837d638e589e3fb6\">Advanced Encryption Standard<\/a> (AES) provides a stronger measure of security since it is harder to hack and replicate the dongle than to simply copy the native software to another machine and use it. Another security application for dongles is to use them for accessing web-based content such as cloud software or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_Private_Networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Virtual Private Networks\" data-key=\"3cc08d140d08c0e98636547f0298db8b\">Virtual Private Networks<\/a> (VPNs).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup> In addition, a USB dongle can be configured to lock or unlock a computer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trusted_platform_module\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Trusted platform module\" data-key=\"32355afc16b060c89a480f1ce0ab694b\">Trusted platform modules<\/a> (TPMs) secure devices by integrating cryptographic capabilities onto access devices, through the use of microprocessors, or so-called computers-on-a-chip. TPMs used in conjunction with server-side software offer a way to detect and authenticate hardware devices, preventing unauthorized network and data access.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_case#Intrusion_detection\" title=\"Computer case\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1fed82c7df9563b64761b55fe340c3d\">Computer case intrusion detection<\/a> refers to a device, typically a push-button switch, which detects when a computer case is opened. The firmware or BIOS is programmed to show an alert to the operator when the computer is booted up the next time.<\/li>\n<li>Drive locks are essentially software tools to encrypt hard drives, making them inaccessible to thieves.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> Tools exist specifically for encrypting external drives as well.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Disabling USB ports is a security option for preventing unauthorized and malicious access to an otherwise secure computer. Infected USB dongles connected to a network from a computer inside the firewall are considered by the magazine Network World as the most common hardware threat facing computer networks.<\/li>\n<li>Disconnecting or disabling peripheral devices ( like camera, GPS, removable storage etc.), that are not in use.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-76\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Mobile-enabled access devices are growing in popularity due to the ubiquitous nature of cell phones. Built-in capabilities such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bluetooth\" title=\"Bluetooth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf7b2ce888d74d287b869156ab12eee2\">Bluetooth<\/a>, the newer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bluetooth_low_energy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bluetooth low energy\" data-key=\"a4af3b155bbebde0981e8fc9f004f8ec\">Bluetooth low energy<\/a> (LE), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Near-field_communication\" title=\"Near-field communication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c405849514cfe47832682d621ce152ac\">near-field communication<\/a> (NFC) on non-iOS devices and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biometrics\" title=\"Biometrics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4f35a99c6e99677482bfa536211b504\">biometric<\/a> validation such as thumbprint readers, as well as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_code\" title=\"QR code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47108109498cb9cfde2bd82ca0546c8b\">QR code<\/a> reader software designed for mobile devices, offer new, secure ways for mobile phones to connect to access control systems. These control systems provide computer security and can also be used for controlling access to secure buildings.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IOMMU\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IOMMU\" data-key=\"21d58ac3b4d93372f0c0de685552bac8\">IOMMUs<\/a> allow for hardware-based <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sandbox_(computer_security)\" title=\"Sandbox (computer security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7302cdd9d2475e0e4688bcdea3204fe\">sandboxing<\/a> of components in mobile and desktop computers by utilizing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Direct_memory_access\" title=\"Direct memory access\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9a3e3753a18a296c932709f242f2d98\">direct memory access<\/a> protections.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_unclonable_function\" title=\"Physical unclonable function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e23fac93b7b8eacc6a6a471dbdae3f62\">Physical Unclonable Functions<\/a> (PUFs) can be used as a digital fingerprint or a unique identifier to integrated circuits and hardware, providing users the ability to secure the hardware supply chains going into their systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-81\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Secure_operating_systems\">Secure operating systems<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security-evaluated_operating_system\" title=\"Security-evaluated operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99d13db9a777aa51e99ccc16637b263c\">Security-evaluated operating system<\/a><\/div>\n<p>One use of the term <i>computer security<\/i> refers to technology that is used to implement <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security-evaluated_operating_system\" title=\"Security-evaluated operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99d13db9a777aa51e99ccc16637b263c\">secure operating systems<\/a>. Using secure operating systems is a good way of ensuring computer security. These are systems that have achieved certification from an external security-auditing organization, the most popular evaluations are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_Criteria\" title=\"Common Criteria\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"136ea622ed78e34fb9b12d038e2ba07e\">Common Criteria<\/a> (CC).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-82\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Secure_coding\">Secure coding<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_coding\" title=\"Secure coding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc2c6a343990de4f6f0aedbbc94c3fc1\">Secure coding<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In software engineering, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_coding\" title=\"Secure coding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc2c6a343990de4f6f0aedbbc94c3fc1\">secure coding<\/a> aims to guard against the accidental introduction of security vulnerabilities. It is also possible to create software designed from the ground up to be secure. Such systems are <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_by_design\" title=\"Secure by design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94e074b7207a0f4c8ed2ccf0ca6b2d6d\">secure by design<\/a><\/i>. Beyond this, formal verification aims to prove the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Correctness_(computer_science)\" title=\"Correctness (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"450677ad62db7462acf89e86b679fac7\">correctness<\/a> of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithms\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Algorithms\" data-key=\"16cd99a9a13213c5ec49d9f3dfbdac17\">algorithms<\/a> underlying a system;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup>\nimportant for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptographic_protocol\" title=\"Cryptographic protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e65c4411f447f60caa113890b98e957\">cryptographic protocols<\/a> for example.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Capabilities_and_access_control_lists\">Capabilities and access control lists<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control_list\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Access control list\" data-key=\"8c0bf561208bb893140c82316c072372\">Access control list<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Role-based_access_control\" title=\"Role-based access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b967da722b25f7d9085855625bc16460\">Role-based access control<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capability-based_security\" title=\"Capability-based security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f78a8e064e03df9279ceb7dc6bc2c55\">Capability-based security<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Within computer systems, two of the main <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security_model\" title=\"Computer security model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e30806dd960952612417e89f48ee6eed\">security models<\/a> capable of enforcing privilege separation are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control_list\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Access control list\" data-key=\"8c0bf561208bb893140c82316c072372\">access control lists<\/a> (ACLs) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Role-based_access_control\" title=\"Role-based access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b967da722b25f7d9085855625bc16460\">role-based access control<\/a> (RBAC).\n<\/p><p>An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access-control_list\" title=\"Access-control list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18cade5901174dba9d58b41e0ed1ced9\">access-control list<\/a> (ACL), with respect to a computer file system, is a list of permissions associated with an object. An ACL specifies which users or system processes are granted access to objects, as well as what operations are allowed on given objects.\n<\/p><p>Role-based access control is an approach to restricting system access to authorized users,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-84\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-85\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-86\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup> used by the majority of enterprises with more than 500 employees,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-autogenerated2002_87-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-autogenerated2002-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup> and can implement <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mandatory_access_control\" title=\"Mandatory access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17a1b2831d89d25f63338e19c0dc5e3a\">mandatory access control<\/a> (MAC) or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discretionary_access_control\" title=\"Discretionary access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be037fc60e92f0b8b145dd83ef0a7177\">discretionary access control<\/a> (DAC).\n<\/p><p>A further approach, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capability-based_security\" title=\"Capability-based security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f78a8e064e03df9279ceb7dc6bc2c55\">capability-based security<\/a> has been mostly restricted to research operating systems. Capabilities can, however, also be implemented at the language level, leading to a style of programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented design. An open-source project in the area is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E_programming_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"E programming language\" data-key=\"cf1b011a290d695b4cd86e34608c9f52\">E language<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"User_security_training\">User security training<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The end-user is widely recognized as the weakest link in the security chain<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-88\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup> and it is estimated that more than 90% of security incidents and breaches involve some kind of human error.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-89\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-89\">[89]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-90\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup> Among the most commonly recorded forms of errors and misjudgment are poor password management, sending emails containing sensitive data and attachments to the wrong recipient, the inability to recognize misleading URLs and to identify fake websites and dangerous email attachments. A common mistake that users make is saving their user id\/password in their browsers to make it easier to log in to banking sites. This is a gift to attackers who have obtained access to a machine by some means. The risk may be mitigated by the use of two-factor authentication.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-91\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-91\">[91]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As the human component of cyber risk is particularly relevant in determining the global cyber risk<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-92\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-92\">[92]<\/a><\/sup> an organization is facing, security awareness training, at all levels, not only provides formal compliance with regulatory and industry mandates but is considered essential<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">[93]<\/a><\/sup> in reducing cyber risk and protecting individuals and companies from the great majority of cyber threats.\n<\/p><p>The focus on the end-user represents a profound cultural change for many security practitioners, who have traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively from a technical perspective, and moves along the lines suggested by major security centers<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-94\">[94]<\/a><\/sup> to develop a culture of cyber awareness within the organization, recognizing that a security-aware user provides an important line of defense against cyber attacks.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Digital_hygiene\">Digital hygiene<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Related to end-user training, <b>digital hygiene<\/b> or <b>cyber hygiene<\/b> is a fundamental principle relating to information security and, as the analogy with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_hygiene\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Personal hygiene\" data-key=\"6d4d8161e21c5e8ea91d7da489d63265\">personal hygiene<\/a> shows, is the equivalent of establishing simple routine measures to minimize the risks from cyber threats. The assumption is that good cyber hygiene practices can give networked users another layer of protection, reducing the risk that one vulnerable node will be used to either mount attacks or compromise another node or network, especially from common cyberattacks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cyber_Hygiene_95-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cyber_Hygiene-95\">[95]<\/a><\/sup> Cyber hygiene should also not be mistaken for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proactive_cyber_defence\" title=\"Proactive cyber defence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b38583356710eaa18396898549bf096\">proactive cyber defence<\/a>, a military term.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaljulaid-2017_96-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaljulaid-2017-96\">[96]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The most common acts of digital hygiene can include updating malware protection, cloud back-ups, passwords, and ensuring restricted admin rights and network firewalls.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-97\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-97\">[97]<\/a><\/sup> As opposed to a purely technology-based defense against threats, cyber hygiene mostly regards routine measures that are technically simple to implement and mostly dependent on discipline<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-98\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-98\">[98]<\/a><\/sup> or education.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-99\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-99\">[99]<\/a><\/sup> It can be thought of as an abstract list of tips or measures that have been demonstrated as having a positive effect on personal and\/or collective digital security. As such, these measures can be performed by laypeople, not just security experts.\n<\/p><p>Cyber hygiene relates to personal hygiene as computer viruses relate to biological viruses (or pathogens). However, while the term <i>computer virus<\/i> was coined almost simultaneously with the creation of the first working computer viruses,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-100\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-100\">[100]<\/a><\/sup> the term <i>cyber hygiene<\/i> is a much later invention, perhaps as late as 2000<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-101\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-101\">[101]<\/a><\/sup> by Internet pioneer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vint_Cerf\" title=\"Vint Cerf\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eaf8d490396656c61ed2d17f0f436ec\">Vint Cerf<\/a>. It has since been adopted by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Congress\" title=\"United States Congress\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3e9948feec8fdbe2ecf8ba138c7a20d\">Congress<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-102\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-102\">[102]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Senate\" title=\"United States Senate\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16338a4cf9436ca447ad032b95d46d47\">Senate<\/a> of the United States,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-103\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-103\">[103]<\/a><\/sup> the FBI,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-104\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-104\">[104]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">EU<\/a> institutions<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cyber_Hygiene_95-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cyber_Hygiene-95\">[95]<\/a><\/sup> and heads of state.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaljulaid-2017_96-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaljulaid-2017-96\">[96]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Difficulty_of_responding_to_breaches\">Difficulty of responding to breaches<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Responding to attempted <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_breaches\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Security breaches\" data-key=\"f28d839b7c4575773596459da31ee7d0\">security breaches<\/a> is often very difficult for a variety of reasons, including:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Identifying attackers is difficult, as they may operate through proxies, temporary anonymous dial-up accounts, wireless connections, and other anonymizing procedures which make back-tracing difficult - and are often located in another <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jurisdiction\" title=\"Jurisdiction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21515ddebe973d2efa3334b357f77b86\">jurisdiction<\/a>. If they successfully breach security, they have also often gained enough administrative access to enable them to delete <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_logging\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data logging\" data-key=\"6f35e436f4029d12a6aec3a969831fc5\">logs<\/a> to cover their tracks.<\/li>\n<li>The sheer number of attempted attacks, often by automated vulnerability scanners and computer worms, is so large that organizations cannot spend time pursuing each.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Law_enforcement_officer\" title=\"Law enforcement officer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81f7b542d15f86011eeee55b299f2f97\">Law enforcement officers<\/a> often lack the skills, interest or budget to pursue attackers. In addition, the identification of attackers across a network may require logs from various points in the network and in many countries, which may be difficult or time-consuming to obtain.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Where an attack succeeds and a breach occurs, many jurisdictions now have in place mandatory <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_breach_notification_laws\" title=\"Security breach notification laws\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"836a6f4563df66fb4e12aa8c9572410d\">security breach notification laws<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_security_and_privacy\">Types of security and privacy<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"div-col\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control\" title=\"Access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f978f594d7eee9299dbb3da18ee80a8c\">Access control<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anti-keylogger\" title=\"Anti-keylogger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b61426b3c41a4560b6db9bfb6d06cf3\">Anti-keyloggers<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anti-malware\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Anti-malware\" data-key=\"2c1ad96eadfd7faad60f8a6c1fb7e0c5\">Anti-malware<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anti-spyware\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Anti-spyware\" data-key=\"33344b3af5297d8f9f9e13a527d97dce\">Anti-spyware<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anti-subversion_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Anti-subversion software\" data-key=\"181b509266473a80b74f2d562e909357\">Anti-subversion software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anti-tamper_software\" title=\"Anti-tamper software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f69c980b7155b26140efe5cba78c5dc\">Anti-tamper software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anti-theft\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Anti-theft\" data-key=\"de2a72a6ed335551fb7a625ef5d23f43\">Anti-theft<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antivirus_software\" title=\"Antivirus software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc170f9654f68c67e02265c8874eab4d\">Antivirus software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptographic_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cryptographic software\" data-key=\"7a25d9e1740595802e2fc9d1117399f7\">Cryptographic software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer-aided_dispatch\" title=\"Computer-aided dispatch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dcec439ecc199e327e95e44353ed1b06\">Computer-aided dispatch<\/a> (CAD)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(computing)\" title=\"Firewall (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"853725a035c106719dbf2660d8eca0b8\">Firewall<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intrusion_detection_system\" title=\"Intrusion detection system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5d5594179a0f4df4d85d17aa52c5c4f\">Intrusion detection system<\/a> (IDS)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intrusion_prevention_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intrusion prevention system\" data-key=\"70b73bccbe78e7b69ffd100bae0e37c8\">Intrusion prevention system<\/a> (IPS)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Log_management_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Log management software\" data-key=\"95238ca2e52585813ecea510fb340019\">Log management software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parental_control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Parental control\" data-key=\"a8883608c82b0ab3d8809fc086a09d0f\">Parental control<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Records_management\" title=\"Records management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"776f0cc59b663e870b7d26c6b5868575\">Records management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sandbox_(computer_security)\" title=\"Sandbox (computer security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7302cdd9d2475e0e4688bcdea3204fe\">Sandbox<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_information_management\" title=\"Security information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05eb1ff1c2e95447bbc894f070a84d1d\">Security information management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_information_and_event_management\" title=\"Security information and event management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2efcee7482ac302516e7293683bf80b4\">Security information and event management<\/a> (SIEM)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Patch_(computing)\" title=\"Patch (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6aa0aa386ec56a6cdb2f9786aca67e8f\">Software and operating system updating<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_Management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Vulnerability Management\" data-key=\"d93c43802672c8f99f1106b3876dccf2\">Vulnerability Management<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Systems_at_risk\">Systems at risk<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The growth in the number of computer systems and the increasing reliance upon them by individuals, businesses, industries, and governments means that there are an increasing number of systems at risk.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Financial_systems\">Financial systems<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The computer systems of financial regulators and financial institutions like the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission\" title=\"U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0824756e86c68de22a904a06445f19dc\">U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission<\/a>, SWIFT, investment banks, and commercial banks are prominent hacking targets for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cybercrime\" title=\"Cybercrime\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69fca3089ebc060286871719535eefa3\">cybercriminals<\/a> interested in manipulating markets and making illicit gains.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-105\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-105\">[105]<\/a><\/sup> Websites and apps that accept or store <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Credit_card_number\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Credit card number\" data-key=\"00e8bee6d98a752f069872ff7670501d\">credit card numbers<\/a>, brokerage accounts, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bank_account\" title=\"Bank account\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d38e1c460bef6033c3e43b05b2710c35\">bank account<\/a> information are also prominent hacking targets, because of the potential for immediate financial gain from transferring money, making purchases, or selling the information on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black_market\" title=\"Black market\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7f2f98aa8fe9cee8bce5424068312a8\">black market<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-106\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-106\">[106]<\/a><\/sup> In-store payment systems and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_teller_machine\" title=\"Automated teller machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"197cd2560948dac5a517b166bd6f58c0\">ATMs<\/a> have also been tampered with in order to gather customer account data and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_identification_number\" title=\"Personal identification number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd9e61bd2753a6095d26d7c90c766088\">PINs<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UCLA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UCLA\" data-key=\"b9f1c68109a5fafe9c805492553099fe\">UCLA<\/a> Internet Report: Surveying the Digital Future (2000) found that the privacy of personal data created barriers to online sales and that more than nine out of 10 internet users were somewhat or very concerned about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Credit_card\" title=\"Credit card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cf1cc39fc5879c4bfa4accd2b34f2d8\">credit card<\/a> security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-107\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-107\">[107]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The most common web technologies for improving security between browsers and websites are named SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), and its successor TLS (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transport_Layer_Security\" title=\"Transport Layer Security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"117c81b4404dd73024f8bd4ccf657b71\">Transport Layer Security<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_management\" title=\"Identity management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"139badee1fd59ef4622f94b49bf5228e\">identity management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">authentication<\/a> services, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Domain_name\" title=\"Domain name\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fec7836ad42b8b6df866b3ba394c897\">domain name<\/a> services allow companies and consumers to engage in secure communications and commerce. Several versions of SSL and TLS are commonly used today in applications such as web browsing, e-mail, internet faxing, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instant_messaging\" title=\"Instant messaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d4d94e28454df237e19617998f09bf3\">instant messaging<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/VoIP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"VoIP\" data-key=\"2d467c7c7f30781fde1dc6b5c46c43d0\">VoIP<\/a> (voice-over-IP). There are various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interoperability\" title=\"Interoperability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38415d24cde633d18de0c69db5a6d400\">interoperable<\/a> implementations of these technologies, including at least one implementation that is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_source\" title=\"Open source\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e57a6a17d2e9c902c3b9b225022fb8b\">open source<\/a>. Open source allows anyone to view the application's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Source_code\" title=\"Source code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4805f9becd39a1999614ab543deeb594\">source code<\/a>, and look for and report vulnerabilities.\n<\/p><p>The credit card companies <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visa_Debit\" title=\"Visa Debit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b54a1fa494dc1d03d1031a2a92ed12d\">Visa<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MasterCard\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MasterCard\" data-key=\"800930ed966ced433aa04bbc3482c041\">MasterCard<\/a> cooperated to develop the secure <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EMV\" title=\"EMV\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2e5873d3230c7446165c0d2fac9a476\">EMV<\/a> chip which is embedded in credit cards. Further developments include the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chip_Authentication_Program\" title=\"Chip Authentication Program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99aeec4ae6a34a73c9e77a770516a730\">Chip Authentication Program<\/a> where banks give customers hand-held card readers to perform online secure transactions. Other developments in this arena include the development of technology such as Instant Issuance which has enabled shopping <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mall_kiosk\" title=\"Mall kiosk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c25513b50a0d915b0727821c32fefbd9\">mall kiosks<\/a> acting on behalf of banks to issue on-the-spot credit cards to interested customers.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Utilities_and_industrial_equipment\">Utilities and industrial equipment<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Computers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telecommunication\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Telecommunication\" data-key=\"4e6c5b88185933f9f03eb88df6b15551\">telecommunications<\/a>, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Power_grid\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Power grid\" data-key=\"63022626a2d264de0ee5879e611f2962\">power grid<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_power_plant\" title=\"Nuclear power plant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"111529144371836f90da979af3281467\">nuclear power plants<\/a>, and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks. The Internet is a potential attack vector for such machines if connected, but the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuxnet\" title=\"Stuxnet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fe09aa4c27ed6a49567adfe2e873a0d\">Stuxnet<\/a> worm demonstrated that even equipment controlled by computers not connected to the Internet can be vulnerable. In 2014, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Emergency_Readiness_Team\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer Emergency Readiness Team\" data-key=\"1e04f90a5203a665d2c9d8c3f715d486\">Computer Emergency Readiness Team<\/a>, a division of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Department_of_Homeland_Security\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Department of Homeland Security\" data-key=\"7f017d14ac9bd6c4bb22b8aac9cd4d2c\">Department of Homeland Security<\/a>, investigated 79 hacking incidents at energy companies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-108\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-108\">[108]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Aviation\">Aviation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aviation\" title=\"Aviation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e64e06bd225859203139391b80a2897\">aviation<\/a> industry is very reliant on a series of complex systems which could be attacked.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-109\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-109\">[109]<\/a><\/sup> A simple power outage at one airport can cause repercussions worldwide,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-110\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-110\">[110]<\/a><\/sup> much of the system relies on radio transmissions which could be disrupted,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-111\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-111\">[111]<\/a><\/sup> and controlling aircraft over oceans is especially dangerous because radar surveillance only extends 175 to 225 miles offshore.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-112\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-112\">[112]<\/a><\/sup> There is also potential for attack from within an aircraft.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-113\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-113\">[113]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Implementing fixes in aerospace systems poses a unique challenge because efficient air transportation is heavily affected by weight and volume. Improving security by adding physical devices to airplanes could increase their unloaded weight, and could potentially reduce cargo or passenger capacity. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-114\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-114\">[114]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In Europe, with the (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pan-European_Network_Service\" title=\"Pan-European Network Service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b41401398cd5e716c41622328082d4e\">Pan-European Network Service<\/a>)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-115\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-115\">[115]<\/a><\/sup> and NewPENS,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-116\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-116\">[116]<\/a><\/sup> and in the US with the NextGen program,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-117\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-117\">[117]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_navigation_service_provider\" title=\"Air navigation service provider\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3161148d384603e19abeaee258203af8\">air navigation service providers<\/a> are moving to create their own dedicated networks.\n<\/p><p>Many modern passports are now <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biometric_passport\" title=\"Biometric passport\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"058cad9de9596443981856edcfd90f1a\">biometric passports<\/a>, containing an embedded <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integrated_circuit\" title=\"Integrated circuit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19f8493fc864521e5acaf7e300904967\">microchip<\/a> that stores a digitized photograph and personal information such as name, gender, and date of birth. In addition, more countries<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words\" data-key=\"3c3e3e3bd5e8c5c41bbedf61159040c1\"><span title=\"The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (December 2012)\">which?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> are introducing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facial_recognition_technology\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Facial recognition technology\" data-key=\"475c67ea1b928d3a3f0054dda8f69ce8\">facial recognition technology<\/a> to reduce <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_fraud\" title=\"Identity fraud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"795b0f7062487f66f30b6e51d2aca454\">identity-related fraud<\/a>. The introduction of the ePassport has assisted border officials in verifying the identity of the passport holder, thus allowing for quick passenger processing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-118\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-118\">[118]<\/a><\/sup> Plans are under way in the US, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UK\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UK\" data-key=\"3be4614aa8ee9ecb1c46bbb0c1feed82\">UK<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australia\" title=\"Australia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c2db49e6ded3da2c9ba98e453f9ea81\">Australia<\/a> to introduce SmartGate kiosks with both retina and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fingerprint_recognition\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fingerprint recognition\" data-key=\"af72913c8cd82d4c858075ba9b2955ba\">fingerprint recognition<\/a> technology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-119\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-119\">[119]<\/a><\/sup> The airline industry is moving from the use of traditional paper tickets towards the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_ticket\" title=\"Electronic ticket\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47a52f0fb84a30f1325714823fc6d1c9\">electronic tickets<\/a> (e-tickets). These have been made possible by advances in online credit card transactions in partnership with the airlines. Long-distance bus companies<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words\" data-key=\"3c3e3e3bd5e8c5c41bbedf61159040c1\"><span title=\"The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (December 2012)\">which?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> are also switching over to e-ticketing transactions today.\n<\/p><p>The consequences of a successful attack range from loss of confidentiality to loss of system integrity, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_traffic_control\" title=\"Air traffic control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bb0c75d815531250e888d7289ee2454\">air traffic control<\/a> outages, loss of aircraft, and even loss of life.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Consumer_devices\">Consumer devices<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Desktop computers and laptops are commonly targeted to gather passwords or financial account information or to construct a botnet to attack another target. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smartphone\" title=\"Smartphone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49a2d39877c99c533d1236c163ea0100\">Smartphones<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tablet_computer\" title=\"Tablet computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9695298204caf00df290ab07d3dff9c7\">tablet computers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_watch\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Smart watch\" data-key=\"f606ecf07e1a735b1d23fbf1aea95db5\">smart watches<\/a>, and other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_devices\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mobile devices\" data-key=\"7c3ad63c6e5c877a53ab984a0b2f960b\">mobile devices<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantified_self\" title=\"Quantified self\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bcb6bb410ac5e592dfdf5a01483e891\">quantified self<\/a> devices like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activity_tracker\" title=\"Activity tracker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b99f7533bdd92bbd71a23aec472e0e8d\">activity trackers<\/a> have sensors such as cameras, microphones, GPS receivers, compasses, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accelerometers\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Accelerometers\" data-key=\"d2948c1a488bdf46c66679280367794d\">accelerometers<\/a> which could be exploited, and may collect personal information, including sensitive health information. WiFi, Bluetooth, and cell phone networks on any of these devices could be used as attack vectors, and sensors might be remotely activated after a successful breach.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nestwatch_120-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nestwatch-120\">[120]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The increasing number of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Home_automation\" title=\"Home automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57ae87ba9c509562151e6599939ab60\">home automation<\/a> devices such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nest_thermostat\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nest thermostat\" data-key=\"b716f082026f4955e2357d970dbdf005\">Nest thermostat<\/a> are also potential targets.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nestwatch_120-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nestwatch-120\">[120]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Healthcare\">Healthcare<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Today many health-care providers and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_insurance\" title=\"Health insurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4507ddb329c04bfea6a4eaa1cbb73c6a\">health insurance<\/a> companies use the internet to provide enhanced products and services, for example through use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telehealth\" title=\"Telehealth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"daee7f409bc7a54b87172de8f784444a\">tele-health<\/a> to potentially offer better quality and access to healthcare, or fitness trackers to lower insurance premiums.\n<\/p><p>The health care company <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Humana\" title=\"Humana\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb3bac6c1cebedd445421f251457275b\">Humana<\/a> partners with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WebMD\" title=\"WebMD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fe6a833c5bc4ad04b0216a92efef104\">WebMD<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_Corporation\" title=\"Oracle Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9d9b95cef4bc5e02dc8a6d510f8fca6\">Oracle Corporation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Data_Systems\" title=\"Electronic Data Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"29c029bcfd0c13792b7d45daca9caca2\">EDS<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a> to enable its members to access their health care records, as well as to provide an overview of health care plans.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-121\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-121\">[121]<\/a><\/sup> Patient records are increasingly being placed on secure in-house networks, alleviating the need for extra storage space.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-122\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-122\">[122]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Large_corporations\">Large corporations<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Large corporations are common targets. In many cases attacks are aimed at financial gain through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_theft\" title=\"Identity theft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb9eb8acee1ea77f10451b7488ead058\">identity theft<\/a> and involve <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_breach\" title=\"Data breach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"611c0b2099532a287e0e8fe5b0c95f57\">data breaches<\/a>. Examples include the loss of millions of clients' credit card and financial details by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Home_Depot\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Home Depot\" data-key=\"f36e6a99838764166664a26c7a637167\">Home Depot<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-123\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-123\">[123]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Staples_Inc.\" title=\"Staples Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ddfcb7ca934edb9c5105c63b2fe7978e\">Staples<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-124\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-124\">[124]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Target_Corporation\" title=\"Target Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f0c29048dd76d5b5545db3da2af5b9\">Target Corporation<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-125\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-125\">[125]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Equifax\" title=\"Equifax\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b76034ed9beefece8af9ab554bddeb2b\">Equifax<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-126\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-126\">[126]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Medical records have been targeted in general identify theft, health insurance fraud, and impersonating patients to obtain prescription drugs for recreational purposes or resale.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-127\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-127\">[127]<\/a><\/sup> Although cyber threats continue to increase, 62% of all organizations did not increase security training for their business in 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-128\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-128\">[128]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Not all attacks are financially motivated, however: security firm <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HBGary_Federal\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HBGary Federal\" data-key=\"3b0a97e3a84b7c3075d5e1a9b03d5c3e\">HBGary Federal<\/a> had a serious series of attacks in 2011 from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacktivism\" title=\"Hacktivism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88206f4895d4ab09a7862e0746de37f7\">hacktivist<\/a> group <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anonymous_(group)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Anonymous (group)\" data-key=\"6187f00a1533fae243d8a58d50dd1cf5\">Anonymous<\/a> in retaliation for the firm's CEO claiming to have infiltrated their group,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-129\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-129\">[129]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-130\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-130\">[130]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sony_Pictures\" title=\"Sony Pictures\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0f554200a5a7286030467089e14c90f\">Sony Pictures<\/a> was <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sony_Pictures_hack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sony Pictures hack\" data-key=\"54a0e25e2b3a0767d384b1a1f9aa705b\">hacked in 2014<\/a> with the apparent dual motive of embarrassing the company through data leaks and crippling the company by wiping workstations and servers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-131\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-131\">[131]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-132\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-132\">[132]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Automobiles\">Automobiles<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autonomous_car#Potential_disadvantages\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Autonomous car\" data-key=\"4099120d8fbab6a4906004080050c646\">Autonomous car \u00a7&#160;Potential disadvantages<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_driving_system#Risks_and_liabilities\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated driving system\" data-key=\"f2ef6aa7421955ec974d494d47114165\">Automated driving system \u00a7&#160;Risks and liabilities<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automotive_hacking\" title=\"Automotive hacking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1d4574721a5b686a80b2bd1f423a9b2\">Automotive hacking<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Vehicles are increasingly computerized, with engine timing, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cruise_control\" title=\"Cruise control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cdfe0c7f8482937fd0c967e658d5ad29\">cruise control<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anti-lock_brakes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Anti-lock brakes\" data-key=\"05bc7b93c18403c3fcaf0aa588ade9c0\">anti-lock brakes<\/a>, seat belt tensioners, door locks, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Airbag\" title=\"Airbag\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a149239e01d7bdf8fc4e453a76c88a89\">airbags<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_driver-assistance_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Advanced driver-assistance systems\" data-key=\"412e44c9a20b4114dd2dacd0d56cef7a\">advanced driver-assistance systems<\/a> on many models. Additionally, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Connected_car\" title=\"Connected car\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6fba05198bfd61edbc65feabe64792b\">connected cars<\/a> may use WiFi and Bluetooth to communicate with onboard consumer devices and the cell phone network.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-vox_133-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-vox-133\">[133]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-driving_car\" title=\"Self-driving car\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e20b1b76d62a424b64286c7648a2b960\">Self-driving cars<\/a> are expected to be even more complex. All of these systems carry some security risks, and such issues have gained wide attention.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-134\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-134\">[134]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-135\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-135\">[135]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-136\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-136\">[136]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Simple examples of risk include a malicious <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compact_disc\" title=\"Compact disc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f59648d6b5a9d5de7b497f87bfc19eb2\">compact disc<\/a> being used as an attack vector,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-137\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-137\">[137]<\/a><\/sup> and the car's onboard microphones being used for eavesdropping. However, if access is gained to a car's internal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Controller_area_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Controller area network\" data-key=\"9c04282df2f8a232278bf872f4bdc67c\">controller area network<\/a>, the danger is much greater<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-vox_133-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-vox-133\">[133]<\/a><\/sup> \u2013 and in a widely publicized 2015 test, hackers remotely carjacked a vehicle from 10 miles away and drove it into a ditch.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-138\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-138\">[138]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-139\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-139\">[139]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Manufacturers are reacting in numerous ways, with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tesla_Motors\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Tesla Motors\" data-key=\"da9c025220b05137b162dfec12acde26\">Tesla<\/a> in 2016 pushing out some security fixes <i>over the air<\/i> into its cars' computer systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-140\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-140\">[140]<\/a><\/sup> In the area of autonomous vehicles, in September 2016 the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_Transportation\" title=\"United States Department of Transportation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6bbc002cda5a8074c0047b8cd27d9be\">United States Department of Transportation<\/a> announced some initial safety standards, and called for states to come up with uniform policies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-141\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-141\">[141]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-142\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-142\">[142]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-143\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-143\">[143]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Additionally, e-Drivers' licenses are being developed using the same technology. For example, Mexico's licensing authority (ICV) has used a smart card platform to issue the first e-Drivers' licenses to the city of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monterrey\" title=\"Monterrey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5ee82ce1766a924666a88ab44f7e792\">Monterrey<\/a>, in the state of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuevo_Le%C3%B3n\" title=\"Nuevo Le\u00f3n\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4e145940cbe8655129e6b6c205289e4\">Nuevo Le\u00f3n<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-144\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-144\">[144]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Shipping\">Shipping<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Shipping companies<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-145\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-145\">[145]<\/a><\/sup> have adopted <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RFID\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"RFID\" data-key=\"a5825219d6bec7f38aa96990ecf800b2\">RFID<\/a> (Radio Frequency Identification) technology as an efficient, digitally secure, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tracking_device\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Tracking device\" data-key=\"d34753d988a27562df3ab8f66a11d89b\">tracking device<\/a>. Unlike a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode\" title=\"Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1852a2c48f6042c16ca0c8a87abed56\">barcode<\/a>, RFID can be read up to 20 feet away. RFID is used by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FedEx\" title=\"FedEx\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0199b6c9892b1f050e80f2f80ad268f0\">FedEx<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-146\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-146\">[146]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Parcel_Service\" title=\"United Parcel Service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e33fbf8c4075127007bb6ec3bded976\">UPS<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-147\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-147\">[147]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Government\">Government<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Government and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military\" title=\"Military\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de82354cbb71572ffd905508c51d13c4\">military<\/a> computer systems are commonly attacked by activists<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-148\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-148\">[148]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-149\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-149\">[149]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-150\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-150\">[150]<\/a><\/sup> and foreign powers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-151\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-151\">[151]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-152\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-152\">[152]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-153\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-153\">[153]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-154\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-154\">[154]<\/a><\/sup> Local and regional government infrastructure such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic_light\" title=\"Traffic light\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e169d2de2a18c79a06a93e264ee4efa9\">traffic light<\/a> controls, police and intelligence agency communications, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_Personnel_Management_data_breach\" title=\"Office of Personnel Management data breach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d0921f70904c0f216257a64b22db49c\">personnel records<\/a>, as well as student records.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-155\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-155\">[155]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FBI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"FBI\" data-key=\"aaac8225548bb08e2dffe344645bccbd\">FBI<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CIA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CIA\" data-key=\"39494a277d03f9f20c7478340e1781bc\">CIA<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Pentagon\" title=\"The Pentagon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f79a0cb034a0e3ab8392550ddfa12cb4\">Pentagon<\/a>, all utilize secure controlled access technology for any of their buildings. However, the use of this form of technology is spreading into the entrepreneurial world. More and more companies are taking advantage of the development of digitally secure controlled access technology. GE's ACUVision, for example, offers a single panel platform for access control, alarm monitoring and digital recording.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-156\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-156\">[156]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Internet_of_things_and_physical_vulnerabilities\">Internet of things and physical vulnerabilities<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_things\" title=\"Internet of things\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08e522f905854fe34747cc25ffb62f63\">Internet of things<\/a> (IoT) is the network of physical objects such as devices, vehicles, and buildings that are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embedded_system\" title=\"Embedded system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9040d0f831e8e1f3fa9fc769bf290d5\">embedded<\/a> with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronics\" title=\"Electronics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cc4c102223083779a5fa0e7a609cbe0\">electronics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sensor\" title=\"Sensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f309353c1f8a54286958707160bba6d\">sensors<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_access\" title=\"Internet access\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ce90853b88ba9207babcc9241a6c4f\">network connectivity<\/a> that enables them to collect and exchange data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-157\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-157\">[157]<\/a><\/sup> Concerns have been raised that this is being developed without appropriate consideration of the security challenges involved.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-158\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-158\">[158]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-159\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-159\">[159]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While the IoT creates opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-160\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-160\">[160]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-161\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-161\">[161]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>it also provides opportunities for misuse. In particular, as the Internet of Things spreads widely, cyberattacks are likely to become an increasingly physical (rather than simply virtual) threat.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-162\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-162\">[162]<\/a><\/sup> If a front door's lock is connected to the Internet, and can be locked\/unlocked from a phone, then a criminal could enter the home at the press of a button from a stolen or hacked phone. People could stand to lose much more than their credit card numbers in a world controlled by IoT-enabled devices. Thieves have also used electronic means to circumvent non-Internet-connected hotel door locks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-163\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-163\">[163]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>An attack that targets physical infrastructure and\/or human lives is sometimes referred to as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber-kinetic_attack\" title=\"Cyber-kinetic attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de7394ff05ad8cea5a032efa7b03e13a\">cyber-kinetic attack<\/a>. As IoT devices and appliances gain currency, cyber-kinetic attacks can become pervasive and significantly damaging.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Medical_systems\">Medical systems<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_device_hijack\" title=\"Medical device hijack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"663a0a8e1584ed5f69a2d33d7482d90a\">Medical device hijack<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_data_breach\" title=\"Medical data breach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ddc9a4921c7c01e4640de39228fa5201\">Medical data breach<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_devices\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Medical devices\" data-key=\"e72d256a1f1f67609e7e79ee5f08cb99\">Medical devices<\/a> have either been successfully attacked or had potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated, including both in-hospital diagnostic equipment<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-164\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-164\">[164]<\/a><\/sup> and implanted devices including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pacemaker\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Pacemaker\" data-key=\"46a3e783a1253a492417c8ca0756a098\">pacemakers<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-165\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-165\">[165]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insulin_pump\" title=\"Insulin pump\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7492984f68fe34082ad5c84d6b41c31\">insulin pumps<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-166\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-166\">[166]<\/a><\/sup> There are many reports of hospitals and hospital organizations getting hacked, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ransomware\" title=\"Ransomware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9920028b76940c5bc43f59920d1c4eb\">ransomware<\/a> attacks,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-167\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-167\">[167]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-wiwo1_168-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-wiwo1-168\">[168]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-169\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-169\">[169]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-170\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-170\">[170]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Windows_XP\" title=\"Windows XP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d395e6c7b667665918744ad34087e00b\">Windows XP<\/a> exploits,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-171\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-171\">[171]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-172\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-172\">[172]<\/a><\/sup> viruses,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-173\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-173\">[173]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-174\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-174\">[174]<\/a><\/sup> and data breaches of sensitive data stored on hospital servers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-175\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-175\">[175]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-wiwo1_168-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-wiwo1-168\">[168]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-176\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-176\">[176]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-177\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-177\">[177]<\/a><\/sup> On 28 December 2016 the US <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> released its recommendations for how medical <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_device_manufacturing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Medical device manufacturing\" data-key=\"553ac9d5c3216af7ad58d87946845823\">device manufacturers<\/a> should maintain the security of Internet-connected devices \u2013 but no structure for enforcement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-178\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-178\">[178]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-179\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-179\">[179]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Energy_sector\">Energy sector<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In distributed generation systems, the risk of a cyber attack is real, according to <i>Daily Energy Insider<\/i>. An attack could cause a loss of power in a large area for a long period of time, and such an attack could have just as severe consequences as a natural disaster. The District of Columbia is considering creating a Distributed Energy Resources (DER) Authority within the city, with the goal being for customers to have more insight into their own energy use and giving the local electric utility, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pepco\" title=\"Pepco\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7fd55ed0af77c1366837487650b61b8\">Pepco<\/a>, the chance to better estimate energy demand. The D.C. proposal, however, would \"allow third-party vendors to create numerous points of energy distribution, which could potentially create more opportunities for cyber attackers to threaten the electric grid.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-180\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-180\">[180]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Telecommunications\">Telecommunications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Perhaps the most widely known digitally secure telecommunication device is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subscriber_Identity_Module\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Subscriber Identity Module\" data-key=\"6741bf9c18fc2ddf181c590bae0e8769\">SIM<\/a> (Subscriber Identity Module) card, a device that is embedded in most of the world's cellular devices before any service can be obtained. The SIM card is just the beginning of this digitally secure environment.\n<\/p><p>The Smart Card Web Servers draft standard (SCWS) defines the interfaces to an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTTP_server\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HTTP server\" data-key=\"25e082d3844c0b46e860305b676e9a02\">HTTP server<\/a> in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_card\" title=\"Smart card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56ccf00b9c7f1e26ad9be79e414f12d5\">smart card<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-181\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-181\">[181]<\/a><\/sup> Tests are being conducted to secure OTA (\"over-the-air\") payment and credit card information from and to a mobile phone. \n<\/p><p>Combination SIM\/DVD devices are being developed through Smart Video Card technology which embeds a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DVD\" title=\"DVD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b45969e60a2a59ddc3331aca2446601b\">DVD<\/a>-compliant <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_disc\" title=\"Optical disc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c46aeca9fac270756c62e913ab0cf091\">optical disc<\/a> into the card body of a regular SIM card.\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>Other telecommunication developments involving digital security include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_signature\" title=\"Mobile signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c6b208087a517a7ada408d223b417995\">mobile signatures<\/a>, which use the embedded SIM card to generate a legally binding <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_signature\" title=\"Electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d93c89da3c8f28e5d98d92e55b811ebe\">electronic signature<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cost_and_impact_of_security_breaches\">Cost and impact of security breaches<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Serious financial damage has been caused by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_breaches\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Security breaches\" data-key=\"f28d839b7c4575773596459da31ee7d0\">security breaches<\/a>, but because there is no standard model for estimating the cost of an incident, the only data available is that which is made public by the organizations involved. \"Several computer security consulting firms produce estimates of total worldwide losses attributable to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_virus\" title=\"Computer virus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91d7100dd3499b98a5308377a38a7b58\">virus<\/a> and worm attacks and to hostile digital acts in general. The 2003 loss estimates by these firms range from $13 billion (worms and viruses only) to $226 billion (for all forms of covert attacks). The reliability of these estimates is often challenged; the underlying methodology is basically anecdotal.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-182\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-182\">[182]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, reasonable estimates of the financial cost of security breaches can actually help organizations make rational investment decisions. According to the classic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gordon-Loeb_Model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gordon-Loeb Model\" data-key=\"7fb8f8a8b3a501927bdb2af9be0810c6\">Gordon-Loeb Model<\/a> analyzing the optimal investment level in information security, one can conclude that the amount a firm spends to protect information should generally be only a small fraction of the expected loss (i.e., the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expected_value\" title=\"Expected value\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4371d27a9fd5a00b9212714de2dc5f5e\">expected value<\/a> of the loss resulting from a cyber\/information <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_breach\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Security breach\" data-key=\"615cf623d29a06e9d0ea43081be62f26\">security breach<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-183\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-183\">[183]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Attacker_motivation\">Attacker motivation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_security\" title=\"Physical security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f5638e30bd1ab1ce1c42482d33a335b\">physical security<\/a>, the motivations for breaches of computer security vary between attackers. Some are thrill-seekers or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vandalism\" title=\"Vandalism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c08614c84c346d61e78184241c5685c\">vandals<\/a>, some are activists, others are criminals looking for financial gain. State-sponsored attackers are now common and well resourced but started with amateurs such as Markus Hess who hacked for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KGB\" title=\"KGB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f53518ef74989e4696fedba8169f822\">KGB<\/a>, as recounted by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clifford_Stoll\" title=\"Clifford Stoll\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c602e0353a934e33106e1d3a7a3bd0bc\">Clifford Stoll<\/a> in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Cuckoo%27s_Egg\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"The Cuckoo's Egg\" data-key=\"32f6cd7fbb37374b03a182541221d3a2\">The Cuckoo's Egg<\/a><\/i>.\n<\/p><p>Attackers motivations can vary for all types of attacks from pleasure to for political goals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DoS_guidance_15-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DoS_guidance-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> For example, \"hacktivists\" may target a company a company or organisation that carries out activities they do not agree with. This would be to create bad publicity for the company by having its website crash.\n<\/p><p>High capability hackers, often with larger backing or state sponsorship, may attack based on the demands of their financial backers. These attacks are more likely to attempt more serious attack. An example of a more serious attack was the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2015_Ukraine_power_grid_hack\" title=\"2015 Ukraine power grid hack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ce0f274674d52d186a3fb77a869cd1b\">2015 Ukraine power grid hack<\/a>, which reportedly utilised the spear-phising, destruction of files, and denial-of-service attacks to carry out the full attack.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-184\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-184\">[184]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-185\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-185\">[185]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Additionally, recent attacker motivations can be traced back to extremist organizations seeking to gain political advantage or disrupt social agendas.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-186\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-186\">[186]<\/a><\/sup> The growth of the internet, mobile technologies, and inexpensive computing devices have led to a rise in capabilities but also to the risk to environments that are deemed as vital to operations. All critical targeted environments are susceptible to compromise and this has led to a series of proactive studies on how to migrate the risk by taking into consideration motivations by these types of actors. Several stark differences exist between the hacker motivation and that of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nation_state\" title=\"Nation state\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5492e162b65f1b49ed13d15d38d9ce6c\">nation state<\/a> actors seeking to attack based on an ideological preference.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-187\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-187\">[187]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A standard part of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Threat_model\" title=\"Threat model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"abf80308aa482ec4a6e12082d604ef84\">threat modeling<\/a> for any particular system is to identify what might motivate an attack on that system, and who might be motivated to breach it. The level and detail of precautions will vary depending on the system to be secured. A home <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_computer\" title=\"Personal computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c58715a84f1d1ae97a9f4ff00e1c5ba\">personal computer<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bank\" title=\"Bank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d174489d4b3f593dce6a250ad239ae02\">bank<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classified_information\" title=\"Classified information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0ff0b737ab31c45d7e5a4047bfb82a7\">classified<\/a> military <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">network<\/a> face very different threats, even when the underlying technologies in use are similar.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-188\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-188\">[188]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Computer_security_incident_management\">Computer security incident management<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security_incident_management\" title=\"Computer security incident management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aef9b013d8d4cb2360e9101f9f52ec99\">Computer security incident management<\/a> is an organized approach to addressing and managing the aftermath of a computer security incident or compromise with the goal of preventing a breach or thwarting a cyberattack. An incident that is not identified and managed at the time of intrusion typically escalates to a more damaging event such as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_breach\" title=\"Data breach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"611c0b2099532a287e0e8fe5b0c95f57\">data breach<\/a> or system failure. The intended outcome of a computer security incident response plan is to contain the incident, limit damage and assist recovery to business as usual. Responding to compromises quickly can mitigate exploited vulnerabilities, restore services and processes and minimize losses.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-189\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-189\">[189]<\/a><\/sup>\nIncident response planning allows an organization to establish a series of best practices to stop an intrusion before it causes damage. Typical incident response plans contain a set of written instructions that outline the organization's response to a cyberattack. Without a documented plan in place, an organization may not successfully detect an intrusion or compromise and stakeholders may not understand their roles, processes and procedures during an escalation, slowing the organization's response and resolution.\n<\/p><p>There are four key components of a computer security incident response plan:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Preparation: Preparing stakeholders on the procedures for handling computer security incidents or compromises<\/li>\n<li>Detection and analysis: Identifying and investigating suspicious activity to confirm a security incident, prioritizing the response based on impact and coordinating notification of the incident<\/li>\n<li>Containment, eradication and recovery: Isolating affected systems to prevent escalation and limit impact, pinpointing the genesis of the incident, removing malware, affected systems and bad actors from the environment and restoring systems and data when a threat no longer remains<\/li>\n<li>Post incident activity: Post mortem analysis of the incident, its root cause and the organization's response with the intent of improving the incident response plan and future response efforts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-190\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-190\">[190]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notable_attacks_and_breaches\">Notable attacks and breaches<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cyber-attacks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"List of cyber-attacks\" data-key=\"215805b133298dc8d4733e46e35943a5\">List of cyber-attacks<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_data_breaches\" title=\"List of data breaches\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2674ac40f1e775bb4ba40b2e91c7294\">List of data breaches<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Some illustrative examples of different types of computer security breaches are given below.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Robert_Morris_and_the_first_computer_worm\">Robert Morris and the first computer worm<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morris_worm\" title=\"Morris worm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51bc995552fa7fbe89e123a1f7086689\">Morris worm<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In 1988, 60,000 computers were connected to the Internet, and most were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations. On 2 November 1988, many started to slow down, because they were running a malicious code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers \u2013 the first internet <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_worm\" title=\"Computer worm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a91f5f0c8645bb8a187c68b0ba5df098\">computer worm<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-multiple_191-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-multiple-191\">[191]<\/a><\/sup> The software was traced back to 23-year-old <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cornell_University\" title=\"Cornell University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1abba60aa473925cff415cf643774fb8\">Cornell University<\/a> graduate student <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert_Tappan_Morris\" title=\"Robert Tappan Morris\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d07745f2bddeea0c2fbe10a711710ca3\">Robert Tappan Morris<\/a> who said \"he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-multiple_191-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-multiple-191\">[191]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Rome_Laboratory\">Rome Laboratory<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 1994, over a hundred intrusions were made by unidentified crackers into the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rome_Laboratory\" title=\"Rome Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60b0cce4e49f92c455a2e05e498749b6\">Rome Laboratory<\/a>, the US Air Force's main command and research facility. Using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trojan_horse_(computing)\" title=\"Trojan horse (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a678695bce8d35b35440bc260712bbc\">trojan horses<\/a>, hackers were able to obtain unrestricted access to Rome's networking systems and remove traces of their activities. The intruders were able to obtain classified files, such as air tasking order systems data and furthermore able to penetrate connected networks of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"National Aeronautics and Space Administration\" data-key=\"be80d4fbfad863cd9d0404d70a562b83\">National Aeronautics and Space Administration<\/a>'s Goddard Space Flight Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, some Defense contractors, and other private sector organizations, by posing as a trusted Rome center user.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-192\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-192\">[192]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"TJX_customer_credit_card_details\">TJX customer credit card details<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In early 2007, American apparel and home goods company <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TJX_Companies\" title=\"TJX Companies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a63d71b61ab83c2cbf355ff1bce5073\">TJX<\/a> announced that it was the victim of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacker_(computer_security)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hacker (computer security)\" data-key=\"451128bf11e718a1cc4e2e4e24e268cf\">unauthorized computer systems intrusion<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-193\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-193\">[193]<\/a><\/sup> and that the hackers had accessed a system that stored data on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Credit_card\" title=\"Credit card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cf1cc39fc5879c4bfa4accd2b34f2d8\">credit card<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Debit_card\" title=\"Debit card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee27f8cb8c1a8fecc3886daf3eba9400\">debit card<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cheque\" title=\"Cheque\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"753e2f3e52ca2aabc07f8467405fa487\">check<\/a>, and merchandise return transactions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-194\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-194\">[194]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stuxnet_attack\">Stuxnet attack<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 2010, the computer worm known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuxnet\" title=\"Stuxnet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fe09aa4c27ed6a49567adfe2e873a0d\">Stuxnet<\/a> reportedly ruined almost one-fifth of Iran's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_centrifuge\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nuclear centrifuge\" data-key=\"8234390b07340a75a5441cc4fac298ae\">nuclear centrifuges<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-195\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-195\">[195]<\/a><\/sup> It did so by disrupting industrial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programmable_logic_controller\" title=\"Programmable logic controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fdc9aaee22e550e6104618c6d3a34bf\">programmable logic controllers<\/a> (PLCs) in a targeted attack. This is generally believed to have been launched by Israel and the United States to disrupt Iran's nuclear program<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-196\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-196\">[196]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-197\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-197\">[197]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-198\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-198\">[198]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-199\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-199\">[199]<\/a><\/sup> \u2013 although neither has publicly admitted this.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Global_surveillance_disclosures\">Global surveillance disclosures<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_surveillance_disclosures_(2013%E2%80%93present)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Global surveillance disclosures (2013\u2013present)\" data-key=\"876a4630d7aa6433dff76a78e7e4a1ad\">Global surveillance disclosures (2013\u2013present)<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In early 2013, documents provided by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Snowden\" title=\"Edward Snowden\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e534e33ca161d9c70f94325947d8166\">Edward Snowden<\/a> were published by <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Washington_Post\" title=\"The Washington Post\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a752ef3dddeb493eda94d684a46f5e46\">The Washington Post<\/a><\/i> and <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Guardian\" title=\"The Guardian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c1524bb31f0ee6ff14f8f44c7f3595d\">The Guardian<\/a><\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-200\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-200\">[200]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-201\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-201\">[201]<\/a><\/sup> exposing the massive scale of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NSA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NSA\" data-key=\"9b5e14932437b8748821c59253100707\">NSA<\/a> global surveillance. There were also indications that the NSA may have inserted a backdoor in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NIST\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NIST\" data-key=\"2c5730fa123ebb7598290eb8137b243f\">NIST<\/a> standard for encryption.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-202\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-202\">[202]<\/a><\/sup> This standard was later withdrawn due to widespread criticism.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-203\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-203\">[203]<\/a><\/sup> The NSA additionally were revealed to have tapped the links between <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google\" title=\"Google\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b915ee8daf11a90fecc2d0bd0513feb\">Google<\/a>'s data centers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-204\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-204\">[204]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Target_and_Home_Depot_breaches\">Target and Home Depot breaches<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A Ukrainian hacker known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rescator\" title=\"Rescator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d71c127f07f541599a29305733e90f59\">Rescator<\/a> broke into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Target_Corporation\" title=\"Target Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f0c29048dd76d5b5545db3da2af5b9\">Target Corporation<\/a> computers in 2013, stealing roughly 40 million credit cards,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-205\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-205\">[205]<\/a><\/sup> and then <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Home_Depot\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Home Depot\" data-key=\"f36e6a99838764166664a26c7a637167\">Home Depot<\/a> computers in 2014, stealing between 53 and 56 million credit card numbers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-206\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-206\">[206]<\/a><\/sup> Warnings were delivered at both corporations, but ignored; physical security breaches using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-checkout\" title=\"Self-checkout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc5f39b17c47c5d5ba152dde7accd9c\">self checkout machines<\/a> are believed to have played a large role. \"The malware utilized is absolutely unsophisticated and uninteresting,\" says Jim Walter, director of threat intelligence operations at security technology company McAfee \u2013 meaning that the heists could have easily been stopped by existing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antivirus_software\" title=\"Antivirus software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc170f9654f68c67e02265c8874eab4d\">antivirus software<\/a> had administrators responded to the warnings. The size of the thefts has resulted in major attention from state and Federal United States authorities and the investigation is ongoing.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Office_of_Personnel_Management_data_breach\">Office of Personnel Management data breach<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In April 2015, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Office_of_Personnel_Management\" title=\"United States Office of Personnel Management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42dfac919132f8e852fbdda899c5d11e\">Office of Personnel Management<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_Personnel_Management_data_breach\" title=\"Office of Personnel Management data breach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d0921f70904c0f216257a64b22db49c\">discovered it had been hacked<\/a> more than a year earlier in a data breach, resulting in the theft of approximately 21.5&#160;million personnel records handled by the office.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-207\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-207\">[207]<\/a><\/sup> The Office of Personnel Management hack has been described by federal officials as among the largest breaches of government data in the history of the United States.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-208\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-208\">[208]<\/a><\/sup> Data targeted in the breach included <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personally_identifiable_information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Personally identifiable information\" data-key=\"e4c271adb170f3060365fdae55299b88\">personally identifiable information<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_Security_number\" title=\"Social Security number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab30b43a05af5f8b5196e8d48af98f8d\">Social Security numbers<\/a>, names, dates and places of birth, addresses, and fingerprints of current and former government employees as well as anyone who had undergone a government background check.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-209\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-209\">[209]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-210\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-210\">[210]<\/a><\/sup> It is believed the hack was perpetrated by Chinese hackers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-211\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-211\">[211]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ashley_Madison_breach\">Ashley Madison breach<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ashley_Madison_data_breach\" title=\"Ashley Madison data breach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a409100ccf3948a50e3e62b47a28347a\">Ashley Madison Data Breach<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In July 2015, a hacker group is known as The Impact Team successfully breached the extramarital relationship website Ashley Madison, created by Avid Life Media. The group claimed that they had taken not only company data but user data as well. After the breach, The Impact Team dumped emails from the company's CEO, to prove their point, and threatened to dump customer data unless the website was taken down permanently.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-212\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-212\">[212]<\/a><\/sup> When Avid Life Media did not take the site offline the group released two more compressed files, one 9.7GB and the second 20GB. After the second data dump, Avid Life Media CEO Noel Biderman resigned; but the website remained to function.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Colonial_Pipeline_ransomware_attack\">Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Colonial_Pipeline_ransomware_attack\" title=\"Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18009e25174fb9d665f37ca3663efad1\">Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In June 2021, the cyber attack took down the largest fuel pipeline in the U.S. and led to shortages across the East Coast.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-213\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-213\">[213]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Legal_issues_and_global_regulation\">Legal issues and global regulation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>International legal issues of cyber attacks are complicated in nature. There is no global base of common rules to judge, and eventually punish, cybercrimes and cybercriminals - and where security firms or agencies do locate the cybercriminal behind the creation of a particular piece of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malware\" title=\"Malware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed66ca98570d7dd0ef9f856c47815b11\">malware<\/a> or form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber-Attacks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cyber-Attacks\" data-key=\"f6ce86e9b399a8cda7b4751f0a0ea222\">cyber attack<\/a>, often the local authorities cannot take action due to lack of laws under which to prosecute.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ted.com_214-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ted.com-214\">[214]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-215\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-215\">[215]<\/a><\/sup> Proving attribution for cybercrimes and cyberattacks is also a major problem for all law enforcement agencies. \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_viruses\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer viruses\" data-key=\"91fef454d099a2c0b772393537b99bd3\">Computer viruses<\/a> switch from one country to another, from one jurisdiction to another \u2013 moving around the world, using the fact that we don't have the capability to globally police operations like this. So the Internet is as if someone [had] given free plane tickets to all the online criminals of the world.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ted.com_214-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ted.com-214\">[214]<\/a><\/sup> The use of techniques such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_DNS\" title=\"Dynamic DNS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5b72fc4bdc26c71d3ae68bb38db1eab\">dynamic DNS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fast_flux\" title=\"Fast flux\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d156eb7bdd3f9e1dddf65c5bbcd92dfb\">fast flux<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bulletproof_hosting\" title=\"Bulletproof hosting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94a49a7ca8620c9b7b19f1d719dac4b0\">bullet proof servers<\/a> add to the difficulty of investigation and enforcement.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Role_of_government\">Role of government<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The role of the government is to make <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber-security_regulation\" title=\"Cyber-security regulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"714a655d0fd191bdd1fdaf0565941d7c\">regulations<\/a> to force companies and organizations to protect their systems, infrastructure and information from any cyberattacks, but also to protect its own national infrastructure such as the national <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Power_grid\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Power grid\" data-key=\"63022626a2d264de0ee5879e611f2962\">power-grid<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-216\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-216\">[216]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The government's regulatory role in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyberspace\" title=\"Cyberspace\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5b3697096fa112162c8d6db4dceeeb2\">cyberspace<\/a> is complicated. For some, cyberspace was seen as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_space\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Virtual space\" data-key=\"ebc9f8a61d6e963105114d1fd139b167\">virtual space<\/a> that was to remain free of government intervention, as can be seen in many of today's libertarian <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blockchain\" title=\"Blockchain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ef3b1d4fae83e61ea5cdd1c13e0fc31\">blockchain<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bitcoin\" title=\"Bitcoin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ab9b93a16ebeb6b4782bed8f08f90b0\">bitcoin<\/a> discussions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-217\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-217\">[217]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many government officials and experts think that the government should do more and that there is a crucial need for improved regulation, mainly due to the failure of the private sector to solve efficiently the cybersecurity problem. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richard_A._Clarke\" title=\"Richard A. Clarke\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b1583f897a11d4c67e6694cc7941029\">R. Clarke<\/a> said during a panel discussion at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RSA_Conference\" title=\"RSA Conference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91b26adf81faa4707e130ae908743b2a\">RSA Security Conference<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/San_Francisco\" title=\"San Francisco\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d33de7ced5e20c4f75d8e17d36ca2d5c\">San Francisco<\/a>, he believes that the \"industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If the industry doesn't respond (to the threat), you have to follow through.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-218\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-218\">[218]<\/a><\/sup> On the other hand, executives from the private sector agree that improvements are necessary, but think that government intervention would affect their ability to innovate efficiently. Daniel R. McCarthy analyzed this public-private partnership in cybersecurity and reflected on the role of cybersecurity in the broader constitution of political order.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-219\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-219\">[219]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On 22 May 2020, the UN Security Council held its second ever informal meeting on cybersecurity to focus on cyber challenges to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_peace\" title=\"World peace\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8593c02de47b1da1b7b8368f3bce995\">international peace<\/a>. According to UN Secretary-General <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ant%C3%B3nio_Guterres\" title=\"Ant\u00f3nio Guterres\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f30b04a21a6a38479a909276132358a\">Ant\u00f3nio Guterres<\/a>, new technologies are too often used to violate rights.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-220\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-220\">[220]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"International_actions\">International actions<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Many different teams and organizations exist, including:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams (FIRST) is the global association of CSIRTs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-221\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-221\">[221]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/US-CERT\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"US-CERT\" data-key=\"d444041a3b94a56109f4c6c4696b9480\">US-CERT<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AT%26T\" title=\"AT&amp;T\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6368d063176a5f89c67b9eca4a0140ba\">AT&amp;T<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apple_Inc.\" title=\"Apple Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"071b1bca39b3a61799e49233d2df16a3\">Apple<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cisco\" title=\"Cisco\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"714ea563f93e753e4417dc5892775b94\">Cisco<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/McAfee\" title=\"McAfee\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d691ee59c38cd84d160e3949f3a6b1b\">McAfee<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a> are all members of this international team.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-222\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-222\">[222]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Council_of_Europe\" title=\"Council of Europe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03028800079fac7502986679f9b2ede4\">Council of Europe<\/a> helps protect societies worldwide from the threat of cybercrime through the Convention on Cybercrime.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-223\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-223\">[223]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The purpose of the Messaging Anti-Abuse Working Group (MAAWG) is to bring the messaging industry together to work collaboratively and to successfully address the various forms of messaging abuse, such as spam, viruses, denial-of-service attacks and other messaging exploitations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-224\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-224\">[224]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/France_T%C3%A9l%C3%A9com\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"France T\u00e9l\u00e9com\" data-key=\"f2929aff079b877ddb3fff729c3a742a\">France Telecom<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook\" title=\"Facebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"452f745387ec551ed04005e53e079973\">Facebook<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AT%26T\" title=\"AT&amp;T\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6368d063176a5f89c67b9eca4a0140ba\">AT&amp;T<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apple_Inc.\" title=\"Apple Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"071b1bca39b3a61799e49233d2df16a3\">Apple<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cisco\" title=\"Cisco\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"714ea563f93e753e4417dc5892775b94\">Cisco<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sprint_Nextel\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sprint Nextel\" data-key=\"bfe718a274924bcca95246842120b118\">Sprint<\/a> are some of the members of the MAAWG.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-225\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-225\">[225]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ENISA&#160;: The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Network_and_Information_Security_Agency\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"European Network and Information Security Agency\" data-key=\"104ee97a1846b1d6208f00cb1ae7f825\">European Network and Information Security Agency<\/a> (ENISA) is an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agency_of_the_European_Union\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Agency of the European Union\" data-key=\"4a6ca773f472c233983ffd630a4539e5\">agency of the European Union<\/a> with the objective to improve network and information security in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Europe\">Europe<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>On 14 April 2016, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Parliament\" title=\"European Parliament\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04c947c3fac4787cbde96ed2bb1695f8\">European Parliament<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Council_of_the_European_Union\" title=\"Council of the European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba44954be1da31edae1c8342b8b6a058\">Council of the European Union<\/a> adopted the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Data_Protection_Regulation\" title=\"General Data Protection Regulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20785e45cbe1c33b7aead05d3a22887e\">General Data Protection Regulation<\/a> (GDPR). The GDPR, which came into force on 25 May 2018, grants individuals within the European Union (EU) and the European Economic Area (EEA) the right to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_privacy\" title=\"Information privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dbb3588f4b4f0d68b7d7359daea67bb\">protection of personal data<\/a>. The regulation requires that any entity that processes personal data incorporate data protection by design and by default. It also requires that certain organizations appoint a Data Protection Officer (DPO).\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"National_actions\">National actions<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Computer_emergency_response_teams\">Computer emergency response teams<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_emergency_response_team\" title=\"Computer emergency response team\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8040107bbc4cdefaf882789912d3b86d\">Computer emergency response team<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Most countries have their own computer emergency response team to protect network security.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Canada\">Canada<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Since 2010, Canada has had a cybersecurity strategy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-226\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-226\">[226]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Canada's_Cyber_Security_Strategy_227-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Canada's_Cyber_Security_Strategy-227\">[227]<\/a><\/sup> This functions as a counterpart document to the National Strategy and Action Plan for Critical Infrastructure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Government_of_Canada_228-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Government_of_Canada-228\">[228]<\/a><\/sup> The strategy has three main pillars: securing government systems, securing vital private cyber systems, and helping Canadians to be secure online.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Canada's_Cyber_Security_Strategy_227-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Canada's_Cyber_Security_Strategy-227\">[227]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Government_of_Canada_228-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Government_of_Canada-228\">[228]<\/a><\/sup> There is also a Cyber Incident Management Framework to provide a coordinated response in the event of a cyber incident.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-229\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-229\">[229]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-230\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-230\">[230]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canadian_Cyber_Incident_Response_Centre\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre\" data-key=\"caf4ae302faf5f1e10f181a67eb245bd\">Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre<\/a> (CCIRC) is responsible for mitigating and responding to threats to Canada's critical infrastructure and cyber systems. It provides support to mitigate cyber threats, technical support to respond &amp; recover from targeted cyber attacks, and provides online tools for members of Canada's critical infrastructure sectors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-231\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-231\">[231]<\/a><\/sup> It posts regular cybersecurity bulletins<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-232\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-232\">[232]<\/a><\/sup> &amp; operates an online reporting tool where individuals and organizations can report a cyber incident.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-233\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-233\">[233]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>To inform the general public on how to protect themselves online, Public Safety Canada has partnered with STOP.THINK.CONNECT, a coalition of non-profit, private sector, and government organizations,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-234\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-234\">[234]<\/a><\/sup> and launched the Cyber Security Cooperation Program.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-235\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-235\">[235]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-236\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-236\">[236]<\/a><\/sup> They also run the GetCyberSafe portal for Canadian citizens, and Cyber Security Awareness Month during October.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-237\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-237\">[237]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Public Safety Canada aims to begin an evaluation of Canada's cybersecurity strategy in early 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Government_of_Canada_228-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Government_of_Canada-228\">[228]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Australia\">Australia<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australian_federal_government\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Australian federal government\" data-key=\"66147cf0f235960cca9db0f4614c3816\">Australian federal government<\/a> announced an $18.2 million investment to fortify the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cybersecurity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cybersecurity\" data-key=\"ddaa1c5fc6bcff8b19b98b7b0fdf2f64\">cybersecurity<\/a> resilience of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and enhance their capabilities in responding to cyber threats. This financial backing is an integral component of the soon-to-be-unveiled <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.homeaffairs.gov.au\/about-us\/our-portfolios\/cyber-security\/strategy\/2023-2030-australian-cyber-security-strategy\" target=\"_blank\">2023-2030 Australian Cyber Security Strategy<\/a>, slated for release within the current week. A substantial allocation of $7.2 million is earmarked for the establishment of a voluntary cyber health check program, facilitating businesses in conducting a comprehensive and tailored self-assessment of their cybersecurity upskill.\n<\/p><p>This avant-garde health assessment serves as a diagnostic tool, enabling enterprises to ascertain the robustness of <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.homeaffairs.gov.au\/reports-and-pubs\/files\/strengthening-australias-cyber-security-submissions\/nsw-young-lawyers.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Australia's cyber security regulations<\/a>. Furthermore, it affords them access to a repository of educational resources and materials, fostering the acquisition of skills necessary for an elevated cybersecurity posture. This groundbreaking initiative was jointly disclosed by Minister for Cyber Security <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clare_O%27Neil\" title=\"Clare O'Neil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5a9e102889288bd675b8186e28a8cff\">Clare O'Neil<\/a> and Minister for Small Business <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Julie_Collins\" title=\"Julie Collins\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27f21295d2eb14b0fb1eada28c1a909f\">Julie Collins<\/a>.\n<\/p><p><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-238\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-238\">[238]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"America\">America<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States\" title=\"United States\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f44266ab2da9382e3764bac08cfb4076\">United States<\/a> has its first fully formed cyber plan in 15 years, as a result of the release of this National Cyber plan.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-239\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-239\">[239]<\/a><\/sup> In this policy, the US says it will: Protect the country by keeping networks, systems, functions, and data safe; Promote American wealth by building a strong digital economy and encouraging strong domestic innovation; Peace and safety should be kept by making it easier for the US to stop people from using computer tools for bad things, working with friends and partners to do this; and Increase the United States' impact around the world to support the main ideas behind an open, safe, reliable, and compatible Internet.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-240\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-240\">[240]<\/a><\/sup> The new U.S. cyber strategy<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-241\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-241\">[241]<\/a><\/sup> seeks to allay some of those concerns by promoting responsible behavior in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyberspace\" title=\"Cyberspace\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5b3697096fa112162c8d6db4dceeeb2\">cyberspace<\/a>, urging nations to adhere to a set of norms, both through international law and voluntary standards. It also calls for specific measures to harden U.S. government networks from attacks, like the June 2015 intrusion into the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/U.S._Office_of_Personnel_Management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"U.S. Office of Personnel Management\" data-key=\"686b188e57a1e4a1858c55be38ee6489\">U.S. Office of Personnel Management<\/a> (OPM), which compromised the records of about 4.2 million current and former government employees. And the strategy calls for the U.S. to continue to name and shame bad cyber actors, calling them out publicly for attacks when possible, along with the use of economic sanctions and diplomatic pressure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-242\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-242\">[242]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"India\">India<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-243\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-243\">[243]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Cyber_Security_Policy_2013\" title=\"National Cyber Security Policy 2013\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e557f9fd17bba13c7046a9307b35ea5\">National Cyber Security Policy 2013<\/a> is a policy framework by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) which aims to protect the public and private infrastructure from cyberattacks, and safeguard \"information, such as personal information (of web users), financial and banking information and sovereign data\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Indian_Computer_Emergency_Response_Team\" title=\"Indian Computer Emergency Response Team\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f6b471a9ed94b97c458f6b7906ee2ee\">CERT- In<\/a> is the nodal agency which monitors the cyber threats in the country. The post of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Cyber_Coordination_Centre#National_Cyber_Security_Coordinator\" title=\"National Cyber Coordination Centre\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74e41fad9ee99236bb8893287fe188b2\">National Cyber Security Coordinator<\/a> has also been created in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prime_Minister%27s_Office_(India)\" title=\"Prime Minister's Office (India)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f12eb1c1483b40195ab7ea36f0c40f7\">Prime Minister's Office (PMO)<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The Indian Companies Act 2013 has also introduced cyber law and cybersecurity obligations on the part of Indian directors. Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000 Update in 2013.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-244\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-244\">[244]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"South_Korea\">South Korea<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Following cyberattacks in the first half of 2013, when the government, news media, television stations, and bank websites were compromised, the national government committed to the training of 5,000 new cybersecurity experts by 2017. The South Korean government blamed its northern counterpart for these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in 2009, 2011,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-245\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-245\">[245]<\/a><\/sup> and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the accusations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-246\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-246\">[246]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"United_States\">United States<\/span><\/h4>\n<h5><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Legislation\">Legislation<\/span><\/h5>\n<p>The 1986 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code\" title=\"Title 18 of the United States Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4144ee89893c3e482d3b3cbb5a514c35\">18&#160;U.S.C.<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/uscode\/text\/18\/1030\" target=\"_blank\">\u00a7&#160;1030<\/a>, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Fraud_and_Abuse_Act\" title=\"Computer Fraud and Abuse Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a9b258e3ba9ecc34fbee5f7bbceb46\">Computer Fraud and Abuse Act<\/a> is the key legislation. It prohibits unauthorized access or damage of <i>protected computers<\/i> as defined in <span class=\"plainlinksneverexpand\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code\" title=\"Title 18 of the United States Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4144ee89893c3e482d3b3cbb5a514c35\">18 U.S.C.<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/uscode\/text\/18\/1030#e_2\" target=\"_blank\">\u00a7&#160;1030(e)(2)<\/a><\/span>. Although various other measures have been proposed<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-247\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-247\">[247]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-248\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-248\">[248]<\/a><\/sup> \u2013 none has succeeded.\n<\/p><p>In 2013, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Executive_order\" title=\"Executive order\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bbc2419bc8106a0834ab1785d3fe5708\">executive order<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikisource.org\/wiki\/Executive_Order_13636\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"s:Executive Order 13636\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">13636<\/a> <i>Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity<\/i> was signed, which prompted the creation of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NIST_Cybersecurity_Framework\" title=\"NIST Cybersecurity Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dbce32ca892490e42a6e52e2a3a70b93\">NIST Cybersecurity Framework<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In response to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Colonial_Pipeline_ransomware_attack\" title=\"Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18009e25174fb9d665f37ca3663efad1\">Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-249\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-249\">[249]<\/a><\/sup> President <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joe_Biden\" title=\"Joe Biden\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30bc191ba04ecad9b26e696d12dbce0f\">Joe Biden<\/a> signed Executive Order 14028<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-250\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-250\">[250]<\/a><\/sup> on May 12, 2021, to increase software security standards for sales to the government, tighten detection and security on existing systems, improve information sharing and training, establish a Cyber Safety Review Board, and improve incident response.\n<\/p>\n<h5><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standardized_government_testing_services\">Standardized government testing services<\/span><\/h5>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Services_Administration\" title=\"General Services Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8078737e4e3b95dbe9730349e063f51\">General Services Administration<\/a> (GSA) has<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style\/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items\" title=\"Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Dates and numbers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4cfbab771e1d842adb00b68f8cdf8bd\"><span title=\"The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2021)\">when?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> standardized the <i>penetration test<\/i> service as a pre-vetted support service, to rapidly address potential vulnerabilities, and stop adversaries before they impact US federal, state and local governments. These services are commonly referred to as Highly Adaptive Cybersecurity Services (HACS).\n<\/p>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Penetration_test#Standardized_government_penetration_test_services\" title=\"Penetration test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b47e138602800142ee40856dd9b6c5\">Penetration test \u00a7&#160;Standardized government penetration test services<\/a><\/div>\n<h5><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Agencies\">Agencies<\/span><\/h5>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security\" title=\"United States Department of Homeland Security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfb1ddbe3535f4d742b0a0af2268e13e\">Department of Homeland Security<\/a> has a dedicated division responsible for the response system, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_management\" title=\"Risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8dfffb6fe8cc680af34e88ec60c1c92\">risk management<\/a> program and requirements for cybersecurity in the United States called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Cyber_Security_Division\" title=\"National Cyber Security Division\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45aa7d2c937ae14b2f1ea359d798fe16\">National Cyber Security Division<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-251\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-251\">[251]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CSRDC-FAQ_252-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CSRDC-FAQ-252\">[252]<\/a><\/sup> The division is home to US-CERT operations and the National Cyber Alert System.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CSRDC-FAQ_252-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CSRDC-FAQ-252\">[252]<\/a><\/sup> The National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center brings together government organizations responsible for protecting computer networks and networked infrastructure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-253\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-253\">[253]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The third priority of the FBI is to: \"Protect the United States against cyber-based attacks and high-technology crimes\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-254\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-254\">[254]<\/a><\/sup> and they, along with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_White_Collar_Crime_Center\" title=\"National White Collar Crime Center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e89abb25a3ede11b844554d0b3f6be52\">National White Collar Crime Center<\/a> (NW3C), and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bureau_of_Justice_Assistance\" title=\"Bureau of Justice Assistance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85e2f884b62ee6c2f82d927b2d8be999\">Bureau of Justice Assistance<\/a> (BJA) are part of the multi-agency task force, The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Crime_Complaint_Center\" title=\"Internet Crime Complaint Center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cf8bbcaef38a9ba23f5979f2d5e2314\">Internet Crime Complaint Center<\/a>, also known as IC3.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-255\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-255\">[255]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In addition to its own specific duties, the FBI participates alongside non-profit organizations such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/InfraGard\" title=\"InfraGard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b7ab73c08bfe36f0d73b2c4d47bc67e\">InfraGard<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-256\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-256\">[256]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-257\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-257\">[257]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Crime_and_Intellectual_Property_Section\" title=\"Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92129742273cf48ef5dd2eeffe72d33f\">Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section<\/a> (CCIPS) operates in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Criminal_Division\" title=\"United States Department of Justice Criminal Division\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94f414284ce449b7ae52077da6acd2d5\">United States Department of Justice Criminal Division<\/a>. The CCIPS is in charge of investigating <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_crime\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer crime\" data-key=\"a9ca9f69c950f71afe46a48164866a29\">computer crime<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intellectual_property\" title=\"Intellectual property\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2604ea8c7b8a70b5079014f7760bc5f9\">intellectual property<\/a> crime and is specialized in the search and seizure of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_evidence\" title=\"Digital evidence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e08049db90ee6ced6f9cca8220b4fdf7\">digital evidence<\/a> in computers and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">networks<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-258\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-258\">[258]<\/a><\/sup> In 2017, CCIPS published A Framework for a Vulnerability Disclosure Program for Online Systems to help organizations \"clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure and discovery conduct, thereby substantially reducing the likelihood that such described activities will result in a civil or criminal violation of law under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (18 U.S.C. \u00a7 1030).\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-259\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-259\">[259]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USCYBERCOM\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"USCYBERCOM\" data-key=\"31c28c207e976980bf719ed8223cfa8e\">United States Cyber Command<\/a>, also known as USCYBERCOM, \"has the mission to direct, synchronize, and coordinate cyberspace planning and operations to defend and advance national interests in collaboration with domestic and international partners.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-260\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-260\">[260]<\/a><\/sup> It has no role in the protection of civilian networks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-261\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-261\">[261]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-262\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-262\">[262]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Communications_Commission\" title=\"Federal Communications Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea7282cb6b52e3ce58faf3954ca2141b\">Federal Communications Commission<\/a>'s role in cybersecurity is to strengthen the protection of critical communications infrastructure, to assist in maintaining the reliability of networks during disasters, to aid in swift recovery after, and to ensure that first responders have access to effective communications services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-263\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-263\">[263]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> has issued guidance for medical devices,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-264\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-264\">[264]<\/a><\/sup> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Highway_Traffic_Safety_Administration\" title=\"National Highway Traffic Safety Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7916a0925dd11eff1e86f056bc318c28\">National Highway Traffic Safety Administration<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-265\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-265\">[265]<\/a><\/sup> is concerned with automotive cybersecurity. After being criticized by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Government_Accountability_Office\" title=\"Government Accountability Office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53129fd3ae3c165a3859842913243159\">Government Accountability Office<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-266\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-266\">[266]<\/a><\/sup> and following successful attacks on airports and claimed attacks on airplanes, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Aviation_Administration\" title=\"Federal Aviation Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d736ddf0e944082e14e5ce1aff5b3c60\">Federal Aviation Administration<\/a> has devoted funding to securing systems on board the planes of private manufacturers, and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aircraft_Communications_Addressing_and_Reporting_System\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System\" data-key=\"b3f4052377f7641b1d90b94b83966af5\">Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-267\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-267\">[267]<\/a><\/sup> Concerns have also been raised about the future <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Next_Generation_Air_Transportation_System\" title=\"Next Generation Air Transportation System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17994dd56e2a247e801962eb5c2873de\">Next Generation Air Transportation System<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-268\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-268\">[268]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in information assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information Technology (IT) certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network infrastructure defense have minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA). Andersson and Reimers (2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's A+ and Security+ through the ICS2.org's CISSP, etc.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-269\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-269\">[269]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h5><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Computer_emergency_readiness_team\">Computer emergency readiness team<\/span><\/h5>\n<p><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_emergency_response_team\" title=\"Computer emergency response team\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8040107bbc4cdefaf882789912d3b86d\">Computer emergency response team<\/a><\/i> is a name given to expert groups that handle computer security incidents. In the US, two distinct organizations exist, although they do work closely together.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/US-CERT\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"US-CERT\" data-key=\"d444041a3b94a56109f4c6c4696b9480\">US-CERT<\/a>: part of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Cyber_Security_Division\" title=\"National Cyber Security Division\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45aa7d2c937ae14b2f1ea359d798fe16\">National Cyber Security Division<\/a> of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security\" title=\"United States Department of Homeland Security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfb1ddbe3535f4d742b0a0af2268e13e\">United States Department of Homeland Security<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-270\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-270\">[270]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CERT_Coordination_Center\" title=\"CERT Coordination Center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1142413f0929fb35d2d8d9093d2ff81e\">CERT\/CC<\/a>: created by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency\" data-key=\"b292921b789d71e25707a4ab51522280\">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency<\/a> (DARPA) and run by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_Engineering_Institute\" title=\"Software Engineering Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1071582bb3392ccef646ca4577971ea5\">Software Engineering Institute<\/a> (SEI).<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-U.S._NRC.2C_10_CFR_73.54_Cybersecurity\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"U.S._NRC,_10_CFR_73.54_Cybersecurity\">U.S. NRC, 10 CFR 73.54 Cybersecurity<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In the context of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_power_in_the_United_States\" title=\"Nuclear power in the United States\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8ed0377b68df5a5867327a9963c0d71\">U.S. nuclear power plants<\/a>, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission\" title=\"Nuclear Regulatory Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acebd8d2a2216924994c5bd7b29769d3\">U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)<\/a> outlines cybersecurity requirements under <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_safety_and_security#Title_10_CFR_Part_73_(U.S._NRC)\" title=\"Nuclear safety and security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e8291f8196034a4ea8f130c665bc75c\">10 CFR Part 73<\/a>, specifically in \u00a773.54.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-271\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-271\">[271]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"NEI_08-09:_Cybersecurity_Plan_for_Nuclear_Power_Plants\">NEI 08-09: Cybersecurity Plan for Nuclear Power Plants<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_Energy_Institute\" title=\"Nuclear Energy Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a34a4a0e40fa4d9df0298eb8590616d\">Nuclear Energy Institute<\/a>'s NEI 08-09 document, <i>Cyber Security Plan for Nuclear Power Reactors<\/i>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-272\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-272\">[272]<\/a><\/sup> outlines a comprehensive framework for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cybersecurity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cybersecurity\" data-key=\"ddaa1c5fc6bcff8b19b98b7b0fdf2f64\">cybersecurity<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_power_industry\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nuclear power industry\" data-key=\"ef191ef6f4e8b2aa4855062b64a3ce4c\">nuclear power industry<\/a>. Drafted with input from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission\" title=\"Nuclear Regulatory Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acebd8d2a2216924994c5bd7b29769d3\">U.S. NRC<\/a> , this guideline is instrumental in aiding <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Licensee\" title=\"Licensee\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff955407868c6c523822bd293f3fa19\">licensees<\/a> to comply with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Title_10_of_the_Code_of_Federal_Regulations\" title=\"Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"584a5bc68b98efa5037efb247075a909\">Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)<\/a> , which mandates robust protection of digital computers and equipment and communications systems at nuclear power plants against cyber threats.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-273\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-273\">[273]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modern_warfare\">Modern warfare<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyberwarfare\" title=\"Cyberwarfare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df8a558936af6c7c1981d2d88d2082cc\">Cyberwarfare<\/a><\/div>\n<p>There is growing concern that cyberspace will become the next theater of warfare. As Mark Clayton from <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Christian_Science_Monitor\" title=\"The Christian Science Monitor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd3edd9d6a082c6b258b9ca8fa41de62\">The Christian Science Monitor<\/a><\/i> wrote in a 2015 article titled \"The New Cyber Arms Race\":\n<\/p>\n<blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>In the future, wars will not just be fought by soldiers with guns or with planes that drop bombs. They will also be fought with the click of a mouse a half a world away that unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs that disrupt or destroy critical industries like utilities, transportation, communications, and energy. Such attacks could also disable military networks that control the movement of troops, the path of jet fighters, the command and control of warships.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-274\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-274\">[274]<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>This has led to new terms such as <i>cyberwarfare<\/i> and <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyberterrorism\" title=\"Cyberterrorism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9fb465f5a1a798176dc0fba068147d6\">cyberterrorism<\/a><\/i>. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Cyber_Command\" title=\"United States Cyber Command\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54e588bee0d91f71ca407dc78d9d632a\">United States Cyber Command<\/a> was created in 2009<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-275\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-275\">[275]<\/a><\/sup> and many other countries <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyberwarfare#Cyber_activities_by_nation\" title=\"Cyberwarfare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"850a43a3a6d3f00588a4d15d64685adf\">have similar forces<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>There are a few critical voices that question whether cybersecurity is as significant a threat as it is made out to be.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-276\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-276\">[276]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-277\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-277\">[277]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-278\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-278\">[278]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Careers\">Careers<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Cybersecurity is a fast-growing field of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">IT<\/a> concerned with reducing organizations' risk of hack or data breaches.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-279\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-279\">[279]<\/a><\/sup> According to research from the Enterprise Strategy Group, 46% of organizations say that they have a \"problematic shortage\" of cybersecurity skills in 2016, up from 28% in 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-280\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-280\">[280]<\/a><\/sup> Commercial, government and non-governmental organizations all employ cybersecurity professionals. The fastest increases in demand for cybersecurity workers are in industries managing increasing volumes of consumer data such as finance, health care, and retail.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-281\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-281\">[281]<\/a><\/sup> However, the use of the term <i>cybersecurity<\/i> is more prevalent in government job descriptions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-282\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-282\">[282]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Typical cybersecurity job titles and descriptions include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-283\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-283\">[283]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_analyst\">Security analyst<\/span><\/h3>\n<dl><dd>Analyzes and assesses vulnerabilities in the infrastructure (software, hardware, networks), investigates using available tools and countermeasures to remedy the detected vulnerabilities and recommends solutions and best practices. Analyzes and assesses damage to the data\/infrastructure as a result of security incidents, examines available recovery tools and processes, and recommends solutions. Tests for compliance with security policies and procedures. May assist in the creation, implementation, or management of security solutions.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_engineer\">Security engineer<\/span><\/h3>\n<dl><dd>Performs security monitoring, security and data\/logs analysis, and forensic analysis, to detect security incidents, and mount the incident response. Investigates and utilizes new technologies and processes to enhance security capabilities and implement improvements. May also review code or perform other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_engineering\" title=\"Security engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"607823fd746ac98ff4d3dc13924f7d1e\">security engineering<\/a> methodologies.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_architect\">Security architect<\/span><\/h3>\n<dl><dd>Designs a security system or major components of a security system, and may head a security design team building a new security system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-284\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-284\">[284]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Chief_Information_Security_Officer_.28CISO.29\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Chief_Information_Security_Officer_(CISO)\">Chief Information Security Officer (CISO)<\/span><\/h3>\n<dl><dd>A high-level management position responsible for the entire information security division\/staff. The position may include hands-on technical work.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-285\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-285\">[285]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Chief_Security_Officer_.28CSO.29\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Chief_Security_Officer_(CSO)\">Chief Security Officer (CSO)<\/span><\/h3>\n<dl><dd>A high-level management position responsible for the entire security division\/staff. A newer position is now deemed needed as security risks grow.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Data_Protection_Officer_.28DPO.29\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_Protection_Officer_(DPO)\">Data Protection Officer (DPO)<\/span><\/h3>\n<dl><dd>A DPO is tasked with monitoring compliance with the UK GDPR and other data protection laws, our data protection policies, awareness-raising, training, and audits.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-286\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-286\">[286]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Security_Consultant.2FSpecialist.2FIntelligence\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_Consultant\/Specialist\/Intelligence\">Security Consultant\/Specialist\/Intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<dl><dd>Broad titles that encompass any one or all of the other roles or titles tasked with protecting computers, networks, software, data or information systems against viruses, worms, spyware, malware, intrusion detection, unauthorized access, denial-of-service attacks, and an ever-increasing list of attacks by hackers acting as individuals or as part of organized crime or foreign governments.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>Student programs are also available for people interested in beginning a career in cybersecurity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-287\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-287\">[287]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-288\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-288\">[288]<\/a><\/sup> Meanwhile, a flexible and effective option for information security professionals of all experience levels to keep studying is online security training, including webcasts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-289\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-289\">[289]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-290\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-290\">[290]<\/a><\/sup> A wide range of certified courses are also available.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-291\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-291\">[291]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the United Kingdom, a nationwide set of cybersecurity forums, known as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UK_Cyber_Security_Forum\" title=\"UK Cyber Security Forum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"15a30de63dbd3e3729a818a2061bc85b\">U.K Cyber Security Forum<\/a>, were established supported by the Government's cybersecurity strategy<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-292\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-292\">[292]<\/a><\/sup> in order to encourage start-ups and innovation and to address the skills gap<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-293\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-293\">[293]<\/a><\/sup> identified by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom\" title=\"Government of the United Kingdom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c31e1e5ec878792fb3c0077aa20c6af8\">U.K Government<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In Singapore, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber_Security_Agency_(Singapore)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cyber Security Agency (Singapore)\" data-key=\"1623e276acfe80607e3b0a930c1bf226\">Cyber Security Agency<\/a> has issued a Singapore Operational Technology (OT) Cybersecurity Competency Framework (OTCCF). The framework defines emerging cybersecurity roles in Operational Technology. The OTCCF was endorsed by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infocomm_Media_Development_Authority\" title=\"Infocomm Media Development Authority\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a0b737a6fd064d873bf290a89fa94e\">Infocomm Media Development Authority<\/a> (IMDA). It outlines the different OT cybersecurity job positions as well as the technical skills and core competencies necessary. It also depicts the many career paths available, including vertical and lateral advancement opportunities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-294\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-294\">[294]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Terminology\">Terminology<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The following terms used with regards to computer security are explained below:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Access <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authorization\" title=\"Authorization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e448453704ea5be3cefe1e1593364217\">authorization<\/a> restricts access to a computer to a group of users through the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">authentication<\/a> systems. These systems can protect either the whole computer, such as through an interactive <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Login\" title=\"Login\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe1ebc3f735c762d152d8b1bcc2c758f\">login<\/a> screen, or individual services, such as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_Transfer_Protocol\" title=\"File Transfer Protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02c256429868d5a2ea279ac6ccb336a6\">FTP<\/a> server. There are many methods for identifying and authenticating users, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Passwords\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Passwords\" data-key=\"b32824c0201e457566b990cae7ae6e2e\">passwords<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identification_card\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Identification card\" data-key=\"980885100c22b8c4a83e3217d6276705\">identification cards<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_card\" title=\"Smart card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56ccf00b9c7f1e26ad9be79e414f12d5\">smart cards<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biometric\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Biometric\" data-key=\"7055607b56429965787795f32a5bb9be\">biometric<\/a> systems.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anti-virus_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Anti-virus software\" data-key=\"2ac619778c31e93ad6698ab294ea59fb\">Anti-virus software<\/a> consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, thwart, and eliminate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_viruses\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer viruses\" data-key=\"91fef454d099a2c0b772393537b99bd3\">computer viruses<\/a> and other malicious software (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malware\" title=\"Malware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed66ca98570d7dd0ef9f856c47815b11\">malware<\/a>).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">Applications<\/a> are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Executable\" title=\"Executable\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74586d4f12b12342adb0aaca8f7076e3\">executable code<\/a>, so general corporate practice is to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superuser\" title=\"Superuser\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48f932bab9633992491863fab3d57ef3\">restrict or block users the power<\/a> to install them; to install them only when there is a demonstrated need (e.g. software needed to perform assignments); to install only those which are known to be reputable (preferably with access <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_source_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Open source software\" data-key=\"67bac70250513eefdfbf1752244bf804\">to the computer code<\/a> used to create the application,- and to reduce the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attack_surface\" title=\"Attack surface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c3323c839742a7f7e4f8b05b3b1a37b\">attack surface<\/a> by installing as few as possible. They are typically run with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Least_privilege\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Least privilege\" data-key=\"2746d5f7f092489fd738b5d46e858fe3\">least privilege<\/a>, with a robust process in place to identify, test and install any released <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_patch\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Security patch\" data-key=\"8cbd60a0925ef49e47dc5b3915f9f487\">security patches<\/a> or updates for them.\n<ul><li>For example, programs can be installed into an individual user's account, which limits the program's potential access, as well as being a means control which users have specific exceptions to policy. In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linux\" title=\"Linux\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccfb1826b029961cb72ef84704ee2bcb\">Linux<\/a>], <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FreeBSD\" title=\"FreeBSD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0966701478edd7589a48f6a04e716fcd\">FreeBSD<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenBSD\" title=\"OpenBSD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af8748e520f60df4d3745016d4b65d3e\">OpenBSD<\/a>, and other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unix\" title=\"Unix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09c40606dbe75e9e93fcb36cd2d16c5f\">Unix<\/a>-like operating systems there is an option to further restrict an application using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chroot\" title=\"Chroot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de2147949a85d8b653eac1b7cee007d0\">chroot<\/a> or other means of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sandbox_(computer_security)\" title=\"Sandbox (computer security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7302cdd9d2475e0e4688bcdea3204fe\">restricting the application to its own 'sandbox'<\/a>. For example. Linux provides <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linux_namespaces\" title=\"Linux namespaces\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7a090dc32df42532096c96f67473c3\">namespaces<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cgroups\" title=\"Cgroups\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bfe567872d3aee32797e4d0e50f0946\">Cgroups<\/a> to further restrict the access of an application to system resources.<\/li>\n<li>Generalized security frameworks such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SELinux\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SELinux\" data-key=\"27107920d8e7dce6941ed064f8d22053\">SELinux<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AppArmor\" title=\"AppArmor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60650c61fa076bfe41359c0806cb1f25\">AppArmor<\/a> help administrators control access.<\/li>\n<li>Java and other languages which compile to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_byte_code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Java byte code\" data-key=\"c8594d7559df967a468549cf6746d858\">Java byte code<\/a> and run in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_virtual_machine\" title=\"Java virtual machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"187e1d0950c171537c84c7b8b7f6fa8a\">Java virtual machine<\/a> can have their access to other applications controlled at the virtual machine level.<\/li>\n<li>Some software can be run in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OS-level_virtualization\" title=\"OS-level virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ee0f405ab2206a96c0d744eb7eb3d4f\">software containers<\/a> which can even provide their own set of system libraries, limiting the software's, or anyone controlling it, access to the server's versions of the libraries.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">Authentication<\/a> techniques can be used to ensure that communication end-points are who they say they are.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_theorem_proving\" title=\"Automated theorem proving\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70283ba307cba4927c2ddd74c3e82e5c\">Automated theorem proving<\/a> and other verification tools can be used to enable critical algorithms and code used in secure systems to be mathematically proven to meet their specifications.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa4b45de245f1a05a108097855baf547\">Backups<\/a> are one or more copies kept of important computer files. Typically, multiple copies will be kept at different locations so that if a copy is stolen or damaged, other copies will still exist.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capability-based_security\" title=\"Capability-based security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f78a8e064e03df9279ceb7dc6bc2c55\">Capability<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control_list\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Access control list\" data-key=\"8c0bf561208bb893140c82316c072372\">access control list<\/a> techniques can be used to ensure privilege separation and mandatory access control. <a href=\"#Capabilities_vs._ACLs\">Capabilities vs. ACLs<\/a> discusses their use.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chain_of_trust\" title=\"Chain of trust\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"647660020bac95d19053f7fbc0caa860\">Chain of trust<\/a> techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all software loaded has been certified as authentic by the system's designers.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Confidentiality\" title=\"Confidentiality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d847e78525549bfa02450d9bb2d16144\">Confidentiality<\/a> is the nondisclosure of information except to another authorized person.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-295\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-295\">[295]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">Cryptographic<\/a> techniques can be used to defend data in transit between systems, reducing the probability that the data exchange between systems can be intercepted or modified.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyberwarfare\" title=\"Cyberwarfare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df8a558936af6c7c1981d2d88d2082cc\">Cyberwarfare<\/a> is an Internet-based conflict that involves politically motivated attacks on information and information systems. Such attacks can, for example, disable official websites and networks, disrupt or disable essential services, steal or alter classified data, and cripple financial systems.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">Data integrity<\/a> is the accuracy and consistency of stored data, indicated by an absence of any alteration in data between two updates of a data record.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-296\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-296\">[296]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Encryption_-_decryption.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e5e478f9298f42f62bca2679ad6b42f\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/bf\/Encryption_-_decryption.svg\/300px-Encryption_-_decryption.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"83\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">Cryptographic<\/a> techniques involve transforming information, scrambling it, so it becomes unreadable during transmission. The intended recipient can unscramble the message; ideally, eavesdroppers cannot.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">Encryption<\/a> is used to protect the confidentiality of a message. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">Cryptographically<\/a> secure <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cipher\" title=\"Cipher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8827d4fff7bc2e0d6aa384f9d488147f\">ciphers<\/a> are designed to make any practical attempt of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptanalysis\" title=\"Cryptanalysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e0b4236ac47d3cd5b302fc44e81f6f1\">breaking<\/a> them infeasible. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symmetric-key_algorithm\" title=\"Symmetric-key algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c63e3e6e25fa44204806ac6afb489f41\">Symmetric-key<\/a> ciphers are suitable for bulk encryption using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shared_key\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Shared key\" data-key=\"f240a10a115bac1676dd29b0a40dbd5a\">shared keys<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public-key_encryption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Public-key encryption\" data-key=\"3bd918aa58eb76946bc123d65fba12ac\">public-key encryption<\/a> using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_certificate\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital certificate\" data-key=\"bf852206985705499748d798c579e348\">digital certificates<\/a> can provide a practical solution for the problem of securely communicating when no key is shared in advance.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Endpoint_security\" title=\"Endpoint security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb9c01bad3d5ddf6fc2efb6442925387\">Endpoint security<\/a> software aids networks in preventing malware infection and data theft at network entry points made vulnerable by the prevalence of potentially infected devices such as laptops, mobile devices, and USB drives.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-297\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-297\">[297]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(networking)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Firewall (networking)\" data-key=\"7da6d7805097a24a8974213a1734d7b4\">Firewalls<\/a> serve as a gatekeeper system between networks, allowing only traffic that matches defined rules. They often include detailed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logfile\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Logfile\" data-key=\"7e56ec71693de074629019805553ab94\">logging<\/a>, and may include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intrusion_detection_system\" title=\"Intrusion detection system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5d5594179a0f4df4d85d17aa52c5c4f\">intrusion detection<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intrusion_detection_system#Intrusion_prevention\" title=\"Intrusion detection system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e559229616ac5ab31c376666a9cf53b4\">intrusion prevention<\/a> features. They are near-universal between company <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_area_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Local area networks\" data-key=\"bd01464418b317471a26a32437aee110\">local area networks<\/a> and the Internet, but can also be used internally to impose traffic rules between networks if <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_segmentation\" title=\"Network segmentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f30faaf0ef2ea4238bea33a4e7b2989\">network segmentation<\/a> is configured.<\/li>\n<li>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_hacker\" title=\"Security hacker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdfe421068ad083a75ed9384d2b204bc\">hacker<\/a> is someone who seeks to breach defenses and exploit weaknesses in a computer system or network.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Honeypot_(computing)\" title=\"Honeypot (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc5119a0d71a1c65fbfd893097cd7b85\">Honey pots<\/a> are computers that are intentionally left vulnerable to attack by crackers. They can be used to catch crackers and to identify their techniques.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intrusion-detection_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intrusion-detection system\" data-key=\"71d213cab159970b4545d66199d527e3\">Intrusion-detection systems<\/a> are devices or software applications that monitor networks or systems for malicious activity or policy violations.<\/li>\n<li>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microkernel\" title=\"Microkernel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccdda7825eefdf242bd0c51b8e3a6f2c\">microkernel<\/a> is an approach to operating system design which has only the near-minimum amount of code running at the most privileged level \u2013 and runs other elements of the operating system such as device drivers, protocol stacks and file systems, in the safer, less privileged <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_space\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"User space\" data-key=\"3f7586d5458fa005ed370bf80ec4b3fa\">user space<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ping_(networking_utility)\" title=\"Ping (networking utility)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1b6398b4d19f7fb5dd1c4ffc857a484\">Pinging<\/a>. The standard <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ping_(networking_utility)\" title=\"Ping (networking utility)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1b6398b4d19f7fb5dd1c4ffc857a484\">ping application<\/a> can be used to test if an IP address is in use. If it is, attackers may then try a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Port_scan\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Port scan\" data-key=\"551630ebaca99c56623352b8d0713483\">port scan<\/a> to detect which services are exposed.<\/li>\n<li>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Port_scan\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Port scan\" data-key=\"551630ebaca99c56623352b8d0713483\">port scan<\/a> is used to probe an IP address for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Port_(computer_networking)\" title=\"Port (computer networking)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4aa1f4b8cfbbd24bb03960a8acaeaee\">open ports<\/a> to identify accessible network services and applications.<\/li>\n<li>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_logger\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Key logger\" data-key=\"06079d8ab16c5dc1e3c4602a5799abd6\">key logger<\/a> is spyware that silently captures and stores each keystroke that a user types on the computer's keyboard.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_engineering_(security)\" title=\"Social engineering (security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18c53a8e46796d2a2daa3a1642612677\">Social engineering<\/a> is the use of deception to manipulate individuals to breach security.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_bomb\" title=\"Logic bomb\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c82b8e7d1dff56c2bfb5227bb34c438f\">Logic bombs<\/a> is a type of malware added to a legitimate program that lies dormant until it is triggered by a specific event.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zero_trust_security\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Zero trust security\" data-key=\"83507d06406bf20ba9c6143e443a7cf6\">Zero trust security<\/a> means that no one is trusted by default from inside or outside the network, and verification is required from everyone trying to gain access to resources on the network.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Since the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a>'s arrival and with the digital transformation initiated in recent years, the notion of cybersecurity has become a familiar subject in both our professional and personal lives. Cybersecurity and cyber threats have been consistently present for the last 60 years of technological change. In the 1970s and 1980s, computer security was mainly limited to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/academia\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:academia\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">academia<\/a> until the conception of the Internet, where, with increased connectivity, computer viruses and network intrusions began to take off. After the spread of viruses in the 1990s, the 2000s marked the institutionalization of organized attacks such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_denial_of_service\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed denial of service\" data-key=\"e7086d458c9b4ac062426054903b09b2\">distributed denial of service<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-298\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-298\">[298]<\/a><\/sup> This led to the formalization of cybersecurity as a professional discipline.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-299\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-299\">[299]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_and_Privacy_in_Computer_Systems\" title=\"Security and Privacy in Computer Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08826b98cbf5bb79a951bcff233d2ce4\">April 1967 session<\/a> organized by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Willis_Ware\" title=\"Willis Ware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66312764f9477a3c8db9fe0d736d6d5d\">Willis Ware<\/a> at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spring_Joint_Computer_Conference\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Spring Joint Computer Conference\" data-key=\"e124b4bace78b2851b8a9ab240d486ac\">Spring Joint Computer Conference<\/a>, and the later publication of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ware_Report\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ware Report\" data-key=\"1d0b1ee5f5cdb40bb54f20b6e51c82fa\">Ware Report<\/a>, were foundational moments in the history of the field of computer security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MAHC.2016.48_300-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MAHC.2016.48-300\">[300]<\/a><\/sup> Ware's work straddled the intersection of material, cultural, political, and social concerns.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MAHC.2016.48_300-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MAHC.2016.48-300\">[300]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A 1977 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NIST\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NIST\" data-key=\"2c5730fa123ebb7598290eb8137b243f\">NIST<\/a> publication<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-301\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-301\">[301]<\/a><\/sup> introduced the <i>CIA triad<\/i> of confidentiality, integrity, and availability as a clear and simple way to describe key security goals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-302\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-302\">[302]<\/a><\/sup> While still relevant, many more elaborate frameworks have since been proposed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-303\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-303\">[303]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-304\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-304\">[304]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, in the 1970s and 1980s, there were no grave computer threats because computers and the internet were still developing, and security threats were easily identifiable. More often, threats came from malicious insiders who gained unauthorized access to sensitive documents and files. Although malware and network breaches existed during the early years, they did not use them for financial gain. By the second half of the 1970s, established computer firms like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a> started offering commercial access control systems and computer security software products.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-305\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-305\">[305]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>One of the earliest examples of an attack on a computer network was the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_worm\" title=\"Computer worm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a91f5f0c8645bb8a187c68b0ba5df098\">computer worm<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Creeper_and_Reaper\" title=\"Creeper and Reaper\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c8c421ced0f81235df1913f5b004dc2\">Creeper<\/a> written by Bob Thomas at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BBN_Technologies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"BBN Technologies\" data-key=\"374501601adaafee2714be9ec99137b5\">BBN<\/a>, which propagated through the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ARPANET\" title=\"ARPANET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b9dca38ecbd05b9a6dea1b3dd87111a\">ARPANET<\/a> in 1971.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> The program was purely experimental in nature and carried no malicious payload. A later program, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Creeper_and_Reaper\" title=\"Creeper and Reaper\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c8c421ced0f81235df1913f5b004dc2\">Reaper<\/a>, was created by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Tomlinson\" title=\"Ray Tomlinson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6e97ed7e470011ee07fba46897b1b89\">Ray Tomlinson<\/a> in 1972 and used to destroy Creeper.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Between September 1986 and June 1987, a group of German hackers performed the first documented case of cyber espionage.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> The group hacked into American defense contractors, universities, and military base networks and sold gathered information to the Soviet KGB. The group was led by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markus_Hess\" title=\"Markus Hess\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7624698f765bffd20c8f68a36881b89a\">Markus Hess<\/a>, who was arrested on 29 June 1987. He was convicted of espionage (along with two co-conspirators) on 15 Feb 1990.\n<\/p><p>In 1988, one of the first computer worms, called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morris_worm\" title=\"Morris worm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51bc995552fa7fbe89e123a1f7086689\">Morris worm<\/a>, was distributed via the Internet. It gained significant mainstream media attention.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 1993, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Netscape\" title=\"Netscape\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f87db4145a2c7cac1e81c1a047cd2b22\">Netscape<\/a> started developing the protocol <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transport_Layer_Security\" title=\"Transport Layer Security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"117c81b4404dd73024f8bd4ccf657b71\">SSL<\/a>, shortly after the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) launched Mosaic 1.0, the first web browser, in 1993.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Netscape had SSL version 1.0 ready in 1994, but it was never released to the public due to many serious security vulnerabilities. These weaknesses included <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Replay_attack\" title=\"Replay attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee088a5feb682e36784690a2e8af2c5a\">replay attacks<\/a> and a vulnerability that allowed hackers to alter unencrypted communications sent by users. However, in February 1995, Netscape launched Version 2.0.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-306\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-306\">[306]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Security_Agency\" title=\"National Security Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2897c7c54e158a987495468907ded569\">National Security Agency<\/a> (NSA) is responsible for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protection\" title=\"Protection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"29cb532b04186bdd0ac0d0332fab4ace\">protection<\/a> of U.S. information systems and also for collecting foreign intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-307\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-307\">[307]<\/a><\/sup> The agency analyzes commonly used software and system configurations to find security flaws, which it can use for offensive purposes against competitors of the United States.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-perlroth_308-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-perlroth-308\">[308]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>NSA contractors created and sold <i>click-and-shoot<\/i> attack tools to US agencies and close allies, but eventually, the tools made their way to foreign adversaries.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> In 2016, NSAs own hacking tools were hacked, and they have been used by Russia and North Korea.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> NSA's employees and contractors have been recruited at high salaries by adversaries, anxious to compete in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyberwarfare\" title=\"Cyberwarfare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df8a558936af6c7c1981d2d88d2082cc\">cyberwarfare<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> In 2007, the United States and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Israel\" title=\"Israel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2abb62768086b768a2a063c1e902b180\">Israel<\/a> began exploiting security flaws in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Windows\" title=\"Microsoft Windows\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c181121bacd156ee0ddefde38acdb60a\">Microsoft Windows<\/a> operating system to attack and damage equipment used in Iran to refine nuclear materials. Iran responded by heavily investing in their own cyberwarfare capability, which it began using against the United States.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-perlroth_308-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-perlroth-308\">[308]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notable_scholars\">Notable scholars<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 15em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ross_J._Anderson\" title=\"Ross J. Anderson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ea981ebb3fc4242d88ddcc35394fa75\">Ross J. Anderson<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Annie_Anton\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Annie Anton\" data-key=\"cd9e36f6da4602c413c7a6d4fec06ccd\">Annie Anton<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adam_Back\" title=\"Adam Back\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"798568de2cf2789449f1c3ce8105bc07\">Adam Back<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_J._Bernstein\" title=\"Daniel J. Bernstein\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c4d282788e698b2fdce0979ccddba25\">Daniel J. Bernstein<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Matt_Blaze\" title=\"Matt Blaze\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26c450d7915da51486f724d5faa3ad96\">Matt Blaze<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stefan_Brands\" title=\"Stefan Brands\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bd53c18344d94c5dd0645fc9a4916a3\">Stefan Brands<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/L._Jean_Camp\" title=\"L. Jean Camp\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aeed108222706bb50a7f2188774228d4\">L. Jean Camp<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lorrie_Cranor\" title=\"Lorrie Cranor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0cfc6b910241bc5da90bc590f160d69\">Lorrie Cranor<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dorothy_E._Denning\" title=\"Dorothy E. Denning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d9c1589a5b8461b499d68429017b516\">Dorothy E. Denning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_J._Denning\" title=\"Peter J. Denning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cc9c493de7def95a06725854bc69caf\">Peter J. Denning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cynthia_Dwork\" title=\"Cynthia Dwork\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f45ea24ce173fb9e624eb628a55ccb7c\">Cynthia Dwork<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chuck_Easttom\" title=\"Chuck Easttom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae7f84417e2ff0be92a3e516d8aa6527\">Chuck Easttom<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deborah_Estrin\" title=\"Deborah Estrin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a963f9d308bf92931d366261a5cf9c75\">Deborah Estrin<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joan_Feigenbaum\" title=\"Joan Feigenbaum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed93e6ef253dfb81c04a461faf98e43e\">Joan Feigenbaum<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ian_Goldberg\" title=\"Ian Goldberg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"686eda3f9d8c72743e5605843a711ac8\">Ian Goldberg<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shafi_Goldwasser\" title=\"Shafi Goldwasser\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3205cac49a997606d408098787ea61bc\">Shafi Goldwasser<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lawrence_A._Gordon\" title=\"Lawrence A. Gordon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89967f8ec025f682cbda1c9f6d98fd9b\">Lawrence A. Gordon<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Gutmann_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"Peter Gutmann (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"31aa076ff07ad6ce02c8d53437731286\">Peter Gutmann<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paul_Carl_Kocher\" title=\"Paul Carl Kocher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97d34d80d92bcbaa666423b8b0231858\">Paul Kocher<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monica_S._Lam\" title=\"Monica S. Lam\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79722531a9c55466d9a583e97acb7816\">Monica S. Lam<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Butler_Lampson\" title=\"Butler Lampson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17b665ef284104409a0504886adb1269\">Butler Lampson<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brian_LaMacchia\" title=\"Brian LaMacchia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0fea9d13f015dc6eb7b49b8311954be\">Brian LaMacchia<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Susan_Landau\" title=\"Susan Landau\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8ba8480390ea3a1f8483f4d5577e4ad\">Susan Landau<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carl_Landwehr\" title=\"Carl Landwehr\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91d701419e00b75ef837512b3887ce8e\">Carl Landwehr<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kevin_Mitnick\" title=\"Kevin Mitnick\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a457886d5fa84e4e69e557846a905b7e\">Kevin Mitnick<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_G._Neumann\" title=\"Peter G. Neumann\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d96eecc4dc6149fff524bb866245c4ea\">Peter G. Neumann<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Susan_Nycum\" title=\"Susan Nycum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be2335b9ce2f89c46e48dd5aed8649a3\">Susan Nycum<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paul_C._van_Oorschot\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Paul C. van Oorschot\" data-key=\"9919e577604cb732238cf17ac90315d1\">Paul C. van Oorschot<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roger_R._Schell\" title=\"Roger R. Schell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b9ee4d14d3c33e9972c2f6d26dcf92d\">Roger R. Schell<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bruce_Schneier\" title=\"Bruce Schneier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3127bca2e7d03d31e7d5f757bb6b5f2\">Bruce Schneier<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dawn_Song\" title=\"Dawn Song\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7050f97681d8d866bf6e458483780d1f\">Dawn Song<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gene_Spafford\" title=\"Gene Spafford\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec9f82e57fca874754f9535db4e213bc\">Gene Spafford<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salvatore_J._Stolfo\" title=\"Salvatore J. Stolfo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1956b1af97bb66ecc6cbd741f491126f\">Salvatore J. Stolfo<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Willis_Ware\" title=\"Willis Ware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66312764f9477a3c8db9fe0d736d6d5d\">Willis Ware<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moti_Yung\" title=\"Moti Yung\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d811dc363571331bfd88f53086fc867\">Moti Yung<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 25em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attack_tree\" title=\"Attack tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0712e5d57c49935431659ff63e8a5448\">Attack tree<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Conceptual diagrams showing how an asset, or target, might be attacked<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bicycle_attack\" title=\"Bicycle attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f42ff7db2a3e5e1ccd85ef6a2359e9f8\">Bicycle attack<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Method of discovering password length<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CAPTCHA\" title=\"CAPTCHA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"adac0498e3f7a2aced172dd210c443dc\">CAPTCHA<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Test to determine whether a user is human<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Center_for_Internet_Security\" title=\"Center for Internet Security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"511639dde0258f965d405c1039bc04be\">Center for Internet Security<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Nonprofit organization focused on cybersecurity<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing_security\" title=\"Cloud computing security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76abf4f9c445efd4445b612b97f4184a\">Cloud computing security<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Methods used to protect cloud based assets<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comparison_of_antivirus_software\" title=\"Comparison of antivirus software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91fd4bab9cdf6751943c328e62db88ca\">Comparison of antivirus software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_Disarm_%26_Reconstruction\" title=\"Content Disarm &amp; Reconstruction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b63b6c08f82ece9c8a17df603e00496\">Content Disarm &amp; Reconstruction<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Policy-based removal of components<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_Security_Policy\" title=\"Content Security Policy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"457eaf7e141c7e41864268c806486712\">Content Security Policy<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Computer security standard to prevent cross-site scripting and related attacks<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Countermeasure_(computer)\" title=\"Countermeasure (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"786c1827cd50ca51d3c796640418a445\">Countermeasure (computer)<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Process to reduce a security threat<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber_insurance\" title=\"Cyber insurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d65fef1d3169de4be4501aa01d1375b\">Cyber insurance<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Information technology risk insurance<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber_self-defense\" title=\"Cyber self-defense\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"015ef342e23f151b892f7591456fd1c1\">Cyber self-defense<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Self-defense against cyberattack<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyberbiosecurity\" title=\"Cyberbiosecurity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"646f76737bb793f32eae0b4cfdd32a2e\">Cyberbiosecurity<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Emerging field of computer security<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cybersecurity_information_technology_list\" title=\"Cybersecurity information technology list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53db8d883867b90fd57de60bda51f9da\">Cybersecurity information technology list<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dancing_pigs\" title=\"Dancing pigs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1bb659ec779145313363aeb098a8755\">Dancing pigs<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Users' disregard for IT security<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">Data security<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Protection of digital data<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defense_strategy_(computing)\" title=\"Defense strategy (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38b4ceff69787b6875a5f238c71a8247\">Defense strategy (computing)<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Concept to reduce computer security risks<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fault_tolerance\" title=\"Fault tolerance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97e432af1c6bc5c66c944cf10b1dcecb\">Fault tolerance<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Resilience of systems to component failures or errors<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hardware_security\" title=\"Hardware security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70ee40bcbd5a952380209c41b3911e49\">Hardware security<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Security architecture implemented in hardware<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction_(security)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human\u2013computer interaction (security)\" data-key=\"7b5dbfd504f5e433a6b8bfd084829af9\">Human\u2013computer interaction (security)<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Academic discipline studying the relationship between computer systems and their users<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_management\" title=\"Identity management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"139badee1fd59ef4622f94b49bf5228e\">Identity management<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Technical and Policy systems to give users appropriate access<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity-based_security\" title=\"Identity-based security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d369fa224c1be047c7e2e3fdc2afbf0\">Identity-based security<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Access control by authenticated ID<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_awareness\" title=\"Information security awareness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72fc08974e96d08809fd9516d8e883df\">Information security awareness<\/a>&#160;\u2013 part of information security that focuses on raising consciousness regarding potential risks of the rapidly evolving forms of information and the accompanying threats<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-wikidata-fallback-annotation\">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_privacy\" title=\"Internet privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cade7c6061c0a371cb777430c9704101\">Internet privacy<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Right or mandate of personal privacy concerning the internet<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_safety\" title=\"Internet safety\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7429ae9258d6164be5a066c5124b255\">Internet safety<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Being aware of safety and security risks on the Internet<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_security\" title=\"Internet security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ed2652ca2b89dfde028a68f4611d024\">Internet security<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Branch of computer security<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_risk\" title=\"IT risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce3ce8706cab9a53b087faec87be3e38\">IT risk<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Any risk related to information technology<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_security_standards\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IT security standards\" data-key=\"44c8bc3d2c01d6d2ddb03bcab54a6d12\">IT security standards<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Technology standards and techniques<span style=\"display:none\" class=\"category-annotation-with-redirected-description\">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets<\/span><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kill_chain\" title=\"Kill chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd364217b33226afd8de5c0917cb4a06\">Kill chain<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Military concept for attack sequence<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_computer_security_certifications\" title=\"List of computer security certifications\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5977c7d55fe4a8ecb05d1b5c17ef59f3\">List of computer security certifications<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cyber_warfare_forces\" title=\"List of cyber warfare forces\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"977a7f00dfa6e5c0e1cfd3e34c7a85f6\">List of cyber warfare forces<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_security\" title=\"Open security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4bafad9e3a1e56c02521d0052969a034\">Open security<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Open source approach to computer security<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outline_of_computer_security\" title=\"Outline of computer security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aab15ed3db1d5db669a3273c5609ef5e\">Outline of computer security<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Overview of and topical guide to computer security<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OWASP\" title=\"OWASP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6645fae799f6ffc4d392d524cce16a3b\">OWASP<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Computer security organization<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_information_security\" title=\"Physical information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d210dd5809fbbd0fd8f918fd20a90369\">Physical information security<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Common ground of physical and information security<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_software\" title=\"Privacy software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c74548af7083e4b6f7021ad7a65759ee\">Privacy software<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Layer to protect users' privacy<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_through_obscurity\" title=\"Security through obscurity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115ebd38ed59692a7d35d9af2553c78\">Security through obscurity<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Reliance on design or implementation secrecy for security<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Separation_of_protection_and_security\" title=\"Separation of protection and security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"729131f50131b92f2002cb02f9ea0c6d\">Separation of protection and security<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Mechanism v. policy design choice<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software-defined_perimeter\" title=\"Software-defined perimeter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3aae56995a87887d818c85b98ae32115\">Software-defined perimeter<\/a>&#160;\u2013 Approach to computer security from the US Defense Information Systems Agency<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-:2-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchatzBashroushWall2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Schatz, Daniel; Bashroush, Rabih; Wall, Julie (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.erau.edu\/jdfsl\/vol12\/iss2\/8\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Towards a More Representative Definition of Cyber Security\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Digital Forensics, Security and Law<\/i>. <b>12<\/b> (2). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1558-7215\" target=\"_blank\">1558-7215<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Digital+Forensics%2C+Security+and+Law&amp;rft.atitle=Towards+a+More+Representative+Definition+of+Cyber+Security&amp;rft.volume=12&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.issn=1558-7215&amp;rft.aulast=Schatz&amp;rft.aufirst=Daniel&amp;rft.au=Bashroush%2C+Rabih&amp;rft.au=Wall%2C+Julie&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.erau.edu%2Fjdfsl%2Fvol12%2Fiss2%2F8%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/EBchecked\/topic\/130682\" target=\"_blank\">Computer security<\/a> at the <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica\" title=\"Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"907b636177a14db40bafed4960c48c98\">Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica<\/a><\/i><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTate2013\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Tate, Nick (7 May 2013). <span class=\"cs1-lock-subscription\" title=\"Paid subscription required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theaustralian.com.au\/news\/reliance-spells-end-of-road-for-ict-amateurs\/news-story\/6f84ad403b8721100f5957a472a945eb\" target=\"_blank\">\"Reliance spells end of road for ICT amateurs\"<\/a><\/span>. <i>The Australian<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Australian&amp;rft.atitle=Reliance+spells+end+of+road+for+ICT+amateurs&amp;rft.date=2013-05-07&amp;rft.aulast=Tate&amp;rft.aufirst=Nick&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fnews%2Freliance-spells-end-of-road-for-ict-amateurs%2Fnews-story%2F6f84ad403b8721100f5957a472a945eb&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKianpourKowalski\u00d8verby2021\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kianpour, Mazaher; Kowalski, Stewart; \u00d8verby, Harald (2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Fsu132413677\" target=\"_blank\">\"Systematically Understanding Cybersecurity Economics: A Survey\"<\/a>. <i>Sustainability<\/i>. <b>13<\/b> (24): 13677. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Fsu132413677\" target=\"_blank\">10.3390\/su132413677<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/11250%2F2978306\" target=\"_blank\">11250\/2978306<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Sustainability&amp;rft.atitle=Systematically+Understanding+Cybersecurity+Economics%3A+A+Survey&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.issue=24&amp;rft.pages=13677&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11250%2F2978306&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fsu132413677&amp;rft.aulast=Kianpour&amp;rft.aufirst=Mazaher&amp;rft.au=Kowalski%2C+Stewart&amp;rft.au=%C3%98verby%2C+Harald&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fsu132413677&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFStevens2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Stevens, Tim (11 June 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/kclpure.kcl.ac.uk\/portal\/files\/97261726\/PaG_6_2_Global_Cybersecurity_New_Directions_in_Theory_and_Methods.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Global Cybersecurity: New Directions in Theory and Methods\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Politics and Governance<\/i>. <b>6<\/b> (2): 1\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1569\" target=\"_blank\">10.17645\/pag.v6i2.1569<\/a><\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190904151257\/https:\/\/kclpure.kcl.ac.uk\/portal\/files\/97261726\/PaG_6_2_Global_Cybersecurity_New_Directions_in_Theory_and_Methods.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 4 September 2019.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Politics+and+Governance&amp;rft.atitle=Global+Cybersecurity%3A+New+Directions+in+Theory+and+Methods&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=1-4&amp;rft.date=2018-06-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1569&amp;rft.aulast=Stevens&amp;rft.aufirst=Tim&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkclpure.kcl.ac.uk%2Fportal%2Ffiles%2F97261726%2FPaG_6_2_Global_Cybersecurity_New_Directions_in_Theory_and_Methods.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cve.org\/About\/Overview\" target=\"_blank\">\"About the CVE Program\"<\/a>. <i>www.cve.org<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=MSSP+Alert&amp;rft.atitle=Multi-Vector+Attacks+Demand+Multi-Vector+Protection&amp;rft.date=2017-07-24&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msspalert.com%2Fanalysis%2Fmulti-vector-attacks-demand-multi-vector-protection&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMillman2017\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Millman, Renee (15 December 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scmagazineuk.com\/new-polymorphic-malware-evades-three-quarters-of-av-scanners\/article\/718757\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"New polymorphic malware evades three-quarters 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Bucks+leak+tax+info+of+players%2C+employees+as+result+of+email+scam&amp;rft.date=2016-05-20&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fespn.go.com%2Fnba%2Fstory%2F_%2Fid%2F15615363%2Fmilwaukee-bucks-leak-tax-information-players-employees-result-email-scam&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.techopedia.com\/definition\/5398\/spoofing\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is Spoofing? \u2013 Definition from Techopedia\"<\/a>. <i>techopedia.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160630134737\/https:\/\/www.techopedia.com\/definition\/5398\/spoofing\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 June 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 January<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=techopedia.com&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+Spoofing%3F+%E2%80%93+Definition+from+Techopedia&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.techopedia.com%2Fdefinition%2F5398%2Fspoofing&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFButterfieldNgondi2016\" class=\"citation encyclopaedia cs1\">Butterfield, Andrew; Ngondi, Gerard Ekembe, eds. (21 January 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.oxfordreference.com\/view\/10.1093\/acref\/9780199688975.001.0001\/acref-9780199688975-e-4987\" target=\"_blank\">\"spoofing\"<\/a>. <i>A Dictionary of Computer Science<\/i>. Oxford University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199688975.001.0001\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/acref\/9780199688975.001.0001<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0199688975<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 October<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=spoofing&amp;rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Computer+Science&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2016-01-21&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199688975.001.0001&amp;rft.isbn=978-0199688975&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199688975.001.0001%2Facref-9780199688975-e-4987&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMarcelNixonLi2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Marcel, S\u00e9bastien; Nixon, Mark; Li, Stan, eds. (2014). <i>Handbook of Biometric Anti-Spoofing: Trusted Biometrics under Spoofing Attacks<\/i>. Advances in Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. London: Springer. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-1-4471-6524-8\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-1-4471-6524-8<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1447165248<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2191-6594\" target=\"_blank\">2191-6594<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LCCN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LCCN (identifier)\" data-key=\"ba0fd5211c48671576e8e562c4662655\">LCCN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lccn.loc.gov\/2014942635\" target=\"_blank\">2014942635<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:27594864\" target=\"_blank\">27594864<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Biometric+Anti-Spoofing%3A+Trusted+Biometrics+under+Spoofing+Attacks&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.series=Advances+in+Computer+Vision+and+Pattern+Recognition&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27594864%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4471-6524-8&amp;rft.issn=2191-6594&amp;rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2014942635&amp;rft.isbn=978-1447165248&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.trellix.com\/en-us\/about\/newsroom\/stories\/research\/80-to-0-in-under-5-seconds-falsifying-a-medical-patients-vitals.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"80 to 0 in Under 5 Seconds: Falsifying a Medical Patient's Vitals\"<\/a>. <i>www.trellix.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 February<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.trellix.com&amp;rft.atitle=80+to+0+in+Under+5+Seconds%3A+Falsifying+a+Medical+Patient%27s+Vitals&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.trellix.com%2Fen-us%2Fabout%2Fnewsroom%2Fstories%2Fresearch%2F80-to-0-in-under-5-seconds-falsifying-a-medical-patients-vitals.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-39\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGallagher2014\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Gallagher, Sean (14 May 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/tech-policy\/2014\/05\/photos-of-an-nsa-upgrade-factory-show-cisco-router-getting-implant\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Photos of an NSA \"upgrade\" factory show Cisco router getting implant\"<\/a>. <i>Ars Technica<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140804130416\/http:\/\/arstechnica.com\/tech-policy\/2014\/05\/photos-of-an-nsa-upgrade-factory-show-cisco-router-getting-implant\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 August 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 August<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&amp;rft.atitle=Photos+of+an+NSA+%22upgrade%22+factory+show+Cisco+router+getting+implant&amp;rft.date=2014-05-14&amp;rft.aulast=Gallagher&amp;rft.aufirst=Sean&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Ftech-policy%2F2014%2F05%2Fphotos-of-an-nsa-upgrade-factory-show-cisco-router-getting-implant%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Intelligence-2021-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Intelligence-2021_40-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Intelligence-2021_40-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFIntelligence2021\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Intelligence, Microsoft Threat (11 November 2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.microsoft.com\/en-us\/security\/blog\/2021\/11\/11\/html-smuggling-surges-highly-evasive-loader-technique-increasingly-used-in-banking-malware-targeted-attacks\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"HTML smuggling surges: Highly evasive loader technique increasingly used in banking malware, targeted attacks\"<\/a>. <i>Microsoft Security Blog<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Microsoft+Security+Blog&amp;rft.atitle=HTML+smuggling+surges%3A+Highly+evasive+loader+technique+increasingly+used+in+banking+malware%2C+targeted+attacks&amp;rft.date=2021-11-11&amp;rft.aulast=Intelligence&amp;rft.aufirst=Microsoft+Threat&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fsecurity%2Fblog%2F2021%2F11%2F11%2Fhtml-smuggling-surges-highly-evasive-loader-technique-increasingly-used-in-banking-malware-targeted-attacks%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/attack.mitre.org\/techniques\/T1027\/006\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Obfuscated Files or Information: HTML Smuggling, Sub-technique T1027.006 - Enterprise | MITRE ATT&amp;CK\u00ae\"<\/a>. <i>attack.mitre.org<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 February<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=attack.mitre.org&amp;rft.atitle=Obfuscated+Files+or+Information%3A+HTML+Smuggling%2C+Sub-technique+T1027.006+-+Enterprise+%7C+MITRE+ATT%26CK%C2%AE&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fattack.mitre.org%2Ftechniques%2FT1027%2F006%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLimChangMaynardAhmad2009\" class=\"citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol\">Lim, Joo S.; Chang, Shanton; Maynard, Sean; Ahmad, Atif (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ro.ecu.edu.au\/ism\/12\" target=\"_blank\">\"Exploring the Relationship between Organizational Culture and Information Security Culture\"<\/a>. <i>Proceedings of the 7th Australian Information Security Management Conference<\/i>. Security Research Institute (SRI), Edith Cowan University. Perth: 1st to 3rd December 2009. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4225%2F75%2F57B4065130DEF\" target=\"_blank\">10.4225\/75\/57B4065130DEF<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+7th+Australian+Information+Security+Management+Conference&amp;rft.atitle=Exploring+the+Relationship+between+Organizational+Culture+and+Information+Security+Culture&amp;rft.volume=Perth&amp;rft.pages=1st+to+3rd+December+2009&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4225%2F75%2F57B4065130DEF&amp;rft.aulast=Lim&amp;rft.aufirst=Joo+S.&amp;rft.au=Chang%2C+Shanton&amp;rft.au=Maynard%2C+Sean&amp;rft.au=Ahmad%2C+Atif&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fro.ecu.edu.au%2Fism%2F12&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFReimersAndersson2017\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Reimers, Karl; Andersson, David (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/library.iated.org\/view\/REIMERS2017POS\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Post-secondary Education Network Security: the End User Challenge and Evolving Threats<\/i><\/a>. ICERI2017 Proceedings. Vol.&#160;1. IATED. pp.&#160;1787\u20131796. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21125%2Ficeri.2017.0554\" target=\"_blank\">10.21125\/iceri.2017.0554<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-84-697-6957-7<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2340-1095\" target=\"_blank\">2340-1095<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=Post-secondary+Education+Network+Security%3A+the+End+User+Challenge+and+Evolving+Threats&amp;rft.pages=1787-1796&amp;rft.pub=IATED&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.issn=2340-1095&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21125%2Ficeri.2017.0554&amp;rft.isbn=978-84-697-6957-7&amp;rft.aulast=Reimers&amp;rft.aufirst=Karl&amp;rft.au=Andersson%2C+David&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.iated.org%2Fview%2FREIMERS2017POS&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-44\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation report cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/enterprise.verizon.com\/resources\/reports\/2020-data-breach-investigations-report.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Verizon Data Breach Investigations Report 2020<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>verizon.com<\/i> (Report). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200519161153\/https:\/\/enterprise.verizon.com\/resources\/reports\/2020-data-breach-investigations-report.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 19 May 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 September<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Verizon+Data+Breach+Investigations+Report+2020&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenterprise.verizon.com%2Fresources%2Freports%2F2020-data-breach-investigations-report.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_45-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_45-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_45-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchliengerTeufel2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Schlienger, Thomas; Teufel, Stephanie (2003). \"Information security culture-from analysis to change\". <i>South African Computer Journal<\/i>. <b>31<\/b>: 46\u201352. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/10520%2FEJC27949\" target=\"_blank\">10520\/EJC27949<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=South+African+Computer+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Information+security+culture-from+analysis+to+change&amp;rft.volume=31&amp;rft.pages=46-52&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10520%2FEJC27949&amp;rft.aulast=Schlienger&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft.au=Teufel%2C+Stephanie&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/datatracker.ietf.org\/doc\/html\/rfc2828\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Internet Security Glossary<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17487%2FRFC2828\" target=\"_blank\">10.17487\/RFC2828<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Request_for_Comments\" title=\"Request for Comments\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7363e0e3e58d450881252f906980700e\">RFC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/datatracker.ietf.org\/doc\/html\/rfc2828\" target=\"_blank\">2828<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Security+Glossary&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC2828&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc2828&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120227163121\/http:\/\/www.cnss.gov\/Assets\/pdf\/cnssi_4009.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CNSS Instruction No. 4009\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 26 April 2010. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cnss.gov\/Assets\/pdf\/cnssi_4009.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 27 February 2012.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=CNSS+Instruction+No.+4009&amp;rft.date=2010-04-26&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnss.gov%2FAssets%2Fpdf%2Fcnssi_4009.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infosectoday.com\/Articles\/Glossary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"InfosecToday Glossary\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141120041536\/http:\/\/www.infosectoday.com\/Articles\/Glossary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 20 November 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=InfosecToday+Glossary&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infosectoday.com%2FArticles%2FGlossary.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncsc.gov.uk\/collection\/cyber-security-design-principles\/cyber-security-design-principles\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cyber security design principles\"<\/a>. <i>www.ncsc.gov.uk<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 January<\/span> 2024<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=UK+Cyber+Security+Council&amp;rft.atitle=Secure+System+Architecture+and+Design&amp;rft.date=2024&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ukcybersecuritycouncil.org.uk%2Fcareers-and-learning%2Fcyber-career-framework%2Fsecure-system-architecture-design&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/glossary\/term\/security_architecture\" target=\"_blank\">\"security architecture - Glossary | CSRC\"<\/a>. <i>csrc.nist.gov<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 February<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.securityweek.com&amp;rft.atitle=Knowing+Value+of+Data+Assets+is+Crucial+to+Cybersecurity+Risk+Management+%7C+SecurityWeek.Com&amp;rft.date=2018-12-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.securityweek.com%2Fknowing-value-data-assets-crucial-cybersecurity-risk-management&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-59\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFForeman2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Foreman, Park (26 August 2009). <i>Vulnerability Management<\/i>. Boca Raton, Fla.: Auerbach Publications. p.&#160;1. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4398-0150-5<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Vulnerability+Management&amp;rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+Fla.&amp;rft.pages=1&amp;rft.pub=Auerbach+Publications&amp;rft.date=2009-08-26&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4398-0150-5&amp;rft.aulast=Foreman&amp;rft.aufirst=Park&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJohnson2018\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Johnson, A. (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FxRbDwAAQBAJ&q=Vulnerabilities+can+be+discovered+with+a+vulnerability+scanner,+which+analyzes+a+computer+system+in+search+of+known+vulnerabilities&pg=SA5-PA83\" target=\"_blank\"><i>CCNA Cybersecurity Operations Companion Guide<\/i><\/a>. Cisco Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0135166246<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=CCNA+Cybersecurity+Operations+Companion+Guide&amp;rft.pub=Cisco+Press&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.isbn=978-0135166246&amp;rft.aulast=Johnson&amp;rft.aufirst=A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFxRbDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DVulnerabilities%2Bcan%2Bbe%2Bdiscovered%2Bwith%2Ba%2Bvulnerability%2Bscanner%2C%2Bwhich%2Banalyzes%2Ba%2Bcomputer%2Bsystem%2Bin%2Bsearch%2Bof%2Bknown%2Bvulnerabilities%26pg%3DSA5-PA83&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-61\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCalderWilliams2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Calder, Alan; Williams, Geraint (2014). <i>PCI DSS: A Pocket Guide<\/i> (3rd&#160;ed.). IT Governance Limited. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1849285544<\/bdi>. <q>network vulnerability scans at least quarterly and after any significant change in the network<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=PCI+DSS%3A+A+Pocket+Guide&amp;rft.edition=3rd&amp;rft.pub=IT+Governance+Limited&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=978-1849285544&amp;rft.aulast=Calder&amp;rft.aufirst=Alan&amp;rft.au=Williams%2C+Geraint&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHarrison2003\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Harrison, J. (2003). <i>Formal verification at Intel<\/i>. 18th Annual IEEE Symposium of Logic in Computer Science, 2003. Proceedings. pp.&#160;45\u201354. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FLICS.2003.1210044\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/LICS.2003.1210044<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0769518848<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:44585546\" target=\"_blank\">44585546<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=Formal+verification+at+Intel&amp;rft.pages=45-54&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44585546%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FLICS.2003.1210044&amp;rft.isbn=978-0769518848&amp;rft.aulast=Harrison&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-63\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFUmrigarPitchumani1983\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Umrigar, Zerksis D.; Pitchumani, Vijay (1983). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/portal.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=800667\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Formal verification of a real-time hardware design<\/i><\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 March<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Lock+and+protect+your+Windows+PC&amp;rft.pub=TheWindowsClub.com&amp;rft.date=2010-02-10&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thewindowsclub.com%2Flock-protect-your-windows-pc-using-a-usb-drive-with-predator&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-73\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJames_Greene2012\" class=\"citation web cs1\">James Greene (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.intel.com\/content\/dam\/www\/public\/us\/en\/documents\/white-papers\/trusted-execution-technology-security-paper.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Intel Trusted Execution Technology: White Paper\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 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PCMag.com. 11 May 2009. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170621202140\/http:\/\/www.pcmag.com\/article2\/0,2817,2342798,00.asp\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 21 June 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Secure+Hard+Drives%3A+Lock+Down+Your+Data&amp;rft.pub=PCMag.com&amp;rft.date=2009-05-11&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcmag.com%2Farticle2%2F0%2C2817%2C2342798%2C00.asp&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-76\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSouppayaScarfone2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Souppaya, Murugiah P.; Scarfone, Karen (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nist.gov\/publications\/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise\" target=\"_blank\">\"Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise\"<\/a>. <i>National Institute of Standards and Technology<\/i>. 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Gaithersburg, MD. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.6028%2FNIST.SP.800-124r1\" target=\"_blank\">10.6028\/NIST.SP.800-124r1<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&amp;rft.atitle=Guidelines+for+Managing+the+Security+of+Mobile+Devices+in+the+Enterprise&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.6028%2FNIST.SP.800-124r1&amp;rft.aulast=Souppaya&amp;rft.aufirst=Murugiah+P.&amp;rft.au=Scarfone%2C+Karen&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fpublications%2Fguidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-77\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#sp=show-clips\">\"Forget IDs, use your phone as credentials\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fox_Business_Network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fox Business Network\" data-key=\"8972a70681ebf41e2a9e72bfb830b9ea\">Fox Business Network<\/a>. 4 November 2013. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#sp=show-clips\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 20 March 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Intel Corporation. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211209062425\/https:\/\/www.intel.com\/content\/dam\/develop\/external\/us\/en\/documents\/intel-whitepaper-using-iommu-for-dma-protection-in-uefi-820238.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 9 December 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 November<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Using+IOMMU+for+DMA+Protection+in+UEFI+Firmware&amp;rft.pub=Intel+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.intel.com%2Fcontent%2Fdam%2Fdevelop%2Fexternal%2Fus%2Fen%2Fdocuments%2Fintel-whitepaper-using-iommu-for-dma-protection-in-uefi-820238.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBabaeiSchieleZohner2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Babaei, Armin; Schiele, Gregor; Zohner, Michael (26 July 2022). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC9331300\" target=\"_blank\">\"Reconfigurable Security Architecture (RESA) Based on PUF for FPGA-Based IoT Devices\"<\/a>. <i>Sensors<\/i>. <b>22<\/b> (15): 5577. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2022Senso..22.5577B\" target=\"_blank\">2022Senso..22.5577B<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Fs22155577\" target=\"_blank\">10.3390\/s22155577<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1424-8220\" target=\"_blank\">1424-8220<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC9331300\" target=\"_blank\">9331300<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/35898079\" target=\"_blank\">35898079<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Sensors&amp;rft.atitle=Reconfigurable+Security+Architecture+%28RESA%29+Based+on+PUF+for+FPGA-Based+IoT+Devices&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=15&amp;rft.pages=5577&amp;rft.date=2022-07-26&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9331300%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022Senso..22.5577B&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35898079&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fs22155577&amp;rft.issn=1424-8220&amp;rft.aulast=Babaei&amp;rft.aufirst=Armin&amp;rft.au=Schiele%2C+Gregor&amp;rft.au=Zohner%2C+Michael&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9331300&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-81\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHassijaChamolaGuptaJain2021\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Hassija, Vikas; 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 October<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=CPNI+-+Centre+for+the+Protection+of+National+Infrastructure&amp;rft.atitle=Developing+a+Security+Culture&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cpni.gov.uk%2Fdeveloping-security-culture&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cyber_Hygiene-95\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cyber_Hygiene_95-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cyber_Hygiene_95-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.enisa.europa.eu\/publications\/cyber-hygiene\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cyber Hygiene \u2013 ENISA\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 September<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Cyber+Hygiene+%E2%80%93+ENISA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.enisa.europa.eu%2Fpublications%2Fcyber-hygiene&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Kaljulaid-2017-96\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Kaljulaid-2017_96-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Kaljulaid-2017_96-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKaljulaid2017\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Kaljulaid, Kersti (16 October 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/president.ee\/en\/official-duties\/speeches\/13671-president-of-the-republic-at-the-aftenpostens-technology-conference\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"President of the Republic at the Aftenposten's Technology Conference\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=GOV.UK&amp;rft.atitle=Cyber+security+breaches+survey+2023&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fstatistics%2Fcyber-security-breaches-survey-2023%2Fcyber-security-breaches-survey-2023&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-98\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-98\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKuchler2015\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Kuchler, Hannah (27 April 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ghostarchive.org\/archive\/20221210\/https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/8468cfda-e9e3-11e4-a687-00144feab7de\" target=\"_blank\">\"Security execs call on companies to improve 'cyber hygiene'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <i>Financial Times<\/i>. Archived from <span class=\"cs1-lock-subscription\" title=\"Paid subscription required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/8468cfda-e9e3-11e4-a687-00144feab7de\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a><\/span> on 10 December 2022<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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General Accounting Office.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Aviation+security+%3A+terrorist+acts+demonstrate+urgent+need+to+improve+security+at+the+nation%27s+airports&amp;rft.pub=United+States.+General+Accounting+Office&amp;rft.date=2001-09-20&amp;rft.aulast=Dillingham&amp;rft.aufirst=Gerald+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frosap.ntl.bts.gov%2Fview%2Fdot%2F33937&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-111\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-111\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.securityweek.com\/air-traffic-control-systems-vulnerabilities-could-make-unfriendly-skies-black-hat\" target=\"_blank\">\"Air Traffic Control Systems Vulnerabilities Could Make for Unfriendly Skies [Black Hat] \u2013 SecurityWeek.Com\"<\/a>. 27 July 2012. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150208070914\/http:\/\/www.securityweek.com\/air-traffic-control-systems-vulnerabilities-could-make-unfriendly-skies-black-hat\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 8 February 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Air+Traffic+Control+Systems+Vulnerabilities+Could+Make+for+Unfriendly+Skies+%5BBlack+Hat%5D+%E2%80%93+SecurityWeek.Com&amp;rft.date=2012-07-27&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.securityweek.com%2Fair-traffic-control-systems-vulnerabilities-could-make-unfriendly-skies-black-hat&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-112\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-112\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/blogs\/alltechconsidered\/2014\/08\/04\/337794061\/hacker-says-he-can-break-into-airplane-systems-using-in-flight-wi-fi\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hacker Says He Can Break into Airplane Systems Using In-Flight Wi-Fi\"<\/a>. <i>NPR<\/i>. 4 August 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150208072554\/http:\/\/www.npr.org\/blogs\/alltechconsidered\/2014\/08\/04\/337794061\/hacker-says-he-can-break-into-airplane-systems-using-in-flight-wi-fi\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 8 February 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 November<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Reuters&amp;rft.atitle=Hacker+says+to+show+passenger+jets+at+risk+of+cyber+attack&amp;rft.date=2014-08-04&amp;rft.au=Jim+Finkle&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-cybersecurity-hackers-airplanes-idUSKBN0G40WQ20140804&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-114\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-114\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCesar2023\" class=\"citation magazine cs1\">Cesar, Alan (15 December 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/engineering.purdue.edu\/AAE\/Aerogram\/2023-2024\/articles\/41-cyber-course\" target=\"_blank\">\"Online course bolsters cybersecurity in aviation\"<\/a>. <i>Aerogram<\/i>. 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Cybersecurity Firms Are On It\"<\/a>. <i>NPR<\/i>. 6 August 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150211064650\/http:\/\/www.npr.org\/blogs\/alltechconsidered\/2014\/08\/06\/338334508\/is-your-watch-or-thermostat-a-spy-cyber-security-firms-are-on-it\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 February 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=NPR&amp;rft.atitle=Is+Your+Watch+Or+Thermostat+A+Spy%3F+Cybersecurity+Firms+Are+On+It&amp;rft.date=2014-08-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fblogs%2Falltechconsidered%2F2014%2F08%2F06%2F338334508%2Fis-your-watch-or-thermostat-a-spy-cyber-security-firms-are-on-it&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-121\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-121\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHumana_Inc.2000\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Humana Inc. (15 November 2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.prnewswire.com\/cgi-bin\/stories.pl?ACCT=104&STORY=\/www\/story\/11-15-2000\/0001367189&EDATE=\" target=\"_blank\">\"Humana Web Site Named Best Interactive Site by eHealthcare Strategy &amp; Trends; re LOUISVILLE, Ky., Nov. 15 PRNewswire\"<\/a>. <i>prnewswire.com<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=prnewswire.com&amp;rft.atitle=Humana+Web+Site+Named+Best+Interactive+Site+by+eHealthcare+Strategy+%26+Trends%3B+re+LOUISVILLE%2C+Ky.%2C+Nov.+15+PRNewswire&amp;rft.date=2000-11-15&amp;rft.au=Humana+Inc.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.prnewswire.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Fstories.pl%3FACCT%3D104%26STORY%3D%2Fwww%2Fstory%2F11-15-2000%2F0001367189%26EDATE%3D&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-122\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-122\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKruseSmithVanderlindenNealand2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kruse, CB; Smith, B; Vanderlinden, H; Nealand, A (21 July 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5522514\" target=\"_blank\">\"Security Techniques for the Electronic Health Records\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Medical Systems<\/i>. <b>41<\/b> (8): 127. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10916-017-0778-4\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s10916-017-0778-4<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5522514\" target=\"_blank\">5522514<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/28733949\" target=\"_blank\">28733949<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Security+Techniques+for+the+Electronic+Health+Records&amp;rft.volume=41&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=127&amp;rft.date=2017-07-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5522514%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28733949&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10916-017-0778-4&amp;rft.aulast=Kruse&amp;rft.aufirst=CB&amp;rft.au=Smith%2C+B&amp;rft.au=Vanderlinden%2C+H&amp;rft.au=Nealand%2C+A&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5522514&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-123\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-123\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMelvin_Backman2014\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Melvin Backman (18 September 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/money.cnn.com\/2014\/09\/18\/technology\/security\/home-depot-hack\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Home Depot: 56 million cards exposed in breach\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CNNMoney\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CNNMoney\" data-key=\"bb4431cfd5cbf9abf69aa765fcca7e31\">CNNMoney<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141218221105\/https:\/\/money.cnn.com\/2014\/09\/18\/technology\/security\/home-depot-hack\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 18 December 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Home+Depot%3A+56+million+cards+exposed+in+breach&amp;rft.date=2014-09-18&amp;rft.au=Melvin+Backman&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmoney.cnn.com%2F2014%2F09%2F18%2Ftechnology%2Fsecurity%2Fhome-depot-hack%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-124\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-124\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation magazine cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/fortune.com\/2014\/12\/19\/staples-cards-affected-breach\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Staples: Breach may have affected 1.16 million customers' cards\"<\/a>. <i>Fortune.com<\/i>. 19 December 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141221160612\/http:\/\/fortune.com\/2014\/12\/19\/staples-cards-affected-breach\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 21 December 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 December<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Fortune.com&amp;rft.atitle=Staples%3A+Breach+may+have+affected+1.16+million+customers%27+cards&amp;rft.date=2014-12-19&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffortune.com%2F2014%2F12%2F19%2Fstaples-cards-affected-breach%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-125\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-125\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/money.cnn.com\/2013\/12\/18\/news\/companies\/target-credit-card\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Target: 40 million credit cards compromised\"<\/a>. <i>CNN<\/i>. 19 December 2013. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171201035530\/https:\/\/money.cnn.com\/2013\/12\/18\/news\/companies\/target-credit-card\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 1 December 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=CNN&amp;rft.atitle=Target%3A+40+million+credit+cards+compromised&amp;rft.date=2013-12-19&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmoney.cnn.com%2F2013%2F12%2F18%2Fnews%2Fcompanies%2Ftarget-credit-card%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-126\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-126\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCowley2017\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Cowley, Stacy (2 October 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2017\/10\/02\/business\/equifax-breach.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"2.5 Million More People Potentially Exposed in Equifax Breach\"<\/a>. <i>The New York Times<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171201054900\/https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2017\/10\/02\/business\/equifax-breach.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 1 December 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=2.5+Million+More+People+Potentially+Exposed+in+Equifax+Breach&amp;rft.date=2017-10-02&amp;rft.aulast=Cowley&amp;rft.aufirst=Stacy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F10%2F02%2Fbusiness%2Fequifax-breach.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-127\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-127\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJim_Finkle2014\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Jim Finkle (23 April 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-cybersecurity-healthcare-fbi-exclusiv-idUSBREA3M1Q920140423\" target=\"_blank\">\"Exclusive: FBI warns healthcare sector vulnerable to cyber attacks\"<\/a>. <i>Reuters<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160604120725\/http:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-cybersecurity-healthcare-fbi-exclusiv-idUSBREA3M1Q920140423\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 June 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Reuters&amp;rft.atitle=Exclusive%3A+FBI+warns+healthcare+sector+vulnerable+to+cyber+attacks&amp;rft.date=2014-04-23&amp;rft.au=Jim+Finkle&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-cybersecurity-healthcare-fbi-exclusiv-idUSBREA3M1Q920140423&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-128\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-128\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSeals2015\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Seals, Tara (6 November 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infosecurity-magazine.com\/news\/lack-of-employee-security-training\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Lack of Employee Security Training Plagues US Businesses\"<\/a>. <i>Infosecurity Magazine<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171109081033\/https:\/\/www.infosecurity-magazine.com\/news\/lack-of-employee-security-training\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 9 November 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Infosecurity+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Lack+of+Employee+Security+Training+Plagues+US+Businesses&amp;rft.date=2015-11-06&amp;rft.aulast=Seals&amp;rft.aufirst=Tara&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infosecurity-magazine.com%2Fnews%2Flack-of-employee-security-training%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-129\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-129\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBright2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Bright, Peter (15 February 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/tech-policy\/news\/2011\/02\/anonymous-speaks-the-inside-story-of-the-hbgary-hack.ars\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Anonymous speaks: the inside story of the HBGary hack\"<\/a>. Arstechnica.com. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110327045801\/http:\/\/arstechnica.com\/tech-policy\/news\/2011\/02\/anonymous-speaks-the-inside-story-of-the-hbgary-hack.ars\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 March 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 March<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Anonymous+speaks%3A+the+inside+story+of+the+HBGary+hack&amp;rft.pub=Arstechnica.com&amp;rft.date=2011-02-15&amp;rft.aulast=Bright&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Ftech-policy%2Fnews%2F2011%2F02%2Fanonymous-speaks-the-inside-story-of-the-hbgary-hack.ars%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-130\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-130\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAnderson2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Anderson, Nate (9 February 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/tech-policy\/news\/2011\/02\/how-one-security-firm-tracked-anonymousand-paid-a-heavy-price.ars\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How one man tracked down Anonymous&#160;\u2013 and paid a heavy price\"<\/a>. Arstechnica.com. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110329090824\/http:\/\/arstechnica.com\/tech-policy\/news\/2011\/02\/how-one-security-firm-tracked-anonymousand-paid-a-heavy-price.ars\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 March 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 March<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=How+one+man+tracked+down+Anonymous+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3Band+paid+a+heavy+price&amp;rft.pub=Arstechnica.com&amp;rft.date=2011-02-09&amp;rft.aulast=Anderson&amp;rft.aufirst=Nate&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Ftech-policy%2Fnews%2F2011%2F02%2Fhow-one-security-firm-tracked-anonymousand-paid-a-heavy-price.ars%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-131\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-131\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPalilery2014\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Palilery, Jose (24 December 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/money.cnn.com\/2014\/12\/24\/technology\/security\/sony-hack-facts\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What caused Sony hack: What we know now\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CNN_Money\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CNN Money\" data-key=\"7eb7c9b0242abea217771a3430aaa0b0\">CNN Money<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150104195455\/https:\/\/money.cnn.com\/2014\/12\/24\/technology\/security\/sony-hack-facts\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 January 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 January<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=CNN+Money&amp;rft.atitle=What+caused+Sony+hack%3A+What+we+know+now&amp;rft.date=2014-12-24&amp;rft.aulast=Palilery&amp;rft.aufirst=Jose&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmoney.cnn.com%2F2014%2F12%2F24%2Ftechnology%2Fsecurity%2Fsony-hack-facts%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-132\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-132\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJames_Cook2014\" class=\"citation news cs1\">James Cook (16 December 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/the-sony-hackers-still-have-a-massive-amount-of-data-that-hasnt-been-leaked-yet-2014-12\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sony Hackers Have Over 100 Terabytes Of Documents. Only Released 200 Gigabytes So Far\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_Insider\" title=\"Business Insider\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c22704f2fe293df1b5f787a9c5783dfd\">Business Insider<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141217204735\/http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/the-sony-hackers-still-have-a-massive-amount-of-data-that-hasnt-been-leaked-yet-2014-12\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 December 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 December<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&amp;rft.atitle=Sony+Hackers+Have+Over+100+Terabytes+Of+Documents.+Only+Released+200+Gigabytes+So+Far&amp;rft.date=2014-12-16&amp;rft.au=James+Cook&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fthe-sony-hackers-still-have-a-massive-amount-of-data-that-hasnt-been-leaked-yet-2014-12&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-vox-133\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-vox_133-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-vox_133-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTimothy_B._Lee2015\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Timothy B. Lee (18 January 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.vox.com\/2015\/1\/18\/7629603\/car-hacking-dangers\" target=\"_blank\">\"The next frontier of hacking: your car\"<\/a>. <i>Vox<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170317212726\/http:\/\/www.vox.com\/2015\/1\/18\/7629603\/car-hacking-dangers\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 March 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Vox&amp;rft.atitle=The+next+frontier+of+hacking%3A+your+car&amp;rft.date=2015-01-18&amp;rft.au=Timothy+B.+Lee&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2F2015%2F1%2F18%2F7629603%2Fcar-hacking-dangers&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-134\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-134\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation report cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.markey.senate.gov\/imo\/media\/doc\/2015-02-06_MarkeyReport-Tracking_Hacking_CarSecurity%202.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Tracking &amp; Hacking: Security &amp; Privacy Gaps Put American Drivers at Risk<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> (Report). 6 February 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161109040112\/http:\/\/www.markey.senate.gov\/imo\/media\/doc\/2015-02-06_MarkeyReport-Tracking_Hacking_CarSecurity%202.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 9 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Tracking+%26+Hacking%3A+Security+%26+Privacy+Gaps+Put+American+Drivers+at+Risk&amp;rft.date=2015-02-06&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.markey.senate.gov%2Fimo%2Fmedia%2Fdoc%2F2015-02-06_MarkeyReport-Tracking_Hacking_CarSecurity%25202.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-135\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-135\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aol.com\/article\/news\/2016\/12\/26\/expert-warns-major-event-will-need-to-happen-for-cybersecurity\/21632630\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cybersecurity expert: It will take a 'major event' for companies to take this issue seriously\"<\/a>. <i>AOL.com<\/i>. 5 January 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170120180918\/https:\/\/www.aol.com\/article\/news\/2016\/12\/26\/expert-warns-major-event-will-need-to-happen-for-cybersecurity\/21632630\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 20 January 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=AOL.com&amp;rft.atitle=Cybersecurity+expert%3A+It+will+take+a+%27major+event%27+for+companies+to+take+this+issue+seriously&amp;rft.date=2017-01-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aol.com%2Farticle%2Fnews%2F2016%2F12%2F26%2Fexpert-warns-major-event-will-need-to-happen-for-cybersecurity%2F21632630%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-136\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-136\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2015\/dec\/23\/the-problem-with-self-driving-cars-who-controls-the-code\" target=\"_blank\">\"The problem with self-driving cars: who controls the code?\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i>. 23 December 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170316152605\/https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2015\/dec\/23\/the-problem-with-self-driving-cars-who-controls-the-code\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 16 March 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&amp;rft.atitle=The+problem+with+self-driving+cars%3A+who+controls+the+code%3F&amp;rft.date=2015-12-23&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2015%2Fdec%2F23%2Fthe-problem-with-self-driving-cars-who-controls-the-code&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-137\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-137\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFStephen_CheckowayDamon_McCoyBrian_KantorDanny_Anderson2011\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Stephen Checkoway; Damon McCoy; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brian_Kantor\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Brian Kantor\" data-key=\"f5fff1ee3cbc181b7cc0ce099c1682f0\">Brian Kantor<\/a>; Danny Anderson; Hovav Shacham; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stefan_Savage\" title=\"Stefan Savage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0554bc14645efc644addaaa025eef4ba\">Stefan Savage<\/a>; Karl Koscher; Alexei Czeskis; Franziska Roesner; Tadayoshi Kohno (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autosec.org\/pubs\/cars-usenixsec2011.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Comprehensive Experimental Analyses of Automotive Attack Surfaces<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. SEC'11 Proceedings of the 20th USENIX conference on Security. Berkeley, California, US: USENIX Association. p.&#160;6. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150221064614\/http:\/\/www.autosec.org\/pubs\/cars-usenixsec2011.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 21 February 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=Comprehensive+Experimental+Analyses+of+Automotive+Attack+Surfaces&amp;rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California%2C+US&amp;rft.pages=6&amp;rft.pub=USENIX+Association&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.au=Stephen+Checkoway&amp;rft.au=Damon+McCoy&amp;rft.au=Brian+Kantor&amp;rft.au=Danny+Anderson&amp;rft.au=Hovav+Shacham&amp;rft.au=Stefan+Savage&amp;rft.au=Karl+Koscher&amp;rft.au=Alexei+Czeskis&amp;rft.au=Franziska+Roesner&amp;rft.au=Tadayoshi+Kohno&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.autosec.org%2Fpubs%2Fcars-usenixsec2011.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-138\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-138\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGreenberg2015\" class=\"citation magazine cs1\">Greenberg, Andy (21 July 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/2015\/07\/hackers-remotely-kill-jeep-highway\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hackers Remotely Kill a Jeep on the Highway&#160;\u2013 With Me in It\"<\/a>. <i>Wired<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170119103855\/https:\/\/www.wired.com\/2015\/07\/hackers-remotely-kill-jeep-highway\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 January 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Wired&amp;rft.atitle=Hackers+Remotely+Kill+a+Jeep+on+the+Highway+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BWith+Me+in+It&amp;rft.date=2015-07-21&amp;rft.aulast=Greenberg&amp;rft.aufirst=Andy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2015%2F07%2Fhackers-remotely-kill-jeep-highway%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-139\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-139\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.independent.co.uk\/news\/science\/hackers-remotely-carjack-jeep-from-10-miles-away-and-drive-it-into-ditch-10406554.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hackers take control of car, drive it into a ditch\"<\/a>. <i>The Independent<\/i>. 22 July 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170202061247\/http:\/\/www.independent.co.uk\/news\/science\/hackers-remotely-carjack-jeep-from-10-miles-away-and-drive-it-into-ditch-10406554.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 February 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Independent&amp;rft.atitle=Hackers+take+control+of+car%2C+drive+it+into+a+ditch&amp;rft.date=2015-07-22&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience%2Fhackers-remotely-carjack-jeep-from-10-miles-away-and-drive-it-into-ditch-10406554.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-140\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-140\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.telegraph.co.uk\/technology\/2016\/09\/21\/tesla-fixes-software-bug-that-allowed-chinese-hackers-to-control\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tesla fixes software bug that allowed Chinese hackers to control car remotely\"<\/a>. <i>The Telegraph<\/i>. 21 September 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170202014932\/http:\/\/www.telegraph.co.uk\/technology\/2016\/09\/21\/tesla-fixes-software-bug-that-allowed-chinese-hackers-to-control\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 February 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&amp;rft.atitle=Tesla+fixes+software+bug+that+allowed+Chinese+hackers+to+control+car+remotely&amp;rft.date=2016-09-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Ftechnology%2F2016%2F09%2F21%2Ftesla-fixes-software-bug-that-allowed-chinese-hackers-to-control%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-141\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-141\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKang2016\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Kang, Cecilia (19 September 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/09\/20\/technology\/self-driving-cars-guidelines.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Self-Driving Cars Gain Powerful Ally: The Government\"<\/a>. <i>The New York Times<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170214045032\/https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/09\/20\/technology\/self-driving-cars-guidelines.html?_r=0\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 February 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Self-Driving+Cars+Gain+Powerful+Ally%3A+The+Government&amp;rft.date=2016-09-19&amp;rft.aulast=Kang&amp;rft.aufirst=Cecilia&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F09%2F20%2Ftechnology%2Fself-driving-cars-guidelines.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-142\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-142\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.transportation.gov\/sites\/dot.gov\/files\/docs\/AV%20policy%20guidance%20PDF.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Federal Automated Vehicles Policy\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170121161404\/https:\/\/www.transportation.gov\/sites\/dot.gov\/files\/docs\/AV%20policy%20guidance%20PDF.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 21 January 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Federal+Automated+Vehicles+Policy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.transportation.gov%2Fsites%2Fdot.gov%2Ffiles%2Fdocs%2FAV%2520policy%2520guidance%2520PDF.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-143\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-143\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nhtsa.gov\/technology-innovation\/vehicle-cybersecurity\" target=\"_blank\">\"Vehicle Cybersecurity\"<\/a>. <i>nhtsa.gov<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 November<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=nhtsa.gov&amp;rft.atitle=Vehicle+Cybersecurity&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhtsa.gov%2Ftechnology-innovation%2Fvehicle-cybersecurity&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-144\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-144\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.thalesgroup.com\/en\/markets\/digital-identity-and-security\/government\/customer-cases\/mexico\" target=\"_blank\">\"Thales supplies smart driver license to 4 states in Mexico\"<\/a>. <i>Thales Group<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Thales+Group&amp;rft.atitle=Thales+supplies+smart+driver+license+to+4+states+in+Mexico&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thalesgroup.com%2Fen%2Fmarkets%2Fdigital-identity-and-security%2Fgovernment%2Fcustomer-cases%2Fmexico&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-145\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-145\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.atlasrfidstore.com\/rfid-insider\/4-companies-using-rfid-for-supply-chain-management\" target=\"_blank\">\"4 Companies Using RFID for Supply Chain Management\"<\/a>. <i>atlasRFIDstore<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 February<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=atlasRFIDstore&amp;rft.atitle=4+Companies+Using+RFID+for+Supply+Chain+Management&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atlasrfidstore.com%2Frfid-insider%2F4-companies-using-rfid-for-supply-chain-management&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-146\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-146\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.supplychainmarket.com\/doc\/the-cutting-edge-of-rfid-technology-and-appli-0001\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Cutting Edge of RFID Technology and Applications for Manufacturing and Distribution\"<\/a>. <i>Supply Chain Market<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Supply+Chain+Market&amp;rft.atitle=The+Cutting+Edge+of+RFID+Technology+and+Applications+for+Manufacturing+and+Distribution&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supplychainmarket.com%2Fdoc%2Fthe-cutting-edge-of-rfid-technology-and-appli-0001&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-147\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-147\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRahmanKhademSarder\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Rahman, Mohammad Anwar; Khadem, Mohammad Miftaur; Sarder, MD. <i>Application of RFID in Supply Chain System<\/i>. Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management Dhaka, Bangladesh, January 9 \u2013 10, 2010. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CiteSeerX (identifier)\" data-key=\"d1ea3e5168e7880002688dac1448af19\">CiteSeerX<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.397.7831\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.397.7831<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=Application+of+RFID+in+Supply+Chain+System&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.397.7831%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft.aulast=Rahman&amp;rft.aufirst=Mohammad+Anwar&amp;rft.au=Khadem%2C+Mohammad+Miftaur&amp;rft.au=Sarder%2C+MD.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-148\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-148\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.telegraph.co.uk\/news\/worldnews\/northamerica\/usa\/4320901\/Gary-McKinnon-profile-Autistic-hacker-who-started-writing-computer-programs-at-14.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gary McKinnon profile: Autistic 'hacker' who started writing computer programs at 14\"<\/a>. <i>The Daily Telegraph<\/i>. London. 23 January 2009. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100602065423\/http:\/\/www.telegraph.co.uk\/news\/worldnews\/northamerica\/usa\/4320901\/Gary-McKinnon-profile-Autistic-hacker-who-started-writing-computer-programs-at-14.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 June 2010.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&amp;rft.atitle=Gary+McKinnon+profile%3A+Autistic+%27hacker%27+who+started+writing+computer+programs+at+14&amp;rft.date=2009-01-23&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fnorthamerica%2Fusa%2F4320901%2FGary-McKinnon-profile-Autistic-hacker-who-started-writing-computer-programs-at-14.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-149\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-149\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/uk-19506090\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gary McKinnon extradition ruling due by 16 October\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. 6 September 2012. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120906185731\/http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/uk-19506090\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 September 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 September<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=Gary+McKinnon+extradition+ruling+due+by+16+October&amp;rft.date=2012-09-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk-19506090&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-150\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-150\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite><i>Mckinnon V Government of The United States of America and Another<\/i><\/cite> (House of Lords 16 June 2008) (\"15. ... alleged to total over $700,000\"), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/publications.parliament.uk\/pa\/ld200708\/ldjudgmt\/jd080730\/mckinn-1.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Text<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-151\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-151\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151106193613\/http:\/\/www.spiegel.de\/international\/world\/nsa-hacked-email-account-of-mexican-president-a-928817.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Fresh Leak on US Spying: NSA Accessed Mexican President's Email\"<\/a>. <i>SPIEGEL ONLINE<\/i>. 20 October 2013. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.spiegel.de\/international\/world\/nsa-hacked-email-account-of-mexican-president-a-928817.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 6 November 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=SPIEGEL+ONLINE&amp;rft.atitle=Fresh+Leak+on+US+Spying%3A+NSA+Accessed+Mexican+President%27s+Email&amp;rft.date=2013-10-20&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fworld%2Fnsa-hacked-email-account-of-mexican-president-a-928817.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-152\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-152\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSanders,_Sam2015\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Sanders, Sam (4 June 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2015\/06\/04\/412086068\/massive-data-breach-puts-4-million-federal-employees-records-at-risk\" target=\"_blank\">\"Massive Data Breach Puts 4 Million Federal Employees' Records at Risk\"<\/a>. <i>NPR<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150605041629\/http:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2015\/06\/04\/412086068\/massive-data-breach-puts-4-million-federal-employees-records-at-risk\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 5 June 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 June<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=NPR&amp;rft.atitle=Massive+Data+Breach+Puts+4+Million+Federal+Employees%27+Records+at+Risk&amp;rft.date=2015-06-04&amp;rft.au=Sanders%2C+Sam&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fthetwo-way%2F2015%2F06%2F04%2F412086068%2Fmassive-data-breach-puts-4-million-federal-employees-records-at-risk&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-153\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-153\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLiptak,_Kevin2015\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Liptak, Kevin (4 June 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2015\/06\/04\/politics\/federal-agency-hacked-personnel-management\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"U.S. government hacked; feds think China is the culprit\"<\/a>. <i>CNN<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150606063139\/http:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2015\/06\/04\/politics\/federal-agency-hacked-personnel-management\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 June 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 June<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=CNN&amp;rft.atitle=U.S.+government+hacked%3B+feds+think+China+is+the+culprit&amp;rft.date=2015-06-04&amp;rft.au=Liptak%2C+Kevin&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2015%2F06%2F04%2Fpolitics%2Ffederal-agency-hacked-personnel-management%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-154\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-154\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSean_Gallagher\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Sean Gallagher. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/security\/2015\/06\/encryption-would-not-have-helped-at-opm-says-dhs-official\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Encryption \"would not have helped\" at OPM, says DHS official\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170624014751\/https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/security\/2015\/06\/encryption-would-not-have-helped-at-opm-says-dhs-official\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 June 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Encryption+%22would+not+have+helped%22+at+OPM%2C+says+DHS+official&amp;rft.au=Sean+Gallagher&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fsecurity%2F2015%2F06%2Fencryption-would-not-have-helped-at-opm-says-dhs-official%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-155\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-155\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDavis2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Davis, Michelle R. (19 October 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.edweek.org\/ew\/articles\/2015\/10\/21\/lessons-learned-from-security-breaches.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Schools Learn Lessons From Security Breaches\"<\/a>. <i>Education Week<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160610130749\/http:\/\/www.edweek.org\/ew\/articles\/2015\/10\/21\/lessons-learned-from-security-breaches.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 June 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Education+Week&amp;rft.atitle=Schools+Learn+Lessons+From+Security+Breaches&amp;rft.date=2015-10-19&amp;rft.aulast=Davis&amp;rft.aufirst=Michelle+R.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edweek.org%2Few%2Farticles%2F2015%2F10%2F21%2Flessons-learned-from-security-breaches.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-156\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-156\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.securityinfowatch.com\/access-identity\/access-control\/press-release\/10577631\/ge-infrastructure-security-ges-introduces-acuvision-as-a-single-panel-solution\" target=\"_blank\">\"GE's Introduces ACUVision as a Single Panel Solution\"<\/a>. <i>www.securityinfowatch.com<\/i>. Security Info Watch. 11 August 2005<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 September<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.securityinfowatch.com&amp;rft.atitle=GE%27s+Introduces+ACUVision+as+a+Single+Panel+Solution&amp;rft.date=2005-08-11&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.securityinfowatch.com%2Faccess-identity%2Faccess-control%2Fpress-release%2F10577631%2Fge-infrastructure-security-ges-introduces-acuvision-as-a-single-panel-solution&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-157\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-157\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.itu.int\/en\/ITU-T\/gsi\/iot\/Pages\/default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet of Things Global Standards Initiative\"<\/a>. <i>ITU<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150626125229\/http:\/\/www.itu.int\/en\/ITU-T\/gsi\/iot\/Pages\/default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 June 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 June<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ITU&amp;rft.atitle=Internet+of+Things+Global+Standards+Initiative&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itu.int%2Fen%2FITU-T%2Fgsi%2Fiot%2FPages%2Fdefault.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-158\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-158\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSinghPasquierBaconKo2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Singh, Jatinder; Pasquier, Thomas; Bacon, Jean; Ko, Hajoon; Eyers, David (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dash.harvard.edu\/bitstream\/1\/35349952\/1\/iot-2016.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Twenty Cloud Security Considerations for Supporting the Internet of Things\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IEEE Internet of Things Journal<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (3): 269\u2013284. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FJIOT.2015.2460333\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/JIOT.2015.2460333<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:4732406\" target=\"_blank\">4732406<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Internet+of+Things+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Twenty+Cloud+Security+Considerations+for+Supporting+the+Internet+of+Things&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=269-284&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FJIOT.2015.2460333&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4732406%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Singh&amp;rft.aufirst=Jatinder&amp;rft.au=Pasquier%2C+Thomas&amp;rft.au=Bacon%2C+Jean&amp;rft.au=Ko%2C+Hajoon&amp;rft.au=Eyers%2C+David&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2F1%2F35349952%2F1%2Fiot-2016.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-159\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-159\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChris_Clearfield\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Chris Clearfield. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/chrisclearfield\/2013\/09\/18\/why-the-ftc-cant-regulate-the-internet-of-things\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why The FTC Can't Regulate The Internet Of Things\"<\/a>. <i>Forbes<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150627090938\/http:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/chrisclearfield\/2013\/09\/18\/why-the-ftc-cant-regulate-the-internet-of-things\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 June 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 June<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Forbes&amp;rft.atitle=Why+The+FTC+Can%27t+Regulate+The+Internet+Of+Things&amp;rft.au=Chris+Clearfield&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fchrisclearfield%2F2013%2F09%2F18%2Fwhy-the-ftc-cant-regulate-the-internet-of-things%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-160\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-160\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hbr.org\/resources\/pdfs\/comm\/verizon\/18980_HBR_Verizon_IoT_Nov_14.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet of Things: Science Fiction or Business Fact?\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Harvard Business Review<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150317052909\/https:\/\/hbr.org\/resources\/pdfs\/comm\/verizon\/18980_HBR_Verizon_IoT_Nov_14.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 17 March 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Harvard+Business+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+Science+Fiction+or+Business+Fact%3F&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhbr.org%2Fresources%2Fpdfs%2Fcomm%2Fverizon%2F18980_HBR_Verizon_IoT_Nov_14.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-161\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-161\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOvidiu_VermesanPeter_Friess\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Ovidiu Vermesan; Peter Friess. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.internet-of-things-research.eu\/pdf\/Converging_Technologies_for_Smart_Environments_and_Integrated_Ecosystems_IERC_Book_Open_Access_2013.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet of Things: Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated Ecosystems\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. River Publishers. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161012010519\/http:\/\/www.internet-of-things-research.eu\/pdf\/Converging_Technologies_for_Smart_Environments_and_Integrated_Ecosystems_IERC_Book_Open_Access_2013.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 12 October 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+Converging+Technologies+for+Smart+Environments+and+Integrated+Ecosystems&amp;rft.pub=River+Publishers&amp;rft.au=Ovidiu+Vermesan&amp;rft.au=Peter+Friess&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.internet-of-things-research.eu%2Fpdf%2FConverging_Technologies_for_Smart_Environments_and_Integrated_Ecosystems_IERC_Book_Open_Access_2013.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-162\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-162\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFClearfield2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Clearfield, Chris (20 June 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blogs.hbr.org\/2013\/06\/rethinking-security-for-the-in\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Rethinking Security for the Internet of Things\"<\/a>. <i>Harvard Business Review<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130920145534\/http:\/\/blogs.hbr.org\/2013\/06\/rethinking-security-for-the-in\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 20 September 2013.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Harvard+Business+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Rethinking+Security+for+the+Internet+of+Things&amp;rft.date=2013-06-20&amp;rft.aulast=Clearfield&amp;rft.aufirst=Chris&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.hbr.org%2F2013%2F06%2Frethinking-security-for-the-in%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-163\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-163\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/security\/2012\/11\/hotel-room-burglars-exploit-critical-flaw-in-electronic-door-locks\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hotel room burglars exploit critical flaw in electronic door locks\"<\/a>. <i>Ars Technica<\/i>. 26 November 2012. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160514002208\/http:\/\/arstechnica.com\/security\/2012\/11\/hotel-room-burglars-exploit-critical-flaw-in-electronic-door-locks\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 May 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&amp;rft.atitle=Hotel+room+burglars+exploit+critical+flaw+in+electronic+door+locks&amp;rft.date=2012-11-26&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fsecurity%2F2012%2F11%2Fhotel-room-burglars-exploit-critical-flaw-in-electronic-door-locks%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-164\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-164\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.darkreading.com\/vulnerabilities---threats\/hospital-medical-devices-used-as-weapons-in-cyberattacks\/d\/d-id\/1320751\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hospital Medical Devices Used As Weapons in Cyberattacks\"<\/a>. <i>Dark Reading<\/i>. 6 August 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160529002947\/http:\/\/www.darkreading.com\/vulnerabilities---threats\/hospital-medical-devices-used-as-weapons-in-cyberattacks\/d\/d-id\/1320751\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 May 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Dark+Reading&amp;rft.atitle=Hospital+Medical+Devices+Used+As+Weapons+in+Cyberattacks&amp;rft.date=2015-08-06&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darkreading.com%2Fvulnerabilities---threats%2Fhospital-medical-devices-used-as-weapons-in-cyberattacks%2Fd%2Fd-id%2F1320751&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-165\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-165\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJeremy_Kirk2012\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Jeremy Kirk (17 October 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2492453\/malware-vulnerabilities\/pacemaker-hack-can-deliver-deadly-830-volt-jolt.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Pacemaker hack can deliver deadly 830-volt jolt\"<\/a>. <i>Computerworld<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160604201841\/http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2492453\/malware-vulnerabilities\/pacemaker-hack-can-deliver-deadly-830-volt-jolt.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 June 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Computerworld&amp;rft.atitle=Pacemaker+hack+can+deliver+deadly+830-volt+jolt&amp;rft.date=2012-10-17&amp;rft.au=Jeremy+Kirk&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Farticle%2F2492453%2Fmalware-vulnerabilities%2Fpacemaker-hack-can-deliver-deadly-830-volt-jolt.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-166\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-166\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thedailybeast.com\/articles\/2014\/11\/17\/how-your-pacemaker-will-get-hacked.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Your Pacemaker Will Get Hacked\"<\/a>. <i>The Daily Beast<\/i>. Kaiser Health News. 17 November 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160520155616\/http:\/\/www.thedailybeast.com\/articles\/2014\/11\/17\/how-your-pacemaker-will-get-hacked.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 20 May 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Beast&amp;rft.atitle=How+Your+Pacemaker+Will+Get+Hacked&amp;rft.date=2014-11-17&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thedailybeast.com%2Farticles%2F2014%2F11%2F17%2Fhow-your-pacemaker-will-get-hacked.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-167\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-167\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLeetaru\" class=\"citation magazine cs1\">Leetaru, Kalev. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/kalevleetaru\/2016\/03\/29\/hacking-hospitals-and-holding-hostages-cybersecurity-in-2016\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hacking Hospitals And Holding Hostages: Cybersecurity In 2016\"<\/a>. <i>Forbes<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161229104021\/http:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/kalevleetaru\/2016\/03\/29\/hacking-hospitals-and-holding-hostages-cybersecurity-in-2016\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Forbes&amp;rft.atitle=Hacking+Hospitals+And+Holding+Hostages%3A+Cybersecurity+In+2016&amp;rft.aulast=Leetaru&amp;rft.aufirst=Kalev&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fkalevleetaru%2F2016%2F03%2F29%2Fhacking-hospitals-and-holding-hostages-cybersecurity-in-2016%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-wiwo1-168\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-wiwo1_168-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-wiwo1_168-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wiwo.de\/technologie\/digitale-welt\/cyber-angriffe-krankenhaeuser-ruecken-ins-visier-der-hacker\/14946040.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cyber-Angriffe: Krankenh\u00e4user r\u00fccken ins Visier der Hacker\"<\/a>. Wirtschafts Woche. 7 December 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161229101724\/http:\/\/www.wiwo.de\/technologie\/digitale-welt\/cyber-angriffe-krankenhaeuser-ruecken-ins-visier-der-hacker\/14946040.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Cyber-Angriffe%3A+Krankenh%C3%A4user+r%C3%BCcken+ins+Visier+der+Hacker&amp;rft.pub=Wirtschafts+Woche&amp;rft.date=2016-12-07&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wiwo.de%2Ftechnologie%2Fdigitale-welt%2Fcyber-angriffe-krankenhaeuser-ruecken-ins-visier-der-hacker%2F14946040.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-169\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-169\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/hospital-ransomware-hack-2016-5\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hospitals keep getting attacked by ransomware&#160;\u2013 Here's why\"<\/a>. <i>Business Insider<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161229101247\/http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/hospital-ransomware-hack-2016-5\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&amp;rft.atitle=Hospitals+keep+getting+attacked+by+ransomware+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BHere%27s+why&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fhospital-ransomware-hack-2016-5&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-170\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-170\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/news\/us-news\/medstar-hospitals-recovering-after-ransomware-hack-n548121\" target=\"_blank\">\"MedStar Hospitals Recovering After 'Ransomware' Hack\"<\/a>. <i>NBC News<\/i>. 31 March 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161229103355\/https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/news\/us-news\/medstar-hospitals-recovering-after-ransomware-hack-n548121\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=NBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=MedStar+Hospitals+Recovering+After+%27Ransomware%27+Hack&amp;rft.date=2016-03-31&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fnews%2Fus-news%2Fmedstar-hospitals-recovering-after-ransomware-hack-n548121&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-171\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-171\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPauli\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Pauli, Darren. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2016\/06\/28\/medjack\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"US hospitals hacked with ancient exploits\"<\/a>. <i>The Register<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161116141207\/http:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2016\/06\/28\/medjack\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 16 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Register&amp;rft.atitle=US+hospitals+hacked+with+ancient+exploits&amp;rft.aulast=Pauli&amp;rft.aufirst=Darren&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2016%2F06%2F28%2Fmedjack%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-172\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-172\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPauli\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Pauli, Darren. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2016\/01\/19\/melbourne_hospital_pathology_wing_splattered_by_virus\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Zombie OS lurches through Royal Melbourne Hospital spreading virus\"<\/a>. <i>The Register<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161229101019\/http:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2016\/01\/19\/melbourne_hospital_pathology_wing_splattered_by_virus\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Register&amp;rft.atitle=Zombie+OS+lurches+through+Royal+Melbourne+Hospital+spreading+virus&amp;rft.aulast=Pauli&amp;rft.aufirst=Darren&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2016%2F01%2F19%2Fmelbourne_hospital_pathology_wing_splattered_by_virus%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-173\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-173\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/uk-england-humber-37849746\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hacked Lincolnshire hospital computer systems 'back up'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. 2 November 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161229101819\/http:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/uk-england-humber-37849746\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=Hacked+Lincolnshire+hospital+computer+systems+%27back+up%27&amp;rft.date=2016-11-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fuk-england-humber-37849746&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-174\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-174\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/uk-england-humber-37822084\" target=\"_blank\">\"Lincolnshire operations cancelled after network attack\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. 31 October 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161229101209\/http:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/uk-england-humber-37822084\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BBC+News&amp;rft.atitle=Lincolnshire+operations+cancelled+after+network+attack&amp;rft.date=2016-10-31&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fuk-england-humber-37822084&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-175\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-175\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/indianexpress.com\/article\/technology\/tech-news-technology\/legion-hacking-no-political-agenda-just-computer-geeks-says-hacker-4423167\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Legion cyber-attack: Next dump is sansad.nic.in, say hackers\"<\/a>. <i>The Indian Express<\/i>. 12 December 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161229100631\/http:\/\/indianexpress.com\/article\/technology\/tech-news-technology\/legion-hacking-no-political-agenda-just-computer-geeks-says-hacker-4423167\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Indian+Express&amp;rft.atitle=Legion+cyber-attack%3A+Next+dump+is+sansad.nic.in%2C+say+hackers&amp;rft.date=2016-12-12&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findianexpress.com%2Farticle%2Ftechnology%2Ftech-news-technology%2Flegion-hacking-no-political-agenda-just-computer-geeks-says-hacker-4423167%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-176\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-176\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/boston.cbslocal.com\/2016\/12\/27\/former-patient-accused-data-breech-new-hampshire-psychiatric-hospital\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Former New Hampshire Psychiatric Hospital Patient Accused Of Data Breach\"<\/a>. CBS Boston. 27 December 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170929233237\/http:\/\/boston.cbslocal.com\/2016\/12\/27\/former-patient-accused-data-breech-new-hampshire-psychiatric-hospital\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 September 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Former+New+Hampshire+Psychiatric+Hospital+Patient+Accused+Of+Data+Breach&amp;rft.pub=CBS+Boston&amp;rft.date=2016-12-27&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fboston.cbslocal.com%2F2016%2F12%2F27%2Fformer-patient-accused-data-breech-new-hampshire-psychiatric-hospital%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-177\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-177\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/texas-hospital-hacked-affects-nearly-30000-patient-records\" target=\"_blank\">\"Texas Hospital hacked, affects nearly 30,000 patient records\"<\/a>. Healthcare IT News. 4 November 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161229171117\/http:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/texas-hospital-hacked-affects-nearly-30000-patient-records\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Texas+Hospital+hacked%2C+affects+nearly+30%2C000+patient+records&amp;rft.pub=Healthcare+IT+News&amp;rft.date=2016-11-04&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthcareitnews.com%2Fnews%2Ftexas-hospital-hacked-affects-nearly-30000-patient-records&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-178\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-178\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBecker2016\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Becker, Rachel (27 December 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2016\/12\/27\/14095166\/fda-guidance-medical-device-cybersecurity-cyberattack-hacking-guidelines\" target=\"_blank\">\"New cybersecurity guidelines for medical devices tackle evolving threats\"<\/a>. <i>The Verge<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161228210257\/http:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2016\/12\/27\/14095166\/fda-guidance-medical-device-cybersecurity-cyberattack-hacking-guidelines\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 28 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Verge&amp;rft.atitle=New+cybersecurity+guidelines+for+medical+devices+tackle+evolving+threats&amp;rft.date=2016-12-27&amp;rft.aulast=Becker&amp;rft.aufirst=Rachel&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2016%2F12%2F27%2F14095166%2Ffda-guidance-medical-device-cybersecurity-cyberattack-hacking-guidelines&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-179\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-179\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/downloads\/MedicalDevices\/DeviceRegulationandGuidance\/GuidanceDocuments\/UCM482022.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Postmarket Management of Cybersecurity in Medical Devices\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a><\/i>. 28 December 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161229102808\/https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/downloads\/MedicalDevices\/DeviceRegulationandGuidance\/GuidanceDocuments\/UCM482022.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 29 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft.atitle=Postmarket+Management+of+Cybersecurity+in+Medical+Devices&amp;rft.date=2016-12-28&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fdownloads%2FMedicalDevices%2FDeviceRegulationandGuidance%2FGuidanceDocuments%2FUCM482022.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-180\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-180\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrandt2018\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Brandt, Jaclyn (18 June 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dailyenergyinsider.com\/featured\/13110-d-c-distributed-4:.energy-proposal-draws-concerns-of-increased-cybersecurity-risks\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"D.C. distributed energy proposal draws concerns of increased cybersecurity risks\"<\/a>. <i>Daily Energy Insider<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Daily+Energy+Insider&amp;rft.atitle=D.C.+distributed+energy+proposal+draws+concerns+of+increased+cybersecurity+risks&amp;rft.date=2018-06-18&amp;rft.aulast=Brandt&amp;rft.aufirst=Jaclyn&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdailyenergyinsider.com%2Ffeatured%2F13110-d-c-distributed-4%3A.energy-proposal-draws-concerns-of-increased-cybersecurity-risks%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-181\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-181\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.openmobilealliance.org\/Technical\/release_program\/scws_v1_0.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Current Releases - The Open Mobile Alliance\"<\/a>. <i>openmobilealliance.org<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=openmobilealliance.org&amp;rft.atitle=Current+Releases+-+The+Open+Mobile+Alliance&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.openmobilealliance.org%2FTechnical%2Frelease_program%2Fscws_v1_0.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-182\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-182\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCashellJacksonJicklingWebel2004\" class=\"citation report cs1\">Cashell, B.; Jackson, W. D.; Jickling, M.; Webel, B. (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/sgp.fas.org\/crs\/misc\/RL32331.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">The Economic Impact of Cyber-Attacks<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> (Report). Washington DC: Congressional Research Service, Government, and Finance Division. 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United States Department of Defense, 1986<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-193\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-193\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation pressrelease cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.businesswire.com\/news\/tjx\/20070117005971\/en\" target=\"_blank\">\"The TJX Companies, Inc. Victimized by Computer System Intrusion; Provides Information to Help Protect Customers\"<\/a> (Press release). The TJX Companies, Inc. 17 January 2007. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120927014805\/http:\/\/www.businesswire.com\/news\/tjx\/20070117005971\/en\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 September 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 December<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+TJX+Companies%2C+Inc.+Victimized+by+Computer+System+Intrusion%3B+Provides+Information+to+Help+Protect+Customers&amp;rft.pub=The+TJX+Companies%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.date=2007-01-17&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businesswire.com%2Fnews%2Ftjx%2F20070117005971%2Fen&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-194\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-194\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.myfoxtwincities.com\/myfox\/pages\/Home\/Detail?contentId=2804836&version=3&locale=EN-US&layoutCode=TSTY&pageId=1.1.1\" target=\"_blank\">Largest Customer Info Breach Grows<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070928041047\/http:\/\/www.myfoxtwincities.com\/myfox\/pages\/Home\/Detail?contentId=2804836&version=3&locale=EN-US&layoutCode=TSTY&pageId=1.1.1\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 28 September 2007 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>. MyFox Twin Cities, 29 March 2007.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-195\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-195\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/stuxnet-was-far-more-dangerous-than-previous-thought-2013-11\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Stuxnet Attack On Iran's Nuclear Plant Was 'Far More Dangerous' Than Previously Thought\"<\/a>. <i>Business Insider<\/i>. 20 November 2013. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140509020404\/http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/stuxnet-was-far-more-dangerous-than-previous-thought-2013-11\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 9 May 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&amp;rft.atitle=The+Stuxnet+Attack+On+Iran%27s+Nuclear+Plant+Was+%27Far+More+Dangerous%27+Than+Previously+Thought&amp;rft.date=2013-11-20&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fstuxnet-was-far-more-dangerous-than-previous-thought-2013-11&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-196\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-196\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFReals2010\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Reals, Tucker (24 September 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cbsnews.com\/8301-501465_162-20017507-501465.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stuxnet Worm a U.S. Cyber-Attack on Iran Nukes?\"<\/a>. <i>CBS News<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131016133651\/http:\/\/www.cbsnews.com\/8301-501465_162-20017507-501465.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 16 October 2013.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=CBS+News&amp;rft.atitle=Stuxnet+Worm+a+U.S.+Cyber-Attack+on+Iran+Nukes%3F&amp;rft.date=2010-09-24&amp;rft.aulast=Reals&amp;rft.aufirst=Tucker&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2F8301-501465_162-20017507-501465.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-197\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-197\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKim_Zetter2011\" class=\"citation magazine cs1\">Kim Zetter (17 February 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/threatlevel\/2011\/02\/cyberwar-issues-likely-to-be-addressed-only-after-a-catastrophe\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cyberwar Issues Likely to Be Addressed Only After a Catastrophe\"<\/a>. <i>Wired<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110218154415\/http:\/\/www.wired.com\/threatlevel\/2011\/02\/cyberwar-issues-likely-to-be-addressed-only-after-a-catastrophe\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 18 February 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 February<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Wired&amp;rft.atitle=Cyberwar+Issues+Likely+to+Be+Addressed+Only+After+a+Catastrophe&amp;rft.date=2011-02-17&amp;rft.au=Kim+Zetter&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fthreatlevel%2F2011%2F02%2Fcyberwar-issues-likely-to-be-addressed-only-after-a-catastrophe&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-198\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-198\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChris_Carroll2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Chris Carroll (18 October 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.stripes.com\/news\/cone-of-silence-surrounds-u-s-cyberwarfare-1.158090\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cone of silence surrounds U.S. cyberwarfare\"<\/a>. Stars and Stripes. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120307021747\/http:\/\/www.stripes.com\/news\/cone-of-silence-surrounds-u-s-cyberwarfare-1.158090\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 March 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Cone+of+silence+surrounds+U.S.+cyberwarfare&amp;rft.pub=Stars+and+Stripes&amp;rft.date=2011-10-18&amp;rft.au=Chris+Carroll&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stripes.com%2Fnews%2Fcone-of-silence-surrounds-u-s-cyberwarfare-1.158090&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-199\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-199\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJohn_Bumgarner2010\" class=\"citation web cs1\">John Bumgarner (27 April 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111219174833\/http:\/\/www.crows.org\/images\/stories\/pdf\/IOI\/IO%20Journal_Vol2Iss2_0210.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Computers as Weapons of War\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. IO Journal. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.crows.org\/images\/stories\/pdf\/IOI\/IO%20Journal_Vol2Iss2_0210.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 19 December 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Computers+as+Weapons+of+War&amp;rft.pub=IO+Journal&amp;rft.date=2010-04-27&amp;rft.au=John+Bumgarner&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crows.org%2Fimages%2Fstories%2Fpdf%2FIOI%2FIO%2520Journal_Vol2Iss2_0210.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-200\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-200\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGreenwald2013\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Greenwald, Glenn (6 June 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2013\/jun\/06\/nsa-phone-records-verizon-court-order\" target=\"_blank\">\"NSA collecting phone records of millions of Verizon customers daily\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130816045641\/http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2013\/jun\/06\/nsa-phone-records-verizon-court-order\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 16 August 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 August<\/span> 2013<\/span>. <q>Exclusive: Top secret court order requiring <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Verizon\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Verizon\" data-key=\"4c9bc1f9b9da00075d9c74a59679c30f\">Verizon<\/a> to hand over all call data shows scale of domestic surveillance under <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barack_Obama\" title=\"Barack Obama\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b854578bb85f76fe4a6f82229a2d7ded\">Obama<\/a><\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&amp;rft.atitle=NSA+collecting+phone+records+of+millions+of+Verizon+customers+daily&amp;rft.date=2013-06-06&amp;rft.aulast=Greenwald&amp;rft.aufirst=Glenn&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2013%2Fjun%2F06%2Fnsa-phone-records-verizon-court-order&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-201\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-201\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSeipel\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Seipel, Hubert. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.freesnowden.is\/fr\/2014\/01\/27\/video-ard-interview-with-edward-snowden\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Transcript: ARD interview with Edward Snowden\"<\/a>. <i>La Foundation Courage<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140714174333\/https:\/\/www.freesnowden.is\/fr\/2014\/01\/27\/video-ard-interview-with-edward-snowden\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 July 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 June<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=La+Foundation+Courage&amp;rft.atitle=Transcript%3A+ARD+interview+with+Edward+Snowden&amp;rft.aulast=Seipel&amp;rft.aufirst=Hubert&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.freesnowden.is%2Ffr%2F2014%2F01%2F27%2Fvideo-ard-interview-with-edward-snowden%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-202\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-202\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNewman2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Newman, Lily Hay (9 October 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/telecom\/security\/can-you-trust-nist\" target=\"_blank\">\"Can You Trust NIST?\"<\/a>. <i>IEEE Spectrum<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160201095426\/https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/telecom\/security\/can-you-trust-nist\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 1 February 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Spectrum&amp;rft.atitle=Can+You+Trust+NIST%3F&amp;rft.date=2013-10-09&amp;rft.aulast=Newman&amp;rft.aufirst=Lily+Hay&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Ftelecom%2Fsecurity%2Fcan-you-trust-nist&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-203\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-203\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nist.gov\/itl\/csd\/sp800-90-042114.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">\"NIST Removes Cryptography Algorithm from Random Number Generator Recommendations\"<\/a>. <i>National Institute of Standards and Technology<\/i>. 21 April 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&amp;rft.atitle=NIST+Removes+Cryptography+Algorithm+from+Random+Number+Generator+Recommendations&amp;rft.date=2014-04-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fitl%2Fcsd%2Fsp800-90-042114.cfm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-204\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-204\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/mashable.com\/2013\/10\/30\/nsa-google-yahoo-data-centers\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"New Snowden Leak: NSA Tapped Google, Yahoo Data Centers\"<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140709131535\/http:\/\/mashable.com\/2013\/10\/30\/nsa-google-yahoo-data-centers\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 9 July 2014 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, 31 October 2013, Lorenzo Franceschi-Bicchierai, mashable.com<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-205\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-205\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMichael_RileyBen_ElginDune_LawrenceCarol_Matlack2014\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Michael Riley; Ben Elgin; Dune Lawrence; Carol Matlack (17 March 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150127015928\/http:\/\/www.businessweek.com\/articles\/2014-03-13\/target-missed-alarms-in-epic-hack-of-credit-card-data\" target=\"_blank\">\"Target Missed Warnings in Epic Hack of Credit Card Data \u2013 Businessweek\"<\/a>. <i>Businessweek.com<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.businessweek.com\/articles\/2014-03-13\/target-missed-alarms-in-epic-hack-of-credit-card-data\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 27 January 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Businessweek.com&amp;rft.atitle=Target+Missed+Warnings+in+Epic+Hack+of+Credit+Card+Data+%E2%80%93+Businessweek&amp;rft.date=2014-03-17&amp;rft.au=Michael+Riley&amp;rft.au=Ben+Elgin&amp;rft.au=Dune+Lawrence&amp;rft.au=Carol+Matlack&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessweek.com%2Farticles%2F2014-03-13%2Ftarget-missed-alarms-in-epic-hack-of-credit-card-data&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-206\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-206\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cnet.com\/news\/53-million-emails-stolen-in-home-depot-breach\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Home Depot says 53 million emails stolen\"<\/a>. <i>CNET<\/i>. CBS Interactive. 6 November 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141209035159\/http:\/\/www.cnet.com\/news\/53-million-emails-stolen-in-home-depot-breach\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 9 December 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=CNET&amp;rft.atitle=Home+Depot+says+53+million+emails+stolen&amp;rft.date=2014-11-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnet.com%2Fnews%2F53-million-emails-stolen-in-home-depot-breach%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-207\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-207\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709\" target=\"_blank\">\"Millions more Americans hit by government personnel data hack\"<\/a>. <i>Reuters<\/i>. 9 July 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170228005352\/http:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 28 February 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 February<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Reuters&amp;rft.atitle=Millions+more+Americans+hit+by+government+personnel+data+hack&amp;rft.date=2017-07-09&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-208\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-208\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBarrett2015\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Barrett, Devlin (4 June 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/u-s-suspects-hackers-in-china-behind-government-data-breach-sources-say-1433451888\" target=\"_blank\">\"U.S. Suspects Hackers in China Breached About four (4) Million People's Records, Officials Say\"<\/a>. <i>The Wall Street Journal<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150604215718\/http:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/u-s-suspects-hackers-in-china-behind-government-data-breach-sources-say-1433451888\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 June 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=U.S.+Suspects+Hackers+in+China+Breached+About+four+%284%29+Million+People%27s+Records%2C+Officials+Say&amp;rft.date=2015-06-04&amp;rft.aulast=Barrett&amp;rft.aufirst=Devlin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fu-s-suspects-hackers-in-china-behind-government-data-breach-sources-say-1433451888&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-209\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-209\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRisen2015\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Risen, Tom (5 June 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150606064331\/http:\/\/www.usnews.com\/news\/articles\/2015\/06\/05\/china-suspected-in-theft-of-federal-employee-records\" target=\"_blank\">\"China Suspected in Theft of Federal Employee Records\"<\/a>. <i>U.S. News &amp; World Report<\/i>. 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id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZengerle2015\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Zengerle, Patricia (19 July 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709\" target=\"_blank\">\"Estimate of Americans hit by government personnel data hack skyrockets\"<\/a>. <i>Reuters<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150710075449\/http:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/2015\/07\/09\/us-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 July 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Reuters&amp;rft.atitle=Estimate+of+Americans+hit+by+government+personnel+data+hack+skyrockets&amp;rft.date=2015-07-19&amp;rft.aulast=Zengerle&amp;rft.aufirst=Patricia&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-211\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-211\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSanger2015\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Sanger, David (5 June 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2015\/06\/05\/us\/breach-in-a-federal-computer-system-exposes-personnel-data.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hacking Linked to China Exposes Millions of U.S. Workers\"<\/a>. <i>The New York Times<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150605135158\/http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2015\/06\/05\/us\/breach-in-a-federal-computer-system-exposes-personnel-data.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 5 June 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Hacking+Linked+to+China+Exposes+Millions+of+U.S.+Workers&amp;rft.date=2015-06-05&amp;rft.aulast=Sanger&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F06%2F05%2Fus%2Fbreach-in-a-federal-computer-system-exposes-personnel-data.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-212\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Hackers+Breached+Colonial+Pipeline+Using+Compromised+Password&amp;rft.date=2021-06-04&amp;rft.au=Turton%2C+W.&amp;rft.au=Mehrotra%2C+K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2021-06-04%2Fhackers-breached-colonial-pipeline-using-compromised-password&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ted.com-214\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ted.com_214-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ted.com_214-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/mikko_hypponen_fighting_viruses_defending_the_net.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Mikko Hypponen: Fighting viruses, defending the net\"<\/a>. TED. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130116010603\/http:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/mikko_hypponen_fighting_viruses_defending_the_net.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 16 January 2013.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Mikko+Hypponen%3A+Fighting+viruses%2C+defending+the+net&amp;rft.pub=TED&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ted.com%2Ftalks%2Fmikko_hypponen_fighting_viruses_defending_the_net.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-215\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-215\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=0TMFRO66Wv4\" target=\"_blank\">\"Mikko Hypponen \u2013 Behind Enemy Lines\"<\/a>. Hack in the Box Security Conference. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161125075257\/https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=0TMFRO66Wv4\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 25 November 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Mikko+Hypponen+%E2%80%93+Behind+Enemy+Lines&amp;rft.pub=Hack+in+the+Box+Security+Conference&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D0TMFRO66Wv4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-216\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-216\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gao.gov\/highrisk\/protecting_the_federal_government_information_systems\/why_did_study\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ensuring the Security of Federal Information Systems and Cyber Critical Infrastructure and Protecting the Privacy of Personally Identifiable Information\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 November<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Ensuring+the+Security+of+Federal+Information+Systems+and+Cyber+Critical+Infrastructure+and+Protecting+the+Privacy+of+Personally+Identifiable+Information&amp;rft.pub=Government+Accountability+Office&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gao.gov%2Fhighrisk%2Fprotecting_the_federal_government_information_systems%2Fwhy_did_study&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-217\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-217\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKing2018\" class=\"citation news cs1\">King, Georgia (23 May 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/qz.com\/1284178\/almost-half-of-cryptocurrency-and-bitcoin-bros-identify-as-libertarian\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Venn diagram between libertarians and crypto bros is so close it's basically a circle\"<\/a>. <i>Quartz<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Quartz&amp;rft.atitle=The+Venn+diagram+between+libertarians+and+crypto+bros+is+so+close+it%27s+basically+a+circle&amp;rft.date=2018-05-23&amp;rft.aulast=King&amp;rft.aufirst=Georgia&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fqz.com%2F1284178%2Falmost-half-of-cryptocurrency-and-bitcoin-bros-identify-as-libertarian%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-218\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-218\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKirby2011\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Kirby, Carrie (24 June 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/articles.sfgate.com\/2005-02-17\/business\/17361991_1_rsa-security-conference-cybersecurity-counterpane-internet-security\" target=\"_blank\">\"Former White House aide backs some Net regulation \/ Clarke says government, industry deserve 'F' in cyber security\"<\/a>. <i>The San Francisco Chronicle<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+San+Francisco+Chronicle&amp;rft.atitle=Former+White+House+aide+backs+some+Net+regulation+%2F+Clarke+says+government%2C+industry+deserve+%27F%27+in+cyber+security&amp;rft.date=2011-06-24&amp;rft.aulast=Kirby&amp;rft.aufirst=Carrie&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.sfgate.com%2F2005-02-17%2Fbusiness%2F17361991_1_rsa-security-conference-cybersecurity-counterpane-internet-security&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-219\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-219\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMcCarthy2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">McCarthy, Daniel (11 June 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Politics+and+Governance&amp;rft.atitle=Privatizing+Political+Authority%3A+Cybersecurity%2C+Public-Private+Partnerships%2C+and+the+Reproduction+of+Liberal+Political+Order&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=5-12&amp;rft.date=2018-06-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1335&amp;rft.aulast=McCarthy&amp;rft.aufirst=Daniel&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.17645%252Fpag.v6i2.1335&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-220\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-220\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2020\/05\/26\/its-time-treat-cybersecurity-human-rights-issue\" target=\"_blank\">\"It's Time to Treat Cybersecurity as a Human Rights Issue\"<\/a>. <i>Human Rights Watch<\/i>. 26 May 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 May<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Watch&amp;rft.atitle=It%27s+Time+to+Treat+Cybersecurity+as+a+Human+Rights+Issue&amp;rft.date=2020-05-26&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fnews%2F2020%2F05%2F26%2Fits-time-treat-cybersecurity-human-rights-issue&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-221\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-221\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.first.org\/about\/mission\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"FIRST Mission\"<\/a>. FIRST<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=FIRST+Mission&amp;rft.pub=FIRST&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.first.org%2Fabout%2Fmission%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-222\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-222\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.first.org\/members\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"FIRST Members\"<\/a>. FIRST<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=FIRST+Members&amp;rft.pub=FIRST&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.first.org%2Fmembers%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-223\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-223\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.coe.int\/t\/DGHL\/cooperation\/economiccrime\/cybercrime\/default_en.asp\" target=\"_blank\">\"European council\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141203223358\/http:\/\/www.coe.int\/t\/DGHL\/cooperation\/economiccrime\/cybercrime\/default_en.asp\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 3 December 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=European+council&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.coe.int%2Ft%2FDGHL%2Fcooperation%2Feconomiccrime%2Fcybercrime%2Fdefault_en.asp&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-224\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-224\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.maawg.org\/about_maawg\" target=\"_blank\">\"MAAWG\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140923153548\/http:\/\/www.maawg.org\/about_maawg\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 23 September 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=MAAWG&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maawg.org%2Fabout_maawg&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-225\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-225\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.maawg.org\/about\/roster\" target=\"_blank\">\"MAAWG\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017165203\/http:\/\/www.maawg.org\/about\/roster\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 October 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=MAAWG&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maawg.org%2Fabout%2Froster&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-226\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-226\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.marketwired.com\/press-release\/government-of-canada-launches-canadas-cyber-security-strategy-1328661.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Government of Canada Launches Canada's Cyber Security Strategy\"<\/a>. <i>Market Wired<\/i>. 3 October 2010. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141102175904\/http:\/\/www.marketwired.com\/press-release\/government-of-canada-launches-canadas-cyber-security-strategy-1328661.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Market+Wired&amp;rft.atitle=Government+of+Canada+Launches+Canada%27s+Cyber+Security+Strategy&amp;rft.date=2010-10-03&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marketwired.com%2Fpress-release%2Fgovernment-of-canada-launches-canadas-cyber-security-strategy-1328661.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Canada's_Cyber_Security_Strategy-227\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Canada's_Cyber_Security_Strategy_227-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Canada's_Cyber_Security_Strategy_227-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/rsrcs\/pblctns\/cbr-scrt-strtgy\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Canada's Cyber Security Strategy\"<\/a>. <i>Public Safety Canada<\/i>. Government of Canada. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141102175701\/http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/rsrcs\/pblctns\/cbr-scrt-strtgy\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&amp;rft.atitle=Canada%27s+Cyber+Security+Strategy&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Frsrcs%2Fpblctns%2Fcbr-scrt-strtgy%2Findex-eng.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Government_of_Canada-228\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Government_of_Canada_228-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Government_of_Canada_228-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Government_of_Canada_228-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/rsrcs\/pblctns\/ctn-pln-cbr-scrt\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Action Plan 2010\u20132015 for Canada's Cyber Security Strategy\"<\/a>. <i>Public Safety Canada<\/i>. Government of Canada. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141102173436\/http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/rsrcs\/pblctns\/ctn-pln-cbr-scrt\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&amp;rft.atitle=Action+Plan+2010%E2%80%932015+for+Canada%27s+Cyber+Security+Strategy&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Frsrcs%2Fpblctns%2Fctn-pln-cbr-scrt%2Findex-eng.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-229\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-229\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#_Toc360619104\">\"Cyber Incident Management Framework For Canada\"<\/a>. <i>Public Safety Canada<\/i>. Government of Canada. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#_Toc360619104\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&amp;rft.atitle=Cyber+Incident+Management+Framework+For+Canada&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Frsrcs%2Fpblctns%2Fcbr-ncdnt-frmwrk%2Findex-eng.aspx%23_Toc360619104&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-230\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-230\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/rsrcs\/pblctns\/ctn-pln-cbr-scrt\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Action Plan 2010\u20132015 for Canada's Cyber Security Strategy\"<\/a>. <i>Public Safety Canada<\/i>. Government of Canada. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141102173436\/http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/rsrcs\/pblctns\/ctn-pln-cbr-scrt\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&amp;rft.atitle=Action+Plan+2010%E2%80%932015+for+Canada%27s+Cyber+Security+Strategy&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Frsrcs%2Fpblctns%2Fctn-pln-cbr-scrt%2Findex-eng.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-231\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-231\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/ntnl-scrt\/cbr-scrt\/ccirc-ccric-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre\"<\/a>. <i>Public Safety Canada<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141008035436\/http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/ntnl-scrt\/cbr-scrt\/ccirc-ccric-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 8 October 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&amp;rft.atitle=Canadian+Cyber+Incident+Response+Centre&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Fntnl-scrt%2Fcbr-scrt%2Fccirc-ccric-eng.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-232\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-232\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/rsrcs\/cybr-ctr\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cyber Security Bulletins\"<\/a>. <i>Public Safety Canada<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141008194739\/http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/rsrcs\/cybr-ctr\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 8 October 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&amp;rft.atitle=Cyber+Security+Bulletins&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Frsrcs%2Fcybr-ctr%2Findex-eng.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-233\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-233\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/ntnl-scrt\/cbr-scrt\/rprt-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Report a Cyber Security Incident\"<\/a>. <i>Public Safety Canada<\/i>. Government of Canada. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141111212708\/http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/ntnl-scrt\/cbr-scrt\/rprt-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&amp;rft.atitle=Report+a+Cyber+Security+Incident&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Fntnl-scrt%2Fcbr-scrt%2Frprt-eng.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-234\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-234\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.marketwired.com\/press-release\/government-canada-launches-cyber-security-awareness-month-with-new-public-awareness-1706660.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Government of Canada Launches Cyber Security Awareness Month With New Public Awareness Partnership\"<\/a>. <i>Market Wired<\/i>. Government of Canada. 27 September 2012. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141103225408\/http:\/\/www.marketwired.com\/press-release\/government-canada-launches-cyber-security-awareness-month-with-new-public-awareness-1706660.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 3 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Market+Wired&amp;rft.atitle=Government+of+Canada+Launches+Cyber+Security+Awareness+Month+With+New+Public+Awareness+Partnership&amp;rft.date=2012-09-27&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marketwired.com%2Fpress-release%2Fgovernment-canada-launches-cyber-security-awareness-month-with-new-public-awareness-1706660.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-235\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-235\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/ntnl-scrt\/cbr-scrt\/cprtn-prgrm\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cyber Security Cooperation Program\"<\/a>. <i>Public Safety Canada<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141102184754\/http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/ntnl-scrt\/cbr-scrt\/cprtn-prgrm\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&amp;rft.atitle=Cyber+Security+Cooperation+Program&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Fntnl-scrt%2Fcbr-scrt%2Fcprtn-prgrm%2Findex-eng.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-236\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-236\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/ntnl-scrt\/cbr-scrt\/cprtn-prgrm\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cyber Security Cooperation Program\"<\/a>. <i>Public Safety Canada<\/i>. 16 December 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141102184754\/http:\/\/www.publicsafety.gc.ca\/cnt\/ntnl-scrt\/cbr-scrt\/cprtn-prgrm\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 November 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&amp;rft.atitle=Cyber+Security+Cooperation+Program&amp;rft.date=2015-12-16&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Fntnl-scrt%2Fcbr-scrt%2Fcprtn-prgrm%2Findex-eng.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-237\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-237\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.getcybersafe.gc.ca\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"GetCyberSafe\"<\/a>. <i>Get Cyber Safe<\/i>. Government of Canada. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141111210737\/http:\/\/www.getcybersafe.gc.ca\/index-eng.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Get+Cyber+Safe&amp;rft.atitle=GetCyberSafe&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.getcybersafe.gc.ca%2Findex-eng.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-238\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-238\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\"Australian federal government announces cybersecurity support for SMBs\",<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.homeaffairs.gov.au\/about-us\/our-portfolios\/cyber-security\/strategy\/2023-2030-australian-cyber-security-strategy\" target=\"_blank\">\"2023-2030 Australian Cyber Security Strategy\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 November<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=2023-2030+Australian+Cyber+Security+Strategy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.homeaffairs.gov.au%2Fabout-us%2Four-portfolios%2Fcyber-security%2Fstrategy%2F2023-2030-australian-cyber-security-strategy&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-239\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-239\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWhite2023\" class=\"citation news cs1\">White, House (March 2023). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.whitehouse.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/National-Cybersecurity-Strategy-2023.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"National security strategy\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. No.&#160;March 2032. white house. US gov.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=National+security+strategy&amp;rft.issue=March+2032&amp;rft.date=2023-03&amp;rft.aulast=White&amp;rft.aufirst=House&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.whitehouse.gov%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F03%2FNational-Cybersecurity-Strategy-2023.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-240\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-240\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAdil\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Adil, Sajid. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cybernexguard.com\/do-you-know-about-biggest-cybersecurity-threats-in-2023\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Do You Know About Biggest Cybersecurity Threats In 2023?\"<\/a>. <i>Cybernexguard<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=University+Libraries+UNT+Digital+Library&amp;rft.atitle=National+Cyber+Strategy+of+the+United+States+of+America&amp;rft.aulast=Adil&amp;rft.aufirst=Sajid&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc1259394%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-242\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-242\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAdil\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Adil, Sajid. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#collections\">\"Do You Know About Biggest Cybersecurity Threats In 2023?\"<\/a>. <i>University Libraries UNT Digital Library<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=University+Libraries+UNT+Digital+Library&amp;rft.atitle=Do+You+Know+About+Biggest+Cybersecurity+Threats+In+2023%3F&amp;rft.aulast=Adil&amp;rft.aufirst=Sajid&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc1259394%2F%23collections&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-243\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-243\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.orfonline.org\/cyfy-event\/need-for-proper-structure-of-ppps-to-address-specific-cyberspace-risks\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Need for proper structure of PPPs to address specific cyberspace risks\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171113165123\/http:\/\/www.orfonline.org\/cyfy-event\/need-for-proper-structure-of-ppps-to-address-specific-cyberspace-risks\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 November 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Need+for+proper+structure+of+PPPs+to+address+specific+cyberspace+risks&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.orfonline.org%2Fcyfy-event%2Fneed-for-proper-structure-of-ppps-to-address-specific-cyberspace-risks%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-244\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-244\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180219150958\/https:\/\/www.ncdrc.res.in\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"National Cyber Safety and Security Standards(NCSSS)-Home\"<\/a>. <i>www.ncdrc.res.in<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 June<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=National+Cyber+Security+Division&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Homeland+Security&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhs.gov%2Fxabout%2Fstructure%2Feditorial_0839.shtm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CSRDC-FAQ-252\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-CSRDC-FAQ_252-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CSRDC-FAQ_252-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cyber.st.dhs.gov\/faq.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"FAQ: Cyber Security R&amp;D Center\"<\/a>. U.S. Department of Homeland Security S&amp;T Directorate. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081006042850\/http:\/\/www.cyber.st.dhs.gov\/faq.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 October 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 June<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=FAQ%3A+Cyber+Security+R%26D+Center&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Homeland+Security+S%26T+Directorate&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cyber.st.dhs.gov%2Ffaq.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-253\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-253\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">AFP-JiJi, \"U.S. boots up cybersecurity center\", 31 October 2009.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-254\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-254\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fbi.gov\/about-us\/quick-facts\" target=\"_blank\">\"Federal Bureau of Investigation \u2013 Priorities\"<\/a>. Federal Bureau of Investigation. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160711053557\/https:\/\/www.fbi.gov\/about-us\/quick-facts\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 July 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Federal+Bureau+of+Investigation+%E2%80%93+Priorities&amp;rft.pub=Federal+Bureau+of+Investigation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fbi.gov%2Fabout-us%2Fquick-facts&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-255\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-255\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ic3.gov\/default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3) \u2013 Home\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111120021742\/http:\/\/www.ic3.gov\/default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 20 November 2011.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Crime+Complaint+Center+%28IC3%29+%E2%80%93+Home&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ic3.gov%2Fdefault.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-256\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-256\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infragard.net\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Infragard, Official Site\"<\/a>. <i>Infragard<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100909051004\/http:\/\/www.infragard.net\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 9 September 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 September<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Infragard&amp;rft.atitle=Infragard%2C+Official+Site&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infragard.net%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-257\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-257\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110617004540\/http:\/\/www.infragard.net\/media\/files\/dir_med.mov\" target=\"_blank\">\"Robert S. Mueller, III \u2013 InfraGard Interview at the 2005 InfraGard Conference\"<\/a>. <i>Infragard (Official Site) \u2013 \"Media Room\"<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 December<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Infragard+%28Official+Site%29+%E2%80%93+%22Media+Room%22&amp;rft.atitle=Robert+S.+Mueller%2C+III+%E2%80%93+InfraGard+Interview+at+the+2005+InfraGard+Conference&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infragard.net%2Fmedia%2Ffiles%2Fdir_med.mov&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-258\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-258\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cybercrime.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"CCIPS\"<\/a>. 25 March 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20060823173821\/http:\/\/www.cybercrime.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 23 August 2006.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=CCIPS&amp;rft.date=2015-03-25&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cybercrime.gov%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-259\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-259\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/criminal-ccips\/page\/file\/983996\/download\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Framework for a Vulnerability Disclosure Program for Online Systems\"<\/a>. Cybersecurity Unit, Computer Crime &amp; Intellectual Property Section Criminal Division U.S. Department of Justice. July 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Framework+for+a+Vulnerability+Disclosure+Program+for+Online+Systems&amp;rft.pub=Cybersecurity+Unit%2C+Computer+Crime+%26+Intellectual+Property+Section+Criminal+Division+U.S.+Department+of+Justice&amp;rft.date=2017-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.justice.gov%2Fcriminal-ccips%2Fpage%2Ffile%2F983996%2Fdownload&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-260\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-260\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cybercom.mil\/About\/Mission-and-Vision\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Mission and Vision\"<\/a>. <i>www.cybercom.mil<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 June<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.cybercom.mil&amp;rft.atitle=Mission+and+Vision&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cybercom.mil%2FAbout%2FMission-and-Vision%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-261\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-261\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWilliam_J._Lynn,_III2009\" class=\"citation speech cs1\">William J. Lynn, III (12 November 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100415113237\/http:\/\/www.defense.gov\/speeches\/speech.aspx?speechid=1399\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Remarks at the Defense Information Technology Acquisition Summit<\/i><\/a> (Speech). Washington D.C. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.defense.gov\/speeches\/speech.aspx?speechid=1399\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 15 April 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 July<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Remarks+at+the+Defense+Information+Technology+Acquisition+Summit&amp;rft.place=Washington+D.C.&amp;rft.date=2009-11-12&amp;rft.au=William+J.+Lynn%2C+III&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.defense.gov%2Fspeeches%2Fspeech.aspx%3Fspeechid%3D1399&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-262\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-262\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShachtman2010\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Shachtman, Noah (23 September 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101106032102\/http:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/opinions\/2010\/0923_military_internet_shachtman.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Military's Cyber Commander Swears: \"No Role\" in Civilian Networks\"<\/a>. <i>brookings.edu<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/opinions\/2010\/0923_military_internet_shachtman.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 6 November 2010.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=brookings.edu&amp;rft.atitle=Military%27s+Cyber+Commander+Swears%3A+%22No+Role%22+in+Civilian+Networks&amp;rft.date=2010-09-23&amp;rft.aulast=Shachtman&amp;rft.aufirst=Noah&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brookings.edu%2Fopinions%2F2010%2F0923_military_internet_shachtman.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-263\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-263\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100527095750\/http:\/\/www.fcc.gov\/pshs\/emergency-information\/cybersecurity.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"FCC Cybersecurity\"<\/a>. FCC. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fcc.gov\/pshs\/emergency-information\/cybersecurity.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 27 May 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 December<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=FCC+Cybersecurity&amp;rft.pub=FCC&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fcc.gov%2Fpshs%2Femergency-information%2Fcybersecurity.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-264\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-264\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/MedicalDevices\/Safety\/AlertsandNotices\/ucm356423.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cybersecurity for Medical Devices and Hospital Networks: FDA Safety Communication\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160528153847\/https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/safety\/alertsandnotices\/ucm356423.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 28 May 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft.atitle=Cybersecurity+for+Medical+Devices+and+Hospital+Networks%3A+FDA+Safety+Communication&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2FMedicalDevices%2FSafety%2FAlertsandNotices%2Fucm356423.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-265\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-265\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160525195552\/http:\/\/www.nhtsa.gov\/Research\/Crash+Avoidance\/Automotive+Cybersecurity\" target=\"_blank\">\"Automotive Cybersecurity \u2013 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nhtsa.gov\/Research\/Crash+Avoidance\/Automotive+Cybersecurity\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 May 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Automotive+Cybersecurity+%E2%80%93+National+Highway+Traffic+Safety+Administration+%28NHTSA%29&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhtsa.gov%2FResearch%2FCrash%2BAvoidance%2FAutomotive%2BCybersecurity&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-266\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-266\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation report cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gao.gov\/products\/GAO-15-370\" target=\"_blank\">Air Traffic Control: FAA Needs a More Comprehensive Approach to Address Cybersecurity As Agency Transitions to NextGen<\/a> (Report). U. S. Government Accountability Office. 14 April 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160613150636\/http:\/\/www.gao.gov\/products\/GAO-15-370\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 June 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Air+Traffic+Control%3A+FAA+Needs+a+More+Comprehensive+Approach+to+Address+Cybersecurity+As+Agency+Transitions+to+NextGen&amp;rft.pub=U.+S.+Government+Accountability+Office&amp;rft.date=2015-04-14&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gao.gov%2Fproducts%2FGAO-15-370&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-267\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-267\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAliya_Sternstein2016\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Aliya Sternstein (4 March 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nextgov.com\/cybersecurity\/2016\/03\/faa-has-started-shaping-cybersecurity-regulations\/126449\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"FAA Working on New Guidelines for Hack-Proof Planes\"<\/a>. <i>Nextgov<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160519181332\/http:\/\/www.nextgov.com\/cybersecurity\/2016\/03\/faa-has-started-shaping-cybersecurity-regulations\/126449\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 May 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Nextgov&amp;rft.atitle=FAA+Working+on+New+Guidelines+for+Hack-Proof+Planes&amp;rft.date=2016-03-04&amp;rft.au=Aliya+Sternstein&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nextgov.com%2Fcybersecurity%2F2016%2F03%2Ffaa-has-started-shaping-cybersecurity-regulations%2F126449%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-268\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-268\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBart_Elias2015\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Bart Elias (18 June 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fas.org\/sgp\/crs\/homesec\/IN10296.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Protecting Civil Aviation from Cyberattacks\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161017100306\/https:\/\/www.fas.org\/sgp\/crs\/homesec\/IN10296.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 17 October 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Protecting+Civil+Aviation+from+Cyberattacks&amp;rft.date=2015-06-18&amp;rft.au=Bart+Elias&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.org%2Fsgp%2Fcrs%2Fhomesec%2FIN10296.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-269\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-269\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAndersonReimers2019\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Anderson, David; Reimers, Karl (2019). <i>CYBER SECURITY EMPLOYMENT POLICY AND WORKPLACE DEMAND IN THE U.S. GOVERNMENT<\/i>. EDULEARN19 Proceedings. Vol.&#160;1. IATED. pp.&#160;7858\u20137866. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21125%2Fedulearn.2019.1914\" target=\"_blank\">10.21125\/edulearn.2019.1914<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-84-09-12031-4<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2340-1117\" target=\"_blank\">2340-1117<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=CYBER+SECURITY+EMPLOYMENT+POLICY+AND+WORKPLACE+DEMAND+IN+THE+U.S.+GOVERNMENT&amp;rft.pages=7858-7866&amp;rft.pub=IATED&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.issn=2340-1117&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21125%2Fedulearn.2019.1914&amp;rft.isbn=978-84-09-12031-4&amp;rft.aulast=Anderson&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.au=Reimers%2C+Karl&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-270\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-270\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVerton,_Dan2004\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Verton, Dan (28 January 2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/securitytopics\/security\/story\/0,10801,89488,00.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"DHS launches national cyber alert system\"<\/a>. <i>Computerworld<\/i>. IDG. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050831162039\/http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/securitytopics\/security\/story\/0,10801,89488,00.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 31 August 2005<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 June<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Computerworld&amp;rft.atitle=DHS+launches+national+cyber+alert+system&amp;rft.date=2004-01-28&amp;rft.au=Verton%2C+Dan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Fsecuritytopics%2Fsecurity%2Fstory%2F0%2C10801%2C89488%2C00.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-271\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-271\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Details can be found in <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-10\/section-73.54\" target=\"_blank\">10 CFR 73.54, Protection of digital computer and communication systems and networks<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-272\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-272\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nrc.gov\/docs\/ML1011\/ML101180437.pdf%7CCyber\" target=\"_blank\">Security Plan for Nuclear Power Reactors<\/a><\/i> - Nuclear Energy Institute<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-273\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-273\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Refer to <b><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nrc.gov\/docs\/ML1011\/ML101180437.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">NEI 08-09<\/a><\/b> for more details.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-274\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-274\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFClayton2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Clayton, Mark (7 March 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.csmonitor.com\/USA\/Military\/2011\/0307\/The-new-cyber-arms-race\" target=\"_blank\">\"The new cyber arms race\"<\/a>. <i>The Christian Science Monitor<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150416090310\/http:\/\/www.csmonitor.com\/USA\/Military\/2011\/0307\/The-new-cyber-arms-race\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 16 April 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 April<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Christian+Science+Monitor&amp;rft.atitle=The+new+cyber+arms+race&amp;rft.date=2011-03-07&amp;rft.aulast=Clayton&amp;rft.aufirst=Mark&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2FUSA%2FMilitary%2F2011%2F0307%2FThe-new-cyber-arms-race&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-275\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-275\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNakashima,_Ellen2016\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Nakashima, Ellen (13 September 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.today\/20161012083815\/https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/world\/national-security\/obama-to-be-urged-to-split-cyberwar-command-from-the-nsa\/2016\/09\/12\/0ad09a22-788f-11e6-ac8e-cf8e0dd91dc7_story.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Obama to be urged to split cyberwar command from NSA\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Washington_Post\" title=\"The Washington Post\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a752ef3dddeb493eda94d684a46f5e46\">The Washington Post<\/a><\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/world\/national-security\/obama-to-be-urged-to-split-cyberwar-command-from-the-nsa\/2016\/09\/12\/0ad09a22-788f-11e6-ac8e-cf8e0dd91dc7_story.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 12 October 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 June<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&amp;rft.atitle=Obama+to+be+urged+to+split+cyberwar+command+from+NSA&amp;rft.date=2016-09-13&amp;rft.au=Nakashima%2C+Ellen&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fworld%2Fnational-security%2Fobama-to-be-urged-to-split-cyberwar-command-from-the-nsa%2F2016%2F09%2F12%2F0ad09a22-788f-11e6-ac8e-cf8e0dd91dc7_story.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-276\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-276\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOverland2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Overland, Indra (1 March 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.erss.2018.10.018\" target=\"_blank\">\"The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths\"<\/a>. <i>Energy Research &amp; Social Science<\/i>. <b>49<\/b>: 36\u201340. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.erss.2018.10.018\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.erss.2018.10.018<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2214-6296\" target=\"_blank\">2214-6296<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Energy+Research+%26+Social+Science&amp;rft.atitle=The+geopolitics+of+renewable+energy%3A+Debunking+four+emerging+myths&amp;rft.volume=49&amp;rft.pages=36-40&amp;rft.date=2019-03-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.erss.2018.10.018&amp;rft.issn=2214-6296&amp;rft.aulast=Overland&amp;rft.aufirst=Indra&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.erss.2018.10.018&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-277\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-277\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFManessValeriano2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Maness, Ryan C.; Valeriano, Brandon (11 June 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1368\" target=\"_blank\">\"How We Stopped Worrying about Cyber Doom and Started Collecting Data\"<\/a>. <i>Politics and Governance<\/i>. <b>6<\/b> (2): 49\u201360. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1368\" target=\"_blank\">10.17645\/pag.v6i2.1368<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2183-2463\" target=\"_blank\">2183-2463<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Politics+and+Governance&amp;rft.atitle=How+We+Stopped+Worrying+about+Cyber+Doom+and+Started+Collecting+Data&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=49-60&amp;rft.date=2018-06-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1368&amp;rft.issn=2183-2463&amp;rft.aulast=Maness&amp;rft.aufirst=Ryan+C.&amp;rft.au=Valeriano%2C+Brandon&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.17645%252Fpag.v6i2.1368&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-278\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-278\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFManessValeriano2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Maness, Ryan C.; Valeriano, Brandon (25 March 2015). \"The Impact of Cyber Conflict on International Interactions\". <i>Armed Forces &amp; Society<\/i>. <b>42<\/b> (2): 301\u2013323. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F0095327x15572997\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/0095327x15572997<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0095-327X\" target=\"_blank\">0095-327X<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:146145942\" target=\"_blank\">146145942<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Armed+Forces+%26+Society&amp;rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+Cyber+Conflict+on+International+Interactions&amp;rft.volume=42&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=301-323&amp;rft.date=2015-03-25&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146145942%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0095-327X&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0095327x15572997&amp;rft.aulast=Maness&amp;rft.aufirst=Ryan+C.&amp;rft.au=Valeriano%2C+Brandon&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-279\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-279\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBullard2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Bullard, Brittany (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/book\/10.1002\/9781119271260\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Style and Statistics: The Art of Retail Analytics<\/i><\/a>. Wiley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002%2F9781119271260.ch8\" target=\"_blank\">10.1002\/9781119271260.ch8<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1119270317<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Style+and+Statistics%3A+The+Art+of+Retail+Analytics&amp;rft.pub=Wiley&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781119271260.ch8&amp;rft.isbn=978-1119270317&amp;rft.aulast=Bullard&amp;rft.aufirst=Brittany&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fbook%2F10.1002%2F9781119271260&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-280\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-280\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOltsik2016\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Oltsik, Jon (18 March 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/3045801\/security\/cybersecurity-skills-shortage-impact-on-cloud-computing.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cybersecurity Skills Shortage Impact on Cloud Computing\"<\/a>. <i>Network World<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160323042705\/http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/3045801\/security\/cybersecurity-skills-shortage-impact-on-cloud-computing.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 23 March 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 March<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Network+World&amp;rft.atitle=Cybersecurity+Skills+Shortage+Impact+on+Cloud+Computing&amp;rft.date=2016-03-18&amp;rft.aulast=Oltsik&amp;rft.aufirst=Jon&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Farticle%2F3045801%2Fsecurity%2Fcybersecurity-skills-shortage-impact-on-cloud-computing.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-281\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-281\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRobinson2018\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Robinson, Terry (30 May 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20211010052542\/https:\/\/www.degreequery.com\/why-is-a-degree-in-cyber-security-one-of-the-best\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why is a Degree in Cyber Security one of the Best?\"<\/a>. <i>DegreeQuery.com<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.degreequery.com\/why-is-a-degree-in-cyber-security-one-of-the-best\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 10 October 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 October<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=DegreeQuery.com&amp;rft.atitle=Why+is+a+Degree+in+Cyber+Security+one+of+the+Best%3F&amp;rft.date=2018-05-30&amp;rft.aulast=Robinson&amp;rft.aufirst=Terry&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degreequery.com%2Fwhy-is-a-degree-in-cyber-security-one-of-the-best%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-282\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-282\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFde_Silva2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">de Silva, Richard (11 October 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.defenceiq.com\/defence-technology\/articles\/the-cyber-security-industry-and-you\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Government vs. Commerce: The Cyber Security Industry and You (Part One)\"<\/a>. Defence IQ. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140424200253\/http:\/\/www.defenceiq.com\/defence-technology\/articles\/the-cyber-security-industry-and-you\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 April 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 April<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Department+of+Computer+Science&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.gwu.edu%2Facademics%2Fgraduate_programs%2Fmaster%2Fcybersecurity%2Fcybersecurity-jobs&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-284\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-284\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cisa.gov\/security-architect\" target=\"_blank\">\"About Cyber Security architect\"<\/a>. <i>cisa.gov<\/i>. 1 August 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 January<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=cisa.gov&amp;rft.atitle=About+Cyber+Security+architect&amp;rft.date=2021-08-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cisa.gov%2Fsecurity-architect&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-285\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-285\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cybersecuritycareer.org\/chief-information-security-officer-ciso\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to become a Chief Information Security Officer (CISO)?\"<\/a>. <i>cybersecuritycareer.org<\/i>. 1 August 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 January<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=cybersecuritycareer.org&amp;rft.atitle=How+to+become+a+Chief+Information+Security+Officer+%28CISO%29%3F&amp;rft.date=2021-08-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcybersecuritycareer.org%2Fchief-information-security-officer-ciso%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-286\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-286\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ico.org.uk\/for-organisations\/guide-to-data-protection\/guide-to-the-general-data-protection-regulation-gdpr\/accountability-and-governance\/data-protection-officers\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Protection Officers\"<\/a>. <i>ico.org.uk<\/i>. January 2021.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ico.org.uk&amp;rft.atitle=Data+Protection+Officers&amp;rft.date=2021-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fico.org.uk%2Ffor-organisations%2Fguide-to-data-protection%2Fguide-to-the-general-data-protection-regulation-gdpr%2Faccountability-and-governance%2Fdata-protection-officers%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-287\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-287\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/niccs.cisa.gov\/formal-education\/students-launch-your-cyber-career\" target=\"_blank\">\"Student Cybersecurity Resources\"<\/a>. NICCS (US National Initiative for Cybercareers and Studies). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201105234726\/https:\/\/niccs.cisa.gov\/formal-education\/students-launch-your-cyber-career\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 5 November 2020.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Student+Cybersecurity+Resources&amp;rft.pub=NICCS+%28US+National+Initiative+for+Cybercareers+and+Studies%29&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fniccs.cisa.gov%2Fformal-education%2Fstudents-launch-your-cyber-career&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-288\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-288\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dhs.gov\/join-dhs-cybersecurity\" target=\"_blank\">\"Current Job Opportunities at DHS\"<\/a>. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130502135412\/http:\/\/www.dhs.gov\/join-dhs-cybersecurity\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 May 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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U.S. Department of Homeland Security. 12 May 2010. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150107111146\/http:\/\/www.dhs.gov\/cybersecurity-training-exercises\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 January 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 January<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Cybersecurity+Training+%26+Exercises&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Homeland+Security&amp;rft.date=2010-05-12&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhs.gov%2Fcybersecurity-training-exercises&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-290\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-290\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/msisac.cisecurity.org\/resources\/videos\/free-training.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cyber Security Awareness Free Training and Webcasts\"<\/a>. 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J. Neumann, N. Statland and R. D. Webb (1977). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/Legacy\/SP\/nbsspecialpublication500-19.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Post-processing audit tools and techniques\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>nist.gov<\/i>. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards. pp.&#160;11\u20133\u201311\u20134. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161010044638\/http:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/Legacy\/SP\/nbsspecialpublication500-19.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 10 October 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=techrepublic.com&amp;rft.atitle=The+CIA+Triad&amp;rft.date=2008-06-30&amp;rft.aulast=Perrin&amp;rft.aufirst=Chad&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.techrepublic.com%2Fblog%2Fsecurity%2Fthe-cia-triad%2F488&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-304\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-304\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFStoneburnerHaydenFeringa2004\" class=\"citation report cs1\">Stoneburner, G.; Hayden, C.; Feringa, A. (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/publications\/nistpubs\/800-27A\/SP800-27-RevA.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> (Report). csrc.nist.gov. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.6028%2FNIST.SP.800-27rA\" target=\"_blank\">10.6028\/NIST.SP.800-27rA<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20041012074937\/http:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/publications\/nistpubs\/800-27A\/SP800-27-RevA.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 12 October 2004.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Engineering+Principles+for+Information+Technology+Security&amp;rft.pub=csrc.nist.gov&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.6028%2FNIST.SP.800-27rA&amp;rft.aulast=Stoneburner&amp;rft.aufirst=G.&amp;rft.au=Hayden%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Feringa%2C+A.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcsrc.nist.gov%2Fpublications%2Fnistpubs%2F800-27A%2FSP800-27-RevA.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <i>Note: this document has been superseded by later versions.<\/i><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-305\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-305\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFYost2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Yost, Jeffrey R. (April 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/7116464\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Origin and Early History of the Computer Security Software Products Industry\"<\/a>. <i>IEEE Annals of the History of Computing<\/i>. <b>37<\/b> (2): 46\u201358. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FMAHC.2015.21\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/MAHC.2015.21<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1934-1547\" target=\"_blank\">1934-1547<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:18929482\" target=\"_blank\">18929482<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Annals+of+the+History+of+Computing&amp;rft.atitle=The+Origin+and+Early+History+of+the+Computer+Security+Software+Products+Industry&amp;rft.volume=37&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=46-58&amp;rft.date=2015-04&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18929482%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=1934-1547&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMAHC.2015.21&amp;rft.aulast=Yost&amp;rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F7116464&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-306\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-306\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.webdesignmuseum.org\/web-design-history\/netscape-navigator-2-0-1995\" target=\"_blank\">\"Web Design Museum - Netscape Navigator 2.0\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 December<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Web+Design+Museum+-+Netscape+Navigator+2.0&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webdesignmuseum.org%2Fweb-design-history%2Fnetscape-navigator-2-0-1995&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-307\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-307\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNakashima2008\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Nakashima, Ellen (26 January 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2008\/01\/25\/AR2008012503261_pf.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bush Order Expands Network Monitoring: Intelligence Agencies to Track Intrusions\"<\/a>. <i>The Washington Post<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 February<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&amp;rft.atitle=Bush+Order+Expands+Network+Monitoring%3A+Intelligence+Agencies+to+Track+Intrusions&amp;rft.date=2008-01-26&amp;rft.aulast=Nakashima&amp;rft.aufirst=Ellen&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2008%2F01%2F25%2FAR2008012503261_pf.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-perlroth-308\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-perlroth_308-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-perlroth_308-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNicole_Perlroth2021\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Nicole Perlroth (7 February 2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ghostarchive.org\/archive\/20211228\/https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/02\/06\/technology\/cyber-hackers-usa.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"How the U.S. Lost to Hackers\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_York_Times\" title=\"The New York Times\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623c682760636b635e0bd6f2cf164389\">The New York Times<\/a><\/i>. Archived from <span class=\"cs1-lock-limited\" title=\"Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/02\/06\/technology\/cyber-hackers-usa.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a><\/span> on 28 December 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 February<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=How+the+U.S.+Lost+to+Hackers&amp;rft.date=2021-02-07&amp;rft.au=Nicole+Perlroth&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2021%2F02%2F06%2Ftechnology%2Fcyber-hackers-usa.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1045330069\" \/><table class=\"sidebar nomobile nowraplinks\" style=\"width:auto;text-align:left;\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library\" title=\"Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f74bd10a10e159a373077f385c89fbe\">Library resources<\/a> about <br \/> <b>Computer security<\/b> <hr \/><\/td><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content plainlist\">\n<ul><li><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ftl.toolforge.org\/cgi-bin\/ftl?st=wp&su=Computer+security\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Resources in your library<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ftl.toolforge.org\/cgi-bin\/ftl?st=wp&su=Computer+security&library=0CHOOSE0\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Resources in other libraries<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBranch2020\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Branch, Jordan (24 September 2020). \"What's in a Name? Metaphors and Cybersecurity\". <i>International Organization<\/i>. Cambridge University Press (CUP). <b>75<\/b> (1): 39\u201370. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017%2Fs002081832000051x\" target=\"_blank\">10.1017\/s002081832000051x<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0020-8183\" target=\"_blank\">0020-8183<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:224886794\" target=\"_blank\">224886794<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Organization&amp;rft.atitle=What%27s+in+a+Name%3F+Metaphors+and+Cybersecurity&amp;rft.volume=75&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=39-70&amp;rft.date=2020-09-24&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224886794%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0020-8183&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs002081832000051x&amp;rft.aulast=Branch&amp;rft.aufirst=Jordan&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCostiganHennessy2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Costigan, Sean; Hennessy, Michael (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nato.int\/nato_static_fl2014\/assets\/pdf\/pdf_2016_10\/20161025_1610-cybersecurity-curriculum.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Cybersecurity: A Generic Reference Curriculum<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. NATO. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-9284501960<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170310031437\/http:\/\/www.nato.int\/nato_static_fl2014\/assets\/pdf\/pdf_2016_10\/20161025_1610-cybersecurity-curriculum.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 10 March 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Cybersecurity%3A+A+Generic+Reference+Curriculum&amp;rft.pub=NATO&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=978-9284501960&amp;rft.aulast=Costigan&amp;rft.aufirst=Sean&amp;rft.au=Hennessy%2C+Michael&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nato.int%2Fnato_static_fl2014%2Fassets%2Fpdf%2Fpdf_2016_10%2F20161025_1610-cybersecurity-curriculum.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFuller2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Fuller, Christopher J (11 June 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/eprints.soton.ac.uk\/407741\/3\/Fuller_Roots_of_Cyber_Insecurity_clean_images.doc\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Roots of the United States' Cyber (In)Security\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(DOC)<\/span>. <i>Diplomatic History<\/i>. Oxford University Press (OUP). <b>43<\/b> (1): 157\u2013185. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093%2Fdh%2Fdhy038\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/dh\/dhy038<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0145-2096\" target=\"_blank\">0145-2096<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Diplomatic+History&amp;rft.atitle=The+Roots+of+the+United+States%27+Cyber+%28In%29Security&amp;rft.volume=43&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=157-185&amp;rft.date=2018-06-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fdh%2Fdhy038&amp;rft.issn=0145-2096&amp;rft.aulast=Fuller&amp;rft.aufirst=Christopher+J&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.soton.ac.uk%2F407741%2F3%2FFuller_Roots_of_Cyber_Insecurity_clean_images.doc&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBob2021\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Bob, Yonah Jeremy (21 August 2021). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jpost.com\/israel-news\/ex-idf-cyber-intel-official-how-to-carry-out-a-cyber-offense-attack-677173\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ex-IDF cyber intel. official reveals secrets behind cyber offense\"<\/a>. <i>The Jerusalem Post<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post&amp;rft.atitle=Ex-IDF+cyber+intel.+official+reveals+secrets+behind+cyber+offense&amp;rft.date=2021-08-21&amp;rft.aulast=Bob&amp;rft.aufirst=Yonah+Jeremy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2Fisrael-news%2Fex-idf-cyber-intel-official-how-to-carry-out-a-cyber-offense-attack-677173&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKim2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kim, Peter (2014). <i>The Hacker Playbook: Practical Guide To Penetration Testing<\/i>. Seattle: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CreateSpace_Independent_Publishing_Platform\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform\" data-key=\"787d0b09b3830d09f5aa3f749b61898e\">CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1494932633<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Hacker+Playbook%3A+Practical+Guide+To+Penetration+Testing&amp;rft.place=Seattle&amp;rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=978-1494932633&amp;rft.aulast=Kim&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLee2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Newton_Lee\" title=\"Newton Lee\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49e14ccb1e4a70b036ff56de9dfbaa8b\">Lee, Newton<\/a> (2015). <i>Counterterrorism and Cybersecurity: Total Information Awareness<\/i> (2nd&#160;ed.). Springer. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3319172439<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Counterterrorism+and+Cybersecurity%3A+Total+Information+Awareness&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=978-3319172439&amp;rft.aulast=Lee&amp;rft.aufirst=Newton&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMontagnaniCavallo2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Montagnani, Maria Lill\u00e0; Cavallo, Mirta Antonella (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/revistas.ucp.pt\/index.php\/mclawreview\/article\/view\/325\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cybersecurity and Liability in a Big Data World\"<\/a>. <i>Market and Competition Law Review<\/i>. Elsevier BV. <b>2<\/b> (2): 71\u201398. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139%2Fssrn.3220475\" target=\"_blank\">10.2139\/ssrn.3220475<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1556-5068\" target=\"_blank\">1556-5068<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:216704215\" target=\"_blank\">216704215<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SSRN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SSRN (identifier)\" data-key=\"756ca64b422c56b1944f99f42e4d7c96\">SSRN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3220475\" target=\"_blank\">3220475<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Market+and+Competition+Law+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Cybersecurity+and+Liability+in+a+Big+Data+World&amp;rft.volume=2&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=71-98&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.issn=1556-5068&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A216704215%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3220475%23id-name%3DSSRN&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.3220475&amp;rft.aulast=Montagnani&amp;rft.aufirst=Maria+Lill%C3%A0&amp;rft.au=Cavallo%2C+Mirta+Antonella&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frevistas.ucp.pt%2Findex.php%2Fmclawreview%2Farticle%2Fview%2F325&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShariatiBahmaniShams2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Shariati, Marzieh; Bahmani, Faezeh; Shams, Fereidoon (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.procs.2010.12.089\" target=\"_blank\">\"Enterprise information security, a review of architectures and frameworks from interoperability perspective\"<\/a>. <i>Procedia Computer Science<\/i>. Elsevier BV. <b>3<\/b>: 537\u2013543. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.procs.2010.12.089\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.procs.2010.12.089<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1877-0509\" target=\"_blank\">1877-0509<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Procedia+Computer+Science&amp;rft.atitle=Enterprise+information+security%2C+a+review+of+architectures+and+frameworks+from+interoperability+perspective&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.pages=537-543&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.procs.2010.12.089&amp;rft.issn=1877-0509&amp;rft.aulast=Shariati&amp;rft.aufirst=Marzieh&amp;rft.au=Bahmani%2C+Faezeh&amp;rft.au=Shams%2C+Fereidoon&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.procs.2010.12.089&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSingerFriedman2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Singer, P. W.; Friedman, Allan (2014). <i>Cybersecurity and Cyberwar: What Everyone Needs to Know<\/i>. Oxford University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0199918119<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Cybersecurity+and+Cyberwar%3A+What+Everyone+Needs+to+Know&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=978-0199918119&amp;rft.aulast=Singer&amp;rft.aufirst=P.+W.&amp;rft.au=Friedman%2C+Allan&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWuIrwin2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Wu, Chwan-Hwa (John); Irwin, J. David (2013). <i>Introduction to Computer Networks and Cybersecurity<\/i>. Boca Raton: CRC Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1466572133<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Computer+Networks+and+Cybersecurity&amp;rft.place=Boca+Raton&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=978-1466572133&amp;rft.aulast=Wu&amp;rft.aufirst=Chwan-Hwa+%28John%29&amp;rft.au=Irwin%2C+J.+David&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1404\nCached time: 20240109185042\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 2.806 seconds\nReal time usage: 3.633 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 24248\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 697666\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 30355\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 17\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 41\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 925881\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 1.834\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 22818547\/52428800 bytes\nLua Profile:\n<\/p>\n<pre> ? 260 ms 13.0%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction 260 ms 13.0%\n recursiveClone <mwInit.lua:41> 240 ms 12.0%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub 200 ms 10.0%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument 140 ms 7.0%\n dataWrapper <mw.lua:672> 140 ms 7.0%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match 80 ms 4.0%\n MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find 80 ms 4.0%\n type 60 ms 3.0%\n <mwInit.lua:41> 40 ms 2.0%\n [others] 500 ms 25.0%\n<\/pre>\n<p>Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 3222.518 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>51.19% 1649.454 1 Template:Reflist\n21.81% 702.902 2 Template:Columns-list\n21.27% 685.284 174 Template:Cite_web\n21.22% 683.705 38 Template:Annotated_link\n 8.18% 263.696 53 Template:Cite_news\n 8.17% 263.362 35 Template:Cite_journal\n 4.61% 148.635 13 Template:Fix\n 4.50% 144.922 9 Template:Citation_needed\n 2.63% 84.734 24 Template:Category_handler\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:7398-0!canonical and timestamp 20240109185038 and revision id 1194582751. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security\" data-key=\"5c2aa75aadd7f77c4f5ad26205c4c77b\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110053829\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.323 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.754 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 665756\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 568.757 1 wikipedia:Computer_security\n100.00% 568.757 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8856-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110053828 and revision id 25935. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Computer_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Computer_security<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","6679e77e1dd923e89b04f0e19ea06240_images":[],"6679e77e1dd923e89b04f0e19ea06240_timestamp":1704906998,"e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_type":"article","e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_title":"Cloud computing security","e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing_security","e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_plaintext":"\n\nCloud computing securityFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing_security?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing_security<\/a>\nCategories: Cloud computingComputer securityData securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 21 June 2016, at 21:23.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 4,993 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Cloud_computing_security rootpage-Cloud_computing_security skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Cloud computing security<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing_security?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing_security\" data-key=\"76abf4f9c445efd4445b612b97f4184a\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171638\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.081 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.150 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 106\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 147.149 1 wikipedia:Cloud_computing_security\n100.00% 147.149 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8859-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171637 and revision id 25938. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing_security<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_images":[],"e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_timestamp":1704906997,"ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_type":"article","ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_title":"Blockchain","ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blockchain","ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_plaintext":"\n\nBlockchainFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blockchain?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blockchain\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blockchain<\/a>\nCategory: Computer securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 January 2022, at 23:51.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 6,777 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Blockchain rootpage-Blockchain skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Blockchain<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blockchain?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blockchain\" data-key=\"3ef3b1d4fae83e61ea5cdd1c13e0fc31\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171637\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.081 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.150 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 92\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 145.813 1 wikipedia:Blockchain\n100.00% 145.813 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10560-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171637 and revision id 45636. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blockchain\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blockchain<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_images":[],"ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_timestamp":1704906997,"e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_type":"article","e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_title":"Backup","e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Backup","e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_plaintext":"\n\nBackupFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchStored data in computer systems\nThis article is about duplicate data in computer systems for data recovery. For other uses, see Backup (disambiguation).\n\nIn information technology, a backup, or data backup is a copy of computer data taken and stored elsewhere so that it may be used to restore the original after a data loss event. The verb form, referring to the process of doing so, is \"back up\", whereas the noun and adjective form is \"backup\".[1] Backups can be used to recover data after its loss from data deletion or corruption, or to recover data from an earlier time.\u200a [2] Backups provide a simple form of disaster recovery; however not all backup systems are able to reconstitute a computer system or other complex configuration such as a computer cluster, active directory server, or database server.[3]\nA backup system contains at least one copy of all data considered worth saving. The data storage requirements can be large. An information repository model may be used to provide structure to this storage. There are different types of data storage devices used for copying backups of data that is already in secondary storage onto archive files.[note 1][4] There are also different ways these devices can be arranged to provide geographic dispersion, data security, and portability.\nData is selected, extracted, and manipulated for storage. The process can include methods for dealing with live data, including open files, as well as compression, encryption, and de-duplication. Additional techniques apply to enterprise client-server backup. Backup schemes may include dry runs that validate the reliability of the data being backed up. There are limitations[5] and human factors involved in any backup scheme.\n\n\n\nStorage \nA backup strategy requires an information repository, \"a secondary storage space for data\"[6] that aggregates backups of data \"sources\". The repository could be as simple as a list of all backup media (DVDs, etc.) and the dates produced, or could include a computerized index, catalog, or relational database.\nThe backup data needs to be stored, requiring a backup rotation scheme,[4] which is a system of backing up data to computer media that limits the number of backups of different dates retained separately, by appropriate re-use of the data storage media by overwriting of backups no longer needed. The scheme determines how and when each piece of removable storage is used for a backup operation and how long it is retained once it has backup data stored on it. The 3-2-1 rule can aid in the backup process. It states that there should be at least 3 copies of the data, stored on 2 different types of storage media, and one copy should be kept offsite, in a remote location (this can include cloud storage). 2 or more different media should be used to eliminate data loss due to similar reasons (for example, optical discs may tolerate being underwater while LTO tapes may not, and SSDs cannot fail due to head crashes or damaged spindle motors since they do not have any moving parts, unlike hard drives). An offsite copy protects against fire, theft of physical media (such as tapes or discs) and natural disasters like floods and earthquakes. Physically protected hard drives are an alternative to an offsite copy, but they have limitations like only being able to resist fire for a limited period of time, so an offsite copy still remains as the ideal choice.\n\nBackup methods \nUnstructured \nAn unstructured repository may simply be a stack of tapes, DVD-Rs or external HDDs with minimal information about what was backed up and when. This method is the easiest to implement, but unlikely to achieve a high level of recoverability as it lacks automation.\n\n Full only\/System imaging \nA repository using this backup method contains complete source data copies taken at one or more specific points in time. Copying system images, this method is frequently used by computer technicians to record known good configurations. However, imaging[7] is generally more useful as a way of deploying a standard configuration to many systems rather than as a tool for making ongoing backups of diverse systems.\n\nIncremental \nAn incremental backup stores data changed since a reference point in time. Duplicate copies of unchanged data are not copied. Typically a full backup of all files is made once or at infrequent intervals, serving as the reference point for an incremental repository. Subsequently, a number of incremental backups are made after successive time periods. Restores begin with the last full backup and then apply the incrementals.[8]\nSome backup systems[9] can create a synthetic full backup from a series of incrementals, thus providing the equivalent of frequently doing a full backup. When done to modify a single archive file, this speeds restores of recent versions of files.\n\nNear-CDP \nContinuous Data Protection (CDP) refers to a backup that instantly saves a copy of every change made to the data. This allows restoration of data to any point in time and is the most comprehensive and advanced data protection.[10] Near-CDP backup applications\u2014often marketed as \"CDP\"\u2014automatically take incremental backups at a specific interval, for example every 15 minutes, one hour, or 24 hours. They can therefore only allow restores to an interval boundary.[10] Near-CDP backup applications use journaling and are typically based on periodic \"snapshots\",[11] read-only copies of the data frozen at a particular point in time.\nNear-CDP (except for Apple Time Machine)[12] intent-logs every change on the host system,[13] often by saving byte or block-level differences rather than file-level differences. This backup method differs from simple disk mirroring in that it enables a roll-back of the log and thus a restoration of old images of data. Intent-logging allows precautions for the consistency of live data, protecting self-consistent files but requiring applications \"be quiesced and made ready for backup.\"\nNear-CDP is more practicable for ordinary personal backup applications, as opposed to true CDP, which must be run in conjunction with a virtual machine[14][15] or equivalent[16] and is therefore generally used in enterprise client-server backups.\nSoftware may create copies of individual files such as written documents, multimedia projects, or user preferences, to prevent failed write events caused by power outages, operating system crashes, or exhausted disk space, from causing data loss. A common implementation is an appended \".bak\" extension to the file name.\n\nReverse incremental \nA Reverse incremental backup method stores a recent archive file \"mirror\" of the source data and a series of differences between the \"mirror\" in its current state and its previous states. A reverse incremental backup method starts with a non-image full backup. After the full backup is performed, the system periodically synchronizes the full backup with the live copy, while storing the data necessary to reconstruct older versions. This can either be done using hard links\u2014as Apple Time Machine does, or using binary diffs.\n\nDifferential \nA differential backup saves only the data that has changed since the last full backup. This means a maximum of two backups from the repository are used to restore the data. However, as time from the last full backup (and thus the accumulated changes in data) increases, so does the time to perform the differential backup. Restoring an entire system requires starting from the most recent full backup and then applying just the last differential backup.\nA differential backup copies files that have been created or changed since the last full backup, regardless of whether any other differential backups have been made since, whereas an incremental backup copies files that have been created or changed since the most recent backup of any type (full or incremental). Changes in files may be detected through a more recent date\/time of last modification file attribute, and\/or changes in file size. Other variations of incremental backup include multi-level incrementals and block-level incrementals that compare parts of files instead of just entire files.\n\nStorage media \nFrom left to right, a DVD disc in plastic cover, a USB flash drive and an external hard drive\n\nRegardless of the repository model that is used, the data has to be copied onto an archive file data storage medium. The medium used is also referred to as the type of backup destination.\n\nMagnetic tape \nMagnetic tape was for a long time the most commonly used medium for bulk data storage, backup, archiving, and interchange. It was previously a less expensive option, but this is no longer the case for smaller amounts of data.[17] Tape is a sequential access medium, so the rate of continuously writing or reading data can be very fast. While tape media itself has a low cost per space, tape drives are typically dozens of times as expensive as hard disk drives and optical drives.\nMany tape formats have been proprietary or specific to certain markets like mainframes or a particular brand of personal computer. By 2014 LTO had become the primary tape technology.[18] The other remaining viable \"super\" format is the IBM 3592 (also referred to as the TS11xx series). The Oracle StorageTek T10000 was discontinued in 2016.[19]\n\nHard disk \nThe use of hard disk storage has increased over time as it has become progressively cheaper. Hard disks are usually easy to use, widely available, and can be accessed quickly.[18] However, hard disk backups are close-tolerance mechanical devices and may be more easily damaged than tapes, especially while being transported.[20] In the mid-2000s, several drive manufacturers began to produce portable drives employing ramp loading and accelerometer technology (sometimes termed a \"shock sensor\"),[21][22] and by 2010 the industry average in drop tests for drives with that technology showed drives remaining intact and working after a 36-inch non-operating drop onto industrial carpeting.[23] Some manufacturers also offer 'ruggedized' portable hard drives, which include a shock-absorbing case around the hard disk, and claim a range of higher drop specifications.[23][24][25] Over a period of years the stability of hard disk backups is shorter than that of tape backups.[19][26][20]\nExternal hard disks can be connected via local interfaces like SCSI, USB, FireWire, or eSATA, or via longer-distance technologies like Ethernet, iSCSI, or Fibre Channel. Some disk-based backup systems, via Virtual Tape Libraries or otherwise, support data deduplication, which can reduce the amount of disk storage capacity consumed by daily and weekly backup data.[27][28][29]\n\nOptical storage \nOptical discs are not vulnerable to water, making them likely to survive a flood disaster.\n\nSee also: Optical media preservation\nOptical storage uses lasers to store and retrieve data. Recordable CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs are commonly used with personal computers and are generally cheap. The capacities and speeds of these discs have typically been lower than hard disks or tapes. Advances in optical media may shrink that gap in the future.[30][31]\nPotential future data losses caused by gradual media degradation can be predicted by measuring the rate of correctable minor data errors, of which consecutively too many increase the risk of uncorrectable sectors. Support for error scanning varies among optical drive vendors.[32]\nMany optical disc formats are WORM type, which makes them useful for archival purposes since the data cannot be changed. Moreover, optical discs are not vulnerable to head crashes, magnetism, imminent water ingress or power surges; and, a fault of the drive typically just halts the spinning.\nOptical media is modular; the storage controller is not tied to media itself like with hard drives or flash storage (\u2192flash memory controller), allowing it to be removed and accessed through a different drive. However, recordable media may degrade earlier under long-term exposure to light.[33]\nSome optical storage systems allow for cataloged data backups without human contact with the discs, allowing for longer data integrity. A French study in 2008 indicated that the lifespan of typically-sold CD-Rs was 2\u201310 years,[34] but one manufacturer later estimated the longevity of its CD-Rs with a gold-sputtered layer to be as high as 100 years.[35] Sony's proprietary Optical Disc Archive[18] can in 2016 reach a read rate of 250MB\/s.[36]\n\nSolid-state drive \nSolid-state drives (SSDs) use integrated circuit assemblies to store data. Flash memory, thumb drives, USB flash drives, CompactFlash, SmartMedia, Memory Sticks, and Secure Digital card devices are relatively expensive for their low capacity, but convenient for backing up relatively low data volumes. A solid-state drive does not contain any movable parts, making it less susceptible to physical damage, and can have huge throughput of around 500 Mbit\/s up to 6 Gbit\/s. Available SSDs have become more capacious and cheaper.[37][24] Flash memory backups are stable for fewer years than hard disk backups.[19]\n\nRemote backup service \nRemote backup services or cloud backups involve service providers storing data offsite. This has been used to protect against events such as fires, floods, or earthquakes which could destroy locally stored backups.[38] Cloud-based backup (through services like or similar to Google Drive, and Microsoft OneDrive) provides a layer of data protection.[20] However, the users must trust the provider to maintain the privacy and integrity of their data, with confidentiality enhanced by the use of encryption. Because speed and availability are limited by a user's online connection,[20] users with large amounts of data may need to use cloud seeding and large-scale recovery.\n\nManagement \nVarious methods can be used to manage backup media, striking a balance between accessibility, security and cost. These media management methods are not mutually exclusive and are frequently combined to meet the user's needs. Using on-line disks for staging data before it is sent to a near-line tape library is a common example.[39][40]\n\nOnline \nOnline backup storage is typically the most accessible type of data storage, and can begin a restore in milliseconds. An internal hard disk or a disk array (maybe connected to SAN) is an example of an online backup. This type of storage is convenient and speedy, but is vulnerable to being deleted or overwritten, either by accident, by malevolent action, or in the wake of a data-deleting virus payload.\n\nNear-line \nNearline storage is typically less accessible and less expensive than online storage, but still useful for backup data storage. A mechanical device is usually used to move media units from storage into a drive where the data can be read or written. Generally it has safety properties similar to on-line storage. An example is a tape library with restore times ranging from seconds to a few minutes.\n\nOff-line \nOff-line storage requires some direct action to provide access to the storage media: for example, inserting a tape into a tape drive or plugging in a cable. Because the data is not accessible via any computer except during limited periods in which they are written or read back, they are largely immune to on-line backup failure modes. Access time varies depending on whether the media are on-site or off-site.\n\nOff-site data protection \nBackup media may be sent to an off-site vault to protect against a disaster or other site-specific problem. The vault can be as simple as a system administrator's home office or as sophisticated as a disaster-hardened, temperature-controlled, high-security bunker with facilities for backup media storage. A data replica can be off-site but also on-line (e.g., an off-site RAID mirror). Such a replica has fairly limited value as a backup.\n\nBackup site \nA backup site or disaster recovery center is used to store data that can enable computer systems and networks to be restored and properly configured in the event of a disaster. Some organisations have their own data recovery centres, while others contract this out to a third-party. Due to high costs, backing up is rarely considered the preferred method of moving data to a DR site. A more typical way would be remote disk mirroring, which keeps the DR data as up to date as possible.\n\nSelection and extraction of data \nA backup operation starts with selecting and extracting coherent units of data. Most data on modern computer systems is stored in discrete units, known as files. These files are organized into filesystems. Deciding what to back up at any given time involves tradeoffs. By backing up too much redundant data, the information repository will fill up too quickly. Backing up an insufficient amount of data can eventually lead to the loss of critical information.[41]\n\nFiles \nCopying files: Making copies of files is the simplest and most common way to perform a backup. A means to perform this basic function is included in all backup software and all operating systems.\nPartial file copying: A backup may include only the blocks or bytes within a file that have changed in a given period of time. This can substantially reduce needed storage space, but requires higher sophistication to reconstruct files in a restore situation. Some implementations require integration with the source file system.\nDeleted files: To prevent the unintentional restoration of files that have been intentionally deleted, a record of the deletion must be kept.\nVersioning of files: Most backup applications, other than those that do only full only\/System imaging, also back up files that have been modified since the last backup. \"That way, you can retrieve many different versions of a given file, and if you delete it on your hard disk, you can still find it in your [information repository] archive.\"[4]\nFilesystems \nFilesystem dump: A copy of the whole filesystem in block-level can be made. This is also known as a \"raw partition backup\" and is related to disk imaging. The process usually involves unmounting the filesystem and running a program like dd (Unix).[42] Because the disk is read sequentially and with large buffers, this type of backup can be faster than reading every file normally, especially when the filesystem contains many small files, is highly fragmented, or is nearly full. But because this method also reads the free disk blocks that contain no useful data, this method can also be slower than conventional reading, especially when the filesystem is nearly empty. Some filesystems, such as XFS, provide a \"dump\" utility that reads the disk sequentially for high performance while skipping unused sections. The corresponding restore utility can selectively restore individual files or the entire volume at the operator's choice.[43]\nIdentification of changes: Some filesystems have an archive bit for each file that says it was recently changed. Some backup software looks at the date of the file and compares it with the last backup to determine whether the file was changed.\nVersioning file system: A versioning filesystem tracks all changes to a file. The NILFS versioning filesystem for Linux is an example.[44]\nLive data \nFiles that are actively being updated present a challenge to back up. One way to back up live data is to temporarily quiesce them (e.g., close all files), take a \"snapshot\", and then resume live operations. At this point the snapshot can be backed up through normal methods.[45] A snapshot is an instantaneous function of some filesystems that presents a copy of the filesystem as if it were frozen at a specific point in time, often by a copy-on-write mechanism. Snapshotting a file while it is being changed results in a corrupted file that is unusable. This is also the case across interrelated files, as may be found in a conventional database or in applications such as Microsoft Exchange Server.[11] The term fuzzy backup can be used to describe a backup of live data that looks like it ran correctly, but does not represent the state of the data at a single point in time.[46]\nBackup options for data files that cannot be or are not quiesced include:[47]\n\nOpen file backup: Many backup software applications undertake to back up open files in an internally consistent state.[48] Some applications simply check whether open files are in use and try again later.[45] Other applications exclude open files that are updated very frequently.[49] Some low-availability interactive applications can be backed up via natural\/induced pausing.\nInterrelated database files backup: Some interrelated database file systems offer a means to generate a \"hot backup\"[50] of the database while it is online and usable. This may include a snapshot of the data files plus a snapshotted log of changes made while the backup is running. Upon a restore, the changes in the log files are applied to bring the copy of the database up to the point in time at which the initial backup ended.[51] Other low-availability interactive applications can be backed up via coordinated snapshots. However, genuinely-high-availability interactive applications can be only be backed up via Continuous Data Protection.\nMetadata \nNot all information stored on the computer is stored in files. Accurately recovering a complete system from scratch requires keeping track of this non-file data too.[52]\n\nSystem description: System specifications are needed to procure an exact replacement after a disaster.\nBoot sector: The boot sector can sometimes be recreated more easily than saving it. It usually isn't a normal file and the system won't boot without it.\nPartition layout: The layout of the original disk, as well as partition tables and filesystem settings, is needed to properly recreate the original system.\nFile metadata: Each file's permissions, owner, group, ACLs, and any other metadata need to be backed up for a restore to properly recreate the original environment.\nSystem metadata: Different operating systems have different ways of storing configuration information. Microsoft Windows keeps a registry of system information that is more difficult to restore than a typical file.\nManipulation of data and dataset optimization \nIt is frequently useful or required to manipulate the data being backed up to optimize the backup process. These manipulations can improve backup speed, restore speed, data security, media usage and\/or reduced bandwidth requirements.\n\nAutomated data grooming \nOut-of-date data can be automatically deleted, but for personal backup applications\u2014as opposed to enterprise client-server backup applications where automated data \"grooming\" can be customized\u2014the deletion[note 2][53][54] can at most[55] be globally delayed or be disabled.[56]\n\nCompression \nVarious schemes can be employed to shrink the size of the source data to be stored so that it uses less storage space. Compression is frequently a built-in feature of tape drive hardware.[57]\n\nDeduplication \nRedundancy due to backing up similarly configured workstations can be reduced, thus storing just one copy. This technique can be applied at the file or raw block level. This potentially large reduction[57] is called deduplication. It can occur on a server before any data moves to backup media, sometimes referred to as source\/client side deduplication. This approach also reduces bandwidth required to send backup data to its target media. The process can also occur at the target storage device, sometimes referred to as inline or back-end deduplication.\n\nDuplication \nSometimes backups are duplicated to a second set of storage media. This can be done to rearrange the archive files to optimize restore speed, or to have a second copy at a different location or on a different storage medium\u2014as in the disk-to-disk-to-tape capability of Enterprise client-server backup.\n\nEncryption \nHigh-capacity removable storage media such as backup tapes present a data security risk if they are lost or stolen.[58] Encrypting the data on these media can mitigate this problem, however encryption is a CPU intensive process that can slow down backup speeds, and the security of the encrypted backups is only as effective as the security of the key management policy.[57]\n\nMultiplexing \nWhen there are many more computers to be backed up than there are destination storage devices, the ability to use a single storage device with several simultaneous backups can be useful.[59] However cramming the scheduled backup window via \"multiplexed backup\" is only used for tape destinations.[59]\n\nRefactoring \nThe process of rearranging the sets of backups in an archive file is known as refactoring. For example, if a backup system uses a single tape each day to store the incremental backups for all the protected computers, restoring one of the computers could require many tapes. Refactoring could be used to consolidate all the backups for a single computer onto a single tape, creating a \"synthetic full backup\". This is especially useful for backup systems that do incrementals forever style backups.\n\nStaging \nSometimes backups are copied to a staging disk before being copied to tape.[59] This process is sometimes referred to as D2D2T, an acronym for Disk-to-disk-to-tape. It can be useful if there is a problem matching the speed of the final destination device with the source device, as is frequently faced in network-based backup systems. It can also serve as a centralized location for applying other data manipulation techniques.\n\nObjectives \nRecovery point objective (RPO): The point in time that the restarted infrastructure will reflect, expressed as \"the maximum targeted period in which data (transactions) might be lost from an IT service due to a major incident\". Essentially, this is the roll-back that will be experienced as a result of the recovery. The most desirable RPO would be the point just prior to the data loss event. Making a more recent recovery point achievable requires increasing the frequency of synchronization between the source data and the backup repository.[60]\nRecovery time objective (RTO): The amount of time elapsed between disaster and restoration of business functions.[61]\nData security: In addition to preserving access to data for its owners, data must be restricted from unauthorized access. Backups must be performed in a manner that does not compromise the original owner's undertaking. This can be achieved with data encryption and proper media handling policies.[62]\nData retention period: Regulations and policy can lead to situations where backups are expected to be retained for a particular period, but not any further. Retaining backups after this period can lead to unwanted liability and sub-optimal use of storage media.[62]\nChecksum or hash function validation: Applications that back up to tape archive files need this option to verify that the data was accurately copied.[63]\nBackup process monitoring: Enterprise client-server backup applications need a user interface that allows administrators to monitor the backup process, and proves compliance to regulatory bodies outside the organization; for example, an insurance company in the USA might be required under HIPAA to demonstrate that its client data meet records retention requirements.[64]\nUser-initiated backups and restores: To avoid or recover from minor disasters, such as inadvertently deleting or overwriting the \"good\" versions of one or more files, the computer user\u2014rather than an administrator\u2014may initiate backups and restores (from not necessarily the most-recent backup) of files or folders.\nSee also \nAbout backup\n\nBackup software and services\nList of backup software\nComparison of online backup services\nGlossary of backup terms\nVirtual backup appliance\nRelated topics\n\nData consistency\nData degradation\nData portability\nData proliferation\nDatabase dump\nDigital preservation\nDisaster recovery and business continuity auditing\nWorld Backup Day\nNotes \n\n\n^ In contrast to everyday use of the term \"archive\", the data stored in an \"archive file\" is not necessarily old or of historical interest. \n\n^ Some backup applications\u2014notably rsync and CrashPlan\u2014term removing backup data \"pruning\" instead of \"grooming\". \n\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"back\u2022up\". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2018. Retrieved 9 May 2018 . \n\n^ S. Nelson (2011). \"Chapter 1: Introduction to Backup and Recovery\". Pro Data Backup and Recovery. Apress. pp.&#160;1\u201316. ISBN&#160;978-1-4302-2663-5. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Cougias, D.J.; Heiberger, E.L.; Koop, K. (2003). \"Chapter 1: What's a Disaster Without a Recovery?\". The Backup Book: Disaster Recovery from Desktop to Data Center. Network Frontiers. pp.&#160;1\u201314. ISBN&#160;0-9729039-0-9. \n\n^ a b c Joe Kissell (2007). Take Control of Mac OS X Backups (PDF) (Version 2.0&#160;ed.). Ithaca, NY: TidBITS Electronic Publishing. pp.&#160;18\u201320 (\"The Archive\", meaning information repository, including versioning), 24 (client-server), 82\u201383 (archive file), 112\u2013114 (Off-site storage backup rotation scheme), 126\u2013141 (old Retrospect terminology and GUI\u2014still used in Windows variant), 165 (client-server), 128 (subvolume\u2014later renamed Favorite Folder in Macintosh variant). ISBN&#160;978-0-9759503-0-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 December 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2019 . \n\n^ Terry Sullivan (11 January 2018). \"A Beginner's Guide to Backing Up Photos\". The New York Times. a hard drive ... an established company ... declared bankruptcy ... where many ... had ... \n\n^ McMahon, Mary (1 April 2019). \"What Is an Information Repository?\". wiseGEEK. Conjecture Corporation. Retrieved 8 May 2019 . In the sense of an approach to data management, an information repository is a secondary storage space for data. \n\n^ \"Five key questions to ask about your backup solution\". sysgen.ca. 23 March 2014. Does your company have a low tolerance to longer \"data access outages\" and\/or would you like to minimize the time your company may be without its data?. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 September 2015 . \n\n^ \"Incremental Backup\". Tech-FAQ. Independent Media. 13 June 2005. Archived from the original on 21 June 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2006 . \n\n^ Pond, James (31 August 2013). \"How Time Machine Works its Magic\". Apple OSX and Time Machine Tips. baligu.com. File System Event Store, Hard Links. Archived from the original on 21 June 2019. Retrieved 19 May 2019 . \n\n^ a b Behzad Behtash (6 May 2010). \"Why Continuous Data Protection's Getting More Practical\". Disaster recovery\/business continuity. InformationWeek. Retrieved 12 November 2011 . A true CDP approach should capture all data writes, thus continuously backing up data and eliminating backup windows.... CDP is the gold standard\u2014the most comprehensive and advanced data protection. But \"near CDP\" technologies can deliver enough protection for many companies with less complexity and cost. For example, snapshots can provide a reasonable near-CDP-level of protection for file shares, letting users directly access data on the file share at regular intervals--say, every half-hour or 15 minutes. That's certainly a higher level of protection than tape-based or disk-based nightly backups and may be all you need. \n\n^ a b \"Continuous data protection (CDP) explained: True CDP vs near-CDP\". ComputerWeekly.com. TechTarget. July 2010. Retrieved 22 June 2019 . ... copies data from a source to a target. True CDP does this every time a change is made, while so-called near-CDP does this at pre-set time intervals. Near-CDP is effectively the same as snapshotting....True CDP systems record every write and copy them to the target where all changes are stored in a log. [new paragraph] By contrast, near-CDP\/snapshot systems copy files in a straightforward manner but require applications to be quiesced and made ready for backup, either via the application's backup mode or using, for example, Microsoft's Volume Shadow Copy Services (VSS). \n\n^ Pond, James (31 August 2013). \"How Time Machine Works its Magic\". Apple OSX and Time Machine Tips. Baligu.com (as mirrored after James Pond died in 2013). Retrieved 10 July 2019 . The File System Event Store is a hidden log that OSX keeps on each HFS+ formatted disk\/partition of changes made to the data on it. It doesn't list every file that's changed, but each directory (folder) that's had anything changed inside it. \n\n^ de Guise, P. (2009). Enterprise Systems Backup and Recovery: A Corporate Insurance Policy. CRC Press. pp.&#160;285\u2013287. ISBN&#160;978-1-4200-7639-4. \n\n^ Wu, Victor (4 March 2017). \"EMC RecoverPoint for Virtual Machine Overview\". Victor Virtual. WuChiKin. Retrieved 22 June 2019 . The splitter splits out the Write IOs to the VMDK\/RDM of a VM and sends a copy to the production VMDK and also to the RecoverPoint for VMs cluster. \n\n^ \"Zerto or Veeam?\". RES-Q Services. March 2017. Retrieved 7 July 2019 . Zerto doesn't use snapshot technology like Veeam. Instead, Zerto deploys small virtual machines on its physical hosts. These Zerto VMs capture the data as it is written to the host and then send a copy of that data to the replication site.....However, Veeam has the advantage of being able to more efficiently capture and store data for long-term retention needs. There is also a significant pricing difference, with Veeam being cheaper than Zerto. \n\n^ \"Agent Related\". CloudEndure.com. 2019. What does the CloudEndure Agent do?. Retrieved 3 July 2019 . The CloudEndure Agent performs an initial block-level read of the content of any volume attached to the server and replicates it to the Replication Server. The Agent then acts as an OS-level read filter to capture writes and synchronizes any block level modifications to the CloudEndure Replication Server, ensuring near-zero RPO. \n\n^ Gardner, Steve (9 December 2004). \"Disk to Disk Backup versus Tape \u2013 War or Truce?\". Engenio. Peaceful coexistence. Archived from the original on 7 February 2005. Retrieved 26 May 2019 . \n\n^ a b c \"Digital Data Storage Outlook 2017\" (PDF) . Spectra. Spectra Logic. 2017. p.&#160;7(Solid-State), 10(Magnetic Disk), 14(Tape), 17(Optical). Retrieved 11 July 2018 . \n\n^ a b c Tom Coughlin (29 June 2014). \"Keeping Data for a Long Time\". Forbes. para. Magnetic Tapes(popular formats, storage life), para. Hard Disk Drives(active archive), para. First consider flash memory in archiving(... may not have good media archive life). Retrieved 19 April 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d Jacobi, John L. (29 February 2016). \"Hard-core data preservation: The best media and methods for archiving your data\". PC World. sec. External Hard Drives(on the shelf, magnetic properties, mechanical stresses, vulnerable to shocks), Tape, Online storage. Retrieved 19 April 2018 . \n\n^ \"Ramp Load\/Unload Technology in Hard Disk Drives\" (PDF) . HGST. Western Digital. November 2007. p.&#160;3(sec. Enhanced Shock Tolerance). Retrieved 29 June 2018 . \n\n^ \"Toshiba Portable Hard Drive (Canvio\u00ae 3.0)\". Toshiba Data Dynamics Singapore. Toshiba Data Dynamics Pte Ltd. 2018. sec. Overview(Internal shock sensor and ramp loading technology). Retrieved 16 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b \"Iomega Drop Guard \u2122 Technology\" (PDF) . Hard Drive Storage Solutions. Iomega Corp. 20 September 2010. pp.&#160;2(What is Drop Shock Technology?, What is Drop Guard Technology? (... features special internal cushioning .... 40% above the industry average)), 3(*NOTE). Retrieved 12 July 2018 . \n\n^ a b \nJohn Burek (15 May 2018). \"The Best Rugged Hard Drives and SSDs\". PC Magazine. Ziff Davis. What Exactly Makes a Drive Rugged?(When a drive is encased ... you're mostly at the mercy of the drive vendor to tell you the rated maximum drop distance for the drive). Retrieved 4 August 2018 . \n\n^ Justin Krajeski; Kimber Streams (20 March 2017). \"The Best Portable Hard Drive\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 4 August 2018 . \n\n^ \"Best Long-Term Data Archive Solutions\". Iron Mountain. Iron Mountain Inc. 2018. sec. More Reliable(average mean time between failure ... rates, best practice for migrating data). Retrieved 19 April 2018 . \n\n^ Kissell, Joe (2011). Take Control of Backing Up Your Mac. Ithaca NY: TidBITS Publishing Inc. p.&#160;41(Deduplication). ISBN&#160;978-1-61542-394-1. Retrieved 17 September 2019 . \n\n^ \"Symantec Shows Backup Exec a Little Dedupe Love; Lays out Source Side Deduplication Roadmap \u2013 DCIG\". DCIG. 7 July 2009. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2016 . \n\n^ \"Veritas NetBackup\u2122 Deduplication Guide\". Veritas. Veritas Technologies LLC. 2016. Retrieved 26 July 2018 . \n\n^ S. Wan; Q. Cao; C. Xie (2014). \"Optical storage: An emerging option in long-term digital preservation\". Frontiers of Optoelectronics. 7 (4): 486\u2013492. doi:10.1007\/s12200-014-0442-2. S2CID&#160;60816607. \n\n^ Q. Zhang; Z. Xia; Y.-B. Cheng; M. Gu (2018). \"High-capacity optical long data memory based on enhanced Young's modulus in nanoplasmonic hybrid glass composites\". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 1183. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.1183Z. doi:10.1038\/s41467-018-03589-y. PMC&#160;5864957 . PMID&#160;29568055. \n\n^ B\u00e4rwaldt, Erik (2014). \"Full Control&#160;\u00bb Linux Magazine\". Linux Magazine. \n\n^ \"5. Conditions That Affect CDs and DVDs \u2022 CLIR\". CLIR. \n\n^ G\u00e9rard Poirier; Foued Berahou (3 March 2008). \"Journal de 20 Heures\". Institut national de l'audiovisuel. approximately minute 30 of the TV news broadcast. Retrieved 3 March 2008 . \n\n^ \"Archival Gold CD-R \"300 Year Disc\" Binder of 10 Discs with Scratch Armor Surface\". Delkin Devices. Delkin Devices Inc. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. \n\n^ \"Optical Disc Archive Generation 2\" (PDF) . Optical Disc Archive. Sony. April 2016. p.&#160;12(World\u2019s First 8-Channel Optical Drive Unit). Retrieved 15 August 2019 . \n\n^ R. Micheloni; P. Olivo (2017). \"Solid-State Drives (SSDs)\". Proceedings of the IEEE. 105 (9): 1586\u201388. doi:10.1109\/JPROC.2017.2727228. \n\n^ \"Remote Backup\". EMC Glossary. Dell, Inc. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . Effective remote backup requires that production data be regularly backed up to a location far enough away from the primary location so that both locations would not be affected by the same disruptive event. \n\n^ Stackpole, B.; Hanrion, P. (2007). Software Deployment, Updating, and Patching. CRC Press. pp.&#160;164\u2013165. ISBN&#160;978-1-4200-1329-0. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Gnanasundaram, S.; Shrivastava, A., eds. (2012). Information Storage and Management: Storing, Managing, and Protecting Digital Information in Classic, Virtualized, and Cloud Environments. John Wiley and Sons. p.&#160;255. ISBN&#160;978-1-118-23696-3. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Lee (25 January 2017). \"What to backup \u2013 a critical look at your data\". Irontree Blog. Irontree Internet Services CC. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Preston, W.C. (2007). Backup &amp; Recovery: Inexpensive Backup Solutions for Open Systems. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;111\u2013114. ISBN&#160;978-0-596-55504-7. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Preston, W.C. (1999). Unix Backup &amp; Recovery . O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;73\u201391. ISBN&#160;978-1-56592-642-4. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"NILFS Home\". NILFS Continuous Snapshotting System. NILFS Community. 2019. Retrieved 22 August 2019 . \n\n^ a b Cougias, D.J.; Heiberger, E.L.; Koop, K. (2003). \"Chapter 11: Open file backup for databases\". The Backup Book: Disaster Recovery from Desktop to Data Center. Network Frontiers. pp.&#160;356\u2013360. ISBN&#160;0-9729039-0-9. \n\n^ Liotine, M. (2003). Mission-critical Network Planning. Artech House. p.&#160;244. ISBN&#160;978-1-58053-559-5. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ de Guise, P. (2009). Enterprise Systems Backup and Recovery: A Corporate Insurance Policy. CRC Press. pp.&#160;50\u201354. ISBN&#160;978-1-4200-7639-4. \n\n^ \"Open File Backup Software for Windows\". Handy Backup. Novosoft LLC. 8 November 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2018 . \n\n^ Reitshamer, Stefan (5 July 2017). \"Troubleshooting backing up open\/locked files on Windows\". Arq Blog. Haystack Software. Stefan Reitshamer is the principal developer of Arq. Retrieved 29 November 2018 . \n\n^ Boss, Nina (10 December 1997). \"Oracle Tips Session #3: Oracle Backups\". www.wisc.edu. University of Wisconsin. Archived from the original on 2 March 2007. Retrieved 1 December 2018 . \n\n^ \"What is ARCHIVE-LOG and NO-ARCHIVE-LOG mode in Oracle and the advantages &amp; disadvantages of these modes?\". Arcserve Backup. Arcserve. 27 September 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2018 . \n\n^ Gre\u0161ovnik, Igor (April 2016). \"Preparation of Bootable Media and Images\". Archived from the original on 25 April 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2016 . \n\n^ Tridgell, Andrew; Mackerras, Paul; Davison, Wayne. \"rsync(1) - Linux man page\". linux.die.net. \n\n^ \"Archive maintenance\". Code42 Support. 2023. \n\n^ Pond, James (2 June 2012). \"12. Should I delete old backups? If so, How?\". Time Machine. baligu.com. Green box, Gray box. Retrieved 21 June 2019 . \n\n^ Kissell, Joe (12 March 2019). \"The Best Online Cloud Backup Service\". wirecutter. The New York Times. Next, there\u2019s file retention. Retrieved 21 June 2019 . \n\n^ a b c D. Cherry (2015). Securing SQL Server: Protecting Your Database from Attackers. Syngress. pp.&#160;306\u2013308. ISBN&#160;978-0-12-801375-5. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Backups tapes a backdoor for identity thieves Archived 5 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine (28 April 2004). Retrieved 10 March 2007 \n\n^ a b c Preston, W.C. (2007). Backup &amp; Recovery: Inexpensive Backup Solutions for Open Systems. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;219\u2013220. ISBN&#160;978-0-596-55504-7. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"Recovery Point Objective (Definition)\". ARL Risky Thinking. Albion Research Ltd. 2007. Retrieved 4 August 2019 . \n\n^ \"Recovery Time Objective (Definition)\". ARL Risky Thinking. Albion Research Ltd. 2007. Retrieved 4 August 2019 . \n\n^ a b Little, D.B. (2003). \"Chapter 2: Business Requirements of Backup Systems\". Implementing Backup and Recovery: The Readiness Guide for the Enterprise. John Wiley and Sons. pp.&#160;17\u201330. ISBN&#160;978-0-471-48081-5. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"How do the \"verify\" and \"write checksums to media\" processes work and why are they necessary?\". Veritas Support. Veritas.com. 15 October 2015. Write checksums to media. Retrieved 16 September 2019 . \n\n^ HIPAA Advisory Archived 11 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 10 March 2007 \n\n\nExternal links \n The dictionary definition of backup at Wiktionary\n Media related to Backup at Wikimedia Commons\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Backup\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Backup<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 2 March 2019, at 22:07.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 6,581 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Backup rootpage-Backup skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Backup<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Stored data in computer systems<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">This article is about duplicate data in computer systems for data recovery. For other uses, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Backup (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"3711578130483b6af0d6a261c0dcc7d4\">Backup (disambiguation)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p>\nIn <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">information technology<\/a>, a <b>backup<\/b>, or <b>data backup<\/b> is a copy of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer data\" data-key=\"1f1d70a1a6445fdb88e25c65bb822ab7\">computer data<\/a> taken and stored elsewhere so that it may be used to restore the original after a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_loss\" title=\"Data loss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38786c97c9ccb26dced6621e1adf74bf\">data loss<\/a> event. The verb form, referring to the process of doing so, is \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/back_up\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:back up\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">back up<\/a>\", whereas the noun and adjective form is \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/backup\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:backup\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">backup<\/a>\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AHDictionaryBackup_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AHDictionaryBackup-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Backups can be used to recover data after its loss from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_deletion\" title=\"File deletion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bbc8f83f21b686857d521eb81a4b040\">data deletion<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_corruption\" title=\"Data corruption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"012248352da338b332ab959566612a39\">corruption<\/a>, or to recover data from an earlier time.<span class=\"nowrap\">\u200a<\/span><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NelsonPro11_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NelsonPro11-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Backups provide a simple form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disaster_recovery\" title=\"Disaster recovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33aecbc3a0a3d980c88f37fbeb85d1a6\">disaster recovery<\/a>; however not all backup systems are able to reconstitute a computer system or other complex configuration such as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_cluster\" title=\"Computer cluster\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d594638bfcfa89293bf1a86e43374d4\">computer cluster<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_directory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Active directory\" data-key=\"aba654ac6f9e00b57a29103992243842\">active directory<\/a> server, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_server\" title=\"Database server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"caf14d725e0ee06a75c529c76d8a1b04\">database server<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CougiasTheBackup03Chapter01_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CougiasTheBackup03Chapter01-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A backup system contains at least one copy of all data considered worth saving. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_data_storage\" title=\"Computer data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c06a35ae9ff26906dd57849f8067bfdb\">data storage<\/a> requirements can be large. An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_repository\" title=\"Information repository\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"983d22d660b1bb04da4b544a8ff35040\">information repository<\/a> model may be used to provide structure to this storage. There are different types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_storage_device\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data storage device\" data-key=\"3ed5a8a7abc6bc6fbf516d6728e74e3a\">data storage devices<\/a> used for copying backups of data that is already in secondary storage onto <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archive_file\" title=\"Archive file\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fff13c8c1215446b01795e95cec59907\">archive files<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ArchiveFileMayNotContainOld\/HistoricalMaterial_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ArchiveFileMayNotContainOld\/HistoricalMaterial-4\">[note 1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KissellTakeControlMacOSX_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KissellTakeControlMacOSX-5\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> There are also different ways these devices can be arranged to provide geographic dispersion, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">data security<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_portability\" title=\"Data portability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"934606a6eb6361a347e95bc5a8808751\">portability<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Data is selected, extracted, and manipulated for storage. The process can include methods for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_consistency#Point-in-time_consistency\" title=\"Data consistency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"492cee1efb1bec4b59639bea18ef1e80\">dealing with live data<\/a>, including open files, as well as compression, encryption, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_deduplication\" title=\"Data deduplication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9b17b0488fe7880a660a6af2d9ef71d\">de-duplication<\/a>. Additional techniques apply to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_client-server_backup\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Enterprise client-server backup\" data-key=\"dd58a8fb68847939d1c1f1f9613f3925\">enterprise client-server backup<\/a>. Backup schemes may include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dry_run_(testing)\" title=\"Dry run (testing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b73ca3bd744d2d9e865d14b40f5caed\">dry runs<\/a> that validate the reliability of the data being backed up. There are limitations<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OutaBiz_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OutaBiz-6\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> and human factors involved in any backup scheme.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Storage\">Storage<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A backup strategy requires an information repository, \"a secondary storage space for data\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-wiseGEEKInformationRepository_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-wiseGEEKInformationRepository-7\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> that aggregates backups of data \"sources\". The repository could be as simple as a list of all backup media (DVDs, etc.) and the dates produced, or could include a computerized index, catalog, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relational_database\" title=\"Relational database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86b6b5174c671988f4e5dba65702a9c0\">relational database<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The backup data needs to be stored, requiring a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup_rotation_scheme\" title=\"Backup rotation scheme\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"085d3e4305515b492ac57265a4168f40\">backup rotation scheme<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KissellTakeControlMacOSX_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KissellTakeControlMacOSX-5\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> which is a system of backing up data to computer media that limits the number of backups of different dates retained separately, by appropriate re-use of the data storage media by overwriting of backups no longer needed. The scheme determines how and when each piece of removable storage is used for a backup operation and how long it is retained once it has backup data stored on it. The 3-2-1 rule can aid in the backup process. It states that there should be at least 3 copies of the data, stored on 2 different types of storage media, and one copy should be kept offsite, in a remote location (this can include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_storage\" title=\"Cloud storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c11fbd66c555c7e8f99b1c0207fff025\">cloud storage<\/a>). 2 or more different media should be used to eliminate data loss due to similar reasons (for example, optical discs may tolerate being underwater while LTO tapes may not, and SSDs cannot fail due to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Head_crash\" title=\"Head crash\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88d0513dcfa0b0c4b25520da049ce36a\">head crashes<\/a> or damaged spindle motors since they do not have any moving parts, unlike hard drives). An offsite copy protects against fire, theft of physical media (such as tapes or discs) and natural disasters like floods and earthquakes. Physically protected hard drives are an alternative to an offsite copy, but they have limitations like only being able to resist fire for a limited period of time, so an offsite copy still remains as the ideal choice.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Backup_methods\">Backup methods<\/span><\/h3>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Unstructured\">Unstructured<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>An unstructured repository may simply be a stack of tapes, DVD-Rs or external HDDs with minimal information about what was backed up and when. This method is the easiest to implement, but unlikely to achieve a high level of recoverability as it lacks automation.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Full_only.2FSystem_imaging\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Full_only\/System_imaging\">Full only\/System imaging<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>A repository using this backup method contains complete source data copies taken at one or more specific points in time. Copying <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_image\" title=\"System image\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea4db31501f2fffbf0c6a5e6b0081c14\">system images<\/a>, this method is frequently used by computer technicians to record known good configurations. However, imaging<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> is generally more useful as a way of deploying a standard configuration to many systems rather than as a tool for making ongoing backups of diverse systems.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Incremental\">Incremental<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incremental_backup\" title=\"Incremental backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1badf5b48f730e065c1ebc037abf675d\">incremental backup<\/a> stores data changed since a reference point in time. Duplicate copies of unchanged data are not copied. Typically a full backup of all files is made once or at infrequent intervals, serving as the reference point for an incremental repository. Subsequently, a number of incremental backups are made after successive time periods. Restores begin with the last full backup and then apply the incrementals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tech-FAQIncrementalBackup_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tech-FAQIncrementalBackup-9\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\nSome backup systems<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PondHowTimeMachineWorks_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PondHowTimeMachineWorks-10\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> can create a <span class=\"vanchor\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-synthetic_full_backup\"><\/span><span class=\"vanchor-text\">synthetic full backup<\/span><\/span> from a series of incrementals, thus providing the equivalent of frequently doing a full backup. When done to modify a single archive file, this speeds restores of recent versions of files.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Near-CDP\">Near-CDP<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-Continuous_data_protection\"><\/span><\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continuous_Data_Protection\" title=\"Continuous Data Protection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8049281df49796b4b9eb169581313113\">Continuous Data Protection<\/a> (CDP) refers to a backup that instantly saves a copy of every change made to the data. This allows restoration of data to any point in time and is the most comprehensive and advanced data protection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-InformationWeekWhyCDPGettingMorePractical_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-InformationWeekWhyCDPGettingMorePractical-11\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Near-CDP backup applications\u2014often <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_backup_software#Proprietary\" title=\"List of backup software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcc3fdf8b3572274ab00b7060d341994\">marketed<\/a> as \"CDP\"\u2014automatically take incremental backups at a specific interval, for example every 15 minutes, one hour, or 24 hours. They can therefore only allow restores to an interval boundary.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-InformationWeekWhyCDPGettingMorePractical_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-InformationWeekWhyCDPGettingMorePractical-11\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Near-CDP backup applications use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journaling_file_system\" title=\"Journaling file system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fabcdb6f956f352a3f6293f56fa7388b\">journaling<\/a> and are typically based on periodic \"snapshots\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ComputerWeeklyCDPExplained_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ComputerWeeklyCDPExplained-12\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_system_permissions\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"File system permissions\" data-key=\"bd2cd7ba46400951982f63715bcc08c7\">read-only<\/a> copies of the data frozen at a particular <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Point_in_time\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Point in time\" data-key=\"f104ac3c2ff723fb050fa8d31e6f8816\">point in time<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Near-CDP (except for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apple_Time_Machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Apple Time Machine\" data-key=\"d02daccc45045e5462c880371b90f127\">Apple Time Machine<\/a>)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PondiniHowTMWorksItsMagic_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PondiniHowTMWorksItsMagic-13\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intent_log\" title=\"Intent log\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba9e88c546f043b12b20c2e53b8f8eb0\">intent-logs<\/a> every change on the host system,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-deGuiseEnterprise09#A.3.3_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#A.3.3-14\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> often by saving byte or block-level differences rather than file-level differences. This backup method differs from simple <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_mirroring\" title=\"Disk mirroring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38bb5b2fbb7af6625f4a39b9e6fbb451\">disk mirroring<\/a> in that it enables a roll-back of the log and thus a restoration of old images of data. Intent-logging allows precautions for the consistency of live data, protecting <i>self-consistent<\/i> files but requiring <i>applications<\/i> \"be quiesced and made ready for backup.\"\n<\/p><p>Near-CDP is more practicable for ordinary personal backup applications, as opposed to <i>true<\/i> CDP, which must be run in conjunction with a virtual machine<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VictorWuEMCRecoverPointVM_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VictorWuEMCRecoverPointVM-15\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RES-QServicesZertoOrVeeam_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RES-QServicesZertoOrVeeam-16\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> or equivalent<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudEndureAgentRelated_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudEndureAgentRelated-17\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> and is therefore generally used in enterprise client-server backups.\n<\/p><p>Software may create copies of individual files such as written documents, multimedia projects, or user preferences, to prevent failed write events caused by power outages, operating system crashes, or exhausted disk space, from causing data loss. A common implementation is an appended <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bak_file\" title=\"Bak file\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"971a7ab487e7543327b753d4f5b22c78\">\".bak\" extension<\/a> to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_name\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"File name\" data-key=\"c260f4c52efde89b46eb3d04b34afc7f\">file name<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reverse_incremental\">Reverse incremental<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incremental_backup#Reverse_incremental\" title=\"Incremental backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f02b3cc8975b5876cb06c5323c60243\">Reverse incremental<\/a> backup method stores a recent archive file \"mirror\" of the source data and a series of differences between the \"mirror\" in its current state and its previous states. A reverse incremental backup method starts with a non-image full backup. After the full backup is performed, the system periodically synchronizes the full backup with the live copy, while storing the data necessary to reconstruct older versions. This can either be done using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_links\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hard links\" data-key=\"5aa6642e5672691d956b5c635f6fa18f\">hard links<\/a>\u2014as Apple Time Machine does, or using binary <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_comparison\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data comparison\" data-key=\"52fb8f046a16843369a00876213d1184\">diffs<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Differential\">Differential<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Differential_backup\" title=\"Differential backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d57a1a3e39ec95d4d6543c93c3b78b79\">differential backup<\/a> saves only the data that has changed since the last full backup. This means a maximum of two backups from the repository are used to restore the data. However, as time from the last full backup (and thus the accumulated changes in data) increases, so does the time to perform the differential backup. Restoring an entire system requires starting from the most recent full backup and then applying just the last differential backup.\n<\/p><p>A differential backup copies files that have been created or changed since the last full backup, regardless of whether any other differential backups have been made since, whereas an incremental backup copies files that have been created or changed since the most recent backup of any type (full or incremental). Changes in files may be detected through a more recent date\/time of last modification <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_attribute\" title=\"File attribute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"940b101f0e107863f87af0071769f76e\">file attribute<\/a>, and\/or changes in file size. Other variations of incremental backup include multi-level incrementals and block-level incrementals that compare parts of files instead of just entire files.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Storage_media\">Storage media<\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:DVD,_USB_flash_drive_and_external_hard_drive.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"da565d222f72f27cebffc58a8cdce296\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/89\/DVD%2C_USB_flash_drive_and_external_hard_drive.jpg\/220px-DVD%2C_USB_flash_drive_and_external_hard_drive.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"143\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>From left to right, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DVD\" title=\"DVD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b45969e60a2a59ddc3331aca2446601b\">DVD<\/a> disc in plastic cover, a USB flash drive and an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/External_hard_drive\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"External hard drive\" data-key=\"de28bd58b7bc734c5e7721be91be9f5b\">external hard drive<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Regardless of the repository model that is used, the data has to be copied onto an archive file data storage medium. The medium used is also referred to as the type of backup destination.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Magnetic_tape\">Magnetic tape<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetic_tape_data_storage\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Magnetic tape data storage\" data-key=\"3808266e7116432424ef1776b1a2684f\">Magnetic tape<\/a> was for a long time the most commonly used medium for bulk data storage, backup, archiving, and interchange. It was previously a less expensive option, but this is no longer the case for smaller amounts of data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EngenioDiskToDiskVsTape_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EngenioDiskToDiskVsTape-18\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> Tape is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sequential_access\" title=\"Sequential access\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69a2d84483487d7c36d73da0b1edb2cc\">sequential access<\/a> medium, so the rate of continuously writing or reading data can be very fast. While tape media itself has a low cost per space, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tape_drive\" title=\"Tape drive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"198afa9fc1e16378e341908ba3504de6\">tape drives<\/a> are typically dozens of times as expensive as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_disk_drive\" title=\"Hard disk drive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0407aa60ea5a41c29d47b0494c64b90c\">hard disk drives<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_drive\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Optical drive\" data-key=\"ed47c3e0e724d0a378b11360384de360\">optical drives<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Many tape formats have been proprietary or specific to certain markets like mainframes or a particular brand of personal computer. By 2014 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_Tape-Open#Market_performance\" title=\"Linear Tape-Open\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5deae46f40ffc96e393e37dcf818eef\">LTO<\/a> had become the primary tape technology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SpectraLogicDigitalDataStorageOutlook2017_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SpectraLogicDigitalDataStorageOutlook2017-19\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> The other remaining viable \"super\" format is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_3592\" title=\"IBM 3592\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9aa3e6b877eca0e16be732fd056f5e5\">IBM 3592<\/a> (also referred to as the TS11xx series). The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/StorageTek_tape_formats#T10000\" title=\"StorageTek tape formats\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c2daf4198ab786f488df5dda7f7966d\">Oracle StorageTek T10000<\/a> was discontinued in 2016.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime-20\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hard_disk\">Hard disk<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_disk\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hard disk\" data-key=\"a201de550a3602378df8273685347958\">hard disk<\/a> storage has increased over time as it has become progressively cheaper. Hard disks are usually easy to use, widely available, and can be accessed quickly.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SpectraLogicDigitalDataStorageOutlook2017_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SpectraLogicDigitalDataStorageOutlook2017-19\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> However, hard disk backups are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_disk_drive#Magnetic_recording\" title=\"Hard disk drive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16685ff27730d1034787fafe348bde80\">close-tolerance mechanical devices<\/a> and may be more easily damaged than tapes, especially while being transported.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation-21\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> In the mid-2000s, several drive manufacturers began to produce portable drives employing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_disk_drive_failure#Unloading\" title=\"Hard disk drive failure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"868e698795059108bb37177d5e801744\">ramp loading and accelerometer<\/a> technology (sometimes termed a \"shock sensor\"),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HGSTRampLoadUnload_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HGSTRampLoadUnload-22\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ToshibaCanvio3.0PortableHDD_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ToshibaCanvio3.0PortableHDD-23\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> and by 2010 the industry average in drop tests for drives with that technology showed drives remaining intact and working after a 36-inch non-operating drop onto industrial carpeting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IomegaDropShock_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IomegaDropShock-24\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> Some manufacturers also offer 'ruggedized' portable hard drives, which include a shock-absorbing case around the hard disk, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIL-STD-810#Applicability_to_\"ruggedized\"_consumer_products\" title=\"MIL-STD-810\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"128a12bf4b4c2b40b65b090cea357c97\">claim<\/a> a range of higher drop specifications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IomegaDropShock_24-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IomegaDropShock-24\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCMagBest_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCMagBest-25\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WirecutterBestPortableHardDrive2017Don'tBuy_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WirecutterBestPortableHardDrive2017Don'tBuy-26\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> Over a period of years the stability of hard disk backups is shorter than that of tape backups.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime-20\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IronMountainBestLong-TermDataArchiveSolutions_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IronMountainBestLong-TermDataArchiveSolutions-27\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation_21-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation-21\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>External hard disks can be connected via local interfaces like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SCSI\" title=\"SCSI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"763979f0c49e0af7d49af7b1bc62dfcb\">SCSI<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USB\" title=\"USB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a17240fa8e9a3f31e95fb0b748e7da8e\">USB<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FireWire\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"FireWire\" data-key=\"3fe938f0b4ed6da21f3c21d5edea614f\">FireWire<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ESATA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ESATA\" data-key=\"1d212bfe015415d118205cfd2fe6172f\">eSATA<\/a>, or via longer-distance technologies like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethernet\" title=\"Ethernet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8604e2ab3dc54bee1192999e4cf7d867\">Ethernet<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISCSI\" title=\"ISCSI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fda606a111af43e42af0dfd302508ac6\">iSCSI<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fibre_Channel\" title=\"Fibre Channel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d4f08ebf7a5fa69e72393cf987ca817\">Fibre Channel<\/a>. Some disk-based backup systems, via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_tape_library\" title=\"Virtual tape library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90ce91666bcdce296fdf9dc9ffe50bf1\">Virtual Tape Libraries<\/a> or otherwise, support data deduplication, which can reduce the amount of disk storage capacity consumed by daily and weekly backup data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KissellTakeControlBackingUp_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KissellTakeControlBackingUp-28\">[27]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupDeduplicationGuide_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupDeduplicationGuide-30\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Optical_storage\">Optical storage<\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Water_running_on_CD-RW_-_label_side.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5b6c16ae1abdee0ecfc7872a1f27bcc\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/93\/Water_running_on_CD-RW_-_label_side.jpg\/220px-Water_running_on_CD-RW_-_label_side.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Optical discs are not vulnerable to water, making them likely to survive a flood disaster.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_media_preservation\" title=\"Optical media preservation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0d38552dfd58d857f144a44bdfa5cb2\">Optical media preservation<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_storage\" title=\"Optical storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25315e51372b0a2cdf9ab00c59bf7d54\">Optical storage<\/a> uses lasers to store and retrieve data. Recordable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CD\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CD\" data-key=\"a330c9220c2eb94384c4d2a7defde593\">CDs<\/a>, DVDs, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blu-ray_Disc\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Blu-ray Disc\" data-key=\"b529337c6fa86a85264a727aa8806767\">Blu-ray Discs<\/a> are commonly used with personal computers and are generally cheap. The capacities and speeds of these discs have typically been lower than hard disks or tapes. Advances in optical media may shrink that gap in the future.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WanOptical14_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WanOptical14-31\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Potential future data losses caused by gradual <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disc_rot\" title=\"Disc rot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"83615cae387aa22bfefb42aecad9558c\">media degradation<\/a> can be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_failure_analysis\" title=\"Predictive failure analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c61417b0dea6d6e8d3a6cd869e0d425c\">predicted<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_disc#Surface_error_scanning\" title=\"Optical disc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a31b8676f552e1560d5e4e34ced3f16\">measuring the rate of correctable minor data errors<\/a>, of which consecutively too many increase the risk of uncorrectable sectors. Support for error scanning varies among <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_drive\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Optical drive\" data-key=\"ed47c3e0e724d0a378b11360384de360\">optical drive<\/a> vendors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many optical disc formats are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Write_Once_Read_Many\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Write Once Read Many\" data-key=\"6415d417724ab57ac2ae4e8f788458ac\">WORM<\/a> type, which makes them useful for archival purposes since the data cannot be changed. Moreover, optical discs are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fault_tolerance\" title=\"Fault tolerance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97e432af1c6bc5c66c944cf10b1dcecb\">not vulnerable<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Head_crash\" title=\"Head crash\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88d0513dcfa0b0c4b25520da049ce36a\">head crashes<\/a>, magnetism, imminent water ingress or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voltage_spike\" title=\"Voltage spike\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e1e360f49e14049028c38f04094c84f\">power surges<\/a>; and, a fault of the drive typically just halts the spinning.\n<\/p><p>Optical media is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modularity\" title=\"Modularity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35446b707174c7d05397964b795e9203\">modular<\/a>; the storage controller is not tied to media itself like with hard drives or flash storage (\u2192<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flash_memory_controller\" title=\"Flash memory controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9aa932f26f63c6047faf08d4c2701ca2\">flash memory controller<\/a>), allowing it to be removed and accessed through a different drive. However, recordable media may degrade earlier under long-term exposure to light.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Some optical storage systems allow for cataloged data backups without human contact with the discs, allowing for longer data integrity. A French study in 2008 indicated that the lifespan of typically-sold <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CD-R#Lifespan\" title=\"CD-R\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba2c2a7a3ad2110a82acb2f2ae6c05f4\">CD-Rs<\/a> was 2\u201310 years,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-INA_CD-R_Study_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-INA_CD-R_Study-35\">[34]<\/a><\/sup> but one manufacturer later estimated the longevity of its CD-Rs with a gold-sputtered layer to be as high as 100 years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> Sony's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proprietary_format\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Proprietary format\" data-key=\"a8d19d1abe0cf1a88b7fd456d38cfc63\">proprietary<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_Disc_Archive\" title=\"Optical Disc Archive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4bd46be9cb4145d473e4944e89eb4a3d\">Optical Disc Archive<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SpectraLogicDigitalDataStorageOutlook2017_19-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SpectraLogicDigitalDataStorageOutlook2017-19\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> can in 2016 reach a read rate of 250MB\/s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SonyOpticalDiscArchiveGen2_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SonyOpticalDiscArchiveGen2-37\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Solid-state_drive\">Solid-state drive<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Solid-state_drives\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Solid-state drives\" data-key=\"567ef656674ea5c5a0c965dfa2713545\">Solid-state drives<\/a> (SSDs) use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integrated_circuit\" title=\"Integrated circuit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19f8493fc864521e5acaf7e300904967\">integrated circuit<\/a> assemblies to store data. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flash_memory\" title=\"Flash memory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de73ea563d1df251bfe81a2a4f37086e\">Flash memory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thumb_drive\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Thumb drive\" data-key=\"190edac4b4b5008ccfe864fb21a6331b\">thumb drives<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USB_flash_drive\" title=\"USB flash drive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d8e7cbf4aacbfbc825cf0616ee0c06b\">USB flash drives<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CompactFlash\" title=\"CompactFlash\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51cc88e69c82c53c12cb8ec35ca50a7e\">CompactFlash<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SmartMedia\" title=\"SmartMedia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3de8b38457cd56b74499e04e236ff00\">SmartMedia<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memory_Stick\" title=\"Memory Stick\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a23212ed4455fe7cc50bf911ad524ee9\">Memory Sticks<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_Digital_card\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Secure Digital card\" data-key=\"a9083d23664757ef2a77c7d4b45f8247\">Secure Digital card<\/a> devices are relatively expensive for their low capacity, but convenient for backing up relatively low data volumes. A solid-state drive does not contain any movable parts, making it less susceptible to physical damage, and can have huge throughput of around 500 Mbit\/s up to 6 Gbit\/s. Available SSDs have become more capacious and cheaper.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCMagBest_25-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCMagBest-25\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> Flash memory backups are stable for fewer years than hard disk backups.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime_20-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime-20\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Remote_backup_service\">Remote backup service<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_backup_service\" title=\"Remote backup service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ca3eed5e7713d3ca9e1ee0b3e6dfc74\">Remote backup services<\/a> or cloud backups involve service providers storing data offsite. This has been used to protect against events such as fires, floods, or earthquakes which could destroy locally stored backups.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DellRemoteBackup_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DellRemoteBackup-39\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> Cloud-based backup (through services like or similar to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Drive\" title=\"Google Drive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5360fdd456e9243efba4c0d5e629fa2\">Google Drive<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_OneDrive\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Microsoft OneDrive\" data-key=\"c408c485d780cf36f6778f35934a28f1\">Microsoft OneDrive<\/a>) provides a layer of data protection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation_21-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation-21\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> However, the users must trust the provider to maintain the privacy and integrity of their data, with confidentiality enhanced by the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">encryption<\/a>. Because speed and availability are limited by a user's online connection,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation_21-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation-21\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> users with large amounts of data may need to use cloud seeding and large-scale recovery.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Management\">Management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Various methods can be used to manage backup media, striking a balance between accessibility, security and cost. These media management methods are not mutually exclusive and are frequently combined to meet the user's needs. Using on-line disks for staging data before it is sent to a near-line <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tape_library\" title=\"Tape library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"506ae245683f4e43d640b9717cb4f033\">tape library<\/a> is a common example.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StackpoleSoftware07_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StackpoleSoftware07-40\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GnanasundaramInfo12_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GnanasundaramInfo12-41\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Online\">Online<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Online\" data-key=\"464ff34000c5ac384f3c9cfa2e0a473a\">Online<\/a> backup storage is typically the most accessible type of data storage, and can begin a restore in milliseconds. An internal hard disk or a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_array\" title=\"Disk array\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"578cd9526255797d500823c4d8eda617\">disk array<\/a> (maybe connected to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Storage_area_network\" title=\"Storage area network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d734d52013326b1a58450d2570ca2f7a\">SAN<\/a>) is an example of an online backup. This type of storage is convenient and speedy, but is vulnerable to being deleted or overwritten, either by accident, by malevolent action, or in the wake of a data-deleting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_virus\" title=\"Computer virus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91d7100dd3499b98a5308377a38a7b58\">virus<\/a> payload.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Near-line\">Near-line<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nearline_storage\" title=\"Nearline storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a62f87d98d2546be8487b366b1311a8\">Nearline storage<\/a> is typically less accessible and less expensive than online storage, but still useful for backup data storage. A mechanical device is usually used to move media units from storage into a drive where the data can be read or written. Generally it has safety properties similar to on-line storage. An example is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tape_library\" title=\"Tape library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"506ae245683f4e43d640b9717cb4f033\">tape library<\/a> with restore times ranging from seconds to a few minutes.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Off-line\">Off-line<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Off-line_storage\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Off-line storage\" data-key=\"e759152248bcc5ccd424d432c533756b\">Off-line storage<\/a> requires some direct action to provide access to the storage media: for example, inserting a tape into a tape drive or plugging in a cable. Because the data is not accessible via any computer except during limited periods in which they are written or read back, they are largely immune to on-line backup failure modes. Access time varies depending on whether the media are on-site or off-site.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Off-site_data_protection\">Off-site data protection<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Backup media may be sent to an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Off-site_data_protection\" title=\"Off-site data protection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbacccd0a9944b670a646e2d49e810d2\">off-site<\/a> vault to protect against a disaster or other site-specific problem. The vault can be as simple as a system administrator's home office or as sophisticated as a disaster-hardened, temperature-controlled, high-security bunker with facilities for backup media storage. A data replica can be off-site but also on-line (e.g., an off-site <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RAID\" title=\"RAID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bd07ba03e098130175fc03ba5b0c752\">RAID<\/a> mirror). Such a replica has fairly limited value as a backup.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Backup_site\">Backup site<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup_site\" title=\"Backup site\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b80496bab0e1db9536f1e070bd7cc9e\">backup site<\/a> or disaster recovery center is used to store data that can enable computer systems and networks to be restored and properly configured in the event of a disaster. Some organisations have their own data recovery centres, while others contract this out to a third-party. Due to high costs, backing up is rarely considered the preferred method of moving data to a DR site. A more typical way would be remote <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_mirroring\" title=\"Disk mirroring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38bb5b2fbb7af6625f4a39b9e6fbb451\">disk mirroring<\/a>, which keeps the DR data as up to date as possible.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Selection_and_extraction_of_data\">Selection and extraction of data<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A backup operation starts with selecting and extracting coherent units of data. Most data on modern computer systems is stored in discrete units, known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_file\" title=\"Computer file\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99bce4432f1e311013bdcb5d3fb6c834\">files<\/a>. These files are organized into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Filesystem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Filesystem\" data-key=\"3e6deaedcc75e6750225d3f33c437041\">filesystems<\/a>. Deciding what to back up at any given time involves tradeoffs. By backing up too much redundant data, the information repository will fill up too quickly. Backing up an insufficient amount of data can eventually lead to the loss of critical information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeesWhatTo17_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeesWhatTo17-42\">[41]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Files\">Files<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_copying\" title=\"File copying\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b808b6ee8b9b9b203abdf192dfa38bf\">Copying files<\/a>: Making copies of files is the simplest and most common way to perform a backup. A means to perform this basic function is included in all backup software and all operating systems.<\/li>\n<li>Partial file copying: A backup may include only the blocks or bytes within a file that have changed in a given period of time. This can substantially reduce needed storage space, but requires higher sophistication to reconstruct files in a restore situation. Some implementations require integration with the source file system.<\/li>\n<li>Deleted files: To prevent the unintentional restoration of files that have been intentionally deleted, a record of the deletion must be kept.<\/li>\n<li>Versioning of files: Most backup applications, other than those that do only full only\/System imaging, also back up files that have been modified since the last backup. \"That way, you can retrieve many different versions of a given file, and if you delete it on your hard disk, you can still find it in your [information repository] archive.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KissellTakeControlMacOSX_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KissellTakeControlMacOSX-5\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Filesystems\">Filesystems<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Filesystem dump: A copy of the whole filesystem in block-level can be made. This is also known as a \"raw partition backup\" and is related to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_image\" title=\"Disk image\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"858d3a86ba747f96a63c4d063ed7d21a\">disk imaging<\/a>. The process usually involves unmounting the filesystem and running a program like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dd_(Unix)\" title=\"Dd (Unix)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c526fc0d1fd5eee6314dc3dc919d70df\">dd (Unix)<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrestonBackup07_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrestonBackup07-43\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> Because the disk is read sequentially and with large buffers, this type of backup can be faster than reading every file normally, especially when the filesystem contains many small files, is highly fragmented, or is nearly full. But because this method also reads the free disk blocks that contain no useful data, this method can also be slower than conventional reading, especially when the filesystem is nearly empty. Some filesystems, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XFS\" title=\"XFS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b424f48e3d95320f85857a5fed87f15\">XFS<\/a>, provide a \"dump\" utility that reads the disk sequentially for high performance while skipping unused sections. The corresponding restore utility can selectively restore individual files or the entire volume at the operator's choice.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrestonUnix99_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrestonUnix99-44\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Identification of changes: Some filesystems have an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archive_bit\" title=\"Archive bit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bea06c4040bfb4f9706fe55c690fb1af\">archive bit<\/a> for each file that says it was recently changed. Some backup software looks at the date of the file and compares it with the last backup to determine whether the file was changed.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Versioning_file_system\" title=\"Versioning file system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed27f4f2fdd0cc842f4c99d02982ef41\">Versioning file system<\/a>: A versioning filesystem tracks all changes to a file. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NILFS\" title=\"NILFS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"869032b7acd932c49cb433bec585eb81\">NILFS<\/a> versioning filesystem for Linux is an example.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NILFSHome_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NILFSHome-45\">[44]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Live_data\">Live data<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Files that are actively being updated present a challenge to back up. One way to back up live data is to temporarily <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quiesce\" title=\"Quiesce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ed51745ac7b0ed5cc94d6d1a9dfab3b\">quiesce<\/a> them (e.g., close all files), take a \"snapshot\", and then resume live operations. At this point the snapshot can be backed up through normal methods.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CougiasTheBackup03Chapter11_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CougiasTheBackup03Chapter11-46\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Snapshot_(computer_storage)\" title=\"Snapshot (computer storage)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c9541383cbc196ef5e5c643f643b031\">snapshot<\/a> is an instantaneous function of some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_system\" title=\"File system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7687f830dfdbe09200697ca00721f7b3\">filesystems<\/a> that presents a copy of the filesystem as if it were frozen at a specific point in time, often by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copy-on-write\" title=\"Copy-on-write\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"871d5491fe70cf36e1f3dabe66eb4f77\">copy-on-write<\/a> mechanism. Snapshotting a file while it is being changed results in a corrupted file that is unusable. This is also the case across interrelated files, as may be found in a conventional database or in applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Exchange_Server\" title=\"Microsoft Exchange Server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1defad6883b47b31228519060b20612\">Microsoft Exchange Server<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ComputerWeeklyCDPExplained_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ComputerWeeklyCDPExplained-12\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> The term <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_backup\" title=\"Fuzzy backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c792c444042db57523187ed6b46a9e0e\">fuzzy backup<\/a> can be used to describe a backup of live data that looks like it ran correctly, but does not represent the state of the data at a single point in time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LiotineMission03_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LiotineMission03-47\">[46]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Backup options for data files that cannot be or are not quiesced include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-deGuiseEnterprise09#3.4.7_48-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#3.4.7-48\">[47]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Open file backup: Many backup software applications undertake to back up open files in an internally consistent state.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HandyBackupOpenFileWindows_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HandyBackupOpenFileWindows-49\">[48]<\/a><\/sup> Some applications simply check whether open files are in use and try again later.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CougiasTheBackup03Chapter11_46-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CougiasTheBackup03Chapter11-46\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> Other applications exclude open files that are updated very frequently.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ArqTroubleshootingBackingUpOpen\/lockedFiles_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ArqTroubleshootingBackingUpOpen\/lockedFiles-50\">[49]<\/a><\/sup> Some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High_availability\" title=\"High availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6acdd44b498040284e564f149f928f24\">low-availability<\/a> interactive applications can be backed up via natural\/induced pausing.<\/li>\n<li>Interrelated database files backup: Some interrelated database file systems offer a means to generate a \"hot backup\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UWiscOracleBackups_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UWiscOracleBackups-51\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> of the database while it is online and usable. This may include a snapshot of the data files plus a snapshotted log of changes made while the backup is running. Upon a restore, the changes in the log files are applied to bring the copy of the database up to the point in time at which the initial backup ended.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ArcserveOracleWhatIsARCHIVE-LOG_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ArcserveOracleWhatIsARCHIVE-LOG-52\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> Other low-availability interactive applications can be backed up via coordinated snapshots. However, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High_availability\" title=\"High availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6acdd44b498040284e564f149f928f24\">genuinely-high-availability<\/a> interactive applications can be only be backed up via Continuous Data Protection.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Metadata\">Metadata<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Not all information stored on the computer is stored in files. Accurately recovering a complete system from scratch requires keeping track of this <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">non-file data<\/a> too.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gresovnik1_53-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gresovnik1-53\">[52]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>System description: System specifications are needed to procure an exact replacement after a disaster.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boot_sector\" title=\"Boot sector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bbdd6425a4bfc9ac894bb418356efbdb\">Boot sector<\/a>: The boot sector can sometimes be recreated more easily than saving it. It usually isn't a normal file and the system won't boot without it.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_partitioning\" title=\"Disk partitioning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a94cfe718357ffdd656d910f525afee\">Partition<\/a> layout: The layout of the original disk, as well as partition tables and filesystem settings, is needed to properly recreate the original system.<\/li>\n<li>File <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">metadata<\/a>: Each file's permissions, owner, group, ACLs, and any other metadata need to be backed up for a restore to properly recreate the original environment.<\/li>\n<li>System metadata: Different operating systems have different ways of storing configuration information. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Windows\" title=\"Microsoft Windows\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c181121bacd156ee0ddefde38acdb60a\">Microsoft Windows<\/a> keeps a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Windows_Registry\" title=\"Windows Registry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1e4a61bd83dd836464a380df41cd2cd\">registry<\/a> of system information that is more difficult to restore than a typical file.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Manipulation_of_data_and_dataset_optimization\">Manipulation of data and dataset optimization<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>It is frequently useful or required to manipulate the data being backed up to optimize the backup process. These manipulations can improve backup speed, restore speed, data security, media usage and\/or reduced bandwidth requirements.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Automated_data_grooming\">Automated data grooming<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Out-of-date data can be automatically deleted, but for personal backup applications\u2014as opposed to enterprise client-server backup applications where automated data \"grooming\" can be customized\u2014the deletion<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[note 2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[53]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[54]<\/a><\/sup> can at most<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PondiniFAQ12_57-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PondiniFAQ12-57\">[55]<\/a><\/sup> be globally delayed or be disabled.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WirecutterBestOnlineCloudBackupService_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WirecutterBestOnlineCloudBackupService-58\">[56]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Compression\">Compression<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Various schemes can be employed to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_compression\" title=\"Data compression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cdb5c110a8fe3e451c905c5881f45cdd\">shrink<\/a> the size of the source data to be stored so that it uses less storage space. Compression is frequently a built-in feature of tape drive hardware.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CherrySecuring15_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CherrySecuring15-59\">[57]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Deduplication\">Deduplication<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Redundancy due to backing up similarly configured workstations can be reduced, thus storing just one copy. This technique can be applied at the file or raw block level. This potentially large reduction<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CherrySecuring15_59-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CherrySecuring15-59\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> is called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_deduplication\" title=\"Data deduplication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9b17b0488fe7880a660a6af2d9ef71d\">deduplication<\/a>. It can occur on a server before any data moves to backup media, sometimes referred to as source\/client side deduplication. This approach also reduces bandwidth required to send backup data to its target media. The process can also occur at the target storage device, sometimes referred to as inline or back-end deduplication.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Duplication\">Duplication<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes backups are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Replication_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Replication (computer science)\" data-key=\"708938d3d3aafc7ea88aeac4cc1d3f79\">duplicated<\/a> to a second set of storage media. This can be done to rearrange the archive files to optimize restore speed, or to have a second copy at a different location or on a different storage medium\u2014as in the disk-to-disk-to-tape capability of Enterprise client-server backup.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Encryption\">Encryption<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>High-capacity removable storage media such as backup tapes present a data security risk if they are lost or stolen.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[58]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">Encrypting<\/a> the data on these media can mitigate this problem, however encryption is a CPU intensive process that can slow down backup speeds, and the security of the encrypted backups is only as effective as the security of the key management policy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CherrySecuring15_59-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CherrySecuring15-59\">[57]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Multiplexing\">Multiplexing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>When there are many more computers to be backed up than there are destination storage devices, the ability to use a single storage device with several simultaneous backups can be useful.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrestonBackup07-02_61-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrestonBackup07-02-61\">[59]<\/a><\/sup> However cramming the scheduled <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_backup_terms#Terms_and_definitions\" title=\"Glossary of backup terms\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b83a52aa3a82952afe49e6ac4e0860b4\">backup window<\/a> via \"multiplexed backup\" is only used for tape destinations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrestonBackup07-02_61-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrestonBackup07-02-61\">[59]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Refactoring\">Refactoring<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The process of rearranging the sets of backups in an archive file is known as refactoring. For example, if a backup system uses a single tape each day to store the incremental backups for all the protected computers, restoring one of the computers could require many tapes. Refactoring could be used to consolidate all the backups for a single computer onto a single tape, creating a \"synthetic full backup\". This is especially useful for backup systems that do incrementals forever style backups.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Staging\">Staging<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes backups are copied to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_staging\" title=\"Disk staging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"930f51d71f3dc83df2c5aa3c75a4431e\">staging<\/a> disk before being copied to tape.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrestonBackup07-02_61-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrestonBackup07-02-61\">[59]<\/a><\/sup> This process is sometimes referred to as D2D2T, an acronym for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk-to-disk-to-tape\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Disk-to-disk-to-tape\" data-key=\"413d24c3e066df7d708c5adc9714efa6\">Disk-to-disk-to-tape<\/a>. It can be useful if there is a problem matching the speed of the final destination device with the source device, as is frequently faced in network-based backup systems. It can also serve as a centralized location for applying other data manipulation techniques.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Objectives\">Objectives<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disaster_recovery#Recovery_Point_Objective\" title=\"Disaster recovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ce41a38a44f0026c258af91d314ded2\">Recovery point objective<\/a> (RPO): The point in time that the restarted infrastructure will reflect, expressed as \"the maximum targeted period in which data (transactions) might be lost from an IT service due to a major incident\". Essentially, this is the roll-back that will be experienced as a result of the recovery. The most desirable RPO would be the point just prior to the data loss event. Making a more recent recovery point achievable requires increasing the frequency of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_synchronization\" title=\"File synchronization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"677d9a343f74b48fbe698851fc78b735\">synchronization<\/a> between the source data and the backup repository.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RiskyThinkingDefRPO_62-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RiskyThinkingDefRPO-62\">[60]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Recovery time objective (RTO): The amount of time elapsed between disaster and restoration of business functions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RiskyThinkingDefRTO_63-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RiskyThinkingDefRTO-63\">[61]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">Data security<\/a>: In addition to preserving access to data for its owners, data must be restricted from unauthorized access. Backups must be performed in a manner that does not compromise the original owner's undertaking. This can be achieved with data encryption and proper media handling policies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LittleImplement03_64-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LittleImplement03-64\">[62]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retention\" title=\"Data retention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7319085a4f0e9c849d3614b6d796cdb5\">Data retention<\/a> period: Regulations and policy can lead to situations where backups are expected to be retained for a particular period, but not any further. Retaining backups after this period can lead to unwanted liability and sub-optimal use of storage media.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LittleImplement03_64-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LittleImplement03-64\">[62]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Checksum\" title=\"Checksum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0062da8a4cedf924c709cab7d64dc84\">Checksum<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hash_function\" title=\"Hash function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41a2b6efff3b63195b1820d4bedd197a\">hash function<\/a> validation: Applications that back up to tape archive files need this option to verify that the data was accurately copied.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecVerify&amp;WriteChecksumsToMedia_65-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecVerify&amp;WriteChecksumsToMedia-65\">[63]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management#Monitoring\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32d93ffa3e59273bc4da7eb7ce4414a7\">Backup process monitoring<\/a>: Enterprise client-server backup applications need a user interface that allows administrators to monitor the backup process, and proves compliance to regulatory bodies outside the organization; for example, an insurance company in the USA might be required under <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"651fe0fa5498890d1a29b4c1e21db2db\">HIPAA<\/a> to demonstrate that its client data meet records retention requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[64]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_client-server_backup#User-initiated_backups_and_restores\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Enterprise client-server backup\" data-key=\"e7bf58b58f0b2c018691fc730f49b7bf\">User-initiated backups and restores<\/a>: To avoid or recover from <i>minor<\/i> disasters, such as inadvertently deleting or overwriting the \"good\" versions of one or more files, the computer user\u2014rather than an administrator\u2014may initiate backups and restores (from not necessarily the most-recent backup) of files or folders.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>About backup<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Backup software and services\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_backup_software\" title=\"List of backup software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0387f91ee7924fa8084058957efa876d\">List of backup software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comparison_of_online_backup_services\" title=\"Comparison of online backup services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c6849079485ccb4db1e59841ba2bdd1\">Comparison of online backup services<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_backup_terms\" title=\"Glossary of backup terms\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a681b2ce86a585df687c3e055d22d45\">Glossary of backup terms<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_backup_appliance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Virtual backup appliance\" data-key=\"66c2bff1f6902fa03ed846a3cfb4be1a\">Virtual backup appliance<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>Related topics<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_consistency\" title=\"Data consistency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36d726866dc15d9e4f6c027f5450192a\">Data consistency<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_degradation\" title=\"Data degradation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7e9eb3a48310df6161096a7b2d04475\">Data degradation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_portability\" title=\"Data portability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"934606a6eb6361a347e95bc5a8808751\">Data portability<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_proliferation\" title=\"Data proliferation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"385ff440045f7fea4690ac382bed09e8\">Data proliferation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_dump\" title=\"Database dump\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5666491f2faa63587dd79eb1b58ff559\">Database dump<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_preservation\" title=\"Digital preservation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea48f80fdfaa95d7a085e2cde2d342a4\">Digital preservation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disaster_recovery_and_business_continuity_auditing\" title=\"Disaster recovery and business continuity auditing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7e7f8f6b9b0935c9ae328eaeb5d7fd8b\">Disaster recovery and business continuity auditing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Backup_Day\" title=\"World Backup Day\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9e35a5bf91138c8a8b1cc0740023dc1\">World Backup Day<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ArchiveFileMayNotContainOld\/HistoricalMaterial-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ArchiveFileMayNotContainOld\/HistoricalMaterial_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">In contrast to everyday use of the term \"archive\", the data stored in an \"archive file\" is not necessarily old or of historical interest.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-54\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Some backup applications\u2014notably <a href=\"#History\" title=\"Rsync\">rsync<\/a> and <a href=\"#File_backup_and_sharing_services\" title=\"Code42\">CrashPlan<\/a>\u2014term removing backup data \"pruning\" instead of \"grooming\".<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1011085734\" \/><div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-AHDictionaryBackup-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AHDictionaryBackup_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ahdictionary.com\/word\/search.html?q=backup\" target=\"_blank\">\"back\u2022up\"<\/a>. <i>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language<\/i>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&amp;rft.atitle=back%E2%80%A2up&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dbackup&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NelsonPro11-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NelsonPro11_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFS._Nelson2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">S. Nelson (2011). \"Chapter 1: Introduction to Backup and Recovery\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=r4uEEsq3CJYC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Pro Data Backup and Recovery<\/i><\/a>. Apress. pp.&#160;1\u201316. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4302-2663-5<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction+to+Backup+and+Recovery&amp;rft.btitle=Pro+Data+Backup+and+Recovery&amp;rft.pages=1-16&amp;rft.pub=Apress&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4302-2663-5&amp;rft.au=S.+Nelson&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr4uEEsq3CJYC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CougiasTheBackup03Chapter01-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CougiasTheBackup03Chapter01_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCougias,_D.J.Heiberger,_E.L.Koop,_K.2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Cougias, D.J.; Heiberger, E.L.; Koop, K. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=eLviiTag5A0C&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: What's a Disaster Without a Recovery?\"<\/a>. <i>The Backup Book: Disaster Recovery from Desktop to Data Center<\/i>. Network Frontiers. pp.&#160;1\u201314. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-9729039-0-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+What%27s+a+Disaster+Without+a+Recovery%3F&amp;rft.btitle=The+Backup+Book%3A+Disaster+Recovery+from+Desktop+to+Data+Center&amp;rft.pages=1-14&amp;rft.pub=Network+Frontiers&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=0-9729039-0-9&amp;rft.au=Cougias%2C+D.J.&amp;rft.au=Heiberger%2C+E.L.&amp;rft.au=Koop%2C+K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeLviiTag5A0C%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KissellTakeControlMacOSX-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-KissellTakeControlMacOSX_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-KissellTakeControlMacOSX_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-KissellTakeControlMacOSX_5-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-Kissell\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Joe Kissell (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201201201812\/http:\/\/people.fas.harvard.edu\/~techtool\/pages\/Take_Control_of_Mac_OS_X_Backups_(2.0).pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Take Control of Mac OS X Backups<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> (Version 2.0&#160;ed.). Ithaca, NY: TidBITS Electronic Publishing. pp.&#160;18\u201320 (\"The Archive\", meaning information repository, including versioning), 24 (client-server), 82\u201383 (archive file), 112\u2013114 (Off-site storage backup rotation scheme), 126\u2013141 (old Retrospect terminology and GUI\u2014still used in Windows variant), 165 (client-server), 128 (subvolume\u2014later renamed Favorite Folder in Macintosh variant). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-9759503-0-2<\/bdi>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/people.fas.harvard.edu\/~techtool\/pages\/Take_Control_of_Mac_OS_X_Backups_(2.0).pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 1 December 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 May<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Take+Control+of+Mac+OS+X+Backups&amp;rft.place=Ithaca%2C+NY&amp;rft.pages=18-20+%28%22The+Archive%22%2C+meaning+information+repository%2C+including+versioning%29%2C+24+%28client-server%29%2C+82-83+%28archive+file%29%2C+112-114+%28Off-site+storage+backup+rotation+scheme%29%2C+126-141+%28old+Retrospect+terminology+and+GUI%E2%80%94still+used+in+Windows+variant%29%2C+165+%28client-server%29%2C+128+%28subvolume%E2%80%94later+renamed+Favorite+Folder+in+Macintosh+variant%29&amp;rft.edition=Version+2.0&amp;rft.pub=TidBITS+Electronic+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-9759503-0-2&amp;rft.au=Joe+Kissell&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.fas.harvard.edu%2F~techtool%2Fpages%2FTake_Control_of_Mac_OS_X_Backups_%282.0%29.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OutaBiz-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-OutaBiz_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTerry_Sullivan2018\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Terry Sullivan (11 January 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/01\/11\/smarter-living\/backing-up-your-photos.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Beginner's Guide to Backing Up Photos\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_York_Times\" title=\"The New York Times\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623c682760636b635e0bd6f2cf164389\">The New York Times<\/a><\/i>. <q>a hard drive ... an established company ... declared bankruptcy ... where many ... had ...<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=A+Beginner%27s+Guide+to+Backing+Up+Photos&amp;rft.date=2018-01-11&amp;rft.au=Terry+Sullivan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2018%2F01%2F11%2Fsmarter-living%2Fbacking-up-your-photos.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-wiseGEEKInformationRepository-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-wiseGEEKInformationRepository_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMcMahon2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">McMahon, Mary (1 April 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wisegeek.com\/what-is-an-information-repository.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is an Information Repository?\"<\/a>. <i>wiseGEEK<\/i>. Conjecture Corporation<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2019<\/span>. <q>In the sense of an approach to data management, an information repository is a secondary storage space for data.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=wiseGEEK&amp;rft.atitle=What+Is+an+Information+Repository%3F&amp;rft.date=2019-04-01&amp;rft.aulast=McMahon&amp;rft.aufirst=Mary&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wisegeek.com%2Fwhat-is-an-information-repository.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sysgen.ca\/five-key-backup-questions\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Five key questions to ask about your backup solution\"<\/a>. <i>sysgen.ca<\/i>. 23 March 2014. Does your company have a low tolerance to longer \"data access outages\" and\/or would you like to minimize the time your company may be without its data?. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304042343\/http:\/\/sysgen.ca\/five-key-backup-questions\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 March 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 September<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=sysgen.ca&amp;rft.atitle=Five+key+questions+to+ask+about+your+backup+solution&amp;rft.pages=Does+your+company+have+a+low+tolerance+to+longer+%22data+access+outages%22+and%2For+would+you+like+to+minimize+the+time+your+company+may+be+without+its+data%3F&amp;rft.date=2014-03-23&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsysgen.ca%2Ffive-key-backup-questions%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Tech-FAQIncrementalBackup-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Tech-FAQIncrementalBackup_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160621090117\/http:\/\/www.tech-faq.com\/incremental-backup.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"Incremental Backup\"<\/a>. <i>Tech-FAQ<\/i>. Independent Media. 13 June 2005. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tech-faq.com\/incremental-backup.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 21 June 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 March<\/span> 2006<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Tech-FAQ&amp;rft.atitle=Incremental+Backup&amp;rft.date=2005-06-13&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tech-faq.com%2Fincremental-backup.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PondHowTimeMachineWorks-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PondHowTimeMachineWorks_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPond2013\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Pond, James (31 August 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190621092705\/https:\/\/www.baligu.com\/pondini\/TM\/Works.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Time Machine Works its Magic\"<\/a>. <i>Apple OSX and Time Machine Tips<\/i>. baligu.com. File System Event Store, Hard Links. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/baligu.com\/pondini\/TM\/Works.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 21 June 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Apple+OSX+and+Time+Machine+Tips&amp;rft.atitle=How+Time+Machine+Works+its+Magic&amp;rft.pages=File+System+Event+Store%2C+Hard+Links&amp;rft.date=2013-08-31&amp;rft.aulast=Pond&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbaligu.com%2Fpondini%2FTM%2FWorks.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-InformationWeekWhyCDPGettingMorePractical-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-InformationWeekWhyCDPGettingMorePractical_11-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-InformationWeekWhyCDPGettingMorePractical_11-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBehzad_Behtash2010\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Behzad Behtash (6 May 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/why-continuous-data-protections-getting-more-practical\/d\/d-id\/1088883\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why Continuous Data Protection's Getting More Practical\"<\/a>. <i>Disaster recovery\/business continuity<\/i>. InformationWeek<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 November<\/span> 2011<\/span>. <q>A true CDP approach should capture all data writes, thus continuously backing up data and eliminating backup windows.... CDP is the gold standard\u2014the most comprehensive and advanced data protection. But \"near CDP\" technologies can deliver enough protection for many companies with less complexity and cost. For example, snapshots can provide a reasonable near-CDP-level of protection for file shares, letting users directly access data on the file share at regular intervals--say, every half-hour or 15 minutes. That's certainly a higher level of protection than tape-based or disk-based nightly backups and may be all you need.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Disaster+recovery%2Fbusiness+continuity&amp;rft.atitle=Why+Continuous+Data+Protection%27s+Getting+More+Practical&amp;rft.date=2010-05-06&amp;rft.au=Behzad+Behtash&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2Fwhy-continuous-data-protections-getting-more-practical%2Fd%2Fd-id%2F1088883&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ComputerWeeklyCDPExplained-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ComputerWeeklyCDPExplained_12-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ComputerWeeklyCDPExplained_12-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.computerweekly.com\/Continuous-data-protection-CDP-explained-True-CDP-vs-near-CDP\" target=\"_blank\">\"Continuous data protection (CDP) explained: True CDP vs near-CDP\"<\/a>. <i>ComputerWeekly.com<\/i>. TechTarget. July 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 June<\/span> 2019<\/span>. <q>... copies data from a source to a target. True CDP does this every time a change is made, while so-called near-CDP does this at pre-set time intervals. Near-CDP is effectively the same as snapshotting....True CDP systems record every write and copy them to the target where all changes are stored in a log. [new paragraph] By contrast, near-CDP\/snapshot systems copy files in a straightforward manner but require applications to be quiesced and made ready for backup, either via the application's backup mode or using, for example, Microsoft's Volume Shadow Copy Services (VSS).<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ComputerWeekly.com&amp;rft.atitle=Continuous+data+protection+%28CDP%29+explained%3A+True+CDP+vs+near-CDP&amp;rft.date=2010-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerweekly.com%2FContinuous-data-protection-CDP-explained-True-CDP-vs-near-CDP&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PondiniHowTMWorksItsMagic-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PondiniHowTMWorksItsMagic_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPond2013\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Pond, James (31 August 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.baligu.com\/pondini\/TM\/Works.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Time Machine Works its Magic\"<\/a>. <i>Apple OSX and Time Machine Tips<\/i>. Baligu.com (as mirrored after James Pond died in 2013)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 July<\/span> 2019<\/span>. <q>The File System Event Store is a hidden log that OSX keeps on each HFS+ formatted disk\/partition of changes made to the data on it. It doesn't list every file that's changed, but each directory (folder) that's had anything changed inside it.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Apple+OSX+and+Time+Machine+Tips&amp;rft.atitle=How+Time+Machine+Works+its+Magic&amp;rft.date=2013-08-31&amp;rft.aulast=Pond&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baligu.com%2Fpondini%2FTM%2FWorks.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-deGuiseEnterprise09#A.3.3-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#A.3.3_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFde_Guise,_P.2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">de Guise, P. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=2OtqvySBTu4C&pg=PA287\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Enterprise Systems Backup and Recovery: A Corporate Insurance Policy<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp.&#160;285\u2013287. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4200-7639-4<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Enterprise+Systems+Backup+and+Recovery%3A+A+Corporate+Insurance+Policy&amp;rft.pages=285-287&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4200-7639-4&amp;rft.au=de+Guise%2C+P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2OtqvySBTu4C%26pg%3DPA287&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VictorWuEMCRecoverPointVM-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-VictorWuEMCRecoverPointVM_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWu2017\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Wu, Victor (4 March 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/wuchikin.wordpress.com\/2017\/03\/04\/emc-recoverpoint-for-virtual-machine-overview\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"EMC RecoverPoint for Virtual Machine Overview\"<\/a>. <i>Victor Virtual<\/i>. WuChiKin<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 June<\/span> 2019<\/span>. <q>The splitter splits out the Write IOs to the VMDK\/RDM of a VM and sends a copy to the production VMDK and also to the RecoverPoint for VMs cluster.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Victor+Virtual&amp;rft.atitle=EMC+RecoverPoint+for+Virtual+Machine+Overview&amp;rft.date=2017-03-04&amp;rft.aulast=Wu&amp;rft.aufirst=Victor&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwuchikin.wordpress.com%2F2017%2F03%2F04%2Femc-recoverpoint-for-virtual-machine-overview%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RES-QServicesZertoOrVeeam-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-RES-QServicesZertoOrVeeam_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/resqdr.com\/zerto-or-veeam\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Zerto or Veeam?\"<\/a>. <i>RES-Q Services<\/i>. March 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 July<\/span> 2019<\/span>. <q>Zerto doesn't use snapshot technology like Veeam. Instead, Zerto deploys small virtual machines on its physical hosts. These Zerto VMs capture the data as it is written to the host and then send a copy of that data to the replication site.....However, Veeam has the advantage of being able to more efficiently capture and store data for long-term retention needs. There is also a significant pricing difference, with Veeam being cheaper than Zerto.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=RES-Q+Services&amp;rft.atitle=Zerto+or+Veeam%3F&amp;rft.date=2017-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresqdr.com%2Fzerto-or-veeam%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CloudEndureAgentRelated-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudEndureAgentRelated_17-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/docs.cloudendure.com\/Content\/FAQ\/FAQ\/Agent_Related.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Agent Related\"<\/a>. <i>CloudEndure.com<\/i>. 2019. What does the CloudEndure Agent do?<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 July<\/span> 2019<\/span>. <q>The CloudEndure Agent performs an initial block-level read of the content of any volume attached to the server and replicates it to the Replication Server. The Agent then acts as an OS-level read filter to capture writes and synchronizes any block level modifications to the CloudEndure Replication Server, ensuring near-zero RPO.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=CloudEndure.com&amp;rft.atitle=Agent+Related&amp;rft.pages=What+does+the+CloudEndure+Agent+do%3F&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocs.cloudendure.com%2FContent%2FFAQ%2FFAQ%2FAgent_Related.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EngenioDiskToDiskVsTape-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-EngenioDiskToDiskVsTape_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGardner2004\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Gardner, Steve (9 December 2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050207082953\/http:\/\/www.storagesearch.com\/engenio-art2.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Disk to Disk Backup versus Tape \u2013 War or Truce?\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Spectra&amp;rft.atitle=Digital+Data+Storage+Outlook+2017&amp;rft.pages=7%28Solid-State%29%2C+10%28Magnetic+Disk%29%2C+14%28Tape%29%2C+17%28Optical%29&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectralogic.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fwhite-paper-digital-data-storage-outlook-2017-v3.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime_20-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime_20-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime_20-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTom_Coughlin2014\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Tom Coughlin (29 June 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/tomcoughlin\/2014\/06\/29\/keeping-data-for-a-long-time\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Keeping Data for a Long Time\"<\/a>. <i>Forbes<\/i>. para. 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(29 February 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pcworld.com\/article\/2984597\/storage\/hard-core-data-preservation-the-best-media-and-methods-for-archiving-your-data.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hard-core data preservation: The best media and methods for archiving your data\"<\/a>. <i>PC World<\/i>. sec. External Hard Drives(on the shelf, magnetic properties, mechanical stresses, vulnerable to shocks), Tape, Online storage<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Toshiba Data Dynamics Pte Ltd. 2018. sec. Overview(Internal shock sensor and ramp loading technology)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Toshiba+Data+Dynamics+Singapore&amp;rft.atitle=Toshiba+Portable+Hard+Drive+%28Canvio%C2%AE+3.0%29&amp;rft.pages=sec.+Overview%28Internal+shock+sensor+and+ramp+loading+technology%29&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.toshibadata.com.sg%2FProduct-Canvio-Portable-Hard-Drive.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IomegaDropShock-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-IomegaDropShock_24-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-IomegaDropShock_24-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.doc-developpement-durable.org\/file\/Projets-informatiques\/Drop%20Guard-disque-dur-tres-solide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Iomega Drop Guard \u2122 Technology\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Hard Drive Storage Solutions<\/i>. Iomega Corp. 20 September 2010. pp.&#160;2(What is Drop Shock Technology?, What is Drop Guard Technology? (... features special internal cushioning .... 40% above the industry average)), 3(*NOTE)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Hard+Drive+Storage+Solutions&amp;rft.atitle=Iomega+Drop+Guard+%E2%84%A2+Technology&amp;rft.pages=2%28What+is+Drop+Shock+Technology%3F%2C+What+is+Drop+Guard+Technology%3F+%28...+features+special+internal+cushioning+....+40%25+above+the+industry+average%29%29%2C+3%28%2ANOTE%29&amp;rft.date=2010-09-20&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.doc-developpement-durable.org%2Ffile%2FProjets-informatiques%2FDrop%2520Guard-disque-dur-tres-solide.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PCMagBest-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-PCMagBest_25-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-PCMagBest_25-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJohn_Burek2018\" class=\"citation web cs1\">John Burek (15 May 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pcmag.com\/roundup\/361072\/the-best-rugged-hard-drives-and-ssds\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Best Rugged Hard Drives and SSDs\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PC_Magazine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PC Magazine\" data-key=\"99cc4bef68e21fee87390cabab6eb86b\">PC Magazine<\/a><\/i>. 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Archived from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#dont-buy-a-rugged-portable-hard-drive\">the original<\/a> on 31 March 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 August<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=The+Best+Portable+Hard+Drive&amp;rft.date=2017-03-20&amp;rft.au=Justin+Krajeski&amp;rft.au=Kimber+Streams&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthewirecutter.com%2Freviews%2Fbest-portable-hard-drive%2F%23dont-buy-a-rugged-portable-hard-drive&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IronMountainBestLong-TermDataArchiveSolutions-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-IronMountainBestLong-TermDataArchiveSolutions_27-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ironmountain.com\/resources\/general-articles\/b\/best-long-term-data-archive-solutions\" target=\"_blank\">\"Best Long-Term Data Archive Solutions\"<\/a>. <i>Iron Mountain<\/i>. Iron Mountain Inc. 2018. sec. More Reliable(average mean time between failure ... rates, best practice for migrating data)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Iron+Mountain&amp;rft.atitle=Best+Long-Term+Data+Archive+Solutions&amp;rft.pages=sec.+More+Reliable%28average+mean+time+between+failure+...+rates%2C+best+practice+for+migrating+data%29&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ironmountain.com%2Fresources%2Fgeneral-articles%2Fb%2Fbest-long-term-data-archive-solutions&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KissellTakeControlBackingUp-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KissellTakeControlBackingUp_28-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKissell2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kissell, Joe (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ANe3k_7bnAcC&q=retrospect+deduplication&pg=PT41\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Take Control of Backing Up Your Mac<\/i><\/a>. Ithaca NY: TidBITS Publishing Inc. p.&#160;41(Deduplication). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-61542-394-1<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 February<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=DCIG&amp;rft.atitle=Symantec+Shows+Backup+Exec+a+Little+Dedupe+Love%3B+Lays+out+Source+Side+Deduplication+Roadmap+%E2%80%93+DCIG&amp;rft.date=2009-07-07&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dcig.com%2F2009%2F07%2Fsymantec-shows-backup-exec-a-l.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NetBackupDeduplicationGuide-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NetBackupDeduplicationGuide_30-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.veritas.com\/content\/support\/en_US\/doc\/ka6j00000000ADEAA2\" target=\"_blank\">\"Veritas NetBackup\u2122 Deduplication Guide\"<\/a>. <i>Veritas<\/i>. Veritas Technologies LLC. 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Veritas&amp;rft.atitle=Veritas+NetBackup%E2%84%A2+Deduplication+Guide&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.veritas.com%2Fcontent%2Fsupport%2Fen_US%2Fdoc%2Fka6j00000000ADEAA2&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WanOptical14-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WanOptical14_31-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFS._WanQ._CaoC._Xie2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">S. Wan; Q. Cao; C. Xie (2014). \"Optical storage: An emerging option in long-term digital preservation\". <i>Frontiers of Optoelectronics<\/i>. <b>7<\/b> (4): 486\u2013492. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs12200-014-0442-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s12200-014-0442-2<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:60816607\" target=\"_blank\">60816607<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Frontiers+of+Optoelectronics&amp;rft.atitle=Optical+storage%3A+An+emerging+option+in+long-term+digital+preservation&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=486-492&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12200-014-0442-2&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A60816607%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.au=S.+Wan&amp;rft.au=Q.+Cao&amp;rft.au=C.+Xie&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFQ._ZhangZ._XiaY.-B._ChengM._Gu2018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Q. 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Gu (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5864957\" target=\"_blank\">\"High-capacity optical long data memory based on enhanced Young's modulus in nanoplasmonic hybrid glass composites\"<\/a>. <i>Nature Communications<\/i>. <b>9<\/b> (1): 1183. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2018NatCo...9.1183Z\" target=\"_blank\">2018NatCo...9.1183Z<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fs41467-018-03589-y\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/s41467-018-03589-y<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5864957\" target=\"_blank\">5864957<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29568055\" target=\"_blank\">29568055<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&amp;rft.atitle=High-capacity+optical+long+data+memory+based+on+enhanced+Young%27s+modulus+in+nanoplasmonic+hybrid+glass+composites&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=1183&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5864957%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29568055&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-018-03589-y&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018NatCo...9.1183Z&amp;rft.au=Q.+Zhang&amp;rft.au=Z.+Xia&amp;rft.au=Y.-B.+Cheng&amp;rft.au=M.+Gu&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5864957&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFB\u00e4rwaldt2014\" class=\"citation web cs1\">B\u00e4rwaldt, Erik (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linux-magazine.com\/Issues\/2014\/169\/QPxTool\" target=\"_blank\">\"Full Control&#160;\u00bb Linux Magazine\"<\/a>. <i>Linux Magazine<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Linux+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Full+Control+%C2%BB+Linux+Magazine&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.aulast=B%C3%A4rwaldt&amp;rft.aufirst=Erik&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linux-magazine.com%2FIssues%2F2014%2F169%2FQPxTool&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.clir.org\/pubs\/reports\/pub121\/sec5\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"5. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 March<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Institut+national+de+l%27audiovisuel&amp;rft.atitle=Journal+de+20+Heures&amp;rft.pages=approximately+minute+30+of+the+TV+news+broadcast&amp;rft.date=2008-03-03&amp;rft.au=G%C3%A9rard+Poirier&amp;rft.au=Foued+Berahou&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ina.fr%2Fvideo%2F3571726001%2F20-heures-emission-du-3-mars-2008.fr.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130927170900\/http:\/\/delkin.com\/i-5937134-archival-gold-cd-r-300-year-disc-binder-of-10-discs-with-scratch-armor-surface.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Archival Gold CD-R \"300 Year Disc\" Binder of 10 Discs with Scratch Armor Surface\"<\/a>. <i>Delkin Devices<\/i>. 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Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/delkin.com\/i-5937134-archival-gold-cd-r-300-year-disc-binder-of-10-discs-with-scratch-armor-surface.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 27 September 2013.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Delkin+Devices&amp;rft.atitle=Archival+Gold+CD-R+%22300+Year+Disc%22+Binder+of+10+Discs+with+Scratch+Armor+Surface&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdelkin.com%2Fi-5937134-archival-gold-cd-r-300-year-disc-binder-of-10-discs-with-scratch-armor-surface.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SonyOpticalDiscArchiveGen2-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SonyOpticalDiscArchiveGen2_37-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pro.sony\/s3\/cms-static-content\/file\/49\/1237494482649.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Optical Disc Archive Generation 2\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Optical Disc Archive<\/i>. Sony. April 2016. p.&#160;12(World\u2019s First 8-Channel Optical Drive Unit)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 August<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Optical+Disc+Archive&amp;rft.atitle=Optical+Disc+Archive+Generation+2&amp;rft.pages=12%28World%E2%80%99s+First+8-Channel+Optical+Drive+Unit%29&amp;rft.date=2016-04&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpro.sony%2Fs3%2Fcms-static-content%2Ffile%2F49%2F1237494482649.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFR._MicheloniP._Olivo2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">R. Micheloni; P. 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Dell, Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>. <q>Effective remote backup requires that production data be regularly backed up to a location far enough away from the primary location so that both locations would not be affected by the same disruptive event.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=EMC+Glossary&amp;rft.atitle=Remote+Backup&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.emc.com%2Fcorporate%2Fglossary%2Fremote-backup.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-StackpoleSoftware07-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-StackpoleSoftware07_40-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFStackpole,_B.Hanrion,_P.2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Stackpole, B.; Hanrion, P. 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(2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=PU7gkW9ArxIC&pg=PA255\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Information Storage and Management: Storing, Managing, and Protecting Digital Information in Classic, Virtualized, and Cloud Environments<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley and Sons. p.&#160;255. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-118-23696-3<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Irontree Internet Services CC<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Irontree+Blog&amp;rft.atitle=What+to+backup+%E2%80%93+a+critical+look+at+your+data&amp;rft.date=2017-01-25&amp;rft.au=Lee&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firontree.co.za%2Fwhat-to-backup-a-critical-look-at-your-data-1935.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PrestonBackup07-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PrestonBackup07_43-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPreston,_W.C.2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Preston, W.C. (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6-w4fXbBInoC&pg=PA111\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Backup &amp; Recovery: Inexpensive Backup Solutions for Open Systems<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;111\u2013114. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-596-55504-7<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Backup+%26+Recovery%3A+Inexpensive+Backup+Solutions+for+Open+Systems&amp;rft.pages=111-114&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-596-55504-7&amp;rft.au=Preston%2C+W.C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6-w4fXbBInoC%26pg%3DPA111&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PrestonUnix99-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PrestonUnix99_44-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPreston,_W.C.1999\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Preston, W.C. (1999). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/unixbackuprecove00wcur\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Unix Backup &amp; Recovery<\/i><\/a><\/span>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/unixbackuprecove00wcur\/page\/73\" target=\"_blank\">73<\/a>\u201391. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-56592-642-4<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Unix+Backup+%26+Recovery&amp;rft.pages=73-91&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-56592-642-4&amp;rft.au=Preston%2C+W.C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funixbackuprecove00wcur&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NILFSHome-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NILFSHome_45-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nilfs.sourceforge.io\/en\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"NILFS Home\"<\/a>. <i>NILFS Continuous Snapshotting System<\/i>. 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(2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=eLviiTag5A0C&pg=PA360\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 11: Open file backup for databases\"<\/a>. <i>The Backup Book: Disaster Recovery from Desktop to Data Center<\/i>. Network Frontiers. pp.&#160;356\u2013360. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-9729039-0-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+11%3A+Open+file+backup+for+databases&amp;rft.btitle=The+Backup+Book%3A+Disaster+Recovery+from+Desktop+to+Data+Center&amp;rft.pages=356-360&amp;rft.pub=Network+Frontiers&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=0-9729039-0-9&amp;rft.au=Cougias%2C+D.J.&amp;rft.au=Heiberger%2C+E.L.&amp;rft.au=Koop%2C+K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeLviiTag5A0C%26pg%3DPA360&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LiotineMission03-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LiotineMission03_47-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLiotine,_M.2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Liotine, M. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Mission-critical+Network+Planning&amp;rft.pages=244&amp;rft.pub=Artech+House&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-58053-559-5&amp;rft.au=Liotine%2C+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLecC2BhPPxMC%26pg%3DPA244&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-deGuiseEnterprise09#3.4.7-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#3.4.7_48-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFde_Guise,_P.2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">de Guise, P. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=2OtqvySBTu4C&pg=PA50\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Enterprise Systems Backup and Recovery: A Corporate Insurance Policy<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp.&#160;50\u201354. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4200-7639-4<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Enterprise+Systems+Backup+and+Recovery%3A+A+Corporate+Insurance+Policy&amp;rft.pages=50-54&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4200-7639-4&amp;rft.au=de+Guise%2C+P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2OtqvySBTu4C%26pg%3DPA50&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HandyBackupOpenFileWindows-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HandyBackupOpenFileWindows_49-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.handybackup.net\/open-file-backup.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"Open File Backup Software for Windows\"<\/a>. <i>Handy Backup<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 November<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Arcserve+Backup&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+ARCHIVE-LOG+and+NO-ARCHIVE-LOG+mode+in+Oracle+and+the+advantages+%26+disadvantages+of+these+modes%3F&amp;rft.date=2018-09-27&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupport.arcserve.com%2Fs%2Farticle%2F202080249%3Flanguage%3Den_US&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Gresovnik1-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Gresovnik1_53-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGre\u0161ovnik2016\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Gre\u0161ovnik, Igor (April 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160425113119\/http:\/\/www2.arnes.si\/~ljc3m2\/igor\/blogs\/technical\/bootable_media_creation.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Preparation of Bootable Media and Images\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www2.arnes.si\/~ljc3m2\/igor\/blogs\/technical\/bootable_media_creation.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 April 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 April<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Preparation+of+Bootable+Media+and+Images&amp;rft.date=2016-04&amp;rft.aulast=Gre%C5%A1ovnik&amp;rft.aufirst=Igor&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.arnes.si%2F~ljc3m2%2Figor%2Fblogs%2Ftechnical%2Fbootable_media_creation.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTridgellMackerrasDavison\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Tridgell, Andrew; Mackerras, Paul; Davison, Wayne. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/linux.die.net\/man\/1\/rsync\" target=\"_blank\">\"rsync(1) - Linux man page\"<\/a>. <i>linux.die.net<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=linux.die.net&amp;rft.atitle=rsync%281%29+-+Linux+man+page&amp;rft.aulast=Tridgell&amp;rft.aufirst=Andrew&amp;rft.au=Mackerras%2C+Paul&amp;rft.au=Davison%2C+Wayne&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinux.die.net%2Fman%2F1%2Frsync&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#archive-maintenance-0-0\">\"Archive maintenance\"<\/a>. <i>Code42 Support<\/i>. 2023.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Code42+Support&amp;rft.atitle=Archive+maintenance&amp;rft.date=2023&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupport.code42.com%2Fhc%2Fen-us%2Farticles%2F14827690989463-Archive-maintenance%23archive-maintenance-0-0&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PondiniFAQ12-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PondiniFAQ12_57-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPond2012\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Pond, James (2 June 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.baligu.com\/pondini\/TM\/12.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"12. Should I delete old backups? If so, How?\"<\/a>. <i>Time Machine<\/i>. baligu.com. Green box, Gray box<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 June<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Time+Machine&amp;rft.atitle=12.+Should+I+delete+old+backups%3F+If+so%2C+How%3F&amp;rft.pages=Green+box%2C+Gray+box&amp;rft.date=2012-06-02&amp;rft.aulast=Pond&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baligu.com%2Fpondini%2FTM%2F12.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WirecutterBestOnlineCloudBackupService-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WirecutterBestOnlineCloudBackupService_58-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKissell2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Kissell, Joe (12 March 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/thewirecutter.com\/reviews\/best-online-backup-service\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Best Online Cloud Backup Service\"<\/a>. <i>wirecutter<\/i>. The New York Times. Next, there\u2019s file retention<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 June<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=wirecutter&amp;rft.atitle=The+Best+Online+Cloud+Backup+Service&amp;rft.pages=Next%2C+there%E2%80%99s+file+retention.&amp;rft.date=2019-03-12&amp;rft.aulast=Kissell&amp;rft.aufirst=Joe&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthewirecutter.com%2Freviews%2Fbest-online-backup-service%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CherrySecuring15-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-CherrySecuring15_59-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CherrySecuring15_59-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CherrySecuring15_59-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFD._Cherry2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">D. Cherry (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=SD_LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA306\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Securing SQL Server: Protecting Your Database from Attackers<\/i><\/a>. Syngress. pp.&#160;306\u2013308. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-12-801375-5<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Securing+SQL+Server%3A+Protecting+Your+Database+from+Attackers&amp;rft.pages=306-308&amp;rft.pub=Syngress&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-801375-5&amp;rft.au=D.+Cherry&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSD_LAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA306&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.securityfocus.com\/news\/11048\" target=\"_blank\">Backups tapes a backdoor for identity thieves<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160405033517\/http:\/\/www.securityfocus.com\/news\/11048\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 5 April 2016 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> (28 April 2004). Retrieved 10 March 2007<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PrestonBackup07-02-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-PrestonBackup07-02_61-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-PrestonBackup07-02_61-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-PrestonBackup07-02_61-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPreston,_W.C.2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Preston, W.C. (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6-w4fXbBInoC&pg=PA219\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Backup &amp; Recovery: Inexpensive Backup Solutions for Open Systems<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;219\u2013220. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-596-55504-7<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Backup+%26+Recovery%3A+Inexpensive+Backup+Solutions+for+Open+Systems&amp;rft.pages=219-220&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-596-55504-7&amp;rft.au=Preston%2C+W.C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6-w4fXbBInoC%26pg%3DPA219&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RiskyThinkingDefRPO-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-RiskyThinkingDefRPO_62-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.riskythinking.com\/glossary\/recovery_point_objective.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"Recovery Point Objective (Definition)\"<\/a>. <i>ARL Risky Thinking<\/i>. Albion Research Ltd. 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 August<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ARL+Risky+Thinking&amp;rft.atitle=Recovery+Point+Objective+%28Definition%29&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.riskythinking.com%2Fglossary%2Frecovery_point_objective.php&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RiskyThinkingDefRTO-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-RiskyThinkingDefRTO_63-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.riskythinking.com\/glossary\/recovery_time_objective.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"Recovery Time Objective (Definition)\"<\/a>. <i>ARL Risky Thinking<\/i>. Albion Research Ltd. 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 August<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ARL+Risky+Thinking&amp;rft.atitle=Recovery+Time+Objective+%28Definition%29&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.riskythinking.com%2Fglossary%2Frecovery_time_objective.php&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LittleImplement03-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-LittleImplement03_64-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-LittleImplement03_64-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLittle,_D.B.2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Little, D.B. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=_DqO6kizEDUC&pg=PA17\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Business Requirements of Backup Systems\"<\/a>. <i>Implementing Backup and Recovery: The Readiness Guide for the Enterprise<\/i>. John Wiley and Sons. pp.&#160;17\u201330. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-471-48081-5<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Business+Requirements+of+Backup+Systems&amp;rft.btitle=Implementing+Backup+and+Recovery%3A+The+Readiness+Guide+for+the+Enterprise&amp;rft.pages=17-30&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-471-48081-5&amp;rft.au=Little%2C+D.B.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_DqO6kizEDUC%26pg%3DPA17&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BackupExecVerify&amp;WriteChecksumsToMedia-65\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BackupExecVerify&amp;WriteChecksumsToMedia_65-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.veritas.com\/support\/en_US\/article.100030833.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"How do the \"verify\" and \"write checksums to media\" processes work and why are they necessary?\"<\/a>. <i>Veritas Support<\/i>. Veritas.com. 15 October 2015. Write checksums to media<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 September<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Veritas+Support&amp;rft.atitle=How+do+the+%22verify%22+and+%22write+checksums+to+media%22+processes+work+and+why+are+they+necessary%3F&amp;rft.pages=Write+checksums+to+media&amp;rft.date=2015-10-15&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.veritas.com%2Fsupport%2Fen_US%2Farticle.100030833.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-66\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hipaadvisory.com\/regs\/recordretention.htm\" target=\"_blank\">HIPAA Advisory<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070411135655\/http:\/\/www.hipaadvisory.com\/regs\/recordretention.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 11 April 2007 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>. Retrieved 10 March 2007<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d73474a3374a758c1347a5185b1e4ad6\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/99\/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg\/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> The dictionary definition of <i>backup<\/i> at Wiktionary<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Commons-logo.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"56c1eee72d1be207b2a9d9bcedb4ef6f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> Media related to <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Backup\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Backup\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Backup<\/a> at Wikimedia Commons<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1403\nCached time: 20240102034826\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.511 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.613 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3596\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 120895\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 969\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 3\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 194238\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.308\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 7014569\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 527.185 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>68.22% 359.650 2 Template:Reflist\n41.26% 217.519 43 Template:Cite_web\n12.39% 65.296 15 Template:Cite_book\n11.47% 60.491 1 Template:Short_description\n 7.40% 39.004 2 Template:Pagetype\n 3.76% 19.838 2 Template:Sister-inline\n 3.60% 18.972 1 Template:Commons_category-inline\n 3.52% 18.555 1 Template:About\n 2.76% 14.525 3 Template:Cite_journal\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:533867-0!canonical and timestamp 20240102034825 and revision id 1193114519. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup\" data-key=\"aa4b45de245f1a05a108097855baf547\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110114631\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.174 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.438 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 147555\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 384.615 1 wikipedia:Backup\n100.00% 384.615 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10559-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110114631 and revision id 35089. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Backup\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Backup<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_images":[],"e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_timestamp":1704906997,"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0_type":"article","96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0_title":"Audit trail","96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail","96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0_plaintext":"\n\nAudit trailFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchAn audit trail is a security-relevant chronological record, set of records, or destination and source of records that provide documentary evidence of the sequence of activities that have affected at any time a specific operation, procedure, or event.&#91;1&#93;&#91;2&#93;&#91;3&#93; It may be composed of manual or computerized records of events and information, or both.\nAn audit trail includes an unambiguous record of events \u2014 either individually, or in blocks of temporally connected changes \u2014 associated with an individual user (or if changes are created automatically by the system, this must be indicated) and the date and time the change occurred (e.g., by the use of a time zone or reference to GMT). The process that creates an audit trail often run in privileged mode so it can access and supervise all actions from all users and disallow normal users from accessing the audit trail. Another way of handling this issue is through the use of a role-based security model in the software.&#91;4&#93;\nAudit trails are recommended or mandated in various guidance, standards, and regulations, including:\n\n21 CFR Part 211: mentioned at various points, including at section 68, 100, 160, 188, and 194&#91;5&#93;\nASTM E1578: \"The laboratory informatics solution should have validated electronic audit trails that record information about each transaction, both for initial entries as well as modifications to entries.\"&#91;6&#93;\nCJIS Security Policy: \"...shall produce, at the application and\/or operating system level, audit records containing sufficient information to establish what events occurred, the sources of the events, and the outcomes of the events\"&#91;7&#93;\nE.U. Commission Directive 2003\/94\/EC: \"... and audit trails shall be maintained\"&#91;8&#93;\nISO 15189: \"Ensures the integrity of the data and information and includes the recording of system failures and the appropriate immediate and corrective actions\" and is \"in compliance with national or international requirements regarding data protection\"&#91;9&#93;\nNIST SP 800-53 Rev. 5: \"Ensure that audit records contain information that establishes\" a variety of \"indicators of event success or failure\"&#91;10&#93;\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"National Information Assurance (IA) Glossary\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Committee on National Security Systems.&#32;26 April 2010.&#32;pp. 4.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 15 April 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120415010047\/http:\/\/www.cnss.gov\/Assets\/pdf\/cnssi_4009.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ATIS Telecom Glossary 2012 - audit trail\".&#32;ATIS Committee PRQC.&#32;2012.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 13 March 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130313232104\/https:\/\/www.atis.org\/glossary\/definition.aspx?id=5572 .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Audit Trails\"&#32;(TXT).&#32;National Institute for Standardization.&#32;March 1997.&#32;https:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/csrc\/media\/publications\/shared\/documents\/itl-bulletin\/itlbul1997-03.txt .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Brancik, Kenneth C.&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Chapter 2: Related Research in Insider Computer Fraud and Information Security Controls\".&#32;Insider computer fraud: an in-depth framework for detecting and defending against insider IT attacks.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;18\u201319.&#32;ISBN&#160;1420046594.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=lsDngU-RUywC&amp;hl . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 Part 211 Current Good Manufacturing Practice for Finished Pharmaceuticals\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;1 October 2021.&#32;https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=211 .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;23 August 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS) Security Policy\".&#32;U.S. Department of Justice.&#32;1 June 2020.&#32;https:\/\/www.fbi.gov\/services\/cjis\/cjis-security-policy-resource-center .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Commission Directive 2003\/94\/ED\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Official Journal of the European Union.&#32;8 October 2003.&#32;https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:262:0022:0026:en:PDF .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 15189:2012 Medical laboratories \u2014 Requirements for quality and competence\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;November 2012.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/56115.html .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"NIST Special Publication 800-53 Revision 5: Security and Privacy Controls for Information Systems and Organizations\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;National Institute of Standards and Technology.&#32;September 2020.&#32;https:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/SpecialPublications\/NIST.SP.800-53r5.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail<\/a>\nCategory: Regulatory termsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 5 January 2022, at 23:14.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 11,966 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Audit_trail rootpage-Audit_trail skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Audit trail<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>An <b>audit trail<\/b> is a security-relevant chronological record, set of records, or destination and source of records that provide documentary evidence of the sequence of activities that have affected at any time a specific operation, procedure, or event.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISTAuditTrail_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISTAuditTrail-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> It may be composed of manual or computerized records of events and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a>, or both.\n<\/p><p>An audit trail includes an unambiguous record of events \u2014 either individually, or in blocks of temporally connected changes \u2014 associated with an individual user (or if changes are created automatically by the system, this must be indicated) and the date and time the change occurred (e.g., by the use of a time zone or reference to GMT). The process that creates an audit trail often run in privileged mode so it can access and supervise all actions from all users and disallow normal users from accessing the audit trail. Another way of handling this issue is through the use of a role-based security model in the software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Audit trails are recommended or mandated in various guidance, standards, and regulations, including:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>21 CFR Part 211: mentioned at various points, including at section 68, 100, 160, 188, and 194<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDA21CFRPart211_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDA21CFRPart211-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578\" title=\"ASTM E1578\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061\">ASTM E1578<\/a>: \"The laboratory informatics solution should have validated electronic audit trails that record information about each transaction, both for initial entries as well as modifications to entries.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578-18_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-18-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>CJIS Security Policy: \"...shall produce, at the application and\/or operating system level, audit records containing sufficient information to establish what events occurred, the sources of the events, and the outcomes of the events\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CJISSec20_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CJISSec20-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>E.U. Commission Directive 2003\/94\/EC: \"... and audit trails shall be maintained\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OJEU2003_94_EC_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OJEU2003_94_EC-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189\" title=\"ISO 15189\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2\">ISO 15189<\/a>: \"Ensures the integrity of the data and information and includes the recording of system failures and the appropriate immediate and corrective actions\" and is \"in compliance with national or international requirements regarding data protection\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO15189_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO15189-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>NIST SP 800-53 Rev. 5: \"Ensure that audit records contain information that establishes\" a variety of \"indicators of event success or failure\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NIST800-53Rev5_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NIST800-53Rev5-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120415010047\/http:\/\/www.cnss.gov\/Assets\/pdf\/cnssi_4009.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"National Information Assurance (IA) Glossary\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Committee on National Security Systems.&#32;26 April 2010.&#32;pp. 4.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cnss.gov\/Assets\/pdf\/cnssi_4009.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 15 April 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120415010047\/http:\/\/www.cnss.gov\/Assets\/pdf\/cnssi_4009.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120415010047\/http:\/\/www.cnss.gov\/Assets\/pdf\/cnssi_4009.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=National+Information+Assurance+%28IA%29+Glossary&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=26+April+2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.+4&amp;rft.pub=Committee+on+National+Security+Systems&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120415010047%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnss.gov%2FAssets%2Fpdf%2Fcnssi_4009.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Audit_trail\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130313232104\/https:\/\/www.atis.org\/glossary\/definition.aspx?id=5572\" target=\"_blank\">\"ATIS Telecom Glossary 2012 - audit trail\"<\/a>.&#32;ATIS Committee PRQC.&#32;2012.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.atis.org\/glossary\/definition.aspx?id=5572\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 13 March 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130313232104\/https:\/\/www.atis.org\/glossary\/definition.aspx?id=5572\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130313232104\/https:\/\/www.atis.org\/glossary\/definition.aspx?id=5572<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ATIS+Telecom+Glossary+2012+-+audit+trail&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.pub=ATIS+Committee+PRQC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130313232104%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.atis.org%2Fglossary%2Fdefinition.aspx%3Fid%3D5572&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Audit_trail\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NISTAuditTrail-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NISTAuditTrail_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/csrc\/media\/publications\/shared\/documents\/itl-bulletin\/itlbul1997-03.txt\" target=\"_blank\">\"Audit Trails\"<\/a>&#32;(TXT).&#32;National Institute for Standardization.&#32;March 1997<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/csrc\/media\/publications\/shared\/documents\/itl-bulletin\/itlbul1997-03.txt\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/csrc\/media\/publications\/shared\/documents\/itl-bulletin\/itlbul1997-03.txt<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Audit+Trails&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=March+1997&amp;rft.pub=National+Institute+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcsrc.nist.gov%2Fcsrc%2Fmedia%2Fpublications%2Fshared%2Fdocuments%2Fitl-bulletin%2Fitlbul1997-03.txt&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Audit_trail\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Brancik, Kenneth C.&#32;(2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=lsDngU-RUywC&hl\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Related Research in Insider Computer Fraud and Information Security Controls\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Insider computer fraud: an in-depth framework for detecting and defending against insider IT attacks<\/i>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;18\u201319.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1420046594<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=lsDngU-RUywC&hl\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=lsDngU-RUywC&amp;hl<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+Related+Research+in+Insider+Computer+Fraud+and+Information+Security+Controls&amp;rft.atitle=Insider+computer+fraud%3A+an+in-depth+framework+for+detecting+and+defending+against+insider+IT+attacks&amp;rft.aulast=Brancik%2C+Kenneth+C.&amp;rft.au=Brancik%2C+Kenneth+C.&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B18%E2%80%9319&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=1420046594&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlsDngU-RUywC%26hl&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Audit_trail\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDA21CFRPart211-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDA21CFRPart211_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=211\" target=\"_blank\">\"Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 Part 211 Current Good Manufacturing Practice for Finished Pharmaceuticals\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;1 October 2021<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=211\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=211<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" 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rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:262:0022:0026:en:PDF\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:262:0022:0026:en:PDF<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Commission+Directive+2003%2F94%2FED&amp;rft.atitle=Official+Journal+of+the+European+Union&amp;rft.date=8+October+2003&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feur-lex.europa.eu%2FLexUriServ%2FLexUriServ.do%3Furi%3DOJ%3AL%3A2003%3A262%3A0022%3A0026%3Aen%3APDF&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Audit_trail\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO15189-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO15189_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+15189%3A2012+Medical+laboratories+%E2%80%94+Requirements+for+quality+and+competence&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=November+2012&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F56115.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Audit_trail\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NIST800-53Rev5-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NIST800-53Rev5_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/SpecialPublications\/NIST.SP.800-53r5.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"NIST Special Publication 800-53 Revision 5: Security and Privacy Controls for Information Systems and Organizations\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;National Institute of Standards and Technology.&#32;September 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/SpecialPublications\/NIST.SP.800-53r5.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/SpecialPublications\/NIST.SP.800-53r5.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=NIST+Special+Publication+800-53+Revision+5%3A+Security+and+Privacy+Controls+for+Information+Systems+and+Organizations&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=September+2020&amp;rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnvlpubs.nist.gov%2Fnistpubs%2FSpecialPublications%2FNIST.SP.800-53r5.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Audit_trail\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171637\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.130 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.156 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6918\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 44625\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 19607\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 14420\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 131.826 1 -total\n100.00% 131.826 1 Template:Reflist\n 70.94% 93.522 10 Template:Citation\/core\n 60.41% 79.632 9 Template:Cite_web\n 21.32% 28.103 1 Template:Cite_book\n 14.50% 19.109 9 Template:Date\n 12.86% 16.951 1 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 6.14% 8.098 1 Template:Only_in_print\n 5.05% 6.654 14 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 2.68% 3.539 1 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0_images":[],"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0_timestamp":1704906997,"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_type":"article","ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_title":"Software as a service","ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service","ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_plaintext":"\n\nSoftware as a serviceFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search Software as a service (SaaS) is the topmost layer, most visible to the end user. Other on-demand services that are less visible to the end user include platform as a service (PaaS) and infrastructure as a service (IaaS).\nSoftware as a service (SaaS) \u2014 sometimes referred to as \"on-demand software\" \u2014 is a software delivery model in which software and its associated data are hosted centrally (on the cloud, for example) and are typically accessed by users using a thin client, normally using a web browser over the Internet. The customer subscribes to this \"service\" rather than requiring a software license, and the software doesn't require an implementation on customer premises.&#91;1&#93;&#91;2&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 Architecture \n2 Distribution \n3 Pricing \n4 Advantages and disadvantages \n5 Further reading \n6 References \n\n\n\nArchitecture \nA SaaS solution is typically a \"multi-tenant solution,\" meaning more than one entity is sharing the server and database resource(s) hosted by the vendor, though in the process potentially limiting customer customization. With this model, a single version of the application with a single configuration (hardware, network, operating system, etc.) is used for all customers. To support scalability, the application is installed on multiple machines.&#91;1&#93;&#91;2&#93; In some cases, a second version of the application may be set up to offer a select group of customers a separate instance of the software environment, better enabling customers to customize their configuration. (This could be accomplished with platform as a service (PaaS), for example.&#91;3&#93;) This is contrasted with traditional software, where multiple physical copies of the software \u2014 each potentially of a different version, with a potentially different configuration, and often customized \u2014 are installed across various customer sites.\nWhile an exception rather than the norm, some SaaS solutions do not use multi-tenancy, or use other mechanisms like virtualization to cost-effectively manage a large number of customers in place of multi-tenancy.&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93; Whether multi-tenancy is a necessary component for software as a service has been debated.&#91;6&#93;&#91;7&#93;\nSaaS can be approached from several angles. Vertical SaaS models typically involve software that is specific to an industry. An example of this would be the electronic health record (EHR) in the healthcare industry. Horizontal SaaS models address software that is not industry-specific but rather targets a job function that can be found in most industries. For example, an enterprise resource planning (ERP) solution could practically be used in most any business, regardless of industry.&#91;8&#93;\n\nDistribution \nThe SaaS delivery model doesn't require indirect physical distribution since it is deployed almost instantaneously across a digital network. The distribution of a SaaS product typically takes on the following steps&#91;9&#93;:\n\nHardware vendors provide equipment to hosting centers through direct sales or through their support contract and independent software vendor (ISV) hosting policies.\nHardware vendors then help ISVs migrate to the SaaS model and create marketing programs to find them new clients.\nSoftware publishers comprise a group dedicated to promoting offers and offering financial support.\nThe ecosystem of software publishers then influences customers to subscribe to the offered services and solutions.\nPricing \nUnlike traditional software which is conventionally sold as a perpetual license with an up-front cost (and an optional ongoing support fee), SaaS providers generally price applications using a subscription fee, most commonly a monthly fee or an annual fee. Consequently, the initial setup cost for SaaS is typically lower than the equivalent enterprise software. SaaS vendors typically price their applications based on some usage parameters, such as the number of users using the application. However, because in a SaaS environment customers' data reside with the SaaS vendor, opportunities also exist to charge per transaction, event, or other unit of value.&#91;1&#93;&#91;2&#93;\nThe relatively low cost for user provisioning (i.e., setting up a new customer) in a multi-tenant environment enables some SaaS vendors to offer applications using the freemium model. In this model, a free service is made available with limited functionality or scope, and fees are charged for enhanced functionality or larger scope. Some other SaaS applications are completely free to users, with revenue being derived from alternate sources such as advertising.&#91;10&#93;&#91;11&#93;\nA key driver of SaaS growth is SaaS vendors' ability to provide a price that is competitive with on-premises software. This is consistent with the traditional rationale for outsourcing IT systems, which involves applying economies of scale to application operation, i.e., an outside service provider may be able to offer better, cheaper, more reliable applications.&#91;1&#93;\n\nAdvantages and disadvantages \nAdvantages of the software as a service model include (but are not limited to)&#91;5&#93;&#91;2&#93;&#91;12&#93;:\n\nreduce or eliminate the need for an on-site data center\neliminate the need for application administration, freeing up resources for other activities\ncreates pay-on-demand flexibility\ncreates hardware and software scalability\noffers device-independent access to applications\nimprove disaster recovery and business continuity\nprovides cost savings via economies of scale\nadds more options to the pool of host providers due to economy of scale\nDisadvantages of this model include (but are not limited to)&#91;5&#93;&#91;2&#93;&#91;12&#93;:\n\ncontrol over the location of data may be limited to none\ncustomization of the application may be costly\nloss of in-house tech knowledge and skills a greater possibility\ndamages from outages more difficult for SaaS hosts to quantify\nlock-in to a specific host due to an increase in dependencies\ndata transfers may not be as quick and reliable as in-house options\nhidden costs in the form of transactions, performance, and security are more likely\nFurther reading \nMistrik, I.; Bahsoon, R.; Ali, N. et al., ed.&#32;(2017).&#32;Software Architecture for Big Data and the Cloud.&#32;Elsevier Science.&#32;pp.&#160;470.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780128054673.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NnBdMQAACAAJ . &#160; \nReferences \n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Bandulet, Friedrich; Faisst, Wolfgang; Eggs, Holger; Otyepka, Sarah; Wenzel, Stefan&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Chapter 2: Software-as-a-Service as Disruptive Innovation in the Enterprise Application Market\".&#32;Software-As-a-Service: Anbieterstrategien, Kundenbed\u00fcrfnisse und Wertsch\u00f6pfungsstrukturen.&#32;Springer DE.&#32;pp.&#160;15\u201329.&#32;ISBN&#160;383498731X.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AS6SH1-HOUQC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Jamsa, Kris&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Chapter 2: Software as a Service (SaaS)\".&#32;Cloud Computing.&#32;Jones &amp; Bartlett Publishers.&#32;pp.&#160;17\u201320.&#32;ISBN&#160;1449647391.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=msFk8DPZ7noC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Smoot, Stephen R.; Tan, Nam-Kee&#32;(2012).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Next-Generation IT Trends\".&#32;Private Cloud Computing: Consolidation, Virtualization, and Service-oriented Infrastructure.&#32;Elsevier.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201312.&#32;ISBN&#160;0123849195.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=IHsNCjtsvesC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wainewright, P.&#32;(19 October 2007).&#32;\"Workstream prefers virtualization to multi-tenancy\".&#32;ZDNet.&#32;CBS Interactive.&#32;https:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/article\/workstream-prefers-virtualization-to-multi-tenancy\/ .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 5.2 Buxmann, Peter; Diefenbach, Heiner; Hess, Thomas&#32;(2012).&#32;\"Chapter 6: Software as a Service: The Application Level of Cloud Computing\".&#32;The Software Industry: Economic Principles, Strategies, Perspectives.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;169\u2013189.&#32;ISBN&#160;3642315100.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=J9NzFC7NoxkC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Carraro, Gianpaolo&#32;(21 June 2008).&#32;\"I can't believe we are still talking about whether saas == multi-tenancy...\".&#32;Gianpaolo's Blog.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 01 February 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120201231553\/http:\/\/blogs.msdn.com\/b\/gianpaolo\/archive\/2008\/06\/20\/i-can-t-believe-we-are-still-talking-about-whether-saas-multi-tenancy.aspx .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Cummings, D.&#32;(21 September 2011).&#32;\"Multi-Tenant SaaS and Virtualization are Two Different Things\".&#32;David Cummings on Startups.&#32;https:\/\/davidcummings.org\/2011\/09\/21\/multi-tenant-saas-and-virtualization-are-two-different-things\/ .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Vouillon, C.&#32;(6 January 2016).&#32;\"7 Trends that Will Shape the SaaS Industry in 2016\".&#32;Medium.&#32;https:\/\/medium.com\/point-nine-news\/7-trends-that-will-shape-the-saas-industry-in-2016-3bf367d898cc .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The year of Cloud adoption by the Channel\".&#32;compuBase.&#32;14 January 2013.&#32;https:\/\/en.compubase.net\/The-year-of-Cloud-adoption-by-the-Channel_a188.html .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Maltz, J.&#32;(20 February 2011).&#32;\"If you like SaaS, try Freemium!\".&#32;Jules Maltz.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 09 March 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160309071857\/http:\/\/www.julesmaltz.com\/post\/3376586698\/if-you-like-saas-try-freemium .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Lunn, B.&#32;(20 January 2010).&#32;\"Study: SaaS Pricing Is Still Opaque And Freemium Is Rare\".&#32;Say Media Inc.&#32;https:\/\/readwrite.com\/2010\/01\/20\/analysis-saas-pricing-is-still\/ .&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 12.0 12.1 Hall, Patrick A. V.; Fernandez-Ramil, Juan; Ramil, Juan Carlos Fern\u00e1ndez&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Chapter 6: Software acquisition\".&#32;Managing the Software Enterprise: Software Engineering and Information Systems in Context.&#32;Cengage Learning EMEA.&#32;pp.&#160;149\u2013151.&#32;ISBN&#160;1844803546.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-40jULoIh0MC . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service<\/a>\nCategory: Cloud computingNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 September 2022, at 21:12.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 40,221 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Software_as_a_service rootpage-Software_as_a_service skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Software as a service<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:382px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"42786490b31d2852362dea8380ebc4d0\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/8\/8e\/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"380\" height=\"285\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"42786490b31d2852362dea8380ebc4d0\"><\/a><\/div>Software as a service (SaaS) is the topmost layer, most visible to the end user. Other on-demand services that are less visible to the end user include platform as a service (PaaS) and infrastructure as a service (IaaS).<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Software as a service<\/b> (<b>SaaS<\/b>) \u2014 sometimes referred to as \"on-demand software\" \u2014 is a software delivery model in which software and its associated data are hosted centrally (on the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f\">cloud<\/a>, for example) and are typically accessed by users using a thin client, normally using a web browser over the Internet. The customer subscribes to this \"service\" rather than requiring a software license, and the software doesn't require an implementation on customer premises.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaaSGermanBook-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudCompJamsa-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Architecture\">Architecture<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A SaaS solution is typically a \"multi-tenant solution,\" meaning more than one entity is sharing the server and database resource(s) hosted by the vendor, though in the process potentially limiting customer customization. With this model, a single version of the application with a single configuration (hardware, network, operating system, etc.) is used for all customers. To support scalability, the application is installed on multiple machines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaaSGermanBook-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudCompJamsa-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In some cases, a second version of the application may be set up to offer a select group of customers a separate instance of the software environment, better enabling customers to customize their configuration. (This could be accomplished with platform as a service (PaaS), for example.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCCSmoot_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCCSmoot-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>) This is contrasted with traditional software, where multiple physical copies of the software \u2014 each potentially of a different version, with a potentially different configuration, and often customized \u2014 are installed across various customer sites.\n<\/p><p>While an exception rather than the norm, some SaaS solutions do not use multi-tenancy, or use other mechanisms like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Virtualization\" title=\"Virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6ef1e0497ceb6545c0948d436eba29c\">virtualization<\/a> to cost-effectively manage a large number of customers in place of multi-tenancy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ZDVirt_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ZDVirt-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SoftIndBux_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SoftIndBux-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Whether multi-tenancy is a necessary component for software as a service has been debated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaaSMultiGian_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaaSMultiGian-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaaSVirt_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaaSVirt-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>SaaS can be approached from several angles. Vertical SaaS models typically involve software that is specific to an industry. An example of this would be the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_health_record\" title=\"Electronic health record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255\">electronic health record<\/a> (EHR) in the healthcare industry. Horizontal SaaS models address software that is not industry-specific but rather targets a job function that can be found in most industries. For example, an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Enterprise_resource_planning\" title=\"Enterprise resource planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b\">enterprise resource planning<\/a> (ERP) solution could practically be used in most any business, regardless of industry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VouillonSeven16_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VouillonSeven16-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Distribution\">Distribution<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The SaaS delivery model doesn't require indirect physical distribution since it is deployed almost instantaneously across a digital network. The distribution of a SaaS product typically takes on the following steps<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CompBaseCloudAdopt_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CompBaseCloudAdopt-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Hardware vendors provide equipment to hosting centers through direct sales or through their support contract and independent software vendor (ISV) hosting policies.<\/li>\n<li>Hardware vendors then help ISVs migrate to the SaaS model and create marketing programs to find them new clients.<\/li>\n<li>Software publishers comprise a group dedicated to promoting offers and offering financial support.<\/li>\n<li>The ecosystem of software publishers then influences customers to subscribe to the offered services and solutions.<\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Pricing\">Pricing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Unlike traditional software which is conventionally sold as a perpetual license with an up-front cost (and an optional ongoing support fee), SaaS providers generally price applications using a subscription fee, most commonly a monthly fee or an annual fee. Consequently, the initial setup cost for SaaS is typically lower than the equivalent enterprise software. SaaS vendors typically price their applications based on some usage parameters, such as the number of users using the application. However, because in a SaaS environment customers' data reside with the SaaS vendor, opportunities also exist to charge per transaction, event, or other unit of value.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaaSGermanBook-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudCompJamsa-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The relatively low cost for user provisioning (i.e., setting up a new customer) in a multi-tenant environment enables some SaaS vendors to offer applications using the freemium model. In this model, a free service is made available with limited functionality or scope, and fees are charged for enhanced functionality or larger scope. Some other SaaS applications are completely free to users, with revenue being derived from alternate sources such as advertising.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BetterLateFreemium_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BetterLateFreemium-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RWStudy_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RWStudy-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A key driver of SaaS growth is SaaS vendors' ability to provide a price that is competitive with on-premises software. This is consistent with the traditional rationale for outsourcing IT systems, which involves applying economies of scale to application operation, i.e., an outside service provider may be able to offer better, cheaper, more reliable applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaaSGermanBook-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Advantages_and_disadvantages\">Advantages and disadvantages<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Advantages of the software as a service model include (but are not limited to)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SoftIndBux_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SoftIndBux-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudCompJamsa-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SoftEntHall_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SoftEntHall-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>reduce or eliminate the need for an on-site <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_center\" title=\"Data center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f5f939040d714745138ee295af8be71\">data center<\/a><\/li>\n<li>eliminate the need for application administration, freeing up resources for other activities<\/li>\n<li>creates pay-on-demand flexibility<\/li>\n<li>creates hardware and software scalability<\/li>\n<li>offers device-independent access to applications<\/li>\n<li>improve disaster recovery and business continuity<\/li>\n<li>provides cost savings via economies of scale<\/li>\n<li>adds more options to the pool of host providers due to economy of scale<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Disadvantages of this model include (but are not limited to)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SoftIndBux_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SoftIndBux-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudCompJamsa-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SoftEntHall_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SoftEntHall-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>control over the location of data may be limited to none<\/li>\n<li>customization of the application may be costly<\/li>\n<li>loss of in-house tech knowledge and skills a greater possibility<\/li>\n<li>damages from outages more difficult for SaaS hosts to quantify<\/li>\n<li>lock-in to a specific host due to an increase in dependencies<\/li>\n<li>data transfers may not be as quick and reliable as in-house options<\/li>\n<li>hidden costs in the form of transactions, performance, and security are more likely<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Mistrik, I.; Bahsoon, R.; Ali, N. et al., ed.&#32;(2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NnBdMQAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Software Architecture for Big Data and the Cloud<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Elsevier Science.&#32;pp.&#160;470.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780128054673<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NnBdMQAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NnBdMQAACAAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Software+Architecture+for+Big+Data+and+the+Cloud&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B470&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier+Science&amp;rft.isbn=9780128054673&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNnBdMQAACAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-SaaSGermanBook-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-3\">1.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Bandulet, Friedrich; Faisst, Wolfgang; Eggs, Holger; Otyepka, Sarah; Wenzel, Stefan&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AS6SH1-HOUQC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Software-as-a-Service as Disruptive Innovation in the Enterprise Application Market\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Software-As-a-Service: Anbieterstrategien, Kundenbed\u00fcrfnisse und Wertsch\u00f6pfungsstrukturen<\/i>.&#32;Springer DE.&#32;pp.&#160;15\u201329.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;383498731X<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AS6SH1-HOUQC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AS6SH1-HOUQC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+Software-as-a-Service+as+Disruptive+Innovation+in+the+Enterprise+Application+Market&amp;rft.atitle=Software-As-a-Service%3A+Anbieterstrategien%2C+Kundenbed%C3%BCrfnisse+und+Wertsch%C3%B6pfungsstrukturen&amp;rft.aulast=Bandulet%2C+Friedrich%3B+Faisst%2C+Wolfgang%3B+Eggs%2C+Holger%3B+Otyepka%2C+Sarah%3B+Wenzel%2C+Stefan&amp;rft.au=Bandulet%2C+Friedrich%3B+Faisst%2C+Wolfgang%3B+Eggs%2C+Holger%3B+Otyepka%2C+Sarah%3B+Wenzel%2C+Stefan&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B15%E2%80%9329&amp;rft.pub=Springer+DE&amp;rft.isbn=383498731X&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAS6SH1-HOUQC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CloudCompJamsa-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-4\">2.4<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Jamsa, Kris&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=msFk8DPZ7noC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Software as a Service (SaaS)\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Cloud Computing<\/i>.&#32;Jones &amp; Bartlett Publishers.&#32;pp.&#160;17\u201320.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1449647391<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=msFk8DPZ7noC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=msFk8DPZ7noC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+Software+as+a+Service+%28SaaS%29&amp;rft.atitle=Cloud+Computing&amp;rft.aulast=Jamsa%2C+Kris&amp;rft.au=Jamsa%2C+Kris&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B17%E2%80%9320&amp;rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Publishers&amp;rft.isbn=1449647391&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmsFk8DPZ7noC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PCCSmoot-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PCCSmoot_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Smoot, Stephen R.; Tan, Nam-Kee&#32;(2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=IHsNCjtsvesC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Next-Generation IT Trends\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Private Cloud Computing: Consolidation, Virtualization, and Service-oriented Infrastructure<\/i>.&#32;Elsevier.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201312.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0123849195<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=IHsNCjtsvesC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=IHsNCjtsvesC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Next-Generation+IT+Trends&amp;rft.atitle=Private+Cloud+Computing%3A+Consolidation%2C+Virtualization%2C+and+Service-oriented+Infrastructure&amp;rft.aulast=Smoot%2C+Stephen+R.%3B+Tan%2C+Nam-Kee&amp;rft.au=Smoot%2C+Stephen+R.%3B+Tan%2C+Nam-Kee&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%9312&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.isbn=0123849195&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIHsNCjtsvesC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ZDVirt-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ZDVirt_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wainewright, P.&#32;(19 October 2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/article\/workstream-prefers-virtualization-to-multi-tenancy\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Workstream prefers virtualization to multi-tenancy\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ZDNet<\/i>.&#32;CBS Interactive<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/article\/workstream-prefers-virtualization-to-multi-tenancy\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/article\/workstream-prefers-virtualization-to-multi-tenancy\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Workstream+prefers+virtualization+to+multi-tenancy&amp;rft.atitle=ZDNet&amp;rft.aulast=Wainewright%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Wainewright%2C+P.&amp;rft.date=19+October+2007&amp;rft.pub=CBS+Interactive&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdnet.com%2Farticle%2Fworkstream-prefers-virtualization-to-multi-tenancy%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SoftIndBux-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoftIndBux_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoftIndBux_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoftIndBux_5-2\">5.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Buxmann, Peter; Diefenbach, Heiner; Hess, Thomas&#32;(2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=J9NzFC7NoxkC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 6: Software as a Service: The Application Level of Cloud Computing\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Software Industry: Economic Principles, Strategies, Perspectives<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;169\u2013189.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;3642315100<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=J9NzFC7NoxkC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=J9NzFC7NoxkC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+6%3A+Software+as+a+Service%3A+The+Application+Level+of+Cloud+Computing&amp;rft.atitle=The+Software+Industry%3A+Economic+Principles%2C+Strategies%2C+Perspectives&amp;rft.aulast=Buxmann%2C+Peter%3B+Diefenbach%2C+Heiner%3B+Hess%2C+Thomas&amp;rft.au=Buxmann%2C+Peter%3B+Diefenbach%2C+Heiner%3B+Hess%2C+Thomas&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B169%E2%80%93189&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=3642315100&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ9NzFC7NoxkC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SaaSMultiGian-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaaSMultiGian_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Carraro, Gianpaolo&#32;(21 June 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120201231553\/http:\/\/blogs.msdn.com\/b\/gianpaolo\/archive\/2008\/06\/20\/i-can-t-believe-we-are-still-talking-about-whether-saas-multi-tenancy.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"I can't believe we are still talking about whether saas == multi-tenancy...\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Gianpaolo's Blog<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blogs.msdn.com\/b\/gianpaolo\/archive\/2008\/06\/20\/i-can-t-believe-we-are-still-talking-about-whether-saas-multi-tenancy.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 01 February 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120201231553\/http:\/\/blogs.msdn.com\/b\/gianpaolo\/archive\/2008\/06\/20\/i-can-t-believe-we-are-still-talking-about-whether-saas-multi-tenancy.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120201231553\/http:\/\/blogs.msdn.com\/b\/gianpaolo\/archive\/2008\/06\/20\/i-can-t-believe-we-are-still-talking-about-whether-saas-multi-tenancy.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=I+can%27t+believe+we+are+still+talking+about+whether+saas+%3D%3D+multi-tenancy...&amp;rft.atitle=Gianpaolo%27s+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Carraro%2C+Gianpaolo&amp;rft.au=Carraro%2C+Gianpaolo&amp;rft.date=21+June+2008&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120201231553%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fblogs.msdn.com%2Fb%2Fgianpaolo%2Farchive%2F2008%2F06%2F20%2Fi-can-t-believe-we-are-still-talking-about-whether-saas-multi-tenancy.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SaaSVirt-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaaSVirt_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Cummings, D.&#32;(21 September 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/davidcummings.org\/2011\/09\/21\/multi-tenant-saas-and-virtualization-are-two-different-things\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Multi-Tenant SaaS and Virtualization are Two Different Things\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>David Cummings on Startups<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/davidcummings.org\/2011\/09\/21\/multi-tenant-saas-and-virtualization-are-two-different-things\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/davidcummings.org\/2011\/09\/21\/multi-tenant-saas-and-virtualization-are-two-different-things\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Multi-Tenant+SaaS+and+Virtualization+are+Two+Different+Things&amp;rft.atitle=David+Cummings+on+Startups&amp;rft.aulast=Cummings%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Cummings%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=21+September+2011&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdavidcummings.org%2F2011%2F09%2F21%2Fmulti-tenant-saas-and-virtualization-are-two-different-things%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VouillonSeven16-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-VouillonSeven16_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Vouillon, C.&#32;(6 January 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/medium.com\/point-nine-news\/7-trends-that-will-shape-the-saas-industry-in-2016-3bf367d898cc\" target=\"_blank\">\"7 Trends that Will Shape the SaaS Industry in 2016\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Medium<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/medium.com\/point-nine-news\/7-trends-that-will-shape-the-saas-industry-in-2016-3bf367d898cc\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/medium.com\/point-nine-news\/7-trends-that-will-shape-the-saas-industry-in-2016-3bf367d898cc<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=7+Trends+that+Will+Shape+the+SaaS+Industry+in+2016&amp;rft.atitle=Medium&amp;rft.aulast=Vouillon%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Vouillon%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=6+January+2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedium.com%2Fpoint-nine-news%2F7-trends-that-will-shape-the-saas-industry-in-2016-3bf367d898cc&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CompBaseCloudAdopt-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CompBaseCloudAdopt_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/en.compubase.net\/The-year-of-Cloud-adoption-by-the-Channel_a188.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The year of Cloud adoption by the Channel\"<\/a>.&#32;compuBase.&#32;14 January 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/en.compubase.net\/The-year-of-Cloud-adoption-by-the-Channel_a188.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/en.compubase.net\/The-year-of-Cloud-adoption-by-the-Channel_a188.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+year+of+Cloud+adoption+by+the+Channel&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=14+January+2013&amp;rft.pub=compuBase&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.compubase.net%2FThe-year-of-Cloud-adoption-by-the-Channel_a188.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BetterLateFreemium-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BetterLateFreemium_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Maltz, J.&#32;(20 February 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160309071857\/http:\/\/www.julesmaltz.com\/post\/3376586698\/if-you-like-saas-try-freemium\" target=\"_blank\">\"If you like SaaS, try Freemium!\"<\/a>.&#32;Jules Maltz.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.julesmaltz.com\/post\/3376586698\/if-you-like-saas-try-freemium\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 09 March 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160309071857\/http:\/\/www.julesmaltz.com\/post\/3376586698\/if-you-like-saas-try-freemium\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160309071857\/http:\/\/www.julesmaltz.com\/post\/3376586698\/if-you-like-saas-try-freemium<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=If+you+like+SaaS%2C+try+Freemium%21&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Maltz%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Maltz%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=20+February+2011&amp;rft.pub=Jules+Maltz&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160309071857%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.julesmaltz.com%2Fpost%2F3376586698%2Fif-you-like-saas-try-freemium&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RWStudy-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RWStudy_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Lunn, B.&#32;(20 January 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/readwrite.com\/2010\/01\/20\/analysis-saas-pricing-is-still\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Study: SaaS Pricing Is Still Opaque And Freemium Is Rare\"<\/a>.&#32;Say Media Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/readwrite.com\/2010\/01\/20\/analysis-saas-pricing-is-still\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/readwrite.com\/2010\/01\/20\/analysis-saas-pricing-is-still\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Study%3A+SaaS+Pricing+Is+Still+Opaque+And+Freemium+Is+Rare&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Lunn%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Lunn%2C+B.&amp;rft.date=20+January+2010&amp;rft.pub=Say+Media+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freadwrite.com%2F2010%2F01%2F20%2Fanalysis-saas-pricing-is-still%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SoftEntHall-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoftEntHall_12-0\">12.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoftEntHall_12-1\">12.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Hall, Patrick A. V.; Fernandez-Ramil, Juan; Ramil, Juan Carlos Fern\u00e1ndez&#32;(2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-40jULoIh0MC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 6: Software acquisition\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Managing the Software Enterprise: Software Engineering and Information Systems in Context<\/i>.&#32;Cengage Learning EMEA.&#32;pp.&#160;149\u2013151.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1844803546<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-40jULoIh0MC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-40jULoIh0MC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+6%3A+Software+acquisition&amp;rft.atitle=Managing+the+Software+Enterprise%3A+Software+Engineering+and+Information+Systems+in+Context&amp;rft.aulast=Hall%2C+Patrick+A.+V.%3B+Fernandez-Ramil%2C+Juan%3B+Ramil%2C+Juan+Carlos+Fern%C3%A1ndez&amp;rft.au=Hall%2C+Patrick+A.+V.%3B+Fernandez-Ramil%2C+Juan%3B+Ramil%2C+Juan+Carlos+Fern%C3%A1ndez&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B149%E2%80%93151&amp;rft.pub=Cengage+Learning+EMEA&amp;rft.isbn=1844803546&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-40jULoIh0MC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171636\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.238 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.281 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 9420\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 69169\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 30628\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 17\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 22252\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 121.848 1 -total\n 82.62% 100.677 13 Template:Citation\/core\n 46.82% 57.054 6 Template:Cite_book\n 46.51% 56.672 7 Template:Cite_web\n 12.60% 15.353 7 Template:Date\n 9.08% 11.067 6 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 7.11% 8.658 24 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 2.78% 3.384 6 Template:Only_in_print\n 2.62% 3.188 12 Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3304-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171636 and revision id 49381. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/8\/8e\/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg"],"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_timestamp":1704906996,"b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_type":"article","b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_title":"Scientific instrument","b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_instrument","b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_plaintext":"\n\nScientific instrumentFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchDevice or tool used for scientific purposes\nFor broader coverage of this topic, see Equipment.\nA scientific instrument is a device or tool used for scientific purposes, including the study of both natural phenomena and theoretical research.[1]\n\n\n\nHistory \nHistorically, the definition of a scientific instrument has varied, based on usage, laws, and historical time period.[1][2][3] Before the mid-nineteenth century such tools were referred to as \"natural philosophical\" or \"philosophical\" apparatus and instruments, and older tools from antiquity to the Middle Ages (such as the astrolabe and pendulum clock) defy a more modern definition of \"a tool developed to investigate nature qualitatively or quantitatively.\"[1][3] Scientific instruments were made by instrument makers living near a center of learning or research, such as a university or research laboratory. Instrument makers designed, constructed, and refined instruments for purposes, but if demand was sufficient, an instrument would go into production as a commercial product.[4][5]\nIn a description of the use of the eudiometer by Jan Ingenhousz to show photosynthesis, a biographer observed, \"The history of the use and evolution of this instrument helps to show that science is not just a theoretical endeavor but equally an activity grounded on an instrumental basis, which is a cocktail of instruments and techniques wrapped in a social setting within a community of practitioners. The eudiometer has been shown to be one of the elements in this mix that kept a whole community of researchers together, even while they were at odds about the significance and the proper use of the thing.\"[6]\nBy World War II, the demand for improved analyses of wartime products such as medicines, fuels, and weaponized agents pushed instrumentation to new heights.[7] Today, changes to instruments used in scientific endeavors \u2014 particularly analytical instruments \u2014 are occurring rapidly, with interconnections to computers and data management systems becoming increasingly necessary.[8][9]\n\nScope \nScientific instruments vary greatly in size, shape, purpose, complication and complexity. They include relatively simple laboratory equipment like scales, rulers, chronometers, thermometers, etc. Other simple tools developed in the late 20th century or early 21st century are the Foldscope (an optical microscope), the SCALE(KAS Periodic Table),[10] the MasSpec Pen (a pen that detects cancer), the glucose meter, etc. However, some scientific instruments can be quite large in size and significant in complexity, like particle colliders or radio-telescope antennas. Conversely, microscale and nanoscale technologies are advancing to the point where instrument sizes are shifting towards the tiny, including nanoscale surgical instruments, biological nanobots, and bioelectronics.[11][12]\n\nThe digital era \nInstruments are increasingly based upon integration with computers to improve and simplify control; enhance and extend instrumental functions, conditions, and parameter adjustments; and streamline data sampling, collection, resolution, analysis (both during and post-process), and storage and retrieval. Advanced instruments can be connected as a local area network (LAN) directly or via middleware and can be further integrated as part of an information management application such as a laboratory information management system (LIMS).[13][14] Instrument connectivity can be furthered even more using internet of things (IoT) technologies, allowing for example laboratories separated by great distances to connect their instruments to a network that can be monitored from a workstation or mobile device elsewhere.[15]\n\nExamples of scientific instruments \nFor lists of astronomical instruments, see List of telescope types and List of astronomical interferometers at visible and infrared wavelengths.\n\nAccelerometer, physical, acceleration\nAmmeter, electrical, amperage, current\nAnemometer, wind speed\nCaliper, distance\nCalorimeter, heat\nDNA sequencer, molecular biology\nDynamometer, torque\/force\nElectrometer, electric charge, potential difference\nElectroscope, electric charge\nElectrostatic analyzer, kinetic energy of charged particles\nEllipsometer, optical refractive indices\nEudiometer, gas volume\nGravimeter, gravity\nHydrometer\nInclinometer, slope\nInterferometer, optics, infrared light spectra\nMagnetic tweezers, biomolecular manipulation\nMagnetograph, magnetic field\nMagnetometer, magnetic flux\nManometer, air pressure\nMass spectrometer, compound identification\/characterization\nMicrometer, distance\nMicroscope, optical magnification\nNMR spectrometer, chemical compound identification, medical diagnostic imaging\nOhmmeter, electrical resistance\/impedance\nOptical tweezers, nanoscale manipulation\nOscilloscope, electric signal voltage, amplitude, wavelength, frequency, waveform shape\/pattern\nSeismometer, acceleration\nSpectrogram, sound frequency, wavelength, amplitude\nSpectrometer, light frequency, wavelength, amplitude\nTelescope, light magnification (astronomy)\nThermometer, temperature measurement\nTheodolite, angles, surveying\nThermocouple, temperature\nVoltmeter, voltage\nList of scientific instruments manufacturers \n\n454 Life Sciences, United States of America\nADInstruments, New Zealand\nAgilent Technologies, United States of America\nAnton Paar, Austria\nA. Reyrolle &amp; Company\nBeckman Coulter, United States of America\nBruker, United States of America\nCambridge Scientific Instrument Company, United Kingdom\nElementar, Germany\nHoriba, Japan\nJEOL, Japan\nLECO Corporation, United States of America\nMarkes International, United Kingdom\nMalvern Instruments, United Kingdom\nMcPherson Inc, United States of America\nMettler Toledo, Switzerland \/ United States of America\nMTS Systems Corporation, US, mechanical\nNovacam Technologies, Canada\nOxford Instruments, United Kingdom\nPall Corp., United States of America\nPerkinElmer, United States of America\nPolymer Char, Spain\nShimadzu Corp., Japan\nTechtron, Melbourne, Australia\nThermo Fisher Scientific, United States of America\nWaters Corporation, United States of America\nList of scientific instruments designers \nSee also: List of astronomical instrument makers, Category:Scientific instrument makers, and Worshipful Company of Scientific Instrument Makers\nJones, William\nKipp, Petrus Jacobus\nLe Bon, Gustave\nRoelofs, Arjen\nSch\u00f6ner, Johannes\nVon Reichenbach, Georg Friedrich\nHistory of scientific instruments \nMuseums \nCollection of Historical Scientific Instruments (CHSI)\nBoerhaave Museum\nChemical Heritage Foundation\nDeutsches Museum\nRoyal Victoria Gallery for the Encouragement of Practical Science\nWhipple Museum of the History of Science\nHistoriography \nPaul Bunge Prize[16]\nTypes of scientific instruments \nOptical instrument\nElectronic test equipment\nSee also \nInstrumentation\nInstrumentalism, a philosophic theory\nList of collectibles\n The dictionary definition of -tron at Wiktionary, a suffix to denote a complex scientific instrument, like in cyclotron, phytotron, synchrotron, ...\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c Hessenbruch, Arne (2013). Reader's Guide to the History of Science. Taylor &amp; Francis. pp.&#160;675\u201377. ISBN&#160;9781134263011. \n\n^ Warner, Deborah Jean (March 1990). \"What Is a Scientific Instrument, When Did It Become One, and Why?\". The British Journal for the History of Science. 23 (1): 83\u201393. doi:10.1017\/S0007087400044460. JSTOR&#160;4026803. S2CID&#160;145517920. \n\n^ a b \"United States v. Presbyterian Hospital\". The Federal Reporter. 71: 866\u2013868. 1896. \n\n^ Turner, A.J. (1987). Early Scientific Instruments: Europe, 1400-1800. Phillip Wilson Publishers. \n\n^ Bedini, S.A. (1964). Early American Scientific Instruments and Their Makers. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 18 January 2017 . \n\n^ Geerdt Magiels (2009) From Sunlight to Insight. Jan IngenHousz, the discovery of photosynthesis &amp; science in the light of ecology, page 231, VUB Press ISBN&#160;978-90-5487-645-8 \n\n^ Mukhopadhyay, R. (2008). \"The Rise of Instruments during World War II\". Analytical Chemistry. 80 (15): 5684\u20135691. doi:10.1021\/ac801205u. PMID&#160;18671339. \n\n^ McMahon, G. (2007). Analytical Instrumentation: A Guide to Laboratory, Portable and Miniaturized Instruments. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;1\u20136. ISBN&#160;9780470518557. \n\n^ Khandpur, R.S. (2016). Handbook of Analytical Instruments. McGraw Hill Education. ISBN&#160;9789339221362. \n\n^ Shadab,K.A. (2017). \"KAS PERIODIC TABLE\". International Research Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences. 4 (7): 221\u2013261. \n\n^ Osiander, R. (2016). Darrin, M.A.G.; Barth, J.L. (eds.). Systems Engineering for Microscale and Nanoscale Technologies. CRC Press. pp.&#160;137\u2013172. ISBN&#160;9781439837351. \n\n^ James, W.S.; Lemole Jr, G.M. (2015). Latifi, R.; Rhee, P.; Gruessner, R.W.G. (eds.). Technological Advances in Surgery, Trauma and Critical Care. Springer. pp.&#160;221\u2013230. ISBN&#160;9781493926718. \n\n^ Wilkes, R.; Megargle, R. (1994). \"Integration of instruments and a laboratory information management system at the information level: An inductively coupled plasma spectrometer\". Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems. 26 (1): 47\u201354. doi:10.1016\/0169-7439(94)90018-3. \n\n^ Carvalho, M.C. (2013). \"Integration of Analytical Instruments with Computer Scripting\". Journal of Laboratory Automation. 18 (4): 328\u201333. doi:10.1177\/2211068213476288 . PMID&#160;23413273. \n\n^ Perkel, J.M. (2017). \"The Internet of Things comes to the lab\". Nature. 542 (7639): 125\u2013126. Bibcode:2017Natur.542..125P. doi:10.1038\/542125a . PMID&#160;28150787. \n\n^ Charlotte Bigg &amp; Christoph Meinel (eds.), Paul Bunge Prize: History of Scientific Instruments, 1993-2023 (Frankfurt\/Main: GDCh &amp; DBG, 2023), 96 pp. \n\n\nPortals: &#160;History &#160;Medicine &#160;Museums &#160;Physics &#160;Astronomy &#160;Stars &#160;Society &#160;Science\nAuthority control databases: National \nSpain \nFrance \nBnF data \nGermany \nIsrael \nUnited States \nLatvia \nCzech Republic \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_instrument\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_instrument<\/a>\nCategory: Laboratory equipmentHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 26 January 2018, at 01:30.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,524 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Scientific_instrument rootpage-Scientific_instrument skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Scientific instrument<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Device or tool used for scientific purposes<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Equipment\" title=\"Equipment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67d05f23a8b2eb87b42a56a827a6a9ef\">Equipment<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p>A <b>scientific instrument<\/b> is a device or tool used for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Scientific\" data-key=\"43668d2dcc2e1c5a2bfef3175e6068ce\">scientific<\/a> purposes, including the study of both natural phenomena and theoretical research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HackmannReaders13_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HackmannReaders13-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Historically, the definition of a scientific instrument has varied, based on usage, laws, and historical time period.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HackmannReaders13_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HackmannReaders13-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Warner_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Warner-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FR71USvsPresb_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FR71USvsPresb-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Before the mid-nineteenth <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/successstudy92.blogspot.com\/2020\/07\/important-scientific-instruments.html\" target=\"_blank\">century<\/a> such tools were referred to as \"natural philosophical\" or \"philosophical\" apparatus and instruments, and older tools from antiquity to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Middle_Ages\" title=\"Middle Ages\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38ee5a07640d34ba4f8a920b2a7a8b2b\">Middle Ages<\/a> (such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Astrolabe\" title=\"Astrolabe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a0bde05ad9e11aa013d81c50ce73f4e\">astrolabe<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pendulum_clock\" title=\"Pendulum clock\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"80c37279f39d49fe6daacb4574f20f0f\">pendulum clock<\/a>) defy a more modern definition of \"a tool developed to investigate nature qualitatively or quantitatively.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HackmannReaders13_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HackmannReaders13-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FR71USvsPresb_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FR71USvsPresb-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Scientific instruments were made by instrument makers living near a center of learning or research, such as a university or research <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8210956018cb8099c02d4932922f49c\">laboratory<\/a>. Instrument makers designed, constructed, and refined instruments for purposes, but if demand was sufficient, an instrument would go into production as a commercial product.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TurnerEarly87_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TurnerEarly87-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BediniEarly64_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BediniEarly64-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In a description of the use of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eudiometer\" title=\"Eudiometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a42b4e076d2150a15e66a043e38cebbd\">eudiometer<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jan_Ingenhousz\" title=\"Jan Ingenhousz\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5df3294ba72abed63fc1a83e0fe90c8e\">Jan Ingenhousz<\/a> to show <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Photosynthesis\" title=\"Photosynthesis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8265b3adcdde26b060a1f1002684e01c\">photosynthesis<\/a>, a biographer observed, \"The history of the use and evolution of this instrument helps to show that science is not just a theoretical endeavor but equally an activity grounded on an instrumental basis, which is a cocktail of instruments and techniques wrapped in a social setting within a community of practitioners. The eudiometer has been shown to be one of the elements in this mix that kept a whole community of researchers together, even while they were at odds about the significance and the proper use of the thing.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By World War II, the demand for improved analyses of wartime products such as medicines, fuels, and weaponized agents pushed instrumentation to new heights.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MukhopadhyayTheRise08_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MukhopadhyayTheRise08-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Today, changes to instruments used in scientific endeavors \u2014 particularly analytical instruments \u2014 are occurring rapidly, with interconnections to computers and data management systems becoming increasingly necessary.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McMahonAnal07_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McMahonAnal07-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KhandpurHandbook15_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KhandpurHandbook15-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scope\">Scope<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Scientific instruments vary greatly in size, shape, purpose, complication and complexity. They include relatively simple <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory_equipment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Laboratory equipment\" data-key=\"a545eb62bdc41e52336092f5285e6cfb\">laboratory equipment<\/a> like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weighing_scale\" title=\"Weighing scale\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84c6b338ef45f5af402d12cf428189ff\">scales<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ruler\" title=\"Ruler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3bed331bd451e3c88b7d111f59b6563\">rulers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chronometer_watch\" title=\"Chronometer watch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c54b3eff6f4fd0acca5be4fafdc5e76\">chronometers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thermometer\" title=\"Thermometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e665602da4822cb692da35c21f3d3e61\">thermometers<\/a>, etc. Other simple tools developed in the late 20th century or early 21st century are the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Foldscope\" title=\"Foldscope\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73a57ee8afd21dc877860f565756b05f\">Foldscope<\/a> (an optical microscope), the SCALE(KAS Periodic Table),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShadabKAS17_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShadabKAS17-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MasSpec_Pen\" title=\"MasSpec Pen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03dd9427ac508f452855f63648281882\">MasSpec Pen<\/a> (a pen that detects cancer), the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glucose_meter\" title=\"Glucose meter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2c5a3d73cb6282c27f37fd5d9bf7bb\">glucose meter<\/a>, etc. However, some scientific instruments can be quite large in size and significant in complexity, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particle_collider\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Particle collider\" data-key=\"71a27fbdbb9154d683fa122a73bab5e1\">particle colliders<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio-telescope\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Radio-telescope\" data-key=\"8cd5b6c7e79e59106b68b9c7dd37e329\">radio-telescope<\/a> antennas. Conversely, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Micrometre\" title=\"Micrometre\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e2fa3aa34bde5106df8e782fb638ea5\">microscale<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nanoscopic_scale\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nanoscopic scale\" data-key=\"a6f333881a4631272050dd52d9772b9d\">nanoscale<\/a> technologies are advancing to the point where instrument sizes are shifting towards the tiny, including nanoscale <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surgical_instrument\" title=\"Surgical instrument\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"188a4a114a7fa2d0d08ca43ad4f4ff48\">surgical instruments<\/a>, biological <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nanorobotics\" title=\"Nanorobotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e467bbcd1988835f24d31b54f61b9d4\">nanobots<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioelectronics\" title=\"Bioelectronics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"abfb770c847e4228b84430ff8f763a7a\">bioelectronics<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OsianderMicro16_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OsianderMicro16-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JamesNeuron15_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JamesNeuron15-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_digital_era\">The digital era<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Instruments are increasingly based upon <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_integration\" title=\"System integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6418d682ca1c64236b013d57e27099f\">integration<\/a> with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer\" title=\"Computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90ce149db23a6fc17d1d225fac611846\">computers<\/a> to improve and simplify control; enhance and extend instrumental functions, conditions, and parameter adjustments; and streamline data sampling, collection, resolution, analysis (both during and post-process), and storage and retrieval. Advanced instruments can be connected as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_area_network\" title=\"Local area network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27704f795ba72a77fd1013022ee668e5\">local area network<\/a> (LAN) directly or via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Middleware\" title=\"Middleware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f72adff48045b293a94bb17385443861\">middleware<\/a> and can be further integrated as part of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_management\" title=\"Information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eb7b16b6cf9e903b35914f058a684c1\">information management<\/a> application such as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aeae8b5837c8036a820ad3734624b8d7\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilkesIntegration94solygtj_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilkesIntegration94solygtj-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CarvalhoIntegration13_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CarvalhoIntegration13-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Instrument connectivity can be furthered even more using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_things\" title=\"Internet of things\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08e522f905854fe34747cc25ffb62f63\">internet of things<\/a> (IoT) technologies, allowing for example laboratories separated by great distances to connect their instruments to a network that can be monitored from a workstation or mobile device elsewhere.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PerkelTheInternet17_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PerkelTheInternet17-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Examples_of_scientific_instruments\">Examples of scientific instruments<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For lists of astronomical instruments, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_telescope_types\" title=\"List of telescope types\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42c315f2f8f9bbb610dcc4a4b5d68389\">List of telescope types<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_astronomical_interferometers_at_visible_and_infrared_wavelengths\" title=\"List of astronomical interferometers at visible and infrared wavelengths\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30b16f35dc2efbbe7f52ef7b43b0bb3d\">List of astronomical interferometers at visible and infrared wavelengths<\/a>.<\/div>\n<div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accelerometer\" title=\"Accelerometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c60f2ac89c6f785bd81ce458a2d3eadb\">Accelerometer<\/a>, physical, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acceleration\" title=\"Acceleration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7faee235e1c7a3d7e564074d3403ed66\">acceleration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ammeter\" title=\"Ammeter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"904fb1b716566565861728ad7a82a954\">Ammeter<\/a>, electrical, amperage, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_current\" title=\"Electric current\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"314c152ee87f99ba1a5e170a7e02e8f2\">current<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anemometer\" title=\"Anemometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d6a9c1597b6df28b1be98f1d022ac2d\">Anemometer<\/a>, wind speed<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caliper\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Caliper\" data-key=\"6b30eb58d82a6b2375b4067c8a514d04\">Caliper<\/a>, distance<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Calorimeter\" title=\"Calorimeter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5819356dabe1edddad45cd6647163d5\">Calorimeter<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heat\" title=\"Heat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74ff76d67d097cbf98fdf3a6be243428\">heat<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_sequencer\" title=\"DNA sequencer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb4ddc3068cbc74c923778c69764accc\">DNA sequencer<\/a>, molecular biology<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamometer\" title=\"Dynamometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"907f608e6725ad86a4ebcb217bdb842a\">Dynamometer<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Torque\" title=\"Torque\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ffc431619ffbfa0e5fa0352bc11a66e\">torque<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Force\" title=\"Force\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"039770cb26ca6aeccdcb72ac74102b31\">force<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrometer\" title=\"Electrometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45cff67dd14bc8a1547c5154d59a6b9e\">Electrometer<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_charge\" title=\"Electric charge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e02685585f10f70986e95df2d5e5d206\">electric charge<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Potential_difference\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Potential difference\" data-key=\"766438dfd09928360f0d9e2662ed236d\">potential difference<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electroscope\" title=\"Electroscope\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"394d71de9bc1611e83a9db3ae04c3875\">Electroscope<\/a>, electric charge<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrostatic_analyzer\" title=\"Electrostatic analyzer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f8e4cb8cd10df84d1e4d52dd4766d78\">Electrostatic analyzer<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kinetic_energy\" title=\"Kinetic energy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0cf9128fd2c3eadb54ea4e9b3faba80\">kinetic energy<\/a> of charged particles<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ellipsometer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ellipsometer\" data-key=\"cef0c2906c22faadffe949275c1475dc\">Ellipsometer<\/a>, optical refractive indices<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eudiometer\" title=\"Eudiometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a42b4e076d2150a15e66a043e38cebbd\">Eudiometer<\/a>, gas volume<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gravimeter\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gravimeter\" data-key=\"133c9c989fd126ed0284eec56d0e9492\">Gravimeter<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gravity\" title=\"Gravity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258a60cbf84131348f6bf3649d79b6d6\">gravity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrometer\" title=\"Hydrometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cefafddcbe2e1fb329a4bd5656965c5f\">Hydrometer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inclinometer\" title=\"Inclinometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6a652ac01de96860394611d94c21251\">Inclinometer<\/a>, slope<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interferometer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Interferometer\" data-key=\"c442c24304030ffda4de8587d869ac48\">Interferometer<\/a>, optics, infrared light spectra<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetic_tweezers\" title=\"Magnetic tweezers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18fcc1f4b19a5a22af7066a54782f7cc\">Magnetic tweezers<\/a>, biomolecular manipulation<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetometer#Survey_magnetometers\" title=\"Magnetometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fde778b78042fdc91d8d3780edfa8816\">Magnetograph<\/a>, magnetic field<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetometer\" title=\"Magnetometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4cad1ee7e4e11d21b0aa2bc63dad891b\">Magnetometer<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetic_flux\" title=\"Magnetic flux\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92f998f64f5909c5354ceea19f0e0808\">magnetic flux<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manometer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Manometer\" data-key=\"1e1855b9d9715dafad652051671b5126\">Manometer<\/a>, air <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pressure\" title=\"Pressure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"927e5862a349eb8f643d5f409f40dc70\">pressure<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_spectrometer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mass spectrometer\" data-key=\"92652a507e590316ba70c3fa34a9cdac\">Mass spectrometer<\/a>, compound identification\/characterization<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Micrometer_(device)\" title=\"Micrometer (device)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b010d5d63d302c0c87a26fd681c0ee5\">Micrometer<\/a>, distance<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microscope\" title=\"Microscope\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"894c33fecd89ae95983a793a8774e8c6\">Microscope<\/a>, optical magnification<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NMR_spectrometer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NMR spectrometer\" data-key=\"17cf9d820edfcf5868ca9728baf94648\">NMR spectrometer<\/a>, chemical compound identification, medical diagnostic imaging<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ohmmeter\" title=\"Ohmmeter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"282e4d29bec184bb7540a6442b2e41d4\">Ohmmeter<\/a>, electrical resistance\/impedance<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_tweezers\" title=\"Optical tweezers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9dfb6bd731b1ed8697db9a2a93d89a72\">Optical tweezers<\/a>, nanoscale manipulation<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oscilloscope\" title=\"Oscilloscope\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e98736f9fc3582beb3336e4c1991355e\">Oscilloscope<\/a>, electric signal voltage, amplitude, wavelength, frequency, waveform shape\/pattern<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seismometer\" title=\"Seismometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b08da850bfade465dd1e20ac3845e25d\">Seismometer<\/a>, acceleration<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spectrogram\" title=\"Spectrogram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"037683018d29a687841d76f1095cf72e\">Spectrogram<\/a>, sound frequency, wavelength, amplitude<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spectrometer\" title=\"Spectrometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"407611832b25b9df32ec0a38d4bd7b62\">Spectrometer<\/a>, light frequency, wavelength, amplitude<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telescope\" title=\"Telescope\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8fc065b85e0911229b2fcf8dd7ed6e7\">Telescope<\/a>, light magnification (astronomy)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thermometer\" title=\"Thermometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e665602da4822cb692da35c21f3d3e61\">Thermometer<\/a>, temperature measurement<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theodolite\" title=\"Theodolite\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6adff72eef3c3e16463ab349d6725007\">Theodolite<\/a>, angles, surveying<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thermocouple\" title=\"Thermocouple\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"177c5ac0164c2e6c8ec99245ef3e7b19\">Thermocouple<\/a>, temperature<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voltmeter\" title=\"Voltmeter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b009fb2605db49484b9e30f5b47fb5d8\">Voltmeter<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voltage\" title=\"Voltage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5a5e21aa3b332458eb9bce62a3fcd9f\">voltage<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"List_of_scientific_instruments_manufacturers\">List of scientific instruments manufacturers<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/454_Life_Sciences\" title=\"454 Life Sciences\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb2a7b6b040310858fe985fddf4e0322\">454 Life Sciences<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ADInstruments\" title=\"ADInstruments\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b150bed9700a78a29c8d06d44843c6f7\">ADInstruments<\/a>, New Zealand<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agilent_Technologies\" title=\"Agilent Technologies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16185035934673316848b1ec32133966\">Agilent Technologies<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anton_Paar\" title=\"Anton Paar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"073d745fc694f4d901111a438c06794e\">Anton Paar<\/a>, Austria<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/A._Reyrolle_%26_Company\" title=\"A. Reyrolle &amp; Company\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"beb881487376d9496dcd13e8d3d1d3fc\">A. Reyrolle &amp; Company<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Beckman_Coulter\" title=\"Beckman Coulter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1205ff2d8366a69777e9dc12086809f\">Beckman Coulter<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bruker\" title=\"Bruker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"269aaae204df64a0ce560c99564f529e\">Bruker<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cambridge_Scientific_Instrument_Company\" title=\"Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"207de2d8ad205127cbb00ed4cdf26253\">Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company<\/a>, United Kingdom<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Elementar\" title=\"Elementar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"592958e282e0945418185a88cd2ca089\">Elementar<\/a>, Germany<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Horiba\" title=\"Horiba\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"06125ec1c476d6d6d701eef0dd556923\">Horiba<\/a>, Japan<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JEOL\" title=\"JEOL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb2f045ae49446faf4559e099c270a94\">JEOL<\/a>, Japan<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LECO_Corporation\" title=\"LECO Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45cf99540d7012b1fd695156cb271468\">LECO Corporation<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markes_International\" title=\"Markes International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d25f3ea2157a4033db9a47a2cce7754\">Markes International<\/a>, United Kingdom<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malvern_Instruments\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Malvern Instruments\" data-key=\"e9d19c467d0c9e8f808d8aea794425a7\">Malvern Instruments<\/a>, United Kingdom<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/McPherson_Inc\" title=\"McPherson Inc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5307e26ea80870ce4ad66d87753e34e\">McPherson Inc<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mettler_Toledo\" title=\"Mettler Toledo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1c91534a919d5c3780ee19a9fbd6cd1\">Mettler Toledo<\/a>, Switzerland \/ United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MTS_Systems_Corporation\" title=\"MTS Systems Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6719245002b5854df175620150b5eae\">MTS Systems Corporation<\/a>, US, mechanical<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Novacam_Technologies\" title=\"Novacam Technologies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4dc383f59cff677bf7a0a0e96191077\">Novacam Technologies<\/a>, Canada<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_Instruments\" title=\"Oxford Instruments\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5efbcabd9aee357a49dcd24d6c1819f4\">Oxford Instruments<\/a>, United Kingdom<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pall_Corp.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Pall Corp.\" data-key=\"3ac1e496705c6d388deb75814eae8e57\">Pall Corp.<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PerkinElmer\" title=\"PerkinElmer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3beacf2c726b69a40efd8c4a3c9f4cd1\">PerkinElmer<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymer_Char\" title=\"Polymer Char\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30fb11267df08a294cee6ef65aeb4876\">Polymer Char<\/a>, Spain<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shimadzu_Corp.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Shimadzu Corp.\" data-key=\"5d54e816c49e516447e8184501e7427d\">Shimadzu Corp.<\/a>, Japan<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Techtron\" title=\"Techtron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d277bb8eb06d671b287e83d9a1f751b\">Techtron<\/a>, Melbourne, Australia<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thermo_Fisher_Scientific\" title=\"Thermo Fisher Scientific\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89d0256f7fc80c70b9f8ac3d680b9b48\">Thermo Fisher Scientific<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waters_Corporation\" title=\"Waters Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38e8c933f00fd8c164a8a6091403c1ff\">Waters Corporation<\/a>, United States of America<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"List_of_scientific_instruments_designers\">List of scientific instruments designers<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_astronomical_instrument_makers\" title=\"List of astronomical instrument makers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"75009bb9b18bd86e19000b864d71e0a3\">List of astronomical instrument makers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Scientific_instrument_makers\" title=\"Category:Scientific instrument makers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"745f66681221d1d3b367b7bb543526c1\">Category:Scientific instrument makers<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Worshipful_Company_of_Scientific_Instrument_Makers\" title=\"Worshipful Company of Scientific Instrument Makers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"12fb609ee56d6cc2a174bc075b9f80d0\">Worshipful Company of Scientific Instrument Makers<\/a><\/div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/William_Jones_(optician)\" title=\"William Jones (optician)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a2ce0d66d7ef1ad3afd70ed57b65a41b\">Jones, William<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Petrus_Jacobus_Kipp\" title=\"Petrus Jacobus Kipp\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3bcbce7bd5cf59b0755da6897959434\">Kipp, Petrus Jacobus<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gustave_Le_Bon\" title=\"Gustave Le Bon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3cf6885be25e42fca98940551df676a8\">Le Bon, Gustave<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arjen_Roelofs\" title=\"Arjen Roelofs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6a0f5804d0a49a1bb49acde557dcb9a\">Roelofs, Arjen<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner\" title=\"Johannes Sch\u00f6ner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e9bc3bcdd04126e18fa9abb26ed9363\">Sch\u00f6ner, Johannes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Georg_Friedrich_von_Reichenbach\" title=\"Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07c7d2c20bcccb969a412aad66f7d601\">Von Reichenbach, Georg Friedrich<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_scientific_instruments\">History of scientific instruments<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Museums\">Museums<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harvard_Collection_of_Historical_Scientific_Instruments\" title=\"Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afefe9119e58dbbe72bba7c40a776a07\">Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments (CHSI)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boerhaave_Museum\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Boerhaave Museum\" data-key=\"dc56339061aa50af661c1d9946f81f67\">Boerhaave Museum<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemical_Heritage_Foundation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Chemical Heritage Foundation\" data-key=\"960ee9b59fa21e94669ddf38dcfa301d\">Chemical Heritage Foundation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deutsches_Museum\" title=\"Deutsches Museum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"868dac5f496049aa4ff5032f42f4ec40\">Deutsches Museum<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Royal_Victoria_Gallery_for_the_Encouragement_of_Practical_Science\" title=\"Royal Victoria Gallery for the Encouragement of Practical Science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e16c66b30678fbdf0965639131171edb\">Royal Victoria Gallery for the Encouragement of Practical Science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Whipple_Museum_of_the_History_of_Science\" title=\"Whipple Museum of the History of Science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"337f7b0dbb2ecb30f1dd79c75990d163\">Whipple Museum of the History of Science<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Historiography\">Historiography<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paul_Bunge_Prize\" title=\"Paul Bunge Prize\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d15d09a6ca1000072a29770119b556e6\">Paul Bunge Prize<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_scientific_instruments\">Types of scientific instruments<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_instrument\" title=\"Optical instrument\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ad37f90ef31bd623db62db30d6a8dbe\">Optical instrument<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_test_equipment\" title=\"Electronic test equipment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62c5c14bb28dac8a9082b057e37241f0\">Electronic test equipment<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instrumentation\" title=\"Instrumentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07a60645c169fae7de855049eb32e485\">Instrumentation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instrumentalism\" title=\"Instrumentalism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4e4632279ef08001c2c8b04de96e5f9\">Instrumentalism<\/a>, a philosophic theory<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_collectibles\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"List of collectibles\" data-key=\"3e2c99c1effabd90e0d22090ee7691ad\">List of collectibles<\/a><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d73474a3374a758c1347a5185b1e4ad6\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/99\/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg\/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> The dictionary definition of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/-tron\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wiktionary:-tron\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><i>-tron<\/i><\/a> at Wiktionary, a suffix to denote a complex scientific instrument, like in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyclotron\" title=\"Cyclotron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"941252ba21cd0a206204d54171cccf1a\">cyclotron<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phytotron\" title=\"Phytotron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c6a931110db8bfefc00472547ebc75f\">phytotron<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synchrotron\" title=\"Synchrotron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"778c46f223fcdc248b3398c120f30702\">synchrotron<\/a>, ...<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HackmannReaders13-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-HackmannReaders13_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HackmannReaders13_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HackmannReaders13_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHessenbruch2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hessenbruch, Arne (2013). <i>Reader's Guide to the History of Science<\/i>. Taylor &amp; Francis. pp.&#160;675\u201377. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781134263011<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Reader%27s+Guide+to+the+History+of+Science&amp;rft.pages=675-77&amp;rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781134263011&amp;rft.aulast=Hessenbruch&amp;rft.aufirst=Arne&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Warner-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Warner_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWarner,_Deborah_Jean1990\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Warner, Deborah Jean (March 1990). \"What Is a Scientific Instrument, When Did It Become One, and Why?\". <i>The British Journal for the History of Science<\/i>. <b>23<\/b> (1): 83\u201393. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017%2FS0007087400044460\" target=\"_blank\">10.1017\/S0007087400044460<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\" data-key=\"5452009cc6ddc0c9ed86584fc7a26cc8\">JSTOR<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/4026803\" target=\"_blank\">4026803<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:145517920\" target=\"_blank\">145517920<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&amp;rft.atitle=What+Is+a+Scientific+Instrument%2C+When+Did+It+Become+One%2C+and+Why%3F&amp;rft.volume=23&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=83-93&amp;rft.date=1990-03&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145517920%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4026803%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0007087400044460&amp;rft.au=Warner%2C+Deborah+Jean&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FR71USvsPresb-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FR71USvsPresb_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FR71USvsPresb_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\">\"United States v. Presbyterian Hospital\". <i>The Federal Reporter<\/i>. <b>71<\/b>: 866\u2013868. 1896.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Federal+Reporter&amp;rft.atitle=United+States+v.+Presbyterian+Hospital&amp;rft.volume=71&amp;rft.pages=866-868&amp;rft.date=1896&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TurnerEarly87-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TurnerEarly87_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTurner,_A.J.1987\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Turner, A.J. (1987). <i>Early Scientific Instruments: Europe, 1400-1800<\/i>. Phillip Wilson Publishers.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Early+Scientific+Instruments%3A+Europe%2C+1400-1800&amp;rft.pub=Phillip+Wilson+Publishers&amp;rft.date=1987&amp;rft.au=Turner%2C+A.J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BediniEarly64-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BediniEarly64_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBedini,_S.A.1964\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Bedini, S.A. (1964). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/ebooks\/39141\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Early American Scientific Instruments and Their Makers<\/i><\/a>. Smithsonian Institution<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Early+American+Scientific+Instruments+and+Their+Makers&amp;rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution&amp;rft.date=1964&amp;rft.au=Bedini%2C+S.A.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F39141&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Geerdt Magiels (2009) <i>From Sunlight to Insight. Jan IngenHousz, the discovery of photosynthesis &amp; science in the light of ecology<\/i>, page 231, VUB Press <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-90-5487-645-8<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MukhopadhyayTheRise08-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MukhopadhyayTheRise08_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMukhopadhyay,_R.2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Mukhopadhyay, R. (2008). \"The Rise of Instruments during World War II\". <i>Analytical Chemistry<\/i>. <b>80<\/b> (15): 5684\u20135691. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021%2Fac801205u\" target=\"_blank\">10.1021\/ac801205u<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/18671339\" target=\"_blank\">18671339<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Analytical+Chemistry&amp;rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+Instruments+during+World+War+II&amp;rft.volume=80&amp;rft.issue=15&amp;rft.pages=5684-5691&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fac801205u&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18671339&amp;rft.au=Mukhopadhyay%2C+R.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McMahonAnal07-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-McMahonAnal07_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMcMahon,_G.2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">McMahon, G. 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John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;1\u20136. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780470518557<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Analytical+Instrumentation%3A+A+Guide+to+Laboratory%2C+Portable+and+Miniaturized+Instruments&amp;rft.pages=1-6&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=9780470518557&amp;rft.au=McMahon%2C+G.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KhandpurHandbook15-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KhandpurHandbook15_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKhandpur,_R.S.2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Khandpur, R.S. 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McGraw Hill Education. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9789339221362<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Analytical+Instruments&amp;rft.pub=McGraw+Hill+Education&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=9789339221362&amp;rft.au=Khandpur%2C+R.S.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShadabKAS17-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ShadabKAS17_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShadab,K.A.2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Shadab,K.A. 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Springer. pp.&#160;221\u2013230. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781493926718<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Technological+Advances+in+Surgery%2C+Trauma+and+Critical+Care&amp;rft.pages=221-230&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9781493926718&amp;rft.au=James%2C+W.S.&amp;rft.au=Lemole+Jr%2C+G.M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WilkesIntegration94solygtj-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WilkesIntegration94solygtj_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWilkes,_R.Megargle,_R.1994\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Wilkes, R.; Megargle, R. (1994). \"Integration of instruments and a laboratory information management system at the information level: An inductively coupled plasma spectrometer\". <i>Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems<\/i>. <b>26<\/b> (1): 47\u201354. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2F0169-7439%2894%2990018-3\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/0169-7439(94)90018-3<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Chemometrics+and+Intelligent+Laboratory+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Integration+of+instruments+and+a+laboratory+information+management+system+at+the+information+level%3A+An+inductively+coupled+plasma+spectrometer&amp;rft.volume=26&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=47-54&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0169-7439%2894%2990018-3&amp;rft.au=Wilkes%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Megargle%2C+R.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CarvalhoIntegration13-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CarvalhoIntegration13_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCarvalho,_M.C.2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Carvalho, M.C. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F2211068213476288\" target=\"_blank\">\"Integration of Analytical Instruments with Computer Scripting\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Laboratory Automation<\/i>. <b>18<\/b> (4): 328\u201333. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F2211068213476288\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/2211068213476288<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/23413273\" target=\"_blank\">23413273<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Laboratory+Automation&amp;rft.atitle=Integration+of+Analytical+Instruments+with+Computer+Scripting&amp;rft.volume=18&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=328-33&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2211068213476288&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23413273&amp;rft.au=Carvalho%2C+M.C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F2211068213476288&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PerkelTheInternet17-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PerkelTheInternet17_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPerkel,_J.M.2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Perkel, J.M. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2F542125a\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Internet of Things comes to the lab\"<\/a>. <i>Nature<\/i>. <b>542<\/b> (7639): 125\u2013126. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2017Natur.542..125P\" target=\"_blank\">2017Natur.542..125P<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2F542125a\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/542125a<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/28150787\" target=\"_blank\">28150787<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=The+Internet+of+Things+comes+to+the+lab&amp;rft.volume=542&amp;rft.issue=7639&amp;rft.pages=125-126&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28150787&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F542125a&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Natur.542..125P&amp;rft.au=Perkel%2C+J.M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F542125a&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Charlotte Bigg &amp; Christoph Meinel (eds.), <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/en.gdch.de\/fileadmin\/downloads\/GDCh\/Stiftungen\/Jenemann\/Bunge_Prize_Jubilee_Volume_2023.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Paul Bunge Prize: History of Scientific Instruments, 1993-2023<\/a><\/i> (Frankfurt\/Main: GDCh &amp; DBG, 2023), 96 pp.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<div class=\"portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered\" role=\"navigation\" aria-label=\"Portals\"><span class=\"portal-bar-header\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Contents\/Portals\" title=\"Wikipedia:Contents\/Portals\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7885a86e3db12e5038d6dd5c4f6ba71a\">Portals<\/a>:<\/span><ul class=\"portal-bar-content\"><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/48\/P_history.svg\/21px-P_history.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"21\" height=\"19\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/span><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:History\" title=\"Portal:History\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a59fdb5fc679d93324fbd17d8829310e\">History<\/a><\/li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d6\/WHO_Rod.svg\/8px-WHO_Rod.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"8\" height=\"19\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/span><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Medicine\" title=\"Portal:Medicine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c3a017248407e6ead274784e98f6e76\">Medicine<\/a><\/li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Map_symbol_museum.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9ccd859e77503ff92ef4039d1851660\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f8\/Map_symbol_museum.svg\/19px-Map_symbol_museum.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"19\" height=\"19\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Museums\" title=\"Portal:Museums\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a97857680b5fcdd93365a05762dd5ad0\">Museums<\/a><\/li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"0780ee27910a89cae7afdbc2c59cbdf7\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/6f\/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg\/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"17\" height=\"19\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Physics\" title=\"Portal:Physics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"192d8aeab71b2955684e3fb3e6c50a04\">Physics<\/a><\/li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><span><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/00\/Crab_Nebula.jpg\/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"19\" height=\"19\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/span><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Astronomy\" title=\"Portal:Astronomy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b9a7d75fad7bf577c0058643b920336\">Astronomy<\/a><\/li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:He1523a.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"819b12ab6b8fe86f7a2bdfce03eb7872\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/5f\/He1523a.jpg\/16px-He1523a.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"19\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Stars\" title=\"Portal:Stars\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bac62449c50409a570a096fc0a6f97b\">Stars<\/a><\/li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Social_sciences.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"42225a328071faae5edfa74ae4ed1775\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/42\/Social_sciences.svg\/21px-Social_sciences.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"21\" height=\"18\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Society\" title=\"Portal:Society\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f61d514bf1da47b30f23fe03e27a67d\">Society<\/a><\/li><li class=\"portal-bar-item\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d254e7cf560a000b76f9f1c8f53ca360\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/8b\/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg\/19px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"19\" height=\"19\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span>&#160;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Science\" title=\"Portal:Science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e01bb283722fdb9282f1ba08ba220b30\">Science<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1441\nCached time: 20240102052054\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.342 seconds\nReal time 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and timestamp 20240102052053 and revision id 1192504648. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_instrument\" data-key=\"31eda2a39d06602bcafaae1fb99b7616\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110084313\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.206 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.406 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 61188\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 371.387 1 wikipedia:Scientific_instrument\n100.00% 371.387 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10409-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110084313 and revision id 32420. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_instrument\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_instrument<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_images":[],"b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_timestamp":1704906996,"abad55890b97c6a6153458ad3d62762f_type":"article","abad55890b97c6a6153458ad3d62762f_title":"Platform as a service","abad55890b97c6a6153458ad3d62762f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Platform_as_a_service","abad55890b97c6a6153458ad3d62762f_plaintext":"\n\nPlatform as a serviceFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Platform_as_a_service?action=render: HTTP 429]\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Platform_as_a_service\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Platform_as_a_service<\/a>\nCategory: Cloud computingHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 September 2022, at 21:11.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 1,371 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","abad55890b97c6a6153458ad3d62762f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Platform_as_a_service rootpage-Platform_as_a_service skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Platform as a service<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>[Template fetch failed for https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Platform_as_a_service?action=render: HTTP 429]\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Platform_as_a_service\" data-key=\"87df446644909fd1f426cb7c254981cd\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171636\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.085 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.155 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 103\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 151.262 1 wikipedia:Platform_as_a_service\n100.00% 151.262 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:12427-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171636 and revision id 49379. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Platform_as_a_service\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Platform_as_a_service<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","abad55890b97c6a6153458ad3d62762f_images":[],"abad55890b97c6a6153458ad3d62762f_timestamp":1704906996,"05622b8599837512e5cac1e66d2ee5b4_type":"article","05622b8599837512e5cac1e66d2ee5b4_title":"Modularity","05622b8599837512e5cac1e66d2ee5b4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Modularity","05622b8599837512e5cac1e66d2ee5b4_plaintext":"\n\nModularityFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchDegree to which a system's components may be separated and recombined\nFor other uses, see Module (disambiguation).\nBroadly speaking, modularity is the degree to which a system's components may be separated and recombined, often with the benefit of flexibility and variety in use.[1] The concept of modularity is used primarily to reduce complexity by breaking a system into varying degrees of interdependence and independence across and \"hide the complexity of each part behind an abstraction and interface\".[2] However, the concept of modularity can be extended to multiple disciplines, each with their own nuances. Despite these nuances, consistent themes concerning modular systems can be identified.[3]\n\n\n\nContextual nuances \nThe meaning of the word \"modularity\" can vary somewhat based on context. The following are contextual examples of modularity across several fields of science, technology, industry, and culture:\n\nScience \nIn biology, modularity recognizes that organisms or metabolic pathways are composed of modules.\nIn ecology, modularity is considered a key factor\u2014along with diversity and feedback\u2014in supporting resilience.\nIn nature, modularity may refer to the construction of a cellular organism by joining together standardized units to form larger compositions, as for example, the hexagonal cells in a honeycomb.\nIn cognitive science, the idea of modularity of mind holds that the mind is composed of independent, closed, domain-specific processing modules.\nVisual modularity, the various putative visual modules.\nLanguage module, the putative language module.\nIn the study of complex networks, modularity is a benefit function that measures the quality of a division of a network into groups or communities.\nTechnology \nIn modular programming, modularity refers to the compartmentalization and interrelation of the parts of a software package.\nIn software design, modularity refers to a logical partitioning of the \"software design\" that allows complex software to be manageable for the purpose of implementation and maintenance. The logic of partitioning may be based on related functions, implementation considerations, data links, or other criteria.\nIn self-reconfiguring modular robotics, modularity refers to the ability of the robotic system to automatically achieve different morphologies to execute the task at hand.\nIndustry \nIn modular construction, modules are a bundle of redundant project components that are produced en masse prior to installation.Building components are often arranged into modules in the industrialization of construction.[4]\nIn industrial design, modularity refers to an engineering technique that builds larger systems by combining smaller subsystems.\nIn manufacturing, modularity typically refers to modular design, either as the use of exchangeable parts or options in the fabrication of an object or the design and manufacture of modular components.\nIn organizational design, Richard L. Daft and Arie Y. Lewin (1993) identified a paradigm called \"modular organization\" that had as its ground the need for flexible learning organizations in constant change and the need to solve their problems through coordinated self-organizing processes. This modular organization is characterized by decentralized decision-making, flatter hierarchies, self-organization of units.[5]\nCulture \nIn The Language of New Media, author Lev Manovich discusses the principle that new media is composed of modules or self-sufficient parts of the overall media object.\nIn contemporary art and architecture, modularity can refer to the construction of an object by joining together standardized units to form larger compositions, and\/or to the use of a module as a standardized unit of measurement and proportion.\nIn modular art, modularity refers to the ability to alter the work by reconfiguring, adding to, and\/or removing its parts.\nModularity in different research areas \nModularity in technology and management \nThe term modularity is widely used in studies of technological and organizational systems. Product systems are deemed \"modular\", for example, when they can be decomposed into a number of components that may be mixed and matched in a variety of configurations.[6][7] The components are able to connect, interact, or exchange resources (such as energy or data) in some way, by adhering to a standardized interface. Unlike a tightly integrated product whereby each component is designed to work specifically (and often exclusively) with other particular components in a tightly coupled system, modular products are systems of components that are \"loosely coupled.\"[8]\nIn The Language of New Media, Lev Manovich proposes five \"principles of new media\"\u2014to be understood \"not as absolute laws but rather as general tendencies of a culture undergoing computerization.\"[9] The five principles are numerical representation, modularity, automation, variability, and transcoding. Modularity within new media represents new media as being composed of several separate self-sufficient modules that can act independently or together in synchronisation to complete the new media object. In Photoshop, modularity is most evident in layers; a single image can be composed of many layers, each of which can be treated as an entirely independent and separate entity. Websites can be defined as being modular, their structure is formed in a format that allows their contents to be changed, removed or edited whilst still retaining the structure of the website. This is because the website's content operates separately to the website and does not define the structure of the site. The entire Web, Manovich notes, has a modular structure, composed of independent sites and pages, and each webpage itself is composed of elements and code that can be independently modified.[10]\nOrganizational systems are said to become increasingly modular when they begin to substitute loosely coupled forms for tightly integrated, hierarchical structures.[11] For instance, when the firm utilizes contract manufacturing rather than in-house manufacturing, it is using an organizational component that is more independent than building such capabilities in-house: the firm can switch between contract manufacturers that perform different functions, and the contract manufacturer can similarly work for different firms.[11] As firms in a given industry begin to substitute loose coupling with organizational components that lie outside of firm boundaries for activities that were once conducted in-house, the entire production system (which may encompass many firms) becomes increasingly modular. The firms themselves become more specialized components. Using loosely coupled structures enables firms to achieve greater flexibility in both scope and scale.[11] This is in line with modularity in the processes of production, which relates to the way that technological artifacts are produced. This consists of the artifact's entire value chain, from the designing of the artifact to the manufacturing and distribution stages. In production, modularity is often due to increased design modularity.[12] The firm can switch easily between different providers of these activities (e.g., between different contract manufacturers or alliance partners) compared to building the capabilities for all activities in house, thus responding to different market needs more quickly. However, these flexibility gains come with a price. Therefore, the organization must assess the flexibility gains achievable, and any accompanying loss of performance, with each of these forms.\nModularization within firms leads to the disaggregation of the traditional form of hierarchical governance.[13][14][15] The firm is decomposed into relatively small autonomous organizational units (modules) to reduce complexity. Modularization leads to a structure, in which the modules integrate strongly interdependent tasks, while the interdependencies between the modules are weak. In this connection the dissemination of modular organizational forms has been facilitated by the widespread efforts of the majority of large firms to re-engineer, refocus and restructure. These efforts usually involve a strong process-orientation: the complete service-provision process of the business is split up into partial processes, which can then be handled autonomously by cross-functional teams within organizational units (modules). The co-ordination of the modules is often carried out by using internal market mechanisms, in particular by the implementation of profit centers. Overall, modularization enables more flexible and quicker reaction to changing general or market conditions. Building on the above principles, many alternative forms of modularization of organizations (for-profit or non-profit) are possible.[12][16] However, it is crucial to note that modularization is not an independent and self-contained organizational concept, but rather consists of several basic ideas, which are integral parts of other organizational concepts. These central ideas can be found in every firm. Accordingly, it is not sensible to characterize a firm as \"modular\" or as \"not modular\", because firms are always modular to a some degree.\nInput systems, or \"domain specific computational mechanisms\" (such as the ability to perceive spoken language) are termed vertical faculties, and according to Jerry Fodor they are modular in that they possess a number of characteristics Fodor argues constitute modularity. Fodor's list of features characterizing modules includes the following:\n\nDomain specific (modules only respond to inputs of a specific class, and thus a \"species of vertical faculty\" (Fodor, 1996 [1983]:37)\nInnately specified (the structure is inherent and is not formed by a learning process)\nNot assembled (modules are not put together from a stock of more elementary subprocesses but rather their virtual architecture maps directly onto their neural implementation)\nNeurologically hardwired (modules are associated with specific, localized, and elaborately structured neural systems rather than fungible neural mechanisms)\nAutonomous (modules independent of other modules)\nFodor does not argue that this is formal definition or an all-inclusive list of features necessary for modularity. He argues only that cognitive systems characterized by some of the features above are likely to be characterized by them all, and that such systems can be considered modular. He also notes that the characteristics are not an all-or-nothing proposition, but rather each of the characteristics may be manifest in some degree, and that modularity itself is also not a dichotomous construct\u2014something may be more or less modular: \"One would thus expect\u2014what anyhow seems to be desirable\u2014that the notion of modularity ought to admit of degrees\" (Fodor, 1996 [1983]:37).\nNotably, Fodor's \"not assembled\" feature contrasts sharply with the use of modularity in other fields in which modular systems are seen to be hierarchically nested (that is, modules are themselves composed of modules, which in turn are composed of modules, etc.) However, Max Coltheart notes that Fodor's commitment to the non-assembled feature appears weak,[17] and other scholars (e.g., Block[18]) have proposed that Fodor's modules could be decomposed into finer modules. For instance, while Fodor distinguishes between separate modules for spoken and written language, Block might further decompose the spoken language module into modules for phonetic analysis and lexical forms:[17] \"Decomposition stops when all the components are primitive processors\u2014because the operation of a primitive processor cannot be further decomposed into suboperations\"[18]\nThough Fodor's work on modularity is one of the most extensive, there is other work in psychology on modularity worth noting for its symmetry with modularity in other disciplines. For instance, while Fodor focused on cognitive input systems as modules, Coltheart proposes that there may be many different kinds of cognitive modules, and distinguishes between, for example, knowledge modules and processing modules. The former is a body of knowledge that is independent of other bodies of knowledge, while the latter is a mental information-processing system independent from other such systems.\nHowever, the data neuroscientists have accumulated have not pointed to an organization system as neat and precise as the modularity theory originally proposed originally by Jerry Fodor. It has been shown to be much messier and different from person to person, even though general patterns exist; through a mixture of neuroimaging and lesion studies, it has been shown that there are certain regions that perform certain functions and other regions that do not perform those functions.[19]\n\nModularity in biology \nAs in some of the other disciplines, the term modularity may be used in multiple ways in biology. For example, it may refer to organisms that have an indeterminate structure wherein modules of various complexity (e.g., leaves, twigs) may be assembled without strict limits on their number or placement. Many plants and sessile (immobile) invertebrates of the benthic zones demonstrate this type of modularity (by contrast, many other organisms have a determinate structure that is predefined in embryogenesis).[20] The term has also been used in a broader sense in biology to refer to the reuse of homologous structures across individuals and species. Even within this latter category, there may be differences in how a module is perceived. For instance, evolutionary biologists may focus on the module as a morphological component (subunit) of a whole organism, while developmental biologists may use the term module to refer to some combination of lower-level components (e.g., genes) that are able to act in a unified way to perform a function.[21] In the former, the module is perceived a basic component, while in the latter the emphasis is on the module as a collective.\nBiology scholars have provided a list of features that should characterize a module (much as Fodor did in The Modularity of Mind[22]). For instance, Rudy Raff[23] provides the following list of characteristics that developmental modules should possess:\n\ndiscrete genetic specification\nhierarchical organization\ninteractions with other modules\na particular physical location within a developing organism\nthe ability to undergo transformations on both developmental and evolutionary time scales\nTo Raff's mind, developmental modules are \"dynamic entities representing localized processes (as in morphogenetic fields) rather than simply incipient structures&#160;... (...&#160;such as organ rudiments)\".[23]:\u200a326\u200a Bolker, however, attempts to construct a definitional list of characteristics that is more abstract, and thus more suited to multiple levels of study in biology. She argues that:\n\nA module is a biological entity (a structure, a process, or a pathway) characterized by more internal than external integration\nModules are biological individuals[24][25] that can be delineated from their surroundings or context, and whose behavior or function reflects the integration of their parts, not simply the arithmetical sum. That is, as a whole, the module can perform tasks that its constituent parts could not perform if dissociated.\nIn addition to their internal integration, modules have external connectivity, yet they can also be delineated from the other entities with which they interact in some way.\nAnother stream of research on modularity in biology that should be of particular interest to scholars in other disciplines is that of G\u00fcnter Wagner and Lee Altenberg. Altenberg's work,[26] Wagner's work,[27] and their joint writing[28] explores how natural selection may have resulted in modular organisms, and the roles modularity plays in evolution. Altenberg's and Wagner's work suggests that modularity is both the result of evolution, and facilitates evolution\u2014an idea that shares a marked resemblance to work on modularity in technological and organizational domains.\n\nModularity in the arts \nThe use of modules in the fine arts has a long pedigree among diverse cultures. In the classical architecture of Greco-Roman antiquity, the module was utilized as a standardized unit of measurement for proportioning the elements of a building. Typically the module was established as one-half the diameter of the lower shaft of a classical column; all the other components in the syntax of the classical system were expressed as a fraction or multiple of that module. In traditional Japanese construction, room sizes were often determined by combinations of standard rice mats called tatami; the standard dimension of a mat was around 3 feet by 6 feet, which approximate the overall proportions of a reclining human figure. The module thus becomes not only a proportional device for use with three-dimensional vertical elements but a two-dimensional planning tool as well.\nModularity as a means of measurement is intrinsic to certain types of building; for example, brick construction is by its nature modular insofar as the fixed dimensions of a brick necessarily yield dimensions that are multiples of the original unit. Attaching bricks to one another to form walls and surfaces also reflects a second definition of modularity: namely, the use of standardized units that physically connect to each other to form larger compositions.\nWith the advent of modernism and advanced construction techniques in the 20th century this latter definition transforms modularity from a compositional attribute to a thematic concern in its own right. A school of modular constructivism develops in the 1950s among a circle of sculptors who create sculpture and architectural features out of repetitive units cast in concrete. A decade later modularity becomes an autonomous artistic concern of its own, as several important Minimalist artists adopt it as their central theme. Modular building as both an industrial production model and an object of advanced architectural investigation develops from this same period.\nModularity has found renewed interest among proponents of ModulArt, a form of modular art in which the constituent parts can be physically reconfigured, removed and\/or added to. After a few isolated experiments in ModulArt starting in the 1950s,[29] several artists since the 1990s have explored this flexible, customizable and co-creative form of art.[30]\n\nModularity in fashion \nModularity in fashion is the ability to customise garments through adding and removing elements or altering the silhouette, usually via zips, hook and eye closures or other fastenings. Throughout history it has been used to tailor garments, existing even in the 17th century. In recent years, an increasing number of fashion designers \u2013 especially those focused on slow or sustainable fashion \u2013 are experimenting with this concept. Within the realm of Haute Couture, Yohji Yamamoto and Hussein Chalayan are notable examples, the latter especially for his use of technology to create modular garments.\nStudies carried out in Finland and the US show favourable attitudes of consumers to modular fashion,[31] despite this the concept has not yet made it into mainstream fashion. The current emphasis within modular fashion is on the co-designing and customisation factors for consumers, with a goal to combat the swift changes to customers needs and wants, while also tackling sustainability by increasing the life-cycle of garments.[32]\n\nModularity in interior design \nModularity is a concept that has been thoroughly used in architecture and industry. In interior design modularity is used in order to achieve customizable products that are economically viable. Examples include some of the customizable creations of IKEA and mostly high-end high-cost concepts. Modularity in interior design, or \"modularity in use\",[12] refers to the opportunities of combinations and reconfigurations of the modules in order to create an artefact that suits the specific needs of the user and simultaneously grows with them. The evolution of 3D printing technology has enabled customizable furniture to become feasible. Objects can be prototyped, changed depending on the space and customized dependent on the users needs. Designers can prototype showcase their modules over the internet just by using 3D printing technology. Sofas are a common piece that have modular utilities ranging from ottoman to a bed, as well as fabrics and textiles that are swappable.[33] This originated in the 1940s after being invented by Harvey Probber, was refined in the 1970s, and reaching mass scale consumerism in the 2010s and 2020s.[34]\n\nModularity in American studies \nIn John Blair's Modular America,[35] he argues that as Americans began to replace social structures inherited from Europe (predominantly England and France), they evolved a uniquely American tendency towards modularity in fields as diverse as education, music, and architecture.\nBlair observes that when the word module first emerged in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it meant something very close to model. It implied a small-scale representation or example. By the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the word had come to imply a standard measure of fixed ratios and proportions. For example, in architecture, the proportions of a column could be stated in modules (i.e., \"a height of fourteen modules equaled seven times the diameter measured at the base\"[35]:\u200a2\u200a ) and thus multiplied to any size while still retaining the desired proportions.\nHowever, in America, the meaning and usage of the word shifted considerably: \"Starting with architectural terminology in the 1930s, the new emphasis was on any entity or system designed in terms of modules as subcomponents. As applications broadened after World War II to furniture, hi-fi equipment, computer programs and beyond, modular construction came to refer to any whole made up of self-contained units designed to be equivalent parts of a system, hence, we might say, \"systemically equivalent.\" Modular parts are implicitly interchangeable and\/or recombinable in one or another of several senses\".[35]:\u200a3\u200a \nBlair defines a modular system as \"one that gives more importance to parts than to wholes. Parts are conceived as equivalent and hence, in one or more senses, interchangeable and\/or cumulative and\/or recombinable\" (p. 125). Blair describes the emergence of modular structures in education (the college curriculum), industry (modular product assembly), architecture (skyscrapers), music (blues and jazz), and more. In his concluding chapter, Blair does not commit to a firm view of what causes Americans to pursue more modular structures in the diverse domains in which it has appeared; but he does suggest that it may in some way be related to the American ideology of liberal individualism and a preference for anti-hierarchical organization.\n\nConsistent themes \nComparing the use of modularity across disciplines reveals several themes:\nOne theme that shows up in psychology and biology study is innately specified. Innately specified (as used here) implies that the purpose or structure of the module is predetermined by some biological mandate.\nDomain specificity, that modules respond only to inputs of a specific class (or perform functions only of a specific class) is a theme that clearly spans psychology and biology, and it can be argued that it also spans technological and organizational systems. Domain specificity would be seen in the latter disciplines as specialization of function.\nHierarchically nested is a theme that recurs in most disciplines. Though originally disavowed by Jerry Fodor, other psychologists have embraced it, and it is readily apparent in the use of modularity in biology (e.g., each module of an organism can be decomposed into finer modules), social processes and artifacts (e.g., we can think of a skyscraper in terms of blocks of floors, a single floor, elements of a floor, etc.), mathematics (e.g., the modulus 6 may be further divided into the moduli 1, 2 and 3), and technological and organizational systems (e.g., an organization may be composed of divisions, which are composed of teams, which are composed of individuals).[36]\nGreater internal than external integration is a theme that showed up in every discipline but mathematics. Often referred to as autonomy, this theme acknowledged that there may be interaction or integration between modules, but the greater interaction and integration occurs within the module. This theme is very closely related to information encapsulation, which shows up explicitly in both the psychology and technology research.\nNear decomposability (as termed by Simon, 1962) shows up in all of the disciplines, but is manifest in a matter of degrees. For instance, in psychology and biology it may refer merely to the ability to delineate one module from another (recognizing the boundaries of the module). In several of the social artifacts, mathematics, and technological or organizational systems, however, it refers to the ability to actually separate components from one another. In several of the disciplines this decomposability also enables the complexity of a system (or process) to be reduced. This is aptly captured in a quote from David Marr[37] about psychological processes where he notes that, \"any large computation should be split up into a collection of small, nearly independent, specialized subprocesses.\" Reducing complexity is also the express purpose of casting out nines in mathematics.\nSubstitutability and recombinability are closely related constructs. The former refers to the ability to substitute one component for another as in John Blair's \"systemic equivalence\" while the latter may refer both to the indeterminate form of the system and the indeterminate use of the component. In US college curricula, for example, each course is designed with a credit system that ensures a uniform number of contact hours, and approximately uniform educational content, yielding substitutability. By virtue of their substitutability, each student may create their own curricula (recombinability of the curriculum as a system) and each course may be said to be recombinable with a variety of students' curricula (recombinability of the component within multiple systems). Both substitutability and recombinability are immediately recognizable in Blair's social processes and artifacts, and are also well captured in Garud and Kumaraswamy's[38] discussion of economies of substitution in technological systems.[39]\nBlair's systemic equivalence also demonstrates the relationship between substitutability and the module as a homologue. Blair's systemic equivalence refers to the ability for multiple modules to perform approximately the same function within a system, while in biology a module as a homologue refers to different modules sharing approximately the same form or function in different organisms. The extreme of the module as homologue is found in mathematics, where (in the simplest case) the modules refer to the reuse of a particular number and thus each module is exactly alike.[39]\nIn all but mathematics, there has been an emphasis that modules may be different in kind. In Fodor's discussion of modular cognitive system, each module performs a unique task. In biology, even modules that are considered homologous may be somewhat different in form and function (e.g., a whale's fin versus a human's hand). In Blair's book, he points out that while jazz music may be composed of structural units that conform to the same underlying rules, those components vary significantly. Similarly in studies of technology and organization, modular systems may be composed of modules that are very similar (as in shelving units that may be piled one atop the other) or very different (as in a stereo system where each component performs unique functions) or any combination in between.[39]\n\n\nTable 1: The use of modularity by discipline[39]\n\n\nConcept\n\nTechnology and organizations\n\nPsychology\n\nBiology\n\nAmerican studies\n\nMathematics\n\n\nDomain specific\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\n\n\n\n\nInnately specified\n\n\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\n\n\n\n\nHierarchically nested\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\nMore internal integration than external integration (localized processes and autonomy)\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\n\n\nInformationally encapsulated\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNear decomposability\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\nRecombinability\n\nX\n\n\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\nExpandability\n\nX\n\n\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\nModule as homologue\n\nX\n\n\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\nSee also \nConfiguration design\nObject-oriented programming\nPattern language\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"modular\". Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, Inc. 17 May 2018. Retrieved 18 May 2018 . \n\n^ Baldwin, C.Y.; Clark, K.B. (2000). \"Chapter 3: What Is Modularity?\". Design Rules: The power of modularity. MIT Press. pp.&#160;63\u201392. ISBN&#160;9780262024662. Retrieved 18 May 2018 . \n\n^ Schilling, M.A. (2009-02-09). \"Towards A General Modular Systems Theory and its Application to Interfirm Product Modularity \u2013 Commentary\". In Garud, R.; Kumaraswamy, A.; Langlois, R.N. (eds.). Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks, and Organizations. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;203\u2013216. ISBN&#160;9781405141949. Retrieved 18 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"Industrialization of Construction-A Lean Modular Approach\" (PDF) . Industrialization of Construction-A Lean Modular Approach. \n\n^ Campagnolo, Diego; Camuffo, Arnaldo (2010). \"The Concept of Modularity in Management Studies: A Literature Review\". International Journal of Management Reviews. 12 (3): 259\u2013283. doi:10.1111\/j.1468-2370.2009.00260.x. ISSN&#160;1468-2370. S2CID&#160;145557344. \n\n^ Schilling, M.A. 2000. \"Towards a general modular systems theory and its application to inter-firm product modularity\". Academy of Management Review, Vol 25:312\u2013334. \n\n^ Baldwin, C. Y. &amp; Clark, K. B. 2000. Design rules, Volume 1: The power of modularity, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. \n\n^ Orton, J. &amp; Weick, K. 1990. \"Loosely coupled systems: A reconceptualization\". Academy of Management Review, 15:203\u2013223. \n\n^ Manovich, J. 2001. The Language of New Media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. \n\n^ Bradley Dilger, Review of The Language of New Media (Kairos: http:\/\/english.ttu.edu\/kairos\/7.1\/reviews\/dilger\/). \n\n^ a b c Schilling, M.A. &amp; Steensma, K. 2001. \"The use of modular organizational forms: An industry level analysis\". Academy of Management Journal, 44: 1149\u20131169. \n\n^ a b c Kostakis, Vasilis (2019). \"How to reap the benefits of the 'digital revolution'? Modularity and the commons\". Halduskultuur: The Estonian Journal of Administrative Culture and Digital Governance. 20 (1): 4\u201319. doi:10.32994\/hk.v20i1.228. ISSN&#160;1736-6089. S2CID&#160;242184840. \n\n^ Miles R.E., Snow, C.C., Mathews, J.A., Miles, G., &amp; Coleman, H.J. \"Organizing in the knowledge age&#160;\u2014 Anticipating the cellular form\". Academy of Management Executive 11(4):7\u201320. \n\n^ Zenger, T.R. &amp; Hesterly, W.S. \"The Disaggregation of Corporations&#160;\u2014 Selective Intervention, High-powered Incentives, and Molecular Units\". Organization Science 8:209\u2013222. \n\n^ Kuntz, L. &amp; Vera, A. 2007. \"Modular organization and hospital performance\". 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The Modularity of Mind. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. \n\n^ a b Raff, R. A. 1996. The Shape of Life. Chicago: Chicago University Press. \n\n^ Hull, D. L. 1980. Individuality and selection. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 11:311\u2013332 \n\n^ Roth, V. L. 1991. Homology and hierarchies: Problems solved and unresolved. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 4:167\u2013194 \n\n^ Altenberg, L. 1995. \"Genome growth and the evolution of the genotype-phenotype map\". In Evolution and Biocomputation: Computational Models of Evolution, ed. Wolfgang Banzhaf and Frank H. Eeckman. Lecture Notes in Computer Science vol. 899. Springer-Verlag, pp. 205\u2013259. \n\n^ Wagner, G. 1996. \"Homologues, natural kinds and the evolution of modularity\". American Zoologist, 36:36\u201343. \n\n^ Wagner, G. and Altenberg, L. 1996a. \"Perspective: complex adaptations and the evolution of evolvability\". Evolution, 50:967\u2013976. \n\n^ Notably, cubic sculptures by Mitzi Cunliffe in the 1950s and 1960s, and prints by the sculptor Norman Carlberg from the 1970s and after. \n\n^ See \"Modulartists and Their Works\" in ModulArt. \n\n^ \"Transformable Fashion: The Biggest Sustainable Clothing Trend That Never Was\". The Fashion Studies Journal. Retrieved 2020-12-21 . \n\n^ Hur, Eunsuk (2015). \"Sustainable Fashion and Textiles through Participatory Design: A case study of modular textile design\". The Journal of the Korean Society of Knit Design. 13: 100\u2013109 \u2013 via ResearchGate. \n\n^ Mann, Randi (2022-04-01). \"There's a new modular sofa in town, and it's made in Canada\". nationalpost. Retrieved 2022-10-20 . \n\n^ \"Sofa Trends Through the Decades\". Architectural Digest. 2022-09-30. Retrieved 2022-10-20 . \n\n^ a b c Blair, J.G. 1988. Modular America: Cross-cultural perspectives on the emergence of an American way. New York: Greenwood Press. \n\n^ Schilling, M.A. 2002. Modularity in multiple disciplines. In Garud, R., Langlois, R., &amp; Kumaraswamy, A. (eds) Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks and Organizations. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishers, pp. 203\u2013214 \n\n^ Marr, D. 1982. Vision. W.H. Freeman, p. 325. \n\n^ Garud, R. and Kumaraswamy, A. 1995. \"Technological and organizational designs to achieve economies of substitution\". Strategic Management Journal, 16:93\u2013110. \n\n^ a b c d Adapted with permission from Schilling, M.A. 2002. \"Modularity in multiple disciplines\". In Garud, R., Langlois, R., &amp; Kumaraswamy, A. (eds) Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks and Organizations. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishers, pp. 203\u2013214 \n\nResearch articles \nR. Phukan, D. Nam, D. Dong and R. Burgos, \"Design Considerations for a Modular 2-Stage LCLC Filter for Three Phase AC-DC Interleaved Converters,\" 2022 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference &amp; Expo (ITEC), Anaheim, CA, USA, 2022, pp. 517-522. doi: 10.1109\/ITEC53557.2022.9813883\nS. Ohn et al., \"A Scalable Filter Topology for $N$-Parallel Modular Three-Phase AC\u2013DC Converters by an Arrangement of Coupled Inductors,\" in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 37, no. 11, pp. 13358-13367, Nov. 2022. doi: 10.1109\/TPEL.2022.3179396\nR. Phukan et al., \"Design of an Indirectly Coupled Filter Building Block for Modular Interleaved AC\u2013DC Converters,\" in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 37, no. 11, pp. 13343-13357, Nov. 2022. doi: 10.1109\/TPEL.2022.3179346\nR. Phukan, S. Ohn, D. Dong, R. Burgos, G. Mondal and S. Nielebock, \"Evaluation of Modular AC Filter Building Blocks for Full SiC based Grid-Tied Three Phase Converters,\" 2020 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Detroit, MI, USA, 2020, pp. 1835-1841. doi: 10.1109\/ECCE44975.2020.9236265\nS. Ohn et al., \"Modular Filter Building Block for Modular full-SiC AC-DC Converters by an Arrangement of Coupled Inductors,\" 2020 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Detroit, MI, USA, 2020, pp. 4130-4136. doi: 10.1109\/ECCE44975.2020.9236309\nR. Phukan, S. Ohn, D. Dong, R. Burgos, G. Mondal and S. Nielebock, \"Design and Optimization of a Highly Integrated Modular Filter Building Block for Three-Level Grid Tied Converters,\" 2020 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Detroit, MI, USA, 2020, pp. 4949-4956. doi: 10.1109\/ECCE44975.2020.9235895\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Modularity\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Modularity<\/a>\nCategories: Science termsSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 2 March 2019, at 22:42.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,453 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","05622b8599837512e5cac1e66d2ee5b4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Modularity rootpage-Modularity skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Modularity<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Degree to which a system's components may be separated and recombined<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For other uses, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Module_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-redirect mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Module (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"3c669aa1ac4fa41de5eff0c520cc32cc\">Module (disambiguation)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p>Broadly speaking, <b>modularity<\/b> is the degree to which a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System\" title=\"System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca080f9487afe3b315fe16a2d522534\">system<\/a>'s components may be separated and recombined, often with the benefit of flexibility and variety in use.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MWModular_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MWModular-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The concept of modularity is used primarily to reduce <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Complexity\" title=\"Complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff1d39c771965cdcf307a5cdd01cb7fa\">complexity<\/a> by breaking a system into varying degrees of interdependence and independence across and \"hide the complexity of each part behind an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abstraction\" title=\"Abstraction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"100c36f9143d61b19f71353a0bcffaa3\">abstraction<\/a> and interface\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BaldwinDesign00_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BaldwinDesign00-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> However, the concept of modularity can be extended to multiple disciplines, each with their own nuances. Despite these nuances, consistent themes concerning modular systems can be identified.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchillingManaging09_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchillingManaging09-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Contextual_nuances\">Contextual nuances<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The meaning of the word \"modularity\" can vary somewhat based on context. The following are contextual examples of modularity across several fields of science, technology, industry, and culture:\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Science\">Science<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>In biology, modularity recognizes that <a href=\"#Modularity_in_biology\">organisms or metabolic pathways are composed of modules<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>In ecology, modularity is considered a key factor\u2014along with diversity and feedback\u2014in supporting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resilience_(ecology)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Resilience (ecology)\" data-key=\"d503b609bc0fad5aa7ed69e736e7bee9\">resilience<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>In nature, modularity may refer to the construction of a cellular organism by joining together standardized units to form larger compositions, as for example, the hexagonal cells in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Honeycomb\" title=\"Honeycomb\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ec871a6653230eabbb34461a9964dea\">honeycomb<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>In cognitive science, the idea of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modularity_of_mind\" title=\"Modularity of mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b907badbca3edabc38f643adba095c9\">modularity of mind<\/a> holds that the mind is composed of independent, closed, domain-specific processing modules.\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visual_modularity\" title=\"Visual modularity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79f6a72af8eac8cd549ff16d5cc7f3a2\">Visual modularity<\/a>, the various putative visual modules.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_module\" title=\"Language module\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8038c563bd9efcb50245d555dfa125ba\">Language module<\/a>, the putative language module.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>In the study of complex networks, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modularity_(networks)\" title=\"Modularity (networks)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"766dc5b11ec06811fe0062254afc926f\">modularity<\/a> is a benefit function that measures the quality of a division of a network into groups or communities.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technology\">Technology<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_programming\" title=\"Modular programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3e2efa63b2358882429ccde40078f8f\">modular programming<\/a>, modularity refers to the compartmentalization and interrelation of the parts of a software package.<\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_design\" title=\"Software design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a55d7b4eae036da0116290ea5720c670\">software design<\/a>, modularity refers to a logical partitioning of the \"software design\" that allows complex software to be manageable for the purpose of implementation and maintenance. The logic of partitioning may be based on related functions, implementation considerations, data links, or other criteria.<\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-reconfiguring_modular_robot\" title=\"Self-reconfiguring modular robot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b74b1940d9c678b5272c90567fed6681\">self-reconfiguring modular robotics<\/a>, modularity refers to the ability of the robotic system to automatically achieve different morphologies to execute the task at hand.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Industry\">Industry<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_construction\" title=\"Modular construction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c24a44e60c5d9137c3e2f7b9d55e8075\">modular construction<\/a>, modules are a bundle of redundant project components that are produced en masse prior to installation.Building components are often arranged into modules in the industrialization of construction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_design\" title=\"Industrial design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"82b1e474bdc83a74a87818d81d827133\">industrial design<\/a>, modularity refers to an engineering technique that builds larger systems by combining smaller subsystems.<\/li>\n<li>In manufacturing, modularity typically refers to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_design\" title=\"Modular design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b61048fad491bc269095b96850d1d518\">modular design<\/a>, either as the use of exchangeable parts or options in the fabrication of an object or the design and manufacture of modular components.<\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organizational_design\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Organizational design\" data-key=\"aa680d44c2877d386ee310103bee384b\">organizational design<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richard_L._Daft\" title=\"Richard L. Daft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bfb964ee58eb9cc8803a662d549644e\">Richard L. Daft<\/a> and Arie Y. Lewin (1993) identified a paradigm called \"modular organization\" that had as its ground the need for flexible learning organizations in constant change and the need to solve their problems through coordinated self-organizing processes. This modular organization is characterized by decentralized decision-making, flatter hierarchies, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-organization\" title=\"Self-organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40ea382947b2128ab99955a03b2a9254\">self-organization<\/a> of units.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Culture\">Culture<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>In <i>The Language of New Media<\/i>, author <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lev_Manovich\" title=\"Lev Manovich\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c26ce96e80f20b266aae34039f26c491\">Lev Manovich<\/a> discusses the principle that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_media\" title=\"New media\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be3a95896e68a8582a1e9d97258167c2\">new media<\/a> is composed of modules or self-sufficient parts of the overall media object.<\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contemporary_art\" title=\"Contemporary art\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27e013c00e7291896fdf23c4ff4d6a26\">contemporary art<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contemporary_architecture\" title=\"Contemporary architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f814b4273c5415c8c4c4c0815db9497\">architecture<\/a>, modularity can refer to the construction of an object by joining together standardized units to form larger compositions, and\/or to the use of a module as a standardized unit of measurement and proportion.<\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_art\" title=\"Modular art\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"696e736255c3cc1e7a04881899c28c58\">modular art<\/a>, modularity refers to the ability to alter the work by reconfiguring, adding to, and\/or removing its parts.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modularity_in_different_research_areas\">Modularity in different research areas<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modularity_in_technology_and_management\">Modularity in technology and management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The term <em>modularity<\/em> is widely used in studies of technological and organizational systems. Product systems are deemed \"modular\", for example, when they can be decomposed into a number of components that may be mixed and matched in a variety of configurations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A_2000_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schilling,_M.A_2000-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> The components are able to connect, interact, or exchange resources (such as energy or data) in some way, by adhering to a standardized interface. Unlike a tightly integrated product whereby each component is designed to work specifically (and often exclusively) with other particular components in a tightly coupled system, modular products are systems of components that are \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loose_coupling\" title=\"Loose coupling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6d1b4ac5b67abf91346da09f615ae57\">loosely coupled<\/a>.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In <i>The Language of New Media<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lev_Manovich\" title=\"Lev Manovich\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c26ce96e80f20b266aae34039f26c491\">Lev Manovich<\/a> proposes five \"principles of new media\"\u2014to be understood \"not as absolute laws but rather as general tendencies of a culture undergoing computerization.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> The five principles are numerical representation, modularity, automation, variability, and transcoding. Modularity within new media represents new media as being composed of several separate self-sufficient modules that can act independently or together in synchronisation to complete the new media object. In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Photoshop\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Photoshop\" data-key=\"60c348b826ce48c93ce43162beb3297d\">Photoshop<\/a>, modularity is most evident in layers; a single image can be composed of many layers, each of which can be treated as an entirely independent and separate entity. Websites can be defined as being modular, their structure is formed in a format that allows their contents to be changed, removed or edited whilst still retaining the structure of the website. This is because the website's content operates separately to the website and does not define the structure of the site. The entire <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Wide_Web\" title=\"World Wide Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8167fa2a43229db150009f4a93e3a779\">Web<\/a>, Manovich notes, has a modular structure, composed of independent sites and pages, and each webpage itself is composed of elements and code that can be independently modified.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Organizational systems are said to become increasingly modular when they begin to substitute loosely coupled forms for tightly integrated, hierarchical structures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A._1169_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schilling,_M.A._1169-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> For instance, when the firm utilizes contract manufacturing rather than in-house manufacturing, it is using an organizational component that is more independent than building such capabilities in-house: the firm can switch between contract manufacturers that perform different functions, and the contract manufacturer can similarly work for different firms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A._1169_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schilling,_M.A._1169-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> As firms in a given industry begin to substitute loose coupling with organizational components that lie outside of firm boundaries for activities that were once conducted in-house, the entire production system (which may encompass many firms) becomes increasingly modular. The firms themselves become more specialized components. Using loosely coupled structures enables firms to achieve greater flexibility in both scope and scale.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A._1169_11-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schilling,_M.A._1169-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> This is in line with modularity in the processes of production, which relates to the way that technological artifacts are produced. This consists of the artifact's entire value chain, from the designing of the artifact to the manufacturing and distribution stages. In production, modularity is often due to increased design modularity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kostakis_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kostakis-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> The firm can switch easily between different providers of these activities (e.g., between different contract manufacturers or alliance partners) compared to building the capabilities for all activities in house, thus responding to different market needs more quickly. However, these flexibility gains come with a price. Therefore, the organization must assess the flexibility gains achievable, and any accompanying loss of performance, with each of these forms.\n<\/p><p>Modularization within firms leads to the disaggregation of the traditional form of hierarchical governance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Miles,_R.E._et_al._1997_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Miles,_R.E._et_al._1997-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Zenger,_T.R._&amp;_Hesterly,_W.S._1997_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Zenger,_T.R._&amp;_Hesterly,_W.S._1997-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kuntz,_L._&amp;_Vera,_A._2007_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kuntz,_L._&amp;_Vera,_A._2007-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> The firm is decomposed into relatively small autonomous organizational units (modules) to reduce complexity. Modularization leads to a structure, in which the modules integrate strongly interdependent tasks, while the interdependencies between the modules are weak. In this connection the dissemination of modular organizational forms has been facilitated by the widespread efforts of the majority of large firms to re-engineer, refocus and restructure. These efforts usually involve a strong process-orientation: the complete service-provision process of the business is split up into partial processes, which can then be handled autonomously by cross-functional teams within organizational units (modules). The co-ordination of the modules is often carried out by using internal market mechanisms, in particular by the implementation of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Profit_center\" title=\"Profit center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93a775f2fde06bf147e3342c96e7d200\">profit centers<\/a>. Overall, modularization enables more flexible and quicker reaction to changing general or market conditions. Building on the above principles, many alternative forms of modularization of organizations (for-profit or non-profit) are possible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kostakis_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kostakis-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> However, it is crucial to note that modularization is not an independent and self-contained organizational concept, but rather consists of several basic ideas, which are integral parts of other organizational concepts. These central ideas can be found in every firm. Accordingly, it is not sensible to characterize a firm as \"modular\" or as \"not modular\", because firms are always modular to a some degree.\n<\/p><p>Input systems, or \"domain specific computational mechanisms\" (such as the ability to perceive spoken language) are termed vertical faculties, and according to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerry_Fodor\" title=\"Jerry Fodor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c83b56fe5ece316c18b5952cee322198\">Jerry Fodor<\/a> they are modular in that they possess a number of characteristics Fodor argues constitute modularity. Fodor's list of features characterizing modules includes the following:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Domain specific (modules only respond to inputs of a specific class, and thus a \"species of vertical faculty\" (Fodor, 1996 [1983]:37)<\/li>\n<li>Innately specified (the structure is inherent and is not formed by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_process\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Learning process\" data-key=\"3da762167e5636620a9df1dca213237a\">learning process<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>Not assembled (modules are not put together from a stock of more elementary subprocesses but rather their virtual architecture maps directly onto their neural implementation)<\/li>\n<li>Neurologically hardwired (modules are associated with specific, localized, and elaborately structured neural systems rather than fungible neural mechanisms)<\/li>\n<li>Autonomous (modules independent of other modules)<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Fodor does not argue that this is formal definition or an all-inclusive list of features necessary for modularity. He argues only that cognitive systems characterized by some of the features above are likely to be characterized by them all, and that such systems can be considered modular. He also notes that the characteristics are not an all-or-nothing proposition, but rather each of the characteristics may be manifest in some degree, and that modularity itself is also not a dichotomous construct\u2014something may be more or less modular: \"One would thus expect\u2014what anyhow seems to be desirable\u2014that the notion of modularity ought to admit of degrees\" (Fodor, 1996 [1983]:37).\n<\/p><p>Notably, Fodor's \"not assembled\" feature contrasts sharply with the use of modularity in other fields in which modular systems are seen to be hierarchically nested (that is, modules are themselves composed of modules, which in turn are composed of modules, etc.) However, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Max_Coltheart\" title=\"Max Coltheart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7d0029665b8763306814da3541708bf\">Max Coltheart<\/a> notes that Fodor's commitment to the non-assembled feature appears weak,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Coltheart,_M_1999_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Coltheart,_M_1999-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> and other scholars (e.g., Block<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Block,_N_1995_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Block,_N_1995-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>) have proposed that Fodor's modules could be decomposed into finer modules. For instance, while Fodor distinguishes between separate modules for spoken and written language, Block might further decompose the spoken language module into modules for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phonetic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Phonetic\" data-key=\"e9af46f76977a8326f43baa5a1e5db9c\">phonetic<\/a> analysis and lexical forms:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Coltheart,_M_1999_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Coltheart,_M_1999-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> \"Decomposition stops when all the components are primitive processors\u2014because the operation of a primitive processor cannot be further decomposed into suboperations\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Block,_N_1995_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Block,_N_1995-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Though Fodor's work on modularity is one of the most extensive, there is other work in psychology on modularity worth noting for its symmetry with modularity in other disciplines. For instance, while Fodor focused on cognitive input systems as modules, Coltheart proposes that there may be many different kinds of cognitive modules, and distinguishes between, for example, knowledge modules and processing modules. The former is a body of knowledge that is independent of other bodies of knowledge, while the latter is a mental information-processing system independent from other such systems.\n<\/p><p>However, the data neuroscientists have accumulated have not pointed to an organization system as neat and precise as the modularity theory originally proposed originally by Jerry Fodor. It has been shown to be much messier and different from person to person, even though general patterns exist; through a mixture of neuroimaging and lesion studies, it has been shown that there are certain regions that perform certain functions and other regions that do not perform those functions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modularity_in_biology\">Modularity in biology<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As in some of the other disciplines, the term modularity may be used in multiple ways in biology. For example, it may refer to organisms that have an indeterminate structure wherein modules of various complexity (e.g., leaves, twigs) may be assembled without strict limits on their number or placement. Many plants and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sessility_(zoology)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sessility (zoology)\" data-key=\"9356d75c22f2cc21b297b83b90505431\">sessile<\/a> (immobile) <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Invertebrate\" title=\"Invertebrate\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9768a1e79dcae042d51217de73efa1a2\">invertebrates<\/a> of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benthic_zone\" title=\"Benthic zone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc489cd517d335621b15662292106bb3\">benthic zones<\/a> demonstrate this type of modularity (by contrast, many other organisms have a determinate structure that is predefined in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embryogenesis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Embryogenesis\" data-key=\"2d1ae93b33f40a5e596d2685626877e4\">embryogenesis<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> The term has also been used in a broader sense in biology to refer to the reuse of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Homologous_structure\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Homologous structure\" data-key=\"8cb06a3ad5eb56907cee6276373fe57f\">homologous structures<\/a> across individuals and species. Even within this latter category, there may be differences in how a module is perceived. For instance, evolutionary biologists may focus on the module as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morphology_(biology)\" title=\"Morphology (biology)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93791d6e66215788648ce167bd5015f8\">morphological<\/a> component (subunit) of a whole organism, while <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Developmental_biologist\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Developmental biologist\" data-key=\"55b16662f8f49c99bc939c7590c6636f\">developmental biologists<\/a> may use the term module to refer to some combination of lower-level components (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gene\" title=\"Gene\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4ccd06bcf19c184bbe5d278ee7dd0ff\">genes<\/a>) that are able to act in a unified way to perform a function.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> In the former, the module is perceived a basic component, while in the latter the emphasis is on the module as a collective.\n<\/p><p>Biology scholars have provided a list of features that should characterize a module (much as Fodor did in <i>The Modularity of Mind<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-fodor1983_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-fodor1983-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>). For instance, Rudy Raff<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Raff_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Raff-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> provides the following list of characteristics that developmental modules should possess:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>discrete genetic specification<\/li>\n<li>hierarchical organization<\/li>\n<li>interactions with other modules<\/li>\n<li>a particular physical location within a developing organism<\/li>\n<li>the ability to undergo transformations on both developmental and evolutionary time scales<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>To Raff's mind, developmental modules are \"dynamic entities representing localized processes (as in morphogenetic fields) rather than simply incipient structures&#160;... (...&#160;such as organ rudiments)\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Raff_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Raff-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 326\">:\u200a326\u200a<\/span><\/sup> Bolker, however, attempts to construct a definitional list of characteristics that is more abstract, and thus more suited to multiple levels of study in biology. She argues that:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>A module is a biological entity (a structure, a process, or a pathway) characterized by more internal than external integration<\/li>\n<li>Modules are biological individuals<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> that can be delineated from their surroundings or context, and whose behavior or function reflects the integration of their parts, not simply the arithmetical sum. That is, as a whole, the module can perform tasks that its constituent parts could not perform if dissociated.<\/li>\n<li>In addition to their internal integration, modules have external connectivity, yet they can also be delineated from the other entities with which they interact in some way.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Another stream of research on modularity in biology that should be of particular interest to scholars in other disciplines is that of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/G%C3%BCnter_Wagner\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"G\u00fcnter Wagner\" data-key=\"a01d7da4a913e95906e677fb91dff15e\">G\u00fcnter Wagner<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lee_Altenberg\" title=\"Lee Altenberg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04c3002b3a9c4592fd60b9a39e78a058\">Lee Altenberg<\/a>. Altenberg's work,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> Wagner's work,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> and their joint writing<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> explores how natural selection may have resulted in modular organisms, and the roles modularity plays in evolution. Altenberg's and Wagner's work suggests that modularity is both the result of evolution, and facilitates evolution\u2014an idea that shares a marked resemblance to work on modularity in technological and organizational domains.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modularity_in_the_arts\">Modularity in the arts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The use of modules in the fine arts has a long pedigree among diverse cultures. In the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classical_architecture\" title=\"Classical architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3708506f5c3230245ab638418d30c2e3\">classical architecture<\/a> of Greco-Roman antiquity, the module was utilized as a standardized unit of measurement for proportioning the elements of a building. Typically the module was established as one-half the diameter of the lower shaft of a classical column; all the other components in the syntax of the classical system were expressed as a fraction or multiple of that module. In traditional Japanese construction, room sizes were often determined by combinations of standard rice mats called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tatami\" title=\"Tatami\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f321aa6ec191e80f24aef2517f7c9e17\">tatami<\/a>; the standard dimension of a mat was around 3 feet by 6 feet, which approximate the overall proportions of a reclining human figure. The module thus becomes not only a proportional device for use with three-dimensional vertical elements but a two-dimensional planning tool as well.\n<\/p><p>Modularity as a means of measurement is intrinsic to certain types of building; for example, brick construction is by its nature modular insofar as the fixed dimensions of a brick necessarily yield dimensions that are multiples of the original unit. Attaching bricks to one another to form walls and surfaces also reflects a second definition of modularity: namely, the use of standardized units that physically connect to each other to form larger compositions.\n<\/p><p>With the advent of modernism and advanced construction techniques in the 20th century this latter definition transforms modularity from a compositional attribute to a thematic concern in its own right. A school of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_constructivism\" title=\"Modular constructivism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7083c7628670b2cca0d26cb04821cea\">modular constructivism<\/a> develops in the 1950s among a circle of sculptors who create sculpture and architectural features out of repetitive units cast in concrete. A decade later modularity becomes an autonomous artistic concern of its own, as several important <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Minimalist\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Minimalist\" data-key=\"0f6c3601a8929fa908d1afdfbb31ed10\">Minimalist<\/a> artists adopt it as their central theme. Modular building as both an industrial production model and an object of advanced architectural investigation develops from this same period.\n<\/p><p>Modularity has found renewed interest among proponents of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ModulArt\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ModulArt\" data-key=\"f08e1140501d64e863cbe41baacfb671\">ModulArt<\/a>, a form of modular art in which the constituent parts can be physically reconfigured, removed and\/or added to. After a few isolated experiments in ModulArt starting in the 1950s,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> several artists since the 1990s have explored this flexible, customizable and co-creative form of art.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modularity_in_fashion\">Modularity in fashion<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Modularity in fashion is the ability to customise garments through adding and removing elements or altering the silhouette, usually via zips, hook and eye closures or other fastenings. Throughout history it has been used to tailor garments, existing even in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/1600%E2%80%931650_in_Western_European_fashion\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"1600\u20131650 in Western European fashion\" data-key=\"9dc25f842b142fbbcf91d967fb32f17a\">17th century<\/a>. In recent years, an increasing number of fashion designers \u2013 especially those focused on slow or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sustainable_fashion\" title=\"Sustainable fashion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7a5c3630dda91e6159b28734db3f3d2\">sustainable fashion<\/a> \u2013 are experimenting with this concept. Within the realm of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haute_couture\" title=\"Haute couture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9fee3515e0364c79916c59614c2decfc\">Haute Couture<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yohji_Yamamoto\" title=\"Yohji Yamamoto\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3167e292b6f7db7c7519ec7d71c95ff3\">Yohji Yamamoto<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hussein_Chalayan\" title=\"Hussein Chalayan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ff5f694dd00896332e3574d0b89b13d\">Hussein Chalayan<\/a> are notable examples, the latter especially for his use of technology to create modular garments.\n<\/p><p>Studies carried out in Finland and the US show favourable attitudes of consumers to modular fashion,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> despite this the concept has not yet made it into mainstream fashion. The current emphasis within modular fashion is on the co-designing and customisation factors for consumers, with a goal to combat the swift changes to customers needs and wants, while also tackling sustainability by increasing the life-cycle of garments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modularity_in_interior_design\">Modularity in interior design<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Modularity is a concept that has been thoroughly used in architecture and industry. In interior design modularity is used in order to achieve customizable products that are economically viable. Examples include some of the customizable creations of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IKEA\" title=\"IKEA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b201e4fc16db099619145481e175641c\">IKEA<\/a> and mostly high-end high-cost concepts. Modularity in interior design, or \"modularity in use\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kostakis_12-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kostakis-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> refers to the opportunities of combinations and reconfigurations of the modules in order to create an artefact that suits the specific needs of the user and simultaneously grows with them. The evolution of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/3D_printing\" title=\"3D printing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14979da89d72706d4b59e413b957a5e9\">3D printing<\/a> technology has enabled customizable furniture to become feasible. Objects can be prototyped, changed depending on the space and customized dependent on the users needs. Designers can prototype showcase their modules over the internet just by using 3D printing technology. Sofas are a common piece that have modular utilities ranging from ottoman to a bed, as well as fabrics and textiles that are swappable.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mann_2022_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mann_2022-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> This originated in the 1940s after being invented by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harvey_Probber\" title=\"Harvey Probber\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ff0095c434f90135aba6202a07ae2db\">Harvey Probber<\/a>, was refined in the 1970s, and reaching mass scale consumerism in the 2010s and 2020s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nast_2022_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nast_2022-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modularity_in_American_studies\">Modularity in American studies<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In John Blair's <i>Modular America<\/i>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Blair_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Blair-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> he argues that as Americans began to replace social structures inherited from Europe (predominantly England and France), they evolved a uniquely American tendency towards modularity in fields as diverse as education, music, and architecture.\n<\/p><p>Blair observes that when the word <i>module<\/i> first emerged in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it meant something very close to <i>model<\/i>. It implied a small-scale representation or example. By the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the word had come to imply a standard measure of fixed ratios and proportions. For example, in architecture, the proportions of a column could be stated in modules (i.e., \"a height of fourteen modules equaled seven times the diameter measured at the base\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Blair_35-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Blair-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 2\">:\u200a2\u200a<\/span><\/sup>) and thus multiplied to any size while still retaining the desired proportions.\n<\/p><p>However, in America, the meaning and usage of the word shifted considerably: \"Starting with architectural terminology in the 1930s, the new emphasis was on any entity or system designed in terms of modules as subcomponents. As applications broadened after World War II to furniture, hi-fi equipment, computer programs and beyond, modular construction came to refer to any whole made up of self-contained units designed to be equivalent parts of a system, hence, we might say, \"systemically equivalent.\" Modular parts are implicitly interchangeable and\/or recombinable in one or another of several senses\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Blair_35-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Blair-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 3\">:\u200a3\u200a<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Blair defines a modular system as \"one that gives more importance to parts than to wholes. Parts are conceived as equivalent and hence, in one or more senses, interchangeable and\/or cumulative and\/or recombinable\" (p. 125). Blair describes the emergence of modular structures in education (the college curriculum), industry (modular product assembly), architecture (skyscrapers), music (blues and jazz), and more. In his concluding chapter, Blair does not commit to a firm view of what causes Americans to pursue more modular structures in the diverse domains in which it has appeared; but he does suggest that it may in some way be related to the American ideology of liberal individualism and a preference for anti-hierarchical organization.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Consistent_themes\">Consistent themes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Comparing the use of modularity across disciplines reveals several themes:\n<\/p><p>One theme that shows up in psychology and biology study is innately specified. <i>Innately specified<\/i> (as used here) implies that the purpose or structure of the module is predetermined by some biological mandate.\n<\/p><p><i>Domain specificity<\/i>, that modules respond only to inputs of a specific class (or perform functions only of a specific class) is a theme that clearly spans psychology and biology, and it can be argued that it also spans technological and organizational systems. Domain specificity would be seen in the latter disciplines as specialization of function.\n<\/p><p><i>Hierarchically nested<\/i> is a theme that recurs in most disciplines. Though originally disavowed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerry_Fodor\" title=\"Jerry Fodor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c83b56fe5ece316c18b5952cee322198\">Jerry Fodor<\/a>, other psychologists have embraced it, and it is readily apparent in the use of modularity in biology (e.g., each module of an organism can be decomposed into finer modules), social processes and artifacts (e.g., we can think of a skyscraper in terms of blocks of floors, a single floor, elements of a floor, etc.), mathematics (e.g., the modulus 6 may be further divided into the moduli 1, 2 and 3), and technological and organizational systems (e.g., an organization may be composed of divisions, which are composed of teams, which are composed of individuals).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><i>Greater internal than external integration<\/i> is a theme that showed up in every discipline but mathematics. Often referred to as autonomy, this theme acknowledged that there may be interaction or integration between modules, but the greater interaction and integration occurs within the module. This theme is very closely related to <i>information encapsulation<\/i>, which shows up explicitly in both the psychology and technology research.\n<\/p><p><i>Near decomposability<\/i> (as termed by Simon, 1962) shows up in all of the disciplines, but is manifest in a matter of degrees. For instance, in psychology and biology it may refer merely to the ability to delineate one module from another (recognizing the boundaries of the module). In several of the social artifacts, mathematics, and technological or organizational systems, however, it refers to the ability to actually separate components from one another. In several of the disciplines this decomposability also enables the complexity of a system (or process) to be reduced. This is aptly captured in a quote from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Marr_(neuroscientist)\" title=\"David Marr (neuroscientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a3cbf8f6d7c91627993995d3fa9c80b\">David Marr<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> about psychological processes where he notes that, \"any large computation should be split up into a collection of small, nearly independent, specialized subprocesses.\" Reducing complexity is also the express purpose of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Casting_out_nines\" title=\"Casting out nines\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f55ddc7cc137033082a07f2d7c39963b\">casting out nines<\/a> in mathematics.\n<\/p><p><i>Substitutability<\/i> and <i>recombinability<\/i> are closely related constructs. The former refers to the ability to substitute one component for another as in John Blair's \"systemic equivalence\" while the latter may refer both to the indeterminate form of the system and the indeterminate use of the component. In US college curricula, for example, each course is designed with a credit system that ensures a uniform number of contact hours, and approximately uniform educational content, yielding substitutability. By virtue of their substitutability, each student may create their own curricula (recombinability of the curriculum as a system) and each course may be said to be recombinable with a variety of students' curricula (recombinability of the component within multiple systems). Both substitutability and recombinability are immediately recognizable in Blair's social processes and artifacts, and are also well captured in Garud and Kumaraswamy's<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> discussion of economies of substitution in technological systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Blair's systemic equivalence also demonstrates the relationship between substitutability and the <i>module as a homologue<\/i>. Blair's systemic equivalence refers to the ability for multiple modules to perform approximately the same function within a system, while in biology a module as a homologue refers to different modules sharing approximately the same form or function in different organisms. The extreme of the module as homologue is found in mathematics, where (in the simplest case) the modules refer to the reuse of a particular number and thus each module is exactly alike.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_39-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In all but mathematics, there has been an emphasis that modules may be different in kind. In Fodor's discussion of modular cognitive system, each module performs a unique task. In biology, even modules that are considered homologous may be somewhat different in form and function (e.g., a whale's fin versus a human's hand). In Blair's book, he points out that while jazz music may be composed of structural units that conform to the same underlying rules, those components vary significantly. Similarly in studies of technology and organization, modular systems may be composed of modules that are very similar (as in shelving units that may be piled one atop the other) or very different (as in a stereo system where each component performs unique functions) or any combination in between.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_39-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"\">\n<caption>Table 1: The use of modularity by discipline<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_39-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/caption>\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Concept\n<\/th>\n<th>Technology and organizations\n<\/th>\n<th>Psychology\n<\/th>\n<th>Biology\n<\/th>\n<th>American studies\n<\/th>\n<th>Mathematics\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Domain specific\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Innately specified\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Hierarchically nested\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>More internal integration than external integration (localized processes and autonomy)\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Informationally encapsulated\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Near decomposability\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Recombinability\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Expandability\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Module as homologue\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Configuration_design\" title=\"Configuration design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf4b04bdc492b0f8d23bc2d80a4aeb43\">Configuration design<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object-oriented_programming\" title=\"Object-oriented programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89f19c8e4c919ea2942014fec0ff7a8d\">Object-oriented programming<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pattern_language\" title=\"Pattern language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a3ef5e5d7c7f1b7b8241e65bbf71a94\">Pattern language<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-MWModular-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MWModular_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/modularity\" target=\"_blank\">\"modular\"<\/a>. <i>Merriam-Webster<\/i>. Merriam-Webster, Inc. 17 May 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster&amp;rft.atitle=modular&amp;rft.date=2018-05-17&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fmodularity&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BaldwinDesign00-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BaldwinDesign00_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBaldwin,_C.Y.Clark,_K.B.2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Baldwin, C.Y.; Clark, K.B. (2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=oaBOuo4mId8C&pg=PA63\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 3: What Is Modularity?\"<\/a>. <i>Design Rules: The power of modularity<\/i>. MIT Press. pp.&#160;63\u201392. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780262024662<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+What+Is+Modularity%3F&amp;rft.btitle=Design+Rules%3A+The+power+of+modularity&amp;rft.pages=63-92&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=9780262024662&amp;rft.au=Baldwin%2C+C.Y.&amp;rft.au=Clark%2C+K.B.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoaBOuo4mId8C%26pg%3DPA63&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchillingManaging09-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchillingManaging09_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchilling,_M.A.2009\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Schilling, M.A. (2009-02-09). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=i3kzJWdlfXkC&pg=PA203\" target=\"_blank\">\"Towards A General Modular Systems Theory and its Application to Interfirm Product Modularity \u2013 Commentary\"<\/a>. In Garud, R.; Kumaraswamy, A.; Langlois, R.N. (eds.). <i>Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks, and Organizations<\/i>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;203\u2013216. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781405141949<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Towards+A+General+Modular+Systems+Theory+and+its+Application+to+Interfirm+Product+Modularity+%E2%80%93+Commentary&amp;rft.btitle=Managing+in+the+Modular+Age%3A+Architectures%2C+Networks%2C+and+Organizations&amp;rft.pages=203-216&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2009-02-09&amp;rft.isbn=9781405141949&amp;rft.au=Schilling%2C+M.A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di3kzJWdlfXkC%26pg%3DPA203&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.diva-portal.org\/smash\/get\/diva2:1001049\/FULLTEXT01.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Industrialization of Construction-A Lean Modular Approach\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Industrialization of Construction-A Lean Modular Approach<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Industrialization+of+Construction-A+Lean+Modular+Approach&amp;rft.atitle=Industrialization+of+Construction-A+Lean+Modular+Approach&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.diva-portal.org%2Fsmash%2Fget%2Fdiva2%3A1001049%2FFULLTEXT01.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCampagnoloCamuffo2010\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Campagnolo, Diego; Camuffo, Arnaldo (2010). \"The Concept of Modularity in Management Studies: A Literature Review\". <i>International Journal of Management Reviews<\/i>. <b>12<\/b> (3): 259\u2013283. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2370.2009.00260.x\" target=\"_blank\">10.1111\/j.1468-2370.2009.00260.x<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1468-2370\" target=\"_blank\">1468-2370<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:145557344\" target=\"_blank\">145557344<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Management+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=The+Concept+of+Modularity+in+Management+Studies%3A+A+Literature+Review&amp;rft.volume=12&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=259-283&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145557344%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=1468-2370&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-2370.2009.00260.x&amp;rft.aulast=Campagnolo&amp;rft.aufirst=Diego&amp;rft.au=Camuffo%2C+Arnaldo&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Schilling,_M.A_2000-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A_2000_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Schilling, M.A. 2000. \"Towards a general modular systems theory and its application to inter-firm product modularity\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Academy_of_Management_Review\" title=\"Academy of Management Review\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"818de57e43fa54be9370df74779c50b6\">Academy of Management Review<\/a><\/i>, Vol 25:312\u2013334.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Baldwin, C. Y. &amp; Clark, K. B. 2000. <i>Design rules, Volume 1: The power of modularity<\/i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Orton, J. &amp; Weick, K. 1990. \"Loosely coupled systems: A reconceptualization\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Academy_of_Management_Review\" title=\"Academy of Management Review\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"818de57e43fa54be9370df74779c50b6\">Academy of Management Review<\/a><\/i>, 15:203\u2013223.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Manovich, J. 2001. <i>The Language of New Media<\/i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bradley Dilger, Review of <i>The Language of New Media<\/i> (Kairos: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/english.ttu.edu\/kairos\/7.1\/reviews\/dilger\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/english.ttu.edu\/kairos\/7.1\/reviews\/dilger\/<\/a>).<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Schilling,_M.A._1169-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A._1169_11-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A._1169_11-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A._1169_11-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Schilling, M.A. &amp; Steensma, K. 2001. \"The use of modular organizational forms: An industry level analysis\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Academy_of_Management_Journal\" title=\"Academy of Management Journal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c397b813f2bff4f5bd065070d193961e\">Academy of Management Journal<\/a><\/i>, 44: 1149\u20131169.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Kostakis-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Kostakis_12-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Kostakis_12-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Kostakis_12-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKostakis2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kostakis, Vasilis (2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/halduskultuur.eu\/journal\/index.php\/HKAC\/article\/view\/228\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to reap the benefits of the 'digital revolution'? Modularity and the commons\"<\/a>. <i>Halduskultuur: The Estonian Journal of Administrative Culture and Digital Governance<\/i>. <b>20<\/b> (1): 4\u201319. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.32994%2Fhk.v20i1.228\" target=\"_blank\">10.32994\/hk.v20i1.228<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1736-6089\" target=\"_blank\">1736-6089<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:242184840\" target=\"_blank\">242184840<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Halduskultuur%3A+The+Estonian+Journal+of+Administrative+Culture+and+Digital+Governance&amp;rft.atitle=How+to+reap+the+benefits+of+the+%27digital+revolution%27%3F+Modularity+and+the+commons&amp;rft.volume=20&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=4-19&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A242184840%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=1736-6089&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.32994%2Fhk.v20i1.228&amp;rft.aulast=Kostakis&amp;rft.aufirst=Vasilis&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhalduskultuur.eu%2Fjournal%2Findex.php%2FHKAC%2Farticle%2Fview%2F228&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Miles,_R.E._et_al._1997-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Miles,_R.E._et_al._1997_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Miles R.E., Snow, C.C., Mathews, J.A., Miles, G., &amp; Coleman, H.J. \"Organizing in the knowledge age&#160;\u2014 Anticipating the cellular form\". <i>Academy of Management Executive<\/i> 11(4):7\u201320.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Zenger,_T.R._&amp;_Hesterly,_W.S._1997-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Zenger,_T.R._&amp;_Hesterly,_W.S._1997_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Zenger, T.R. &amp; Hesterly, W.S. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Todd_Zenger\/publication\/228282744_The_Disaggregation_of_Organizations_Selective_Intervention_High-Powered_Incentives_and_Molecular_Units\/links\/0046351dda904b2cc4000000\/The-Disaggregation-of-Organizations-Selective-Intervention-High-Powered-Incentives-and-Molecular-Units.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Disaggregation of Corporations&#160;\u2014 Selective Intervention, High-powered Incentives, and Molecular Units\"<\/a>. <i>Organization Science<\/i> 8:209\u2013222.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Kuntz,_L._&amp;_Vera,_A._2007-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kuntz,_L._&amp;_Vera,_A._2007_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Kuntz, L. &amp; Vera, A. 2007. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/download?doi=10.1.1.951.9266&rep=rep1&type=pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Modular organization and hospital performance\"<\/a>. <i>Health Services Management Research<\/i>, 20(1): 48\u201358.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAasPedersen2013\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Aas, Tor Helge; Pedersen, Per Egil (2013). \"The usefulness of componentization for specialized public service providers\". <i>Managing Service Quality<\/i>. <b>23<\/b> (6): 513\u2013532. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108%2FMSQ-10-2012-0138\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/MSQ-10-2012-0138<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Managing+Service+Quality&amp;rft.atitle=The+usefulness+of+componentization+for+specialized+public+service+providers&amp;rft.volume=23&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=513-532&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2FMSQ-10-2012-0138&amp;rft.aulast=Aas&amp;rft.aufirst=Tor+Helge&amp;rft.au=Pedersen%2C+Per+Egil&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Coltheart,_M_1999-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Coltheart,_M_1999_17-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Coltheart,_M_1999_17-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Coltheart, M. 1999. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pdfs.semanticscholar.org\/a6e7\/4ca78a534ee2065aff78baee5b3aeed9c1e4.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Modularity and cognition\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trends_in_Cognitive_Sciences\" title=\"Trends in Cognitive Sciences\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55ef690a3237e568cbee71d21358e970\">Trends in Cognitive Sciences<\/a><\/i>, 3(3):115\u2013120.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Block,_N_1995-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Block,_N_1995_18-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Block,_N_1995_18-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Block, N. 1995. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/philarchive.org\/archive\/BLOTMA\" target=\"_blank\">\"The mind as the software of the brain\"<\/a>, in Smith, E. and Osherson, D. (Eds) Thinking: An invitation to cognitive science. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Spunt, R. P. &amp; Adolphs, R., (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bobspunt.com\/papers\/pdf\/Spunt_Adolphs_InPress_NatRevNeurosci.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A new look at domain specificity: insights from social neuroscience\"<\/a>. <i>Nature Reviews: Neuroscience<\/i>. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fnrn.2017.76\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/nrn.2017.76<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Andrews, J. 1998. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.annualreviews.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1146\/annurev.micro.52.1.105\" target=\"_blank\">Bacteria as modular organisms<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Annual_Review_of_Microbiology\" title=\"Annual Review of Microbiology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4795938696d0e7b10b25c5ed5c1d4dc4\">Annual Review of Microbiology<\/a><\/i>, 52:105\u2013126.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bolker, J. A. 2000. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/icb\/article-pdf\/40\/5\/770\/369180\/i0003-1569-040-05-0770.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Modularity in development and why it matters to Evo-Devo\"<\/a>. <i>American Zoologist<\/i>, 40: 770\u2013776.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-fodor1983-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-fodor1983_22-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Fodor, J. 1983. <i>The Modularity of Mind<\/i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Raff-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Raff_23-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Raff_23-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Raff, R. A. 1996. <i>The Shape of Life<\/i>. Chicago: Chicago University Press.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hull, D. L. 1980. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.joelvelasco.net\/teaching\/167\/Hull%201980%20-%20Individuality%20and%20Selection.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Individuality and selection<\/a>. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 11:311\u2013332<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Roth, V. L. 1991. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1046\/j.1420-9101.1991.4020167.x\" target=\"_blank\">Homology and hierarchies: Problems solved and unresolved<\/a>. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 4:167\u2013194<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Altenberg, L. 1995. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/download?doi=10.1.1.39.3876&rep=rep1&type=pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Genome growth and the evolution of the genotype-phenotype map\"<\/a>. In <i>Evolution and Biocomputation: Computational Models of Evolution<\/i>, ed. Wolfgang Banzhaf and Frank H. Eeckman. Lecture Notes in Computer Science vol. 899. Springer-Verlag, pp. 205\u2013259.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Wagner, G. 1996. \"Homologues, natural kinds and the evolution of modularity\". <i>American Zoologist<\/i>, 36:36\u201343.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Wagner, G. and Altenberg, L. 1996a. \"Perspective: complex adaptations and the evolution of evolvability\". <i>Evolution<\/i>, 50:967\u2013976.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Notably, cubic sculptures by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mitzi_Cunliffe\" title=\"Mitzi Cunliffe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a95e4697a0c52c23021330ccc01661a8\">Mitzi Cunliffe<\/a> in the 1950s and 1960s, and prints by the sculptor <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Norman_Carlberg\" title=\"Norman Carlberg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81915b4cf9fe199d1978b09f662b1200\">Norman Carlberg<\/a> from the 1970s and after.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See \"Modulartists and Their Works\" in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ModulArt\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ModulArt\" data-key=\"f08e1140501d64e863cbe41baacfb671\">ModulArt<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fashionstudiesjournal.org\/longform\/2018\/9\/15\/transformable-fashion\" target=\"_blank\">\"Transformable Fashion: The Biggest Sustainable Clothing Trend That Never Was\"<\/a>. <i>The Fashion Studies Journal<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2020-12-21<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Fashion+Studies+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Transformable+Fashion%3A+The+Biggest+Sustainable+Clothing+Trend+That+Never+Was&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fashionstudiesjournal.org%2Flongform%2F2018%2F9%2F15%2Ftransformable-fashion&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHur2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Hur, Eunsuk (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/304257277\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sustainable Fashion and Textiles through Participatory Design: A case study of modular textile design\"<\/a>. <i>The Journal of the Korean Society of Knit Design<\/i>. <b>13<\/b>: 100\u2013109 \u2013 via ResearchGate.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Korean+Society+of+Knit+Design&amp;rft.atitle=Sustainable+Fashion+and+Textiles+through+Participatory+Design%3A+A+case+study+of+modular+textile+design.&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.pages=100-109&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.aulast=Hur&amp;rft.aufirst=Eunsuk&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F304257277&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mann_2022-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Mann_2022_33-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMann2022\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Mann, Randi (2022-04-01). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nationalpost.com\/shopping-essentials\/home-living\/theres-a-new-modular-sofa-in-town-and-its-made-in-canada\" target=\"_blank\">\"There's a new modular sofa in town, and it's made in Canada\"<\/a>. <i>nationalpost<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-10-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=nationalpost&amp;rft.atitle=There%27s+a+new+modular+sofa+in+town%2C+and+it%27s+made+in+Canada&amp;rft.date=2022-04-01&amp;rft.aulast=Mann&amp;rft.aufirst=Randi&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnationalpost.com%2Fshopping-essentials%2Fhome-living%2Ftheres-a-new-modular-sofa-in-town-and-its-made-in-canada&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Nast_2022-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Nast_2022_34-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.architecturaldigest.com\/story\/sofa-trends-through-the-decades-guide\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sofa Trends Through the Decades\"<\/a>. <i>Architectural Digest<\/i>. 2022-09-30<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-10-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Architectural+Digest&amp;rft.atitle=Sofa+Trends+Through+the+Decades&amp;rft.date=2022-09-30&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.architecturaldigest.com%2Fstory%2Fsofa-trends-through-the-decades-guide&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Blair-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Blair_35-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Blair_35-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Blair_35-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Blair, J.G. 1988. <i>Modular America: Cross-cultural perspectives on the emergence of an American way<\/i>. New York: Greenwood Press.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Schilling, M.A. 2002. Modularity in multiple disciplines. In Garud, R., Langlois, R., &amp; Kumaraswamy, A. (eds) Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks and Organizations. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishers, pp. 203\u2013214<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Marr, D. 1982. <i>Vision<\/i>. W.H. Freeman, p. 325.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Garud, R. and Kumaraswamy, A. 1995. \"Technological and organizational designs to achieve economies of substitution\". <i>Strategic Management Journal<\/i>, 16:93\u2013110.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_39-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_39-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_39-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_39-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Adapted with permission from Schilling, M.A. 2002. \"Modularity in multiple disciplines\". In Garud, R., Langlois, R., &amp; Kumaraswamy, A. (eds) <i>Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks and Organizations<\/i>. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishers, pp. 203\u2013214<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div><p>Research articles \n<\/p><ol><li>R. Phukan, D. Nam, D. Dong and R. Burgos, \"Design Considerations for a Modular 2-Stage LCLC Filter for Three Phase AC-DC Interleaved Converters,\" <i>2022 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference &amp; Expo (ITEC)<\/i>, Anaheim, CA, USA, 2022, pp. 517-522. doi: 10.1109\/ITEC53557.2022.9813883<\/li>\n<li>S. Ohn <i>et al<\/i>., \"A Scalable Filter Topology for $N$-Parallel Modular Three-Phase AC\u2013DC Converters by an Arrangement of Coupled Inductors,\" in <i>IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics<\/i>, vol. 37, no. 11, pp. 13358-13367, Nov. 2022. doi: 10.1109\/TPEL.2022.3179396<\/li>\n<li>R. Phukan <i>et al<\/i>., \"Design of an Indirectly Coupled Filter Building Block for Modular Interleaved AC\u2013DC Converters,\" in <i>IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics<\/i>, vol. 37, no. 11, pp. 13343-13357, Nov. 2022. doi: 10.1109\/TPEL.2022.3179346<\/li>\n<li>R. Phukan, S. Ohn, D. Dong, R. Burgos, G. Mondal and S. Nielebock, \"Evaluation of Modular AC Filter Building Blocks for Full SiC based Grid-Tied Three Phase Converters,\" <i>2020 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE)<\/i>, Detroit, MI, USA, 2020, pp. 1835-1841. doi: 10.1109\/ECCE44975.2020.9236265<\/li>\n<li>S. Ohn <i>et al<\/i>., \"Modular Filter Building Block for Modular full-SiC AC-DC Converters by an Arrangement of Coupled Inductors,\" <i>2020 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE)<\/i>, Detroit, MI, USA, 2020, pp. 4130-4136. doi: 10.1109\/ECCE44975.2020.9236309<\/li>\n<li>R. Phukan, S. Ohn, D. Dong, R. Burgos, G. Mondal and S. Nielebock, \"Design and Optimization of a Highly Integrated Modular Filter Building Block for Three-Level Grid Tied Converters,\" <i>2020 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE)<\/i>, Detroit, MI, USA, 2020, pp. 4949-4956. doi: 10.1109\/ECCE44975.2020.9235895<\/li><\/ol>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw\u2010web.codfw.main\u20105977969c69\u2010kx2bz\nCached time: 20231215174555\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.282 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.372 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1911\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 24483\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 974\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 16\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 50104\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.139\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6754168\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 324.727 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>48.58% 157.758 1 Template:Reflist\n26.73% 86.807 4 Template:Cite_web\n19.25% 62.502 3 Template:Rp\n18.39% 59.722 3 Template:R\/superscript\n17.34% 56.307 1 Template:Short_description\n14.17% 46.019 9 Template:R\/where\n 9.48% 30.800 2 Template:Pagetype\n 7.00% 22.729 5 Template:Cite_journal\n 6.64% 21.573 1 Template:Other_uses\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:585648-0!canonical and timestamp 20231215174554 and revision id 1189981421. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modularity\" data-key=\"35446b707174c7d05397964b795e9203\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171636\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.119 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.314 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 73618\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 288.639 1 wikipedia:Modularity\n100.00% 288.639 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10589-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171635 and revision id 35097. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Modularity\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Modularity<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","05622b8599837512e5cac1e66d2ee5b4_images":[],"05622b8599837512e5cac1e66d2ee5b4_timestamp":1704906995,"82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_type":"article","82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_title":"Middleware","82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Middleware","82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_plaintext":"\n\nMiddlewareFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchComputer software that provides services to software applications\nMiddleware is a type of computer software program that provides services to software applications beyond those available from the operating system. It can be described as \"software glue\".[1][2]\nMiddleware makes it easier for software developers to implement communication and input\/output, so they can focus on the specific purpose of their application. It gained popularity in the 1980s as a solution to the problem of how to link newer applications to older legacy systems, although the term had been in use since 1968.[3]\n\n\n\nIn distributed applications \nMain article: Middleware (distributed applications)\nSoftware architecture: Middleware\n\nThe term is most commonly used for software that enables communication and management of data in distributed applications. An IETF workshop in 2000 defined middleware as \"those services found above the transport (i.e. over TCP\/IP) layer set of services but below the application environment\" (i.e. below application-level APIs).[4] In this more specific sense middleware can be described as the dash (\"-\") in client-server, or the -to- in peer-to-peer. Middleware includes web servers, application servers, content management systems, and similar tools that support application development and delivery.[5]\nObjectWeb defines middleware as: \"The software layer that lies between the operating system and applications on each side of a distributed computing system in a network.\"[6] Services that can be regarded as middleware include enterprise application integration, data integration, message oriented middleware (MOM), object request brokers (ORBs), and the enterprise service bus (ESB).[7]\nDatabase access services are often characterised as middleware. Some of them are language specific implementations and support heterogeneous features and other related communication features.[8] Examples of database-oriented middleware include ODBC, JDBC and transaction processing monitors.[9]\nDistributed computing system middleware can loosely be divided into two categories\u2014those that provide human-time services (such as web request servicing) and those that perform in machine-time. This latter middleware is somewhat standardized through the Service Availability Forum[10] and is commonly used in complex, embedded systems within telecom, defence and aerospace industries.[11]\n\nUsage of middleware \nMany definitions exist regarding the categorization of middleware specifying either on the field that it is used or the application module it serves. In recent bibliography, the main categories of middleware are the following:[12]\n\nTransactional: Processing of multiple synchronous\/ asynchronous transactions, serving as a cluster of associated requests from distributed systems such as bank transactions or credit card payments.\nMessage-oriented: Message queue and message passing architectures, which support synchronous\/asynchronous communication.\nProcedural: Remote and local architectures to connect, pass, and retrieve software responses of asynchronous systems communications such as a call operation.\nObject-oriented: Similar to procedural middleware, however, this type of middleware incorporates object-oriented programming design principles. Analytically, its software component encompasses object references, exceptions, and inheritance of properties via distributed object request.\nOther examples \nThe term middleware is used in other contexts as well. Middleware is sometimes used in a similar sense to a software driver, an abstraction layer that hides detail about hardware devices or other software from an application.\n\nThe Android operating system uses the Linux kernel at its core, and also provides an application framework that developers incorporate into their applications. In addition, Android provides a middleware layer including libraries that provide services such as data storage, screen display, multimedia, and web browsing. Because the middleware libraries are compiled to machine language, services execute quickly. Middleware libraries also implement device-specific functions, so applications and the application framework need not concern themselves with variations between various Android devices. Android's middleware layer also contains the ART virtual machine and its core Java application libraries.[13]\nMiddleware also refers to the software that separates two or more APIs and provides services such as rate-limiting, authentication, and logging.\nGame engine software such as Gamebryo and RenderWare are sometimes described as middleware, because they provide many services to simplify game development.[14]\nIn simulation technology, middleware is generally used in the context of the high level architecture (HLA) that applies to many distributed simulations. It is a layer of software that lies between the application code and the run-time infrastructure. Middleware generally consists of a library of functions, and enables a number of applications\u2014simulations or federates in HLA terminology\u2014to page these functions from the common library rather than re-create them for each application.[15]\nWireless networking developers can use middleware to meet the challenges associated with a wireless sensor network (WSN). Implementing a middleware application allows WSN developers to integrate operating systems and hardware with the wide variety of various applications that are currently available.[16]\nThe QNX operating system offers middleware for providing multimedia services for use in automobiles, aircraft and other environments.[17]\nRadio-frequency identification (RFID) software toolkits provide middleware to filter noisy and redundant raw data.[18]\nSee also \nLanguage-agnostic\nThird-party software component\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"Middleware conference\". middleware-conf.github.io. Retrieved 2023-12-16 . Middleware is a distributed-system software that resides between applications and underlying platforms (operating systems; databases; hardware), and\/or ties together distributed applications, databases or devices. Its primary role is to coordinate and enable communication between different layers or components while isolating much of the complexity of distribution into a single, well tested and well understood system abstraction. \n\n^ \"What is Middleware?\". Middleware.org. Defining Technology. 2008. Archived from the original on June 29, 2012. Retrieved 2013-08-11 . {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) \n\n^ Gall, Nick (July 30, 2005). \"Origin of the term middleware\". Retrieved May 21, 2008 . \n\n^ \"Home\". IETF. \n\n^ Etzkorn, L. H. (2017). Introduction to Middleware: Web Services, Object Components, and Cloud Computing. CRC Press. pp.&#160;4\u20135. ISBN&#160;9781498754101. \n\n^ Krakowiak, Sacha. \"What's middleware?\". ObjectWeb.org. Archived from the original on 2005-05-07. Retrieved 2005-05-06 . \n\n^ Luckham, D. C. (2011). Event Processing for Business: Organizing the Real-Time Enterprise. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;27\u201328. ISBN&#160;9781118171851. \n\n^ Simon, A. R.; Wheeler, T. (2014). Open Client\/Server Computing and Middleware. Academic Press. pp.&#160;43\u201349. ISBN&#160;9781483214276. \n\n^ Arregoces, M.; Portolani, M. (2003). Data Center Fundamentals. Cisco Press. pp.&#160;92\u201393. ISBN&#160;9781587140747. \n\n^ \"Service Availability Interface Specification\" (PDF) . Service Availability Forum. 30 September 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2018 . \n\n^ Jokiaho, T.; Fryer, J. (2012). \"Foreword\". Service Availability: Principles and Practice. John Wiley &amp; Sons. p.&#160;xv. ISBN&#160;9781119941675. \n\n^ Gazis, Alexandros; Katsiri, Eleftheria (15 March 2022). \"Middleware 101: What to know now and for the future\". doi:10.1145\/3526211 . S2CID&#160;247494415. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) \n\n^ Charlie Collins, Michael Galpin and Matthias Kaeppler, Android in Practice, Manning Publications, 2011 \n\n^ Moore, M. E. (2006). Introduction to the Game Industry. Pearson Prentice Hall. p.&#160;169. ISBN&#160;9780131687431. \n\n^ Becchini, R.; Chilaev, P.; Krivtsov, V.; et&#160;al. (2003). \"Chapter 4: Middleware\". In Drira, K.; Martelli, A.; Villemur, T. (eds.). Cooperative Environments for Distributed Systems Engineering: The Distributed Systems Environment Report. Springer. pp.&#160;41\u20134. ISBN&#160;9783540455820. \n\n^ Hadim, S. and Mohamed, N. (2006). Middleware challenges and approaches for wireless sensor networks. IEEE Distributed Systems Online vol 7. Issue 3. Retrieved March 4, 2009 from\niEEE Distributed Systems Online Archived 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ \"QNX Software Joins Internet ITS Consortium of Japan\". QNX News Releases. QNX. 6 May 2008. Retrieved 26 July 2018 . \n\n^ Glover, B.; Bhatt, H. (2006). RFID Essentials. O'Reilly Media. pp.&#160;38\u201344. ISBN&#160;9780596009441. \n\n \nExternal links \n The dictionary definition of middleware at Wiktionary\n\r\n\n\nvteComputer scienceNote: This template roughly follows the 2012 ACM Computing Classification System.Hardware\nPrinted circuit board\nPeripheral\nIntegrated circuit\nVery Large Scale Integration\nSystems on Chip (SoCs)\nEnergy consumption (Green computing)\nElectronic design automation\nHardware acceleration\n Computer systems organization\nComputer architecture\nEmbedded system\nReal-time computing\nDependability\nNetworks\nNetwork architecture\nNetwork protocol\nNetwork components\nNetwork scheduler\nNetwork performance evaluation\nNetwork service\nSoftware organization\nInterpreter\nMiddleware\nVirtual machine\nOperating system\nSoftware quality\nSoftware notations and tools\nProgramming paradigm\nProgramming language\nCompiler\nDomain-specific language\nModeling language\nSoftware framework\nIntegrated development environment\nSoftware configuration management\nSoftware library\nSoftware repository\nSoftware development\nControl variable\nSoftware development process\nRequirements analysis\nSoftware design\nSoftware construction\nSoftware deployment\nSoftware engineering\nSoftware maintenance\nProgramming team\nOpen-source model\nTheory of computation\nModel of computation\nFormal language\nAutomata theory\nComputability theory\nComputational complexity theory\nLogic\nSemantics\nAlgorithms\nAlgorithm design\nAnalysis of algorithms\nAlgorithmic efficiency\nRandomized algorithm\nComputational geometry\nMathematics of computing\nDiscrete mathematics\nProbability\nStatistics\nMathematical software\nInformation theory\nMathematical analysis\nNumerical analysis\nTheoretical computer science\nInformation systems\nDatabase management system\nInformation storage systems\nEnterprise information system\nSocial information systems\nGeographic information system\nDecision support system\nProcess control system\nMultimedia information system\nData mining\nDigital library\nComputing platform\nDigital marketing\nWorld Wide Web\nInformation retrieval\nSecurity\nCryptography\nFormal methods\nSecurity hacker\nSecurity services\nIntrusion detection system\nHardware security\nNetwork security\nInformation security\nApplication security\nHuman\u2013computer interaction\nInteraction design\nSocial computing\nUbiquitous computing\nVisualization\nAccessibility\nConcurrency\nConcurrent computing\nParallel computing\nDistributed computing\nMultithreading\nMultiprocessing\nArtificial intelligence\nNatural language processing\nKnowledge representation and reasoning\nComputer vision\nAutomated planning and scheduling\nSearch methodology\nControl method\nPhilosophy of artificial intelligence\nDistributed artificial intelligence\nMachine learning\nSupervised learning\nUnsupervised learning\nReinforcement learning\nMulti-task learning\nCross-validation\nGraphics\nAnimation\nRendering\nPhotograph manipulation\nGraphics processing unit\nMixed reality\nVirtual reality\nImage compression\nSolid modeling\nApplied computing\nQuantum Computing\nE-commerce\nEnterprise software\nComputational mathematics\nComputational physics\nComputational chemistry\nComputational biology\nComputational social science\nComputational engineering\nComputational healthcare\nDigital art\nElectronic publishing\nCyberwarfare\nElectronic voting\nVideo games\nWord processing\nOperations research\nEducational technology\nDocument management\n\n Category\n Outline\n WikiProject\n Commons\n\nAuthority control databases: National \nGermany \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Middleware\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Middleware<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 27 July 2018, at 00:26.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 4,533 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Middleware rootpage-Middleware skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Middleware<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Computer software that provides services to software applications<\/div>\n<p><b>Middleware<\/b> is a type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer software\" data-key=\"e8a365bf2f5a19030dc6a6c1629a22ea\">computer software<\/a> program that provides services to software applications beyond those available from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating system<\/a>. It can be described as \"software glue\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MW-00_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MW-00-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Middleware makes it easier for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_developer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software developer\" data-key=\"c0985fdcb8765ad9e0611e9072e2acd0\">software developers<\/a> to implement communication and input\/output, so they can focus on the specific purpose of their application. It gained popularity in the 1980s as a solution to the problem of how to link newer applications to older legacy systems, although the term had been in use since 1968.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_distributed_applications\">In distributed applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Middleware_(distributed_applications)\" title=\"Middleware (distributed applications)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ee323233827355e2cf51c0b96ffbf72\">Middleware (distributed applications)<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Middleware_Schema.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e7ca25a0281a88548f7c3651750af91\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/20\/Middleware_Schema.svg\/220px-Middleware_Schema.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"185\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Software architecture: Middleware<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The term is most commonly used for software that enables communication and management of data in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_application\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed application\" data-key=\"3a1e3ad16b161d550b47445d9820863b\">distributed applications<\/a>. An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IETF\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IETF\" data-key=\"e532f4fb10a864e40a224e94bfe75cb5\">IETF<\/a> workshop in 2000 defined middleware as \"those services found above the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transport_layer\" title=\"Transport layer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4927a7e90ff6ec0cfa04736516de75e3\">transport<\/a> (i.e. over TCP\/IP) layer set of services but below the application environment\" (i.e. below application-level <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_programming_interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Application programming interface\" data-key=\"c3b6475d989fc4f46d473299c5f0a76b\">APIs<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> In this more specific sense <i>middleware<\/i> can be described as the dash (\"-\") in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Client-server\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Client-server\" data-key=\"0abd600e0e3dc7939c38eac2b97e174e\">client-server<\/a><\/i>, or the <i>-to-<\/i> in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer\" title=\"Peer-to-peer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4461153add916f80b39b5acdc03c0764\">peer-to-peer<\/a><\/i>. Middleware includes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_server\" title=\"Web server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"594f91c19b26d6e9b03722d08d9be4f0\">web servers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_server\" title=\"Application server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8dcd8b1b4d7be0f2ab53000b24d9ca5e\">application servers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_management_system\" title=\"Content management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3eac85f5c05cd41688150c2d211e93cf\">content management systems<\/a>, and similar tools that support application development and delivery.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EtzkornIntro17_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EtzkornIntro17-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>ObjectWeb defines middleware as: \"The software layer that lies between the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating system<\/a> and applications on each side of a distributed computing system in a network.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Services that can be regarded as middleware include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_application_integration\" title=\"Enterprise application integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d697403942408f923065543d60e5bda1\">enterprise application integration<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">data integration<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_oriented_middleware\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Message oriented middleware\" data-key=\"45e9cf8004261003245fc4e445f03a16\">message oriented middleware<\/a> (MOM), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object_request_broker\" title=\"Object request broker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b22e00def84db2793c402cce6464f70b\">object request brokers<\/a> (ORBs), and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_service_bus\" title=\"Enterprise service bus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce981b6f02bbc3bb69223b94e79357ad\">enterprise service bus<\/a> (ESB).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LuckhamEvent11_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LuckhamEvent11-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DBMS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"DBMS\" data-key=\"4496d739c18def31b0c1ecf77152cf78\">Database<\/a> access services are often characterised as middleware. Some of them are language specific implementations and support heterogeneous features and other related communication features.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SimonOpen14_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SimonOpen14-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Examples of database-oriented middleware include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ODBC\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ODBC\" data-key=\"c791e2afdea9280d52f9dfc8c20b9e68\">ODBC<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JDBC\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JDBC\" data-key=\"6e82fa8ca5eccab74b65438504682dad\">JDBC<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transaction_processing\" title=\"Transaction processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc4654ebea47d9f14e7ebe49367c965c\">transaction processing<\/a> monitors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ArregocesData03_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ArregocesData03-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Distributed computing system middleware can loosely be divided into two categories\u2014those that provide human-time services (such as web request servicing) and those that perform in machine-time. This latter middleware is somewhat standardized through the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SA_Forum\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SA Forum\" data-key=\"7eae55106a3421fe5205c5cef9b05076\">Service Availability Forum<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SAFService11_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SAFService11-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> and is commonly used in complex, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embedded_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Embedded systems\" data-key=\"51d9c3c401ff6ee2ae6781e1b5b920ea\">embedded systems<\/a> within telecom, defence and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aerospace\" title=\"Aerospace\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14c57dc120261c7e15449a4934e43c20\">aerospace<\/a> industries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JokiahoService12_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JokiahoService12-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Usage_of_middleware\">Usage of middleware<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Many definitions exist regarding the categorization of middleware specifying either on the field that it is used or the application module it serves. In recent bibliography, the main categories of middleware are the following:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Transactional: Processing of multiple synchronous\/ asynchronous transactions, serving as a cluster of associated requests from distributed systems such as bank transactions or credit card payments.<\/li>\n<li>Message-oriented: Message queue and message passing architectures, which support synchronous\/asynchronous communication.<\/li>\n<li>Procedural: Remote and local architectures to connect, pass, and retrieve software responses of asynchronous systems communications such as a call operation.<\/li>\n<li>Object-oriented: Similar to procedural middleware, however, this type of middleware incorporates object-oriented programming design principles. Analytically, its software component encompasses object references, exceptions, and inheritance of properties via distributed object request.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_examples\">Other examples<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The term <i>middleware<\/i> is used in other contexts as well. <i>Middleware<\/i> is sometimes used in a similar sense to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_driver\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software driver\" data-key=\"baf0c1f251f71ec0c85ca66391a6a26c\">software driver<\/a>, an abstraction layer that hides detail about hardware devices or other software from an application.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Android_(operating_system)\" title=\"Android (operating system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4367a4e67ff6009ca76098e827576ad\">Android<\/a> operating system uses the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linux\" title=\"Linux\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccfb1826b029961cb72ef84704ee2bcb\">Linux<\/a> kernel at its core, and also provides an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_framework\" title=\"Application framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96d379a1275dbf1bee1ace830dc09e3b\">application framework<\/a> that developers incorporate into their applications. In addition, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Android_(operating_system)#Design\" title=\"Android (operating system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e283f50064268239e38b679e7adf833d\">Android<\/a> provides a middleware layer including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_library\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software library\" data-key=\"0a777d95355b6c51af74cda9403b2b1f\">libraries<\/a> that provide services such as data storage, screen display, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multimedia\" title=\"Multimedia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df86fe239ea0adc7fef2b979534a0990\">multimedia<\/a>, and web browsing. Because the middleware libraries are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compiler\" title=\"Compiler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bacf6f1d998f0c6010da2357979e04c\">compiled<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Machine language\" data-key=\"f337b36b96dc06c704f19860804c8e77\">machine language<\/a>, services execute quickly. Middleware libraries also implement device-specific functions, so applications and the application framework need not concern themselves with variations between various Android devices. Android's middleware layer also contains the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Android_Runtime\" title=\"Android Runtime\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7345863b921e4e0e10515f43b0bda7\">ART<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_machine\" title=\"Virtual machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16440b9ad77e099b05018bbcf21066c7\">virtual machine<\/a> and its core <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_(programming_language)\" title=\"Java (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444fa6d23d72fee4750d4189e5a53f53\">Java<\/a> application libraries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Middleware also refers to the software that separates two or more APIs and provides services such as rate-limiting, authentication, and logging.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_engine\" title=\"Game engine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01869a44239c3ab46956aafad8d7fc51\">Game engine<\/a> software such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gamebryo\" title=\"Gamebryo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebe4601e7ce3e201d30f30e898db44b5\">Gamebryo<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RenderWare\" title=\"RenderWare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54d1c3569bf5d1c900608aef384a3086\">RenderWare<\/a> are sometimes described as middleware, because they provide many services to simplify game development.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MooreIntro06_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MooreIntro06-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In simulation technology, <i>middleware<\/i> is generally used in the context of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High_level_architecture_(simulation)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"High level architecture (simulation)\" data-key=\"affd33532b7afe70c6a00cf714144de5\">high level architecture<\/a> (HLA) that applies to many distributed simulations. It is a layer of software that lies between the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Application code\" data-key=\"46940dd3ee08ec2f67e59bcf33da70dd\">application code<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Run-Time_Infrastructure_(simulation)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Run-Time Infrastructure (simulation)\" data-key=\"2b517045761249e4563487fad1e427e1\">run-time infrastructure<\/a>. Middleware generally consists of a library of functions, and enables a number of applications\u2014simulations or federates in HLA terminology\u2014to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paging\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Paging\" data-key=\"bc9488a32bb4b3e6e6850767eb4829e4\">page<\/a> these functions from the common library rather than re-create them for each application.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DriraCoop03_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DriraCoop03-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Wireless networking developers can use middleware to meet the challenges associated with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_sensor_network\" title=\"Wireless sensor network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6de477762202654fbd88d90d554bf13\">wireless sensor network<\/a> (WSN). Implementing a middleware application allows WSN <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Middleware_Analysts\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Middleware Analysts\" data-key=\"57a68eb474643132ab4d49499899b0fa\">developers<\/a> to integrate operating systems and hardware with the wide variety of various applications that are currently available.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QNX\" title=\"QNX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5510238b2df9dcb363e65814185ae24a\">QNX<\/a> operating system offers middleware for providing multimedia services for use in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automobile\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automobile\" data-key=\"095c0fffb160e81c17a5e0e780d6fbfd\">automobiles<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aircraft\" title=\"Aircraft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fc19d38e5285f33624093a237e3a2d5\">aircraft<\/a> and other environments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QNX08_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QNX08-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio-frequency_identification\" title=\"Radio-frequency identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142e22fc78bf4acc0c1806ea4d00e395\">Radio-frequency identification<\/a> (RFID) software toolkits provide middleware to filter noisy and redundant raw data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GloverRFID06_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GloverRFID06-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language-agnostic\" title=\"Language-agnostic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7df79e56a2f428e6269e345e913a345\">Language-agnostic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Third-party_software_component\" title=\"Third-party software component\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea12e41331834fba8290ccad0f00e14e\">Third-party software component<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/middleware-conf.github.io\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Middleware conference\"<\/a>. <i>middleware-conf.github.io<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2023-12-16<\/span><\/span>. <q>Middleware is a distributed-system software that resides between applications and underlying platforms (operating systems; databases; hardware), and\/or ties together distributed applications, databases or devices. Its primary role is to coordinate and enable communication between different layers or components while isolating much of the complexity of distribution into a single, well tested and well understood system abstraction.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=middleware-conf.github.io&amp;rft.atitle=Middleware+conference&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmiddleware-conf.github.io%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MW-00-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MW-00_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120629211518\/http:\/\/www.middleware.org\/whatis.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is Middleware?\"<\/a>. <i>Middleware.org<\/i>. Defining Technology. 2008. Archived from the original on June 29, 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-08-11<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Middleware.org&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+Middleware%3F&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.middleware.org%2Fwhatis.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_web\" title=\"Template:Cite web\">cite web<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"188a69d9391a8b2579e7f49edcc3ee7d\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGall2005\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Gall, Nick (July 30, 2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ironick.typepad.com\/ironick\/2005\/07\/update_on_the_o.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Origin of the term <i>middleware<\/i>\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">May 21,<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Origin+of+the+term+middleware&amp;rft.date=2005-07-30&amp;rft.aulast=Gall&amp;rft.aufirst=Nick&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fironick.typepad.com%2Fironick%2F2005%2F07%2Fupdate_on_the_o.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ietf.org\" target=\"_blank\">\"Home\"<\/a>. <i>IETF<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=IETF&amp;rft.atitle=Home&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ietf.org&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EtzkornIntro17-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-EtzkornIntro17_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEtzkorn,_L._H.2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Etzkorn, L. H. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AZgnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT45\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Middleware: Web Services, Object Components, and Cloud Computing<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp.&#160;4\u20135. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781498754101<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Middleware%3A+Web+Services%2C+Object+Components%2C+and+Cloud+Computing&amp;rft.pages=4-5&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=9781498754101&amp;rft.au=Etzkorn%2C+L.+H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAZgnDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT45&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKrakowiak\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Krakowiak, Sacha. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050507151935\/http:\/\/middleware.objectweb.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What's middleware?\"<\/a>. ObjectWeb.org. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/middleware.objectweb.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2005-05-07<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2005-05-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=What%27s+middleware%3F&amp;rft.pub=ObjectWeb.org&amp;rft.aulast=Krakowiak&amp;rft.aufirst=Sacha&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmiddleware.objectweb.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LuckhamEvent11-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LuckhamEvent11_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLuckham,_D._C.2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Luckham, D. C. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=dqWxewxhyq8C&pg=PA27\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Event Processing for Business: Organizing the Real-Time Enterprise<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;27\u201328. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781118171851<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Event+Processing+for+Business%3A+Organizing+the+Real-Time+Enterprise&amp;rft.pages=27-28&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=9781118171851&amp;rft.au=Luckham%2C+D.+C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdqWxewxhyq8C%26pg%3DPA27&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SimonOpen14-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SimonOpen14_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSimon,_A._R.Wheeler,_T.2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Simon, A. R.; Wheeler, T. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=jyOjBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA43\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Open Client\/Server Computing and Middleware<\/i><\/a>. Academic Press. pp.&#160;43\u201349. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781483214276<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Open+Client%2FServer+Computing+and+Middleware&amp;rft.pages=43-49&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=9781483214276&amp;rft.au=Simon%2C+A.+R.&amp;rft.au=Wheeler%2C+T.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjyOjBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA43&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ArregocesData03-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ArregocesData03_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFArregoces,_M.Portolani,_M.2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Arregoces, M.; Portolani, M. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=IcoqBXbG9IsC&pg=PA92\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Data Center Fundamentals<\/i><\/a>. Cisco Press. pp.&#160;92\u201393. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781587140747<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Center+Fundamentals&amp;rft.pages=92-93&amp;rft.pub=Cisco+Press&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=9781587140747&amp;rft.au=Arregoces%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Portolani%2C+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIcoqBXbG9IsC%26pg%3DPA92&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SAFService11-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SAFService11_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/devel.opensaf.org\/SAI-Overview-B.05.03.AL.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Service Availability Interface Specification\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Service Availability Forum. 30 September 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Service+Availability+Interface+Specification&amp;rft.pub=Service+Availability+Forum&amp;rft.date=2011-09-30&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdevel.opensaf.org%2FSAI-Overview-B.05.03.AL.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JokiahoService12-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-JokiahoService12_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJokiaho,_T.Fryer,_J.2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Jokiaho, T.; Fryer, J. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Ql1oHlKkHOsC&pg=PT9\" target=\"_blank\">\"Foreword\"<\/a>. <i>Service Availability: Principles and Practice<\/i>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. p.&#160;xv. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781119941675<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Foreword&amp;rft.btitle=Service+Availability%3A+Principles+and+Practice&amp;rft.pages=xv&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9781119941675&amp;rft.au=Jokiaho%2C+T.&amp;rft.au=Fryer%2C+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQl1oHlKkHOsC%26pg%3DPT9&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGazisKatsiri2022\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Gazis, Alexandros; Katsiri, Eleftheria (15 March 2022). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F3526211\" target=\"_blank\">\"Middleware 101: What to know now and for the future\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F3526211\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/3526211<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:247494415\" target=\"_blank\">247494415<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Middleware+101%3A+What+to+know+now+and+for+the+future&amp;rft.date=2022-03-15&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F3526211&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247494415%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Gazis&amp;rft.aufirst=Alexandros&amp;rft.au=Katsiri%2C+Eleftheria&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1145%252F3526211&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Charlie Collins, Michael Galpin and Matthias Kaeppler, Android in Practice, Manning Publications, 2011<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MooreIntro06-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MooreIntro06_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMoore,_M._E.2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Moore, M. E. (2006). <i>Introduction to the Game Industry<\/i>. Pearson Prentice Hall. p.&#160;169. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780131687431<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Game+Industry&amp;rft.pages=169&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9780131687431&amp;rft.au=Moore%2C+M.+E.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DriraCoop03-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DriraCoop03_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBecchini,_R.Chilaev,_P.Krivtsov,_V.2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Becchini, R.; Chilaev, P.; Krivtsov, V.; et&#160;al. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=2clrCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA41\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 4: Middleware\"<\/a>. In Drira, K.; Martelli, A.; Villemur, T. (eds.). <i>Cooperative Environments for Distributed Systems Engineering: The Distributed Systems Environment Report<\/i>. Springer. pp.&#160;41\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783540455820<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+4%3A+Middleware&amp;rft.btitle=Cooperative+Environments+for+Distributed+Systems+Engineering%3A+The+Distributed+Systems+Environment+Report&amp;rft.pages=41-4&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=9783540455820&amp;rft.au=Becchini%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Chilaev%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Krivtsov%2C+V.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2clrCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA41&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hadim, S. and Mohamed, N. (2006). Middleware challenges and approaches for wireless sensor networks. IEEE Distributed Systems Online vol 7. Issue 3. Retrieved March 4, 2009 from\n<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dsonline.computer.org\/portal\/site\/dsonline\/menuitem.3a529f3832e8f1e13587e0606bcd45f3\/index.jsp\" target=\"_blank\">iEEE Distributed Systems Online<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110928211251\/http:\/\/dsonline.computer.org\/portal\/site\/dsonline\/menuitem.3a529f3832e8f1e13587e0606bcd45f3\/index.jsp\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2011-09-28 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-QNX08-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-QNX08_17-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.qnx.com\/news\/pr_2901_1.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"QNX Software Joins Internet ITS Consortium of Japan\"<\/a>. <i>QNX News Releases<\/i>. QNX. 6 May 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=QNX+News+Releases&amp;rft.atitle=QNX+Software+Joins+Internet+ITS+Consortium+of+Japan&amp;rft.date=2008-05-06&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qnx.com%2Fnews%2Fpr_2901_1.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GloverRFID06-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GloverRFID06_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGlover,_B.Bhatt,_H.2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Glover, B.; Bhatt, H. (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cKKZoH48D4cC&pg=PA38\" target=\"_blank\"><i>RFID Essentials<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media. pp.&#160;38\u201344. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780596009441<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=RFID+Essentials&amp;rft.pages=38-44&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9780596009441&amp;rft.au=Glover%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Bhatt%2C+H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcKKZoH48D4cC%26pg%3DPA38&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div> \n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d73474a3374a758c1347a5185b1e4ad6\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/99\/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg\/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> The dictionary definition of <i>middleware<\/i> at Wiktionary<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1433\nCached time: 20240102055619\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.316 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.434 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1249\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 61613\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 801\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 9\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 2\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 59575\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.196\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6411840\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 365.001 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>41.59% 151.793 1 Template:Reflist\n22.86% 83.452 7 Template:Cite_web\n21.42% 78.194 1 Template:Computer_science\n20.81% 75.973 1 Template:Navbox\n15.56% 56.780 1 Template:Short_description\n10.51% 38.358 1 Template:Main_article\n 8.65% 31.587 8 Template:Cite_book\n 7.87% 28.734 2 Template:Pagetype\n 6.66% 24.324 1 Template:Authority_control\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34658368-0!canonical and timestamp 20240102055619 and revision id 1191923937. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Middleware\" data-key=\"f72adff48045b293a94bb17385443861\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171635\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.112 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.345 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 71951\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 321.615 1 wikipedia:Middleware\n100.00% 321.615 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10702-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171635 and revision id 33620. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Middleware\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Middleware<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_images":[],"82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_timestamp":1704906995,"b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_type":"article","b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_title":"Message broker","b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Message_broker","b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_plaintext":"\n\nMessage brokerFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchComputer program module\nSequence diagram for depicting the Message Broker pattern\n\nA message broker (also known as an integration broker or interface engine[1]) is an intermediary computer program module that translates a message from the formal messaging protocol of the sender to the formal messaging protocol of the receiver. Message brokers are elements in telecommunication or computer networks where software applications communicate by exchanging formally-defined messages.[1] Message brokers are a building block of message-oriented middleware (MOM) but are typically not a replacement for traditional middleware like MOM and remote procedure call (RPC).[2][3]\n\n\n\nOverview \nA message broker is an architectural pattern for message validation, transformation, and routing. It mediates communication among applications[vague ], minimizing the mutual awareness that applications should have of each other in order to be able to exchange messages, effectively implementing decoupling.[4]\n\nPurpose \nThe primary purpose of a broker is to take incoming messages from applications and perform some action on them. Message brokers can decouple end-points, meet specific non-functional requirements, and facilitate reuse of intermediary functions. For example, a message broker may be used to manage a workload queue or message queue for multiple receivers, providing reliable storage, guaranteed message delivery and perhaps transaction management.\n\nLife cycle \nThe following represent other examples of actions that might be handled by the broker:[2][3]\n\nRoute messages to one or more destinations\nTransform messages to an alternative representation\nPerform message aggregation, decomposing messages into multiple messages and sending them to their destination, then recomposing the responses into one message to return to the user\nInteract with an external repository to augment a message or store it\nInvoke web services to retrieve data\nRespond to events or errors\nProvide content and topic-based message routing using the publish\u2013subscribe pattern\nMessage brokers are generally based on one of two fundamental architectures: hub-and-spoke and message bus. In the first, a central server acts as the mechanism that provides integration services, whereas with the latter, the message broker is a communication backbone or distributed service that acts on the bus.[3] Additionally, a more scalable multi-hub approach can be used to integrate multiple brokers.[3]\n\nList of message broker software \nAmazon Web Services (AWS) Amazon MQ\nAmazon Web Services (AWS) Kinesis\nApache\nApache ActiveMQ\nApache Artemis\nApache Camel\nApache Kafka\nApache Qpid\nApache Thrift\nApache Pulsar\nCloverleaf (Enovation Lifeline - NL)\nComverse Message Broker (Comverse Technology)\nCoreflux Coreflux MQTT Broker\nEclipse Mosquitto MQTT Broker (Eclipse Foundation)\nEMQX EMQX MQTT Broker\nEnduro\/X Transactional Message Queue (TMQ)\nFinancial Fusion Message Broker (Sybase)\nFuse Message Broker (enterprise ActiveMQ)\nGearman\nGoogle Cloud Pub\/Sub (Google)\nHiveMQ HiveMQ MQTT Broker\nHornetQ (Red Hat) (Now part of Apache Artemis)\nIBM App Connect\nIBM MQ\nJBoss Messaging (JBoss)\nJORAM\nMicrosoft Azure Service Bus (Microsoft)\nMicrosoft BizTalk Server (Microsoft)\nMigratoryData (a publish\/subscribe WebSockets message broker written to address the C10M problem [5])\nNATS (MIT Open Source License, written in Go)\nNanoMQ MQTT Broker for IoT Edge\nOpen Message Queue\nOracle Message Broker (Oracle Corporation)\nRabbitMQ (Mozilla Public License, written in Erlang)\nRedpanda (implement Apache Kafka api, written in C++)\nRedis An open source, in-memory data structure store, used as a database, cache and message broker.\nSAP PI (SAP AG)\nSMC SMC Platform\nSolace PubSub+\nSpread Toolkit\nTarantool, a NoSQL database, with a set of stored procedures for message queues\nTIBCO Enterprise Message Service\nWSO2 Message Broker\nZeroMQ\nSee also \nPublish\u2013subscribe pattern\nMQTT\nComparison of business integration software\nMessage-oriented middleware\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b \"IB (integration broker)\". IT Glossary. Gartner, Inc. Retrieved 17 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Kale, V. (2014). \"Integration Technologies\". Guide to Cloud Computing for Business and Technology Managers: From Distributed Computing to Cloudware Applications. CRC Press. pp.&#160;107\u2013134. ISBN&#160;9781482219227. Retrieved 17 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d Samtani, G.; Sadhwani, D. (2013). \"Integration Brokers and Web Services\". In Clark, M.; Fletcher, P.; Hanson, J.J.; et&#160;al. (eds.). Web Services Business Strategies and Architectures. Apress. pp.&#160;71\u201384. ISBN&#160;9781430253563. Retrieved 17 May 2018 . \n\n^ Ejsmont, A. (2015). \"Asynchronous Processing\". Web Scalability for Startup Engineers. McGraw Hill Professional. pp.&#160;275\u2013276. ISBN&#160;9780071843669. \n\n^ Rotaru, Mihai; et&#160;al. (December 2017). \"Reliable messaging to millions of users with migratorydata\". Proceedings of the 18th ACM\/IFIP\/USENIX Middleware Conference: Industrial Track. pp.&#160;1\u20137. arXiv:1712.09876 . doi:10.1145\/3154448.3154449. ISBN&#160;9781450352000. S2CID&#160;35552786. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Message_broker\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Message_broker<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 17 May 2018, at 16:38.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 2,528 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Message_broker rootpage-Message_broker skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Message broker<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Computer program module<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Message_Broker.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"aec39bb4deffd9c7c0a2f014f58fa781\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/91\/Message_Broker.png\/400px-Message_Broker.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"mw-file-element\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Sequence diagram for depicting the Message Broker pattern<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>A <b>message broker<\/b> (also known as an <b>integration broker<\/b> or <b>interface engine<\/b><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerIB_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerIB-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>) is an intermediary computer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_programming\" title=\"Modular programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3e2efa63b2358882429ccde40078f8f\">program module<\/a> that translates a message from the formal messaging protocol of the sender to the formal messaging protocol of the receiver. Message brokers are elements in telecommunication or computer networks where software applications communicate by exchanging formally-defined messages.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerIB_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerIB-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Message brokers are a building block of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message-oriented_middleware\" title=\"Message-oriented middleware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94a5844cb549ce9a0267739dbcc1527e\">message-oriented middleware<\/a> (MOM) but are typically not a replacement for traditional middleware like MOM and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_procedure_call\" title=\"Remote procedure call\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10077982c79b5ee8217a4e149067b183\">remote procedure call<\/a> (RPC).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KaleGuide14_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KaleGuide14-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ClarkWeb13-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overview\">Overview<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A message broker is an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Architectural_pattern\" title=\"Architectural pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6a1abf65d70008835f7642a4b8816b7\">architectural pattern<\/a> for message validation, transformation, and routing. It mediates communication among applications<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Vagueness\" title=\"Wikipedia:Vagueness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2d5101adbd46e813053c4fec7b2a35c\"><span title=\"Which apps? Web or desktop ones? (January 2024)\">vague<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>, minimizing the mutual awareness that applications should have of each other in order to be able to exchange messages, effectively implementing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coupling_(computer_programming)\" title=\"Coupling (computer programming)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0f7f4547d7ccc9fc102dd2fa9516574\">decoupling<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EjsmontWeb15_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EjsmontWeb15-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The primary purpose of a broker is to take incoming messages from applications and perform some action on them. Message brokers can decouple end-points, meet specific <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-functional_requirement\" title=\"Non-functional requirement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d85090ac46aeab566fa418f6f275b36e\">non-functional requirements<\/a>, and facilitate reuse of intermediary functions. For example, a message broker may be used to manage a workload queue or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_queue\" title=\"Message queue\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5037968264e171024bb4c156dca1535\">message queue<\/a> for multiple receivers, providing reliable storage, guaranteed message delivery and perhaps transaction management.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Life_cycle\">Life cycle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The following represent other examples of actions that might be handled by the broker:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KaleGuide14_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KaleGuide14-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ClarkWeb13-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Route messages to one or more destinations<\/li>\n<li>Transform messages to an alternative representation<\/li>\n<li>Perform message aggregation, decomposing messages into multiple messages and sending them to their destination, then recomposing the responses into one message to return to the user<\/li>\n<li>Interact with an external repository to augment a message or store it<\/li>\n<li>Invoke <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_service\" title=\"Web service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e72dffc79d570a758fb072280ae0ca6e\">web services<\/a> to retrieve data<\/li>\n<li>Respond to events or errors<\/li>\n<li>Provide content and topic-based message routing using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Publish%E2%80%93subscribe_pattern\" title=\"Publish\u2013subscribe pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7e6d1dbf849a89e3c58978a884a3ba0\">publish\u2013subscribe pattern<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Message brokers are generally based on one of two fundamental architectures: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spoke%E2%80%93hub_distribution_paradigm\" title=\"Spoke\u2013hub distribution paradigm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34d68fac269ac6138d3c58fa3e92f56d\">hub-and-spoke<\/a> and message bus. In the first, a central server acts as the mechanism that provides integration services, whereas with the latter, the message broker is a communication backbone or distributed service that acts on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bus_(computing)\" title=\"Bus (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95968ed6042d4a5c7b6f94639c427032\">bus<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ClarkWeb13-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, a more scalable multi-hub approach can be used to integrate multiple brokers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ClarkWeb13-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"List_of_message_broker_software\">List of message broker software<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Amazon Web Services (AWS) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/aws.amazon.com\/amazon-mq\/\" target=\"_blank\">Amazon MQ<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Amazon Web Services (AWS) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/aws.amazon.com\/kinesis\/\" target=\"_blank\">Kinesis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><b>Apache<\/b>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_ActiveMQ\" title=\"Apache ActiveMQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"684fe76fefe1793d8b1293744a501793\">Apache ActiveMQ<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/activemq.apache.org\/components\/artemis\/\" target=\"_blank\">Apache Artemis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Camel\" title=\"Apache Camel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dcb127ccfed3fb52d8ec1ac52a5ee0b5\">Apache Camel<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Kafka\" title=\"Apache Kafka\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14bdc4a7a7b448924b5fe68d2a843973\">Apache Kafka<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Qpid\" title=\"Apache Qpid\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8502c2015ca053cc8cf334ed1ba2210\">Apache Qpid<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Thrift\" title=\"Apache Thrift\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc402dab3be939d70cdb5d7232ad2244\">Apache Thrift<\/a><\/li>\n<li><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Cloverleaf (Enovation Lifeline - NL)<\/li>\n<li>Comverse Message Broker (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comverse_Technology\" title=\"Comverse Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4cb9d9f09a5a2803c8cde19b7d79fde2\">Comverse Technology<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>Coreflux <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.coreflux.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Coreflux MQTT Broker<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Eclipse Mosquitto MQTT Broker (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eclipse_Foundation\" title=\"Eclipse Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dab822bf7c52148ea0cf36b590c9089e\">Eclipse Foundation<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>EMQX <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.emqx.com\/en\/products\/emqx\" target=\"_blank\">EMQX MQTT Broker<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enduro\/X\" title=\"Enduro\/X\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"660e7901e5dfc3566040255e59262bd7\">Enduro\/X<\/a> Transactional Message Queue (TMQ)<\/li>\n<li>Financial Fusion Message Broker (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sybase\" title=\"Sybase\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca011efd2c98bff936f8ac9cb85d1e50\">Sybase<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuse_Message_Broker\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fuse Message Broker\" data-key=\"6d512f7551a06aae96c7805c6c5826bb\">Fuse Message Broker<\/a> (enterprise ActiveMQ)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gearman\" title=\"Gearman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3af646d5152f45a323591e324e3efcd\">Gearman<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Google Cloud <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cloud.google.com\/pubsub\" target=\"_blank\">Pub\/Sub<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google\" title=\"Google\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b915ee8daf11a90fecc2d0bd0513feb\">Google<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>HiveMQ <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hivemq.com\/hivemq\/\" target=\"_blank\">HiveMQ MQTT Broker<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HornetQ\" title=\"HornetQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9704940eaac7b9f57a6109ab8534dd38\">HornetQ<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Red_Hat\" title=\"Red Hat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"253d923f8074cef53ef50b4ef712b97c\">Red Hat<\/a>) (Now part of Apache Artemis)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_Integration_Bus\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IBM Integration Bus\" data-key=\"9a577040484fe727512d384965c49461\">IBM App Connect<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_MQ\" title=\"IBM MQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3259671a657adc38779383b54a86eedc\">IBM MQ<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JBoss_Messaging\" title=\"JBoss Messaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbc691c564adc7a082b5d663568baf56\">JBoss Messaging<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JBoss\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JBoss\" data-key=\"a2398b82dee3b755456db58990bc008c\">JBoss<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Azure\" title=\"Microsoft Azure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7425502813a74a72d2910d4a8d90b67d\">Microsoft Azure Service Bus<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_BizTalk_Server\" title=\"Microsoft BizTalk Server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cff1fd2defba6cda3ff99f30b64c700c\">Microsoft BizTalk Server<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/migratorydata.com\" target=\"_blank\">MigratoryData<\/a> (a publish\/subscribe <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WebSockets\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"WebSockets\" data-key=\"8fd97d8981f84e020cfd7143a20f308b\">WebSockets<\/a> message broker written to address the C10M problem <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-migratoryacm_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-migratoryacm-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NATS_Messaging\" title=\"NATS Messaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c7225ecca32938b1a00a1f31873027f\">NATS<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT_License\" title=\"MIT License\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bee9d3f121960cbfa0ae07370a5683f\">MIT Open Source License<\/a>, written in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Go_(programming_language)\" title=\"Go (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09866cb455e9888d5414909a5485a6cb\">Go<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>NanoMQ <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nanomq.io\/\" target=\"_blank\">MQTT Broker for IoT Edge<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Message_Queue\" title=\"Open Message Queue\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27108d0351b8d2ebf62490aabacacf23\">Open Message Queue<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Oracle Message Broker (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_Corporation\" title=\"Oracle Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9d9b95cef4bc5e02dc8a6d510f8fca6\">Oracle Corporation<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RabbitMQ\" title=\"RabbitMQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a678ba8cb002ba3ccc3f712460aec7c1\">RabbitMQ<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mozilla_Public_License\" title=\"Mozilla Public License\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2403ce5dcf81913db700a1e7b5e20cc\">Mozilla Public License<\/a>, written in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erlang_(programming_language)\" title=\"Erlang (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff93e3c10bc46058db6677fc33a73db4\">Erlang<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>Redpanda (implement Apache Kafka api, written in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/C%2B%2B_(programming_language)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"C++ (programming language)\" data-key=\"552999e051ee17eea6168efee7d410cc\">C++<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Redis\" title=\"Redis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cab339d3c3565b75aebe346235f67015\">Redis<\/a> An open source, in-memory data structure store, used as a database, cache and message broker.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAP_PI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SAP PI\" data-key=\"4ba8f9e0f61dc68cbc74fd31601ebfe9\">SAP PI<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAP_AG\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SAP AG\" data-key=\"e4822db7bb4c0990aaa9da26be2738c8\">SAP AG<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>SMC <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.smcsystem.ru\/\" target=\"_blank\">SMC Platform<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Solace_Corporation\" title=\"Solace Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"043f8e1d61337dff40941388a671634a\">Solace<\/a> PubSub+<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spread_Toolkit\" title=\"Spread Toolkit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d1479120885c56146b6c5d7952f7428\">Spread Toolkit<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tarantool\" title=\"Tarantool\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63cd6c7428014ea77a436ff78d66127d\">Tarantool<\/a>, a NoSQL database, with a set of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stored_procedure\" title=\"Stored procedure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19acea913a06de007ede354d505e650a\">stored procedures<\/a> for message queues<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TIBCO_Software\" title=\"TIBCO Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0458f620448b7ba027b12c26d5361ca3\">TIBCO<\/a> Enterprise Message Service<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WSO2\" title=\"WSO2\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab61ffc19acd117c2a537123a459572e\">WSO2 Message Broker<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZeroMQ\" title=\"ZeroMQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6536bc878c9444906ee873939a13d516\">ZeroMQ<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Publish%E2%80%93subscribe_pattern\" title=\"Publish\u2013subscribe pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7e6d1dbf849a89e3c58978a884a3ba0\">Publish\u2013subscribe pattern<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MQTT\" title=\"MQTT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23fed2584b31b893189873d1f33dcec2\">MQTT<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comparison_of_business_integration_software\" title=\"Comparison of business integration software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b52200439eb2ecfe0cf69c555cf079e\">Comparison of business integration software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message-oriented_middleware\" title=\"Message-oriented middleware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94a5844cb549ce9a0267739dbcc1527e\">Message-oriented middleware<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-GartnerIB-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-GartnerIB_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-GartnerIB_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gartner.com\/it-glossary\/ib-integration-broker\" target=\"_blank\">\"IB (integration broker)\"<\/a>. <i>IT Glossary<\/i>. Gartner, Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=IT+Glossary&amp;rft.atitle=IB+%28integration+broker%29&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gartner.com%2Fit-glossary%2Fib-integration-broker&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMessage+broker\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KaleGuide14-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-KaleGuide14_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-KaleGuide14_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKale,_V.2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kale, V. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1IuZBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA117\" target=\"_blank\">\"Integration Technologies\"<\/a>. <i>Guide to Cloud Computing for Business and Technology Managers: From Distributed Computing to Cloudware Applications<\/i>. CRC Press. pp.&#160;107\u2013134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781482219227<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Integration+Technologies&amp;rft.btitle=Guide+to+Cloud+Computing+for+Business+and+Technology+Managers%3A+From+Distributed+Computing+to+Cloudware+Applications&amp;rft.pages=107-134&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=9781482219227&amp;rft.au=Kale%2C+V.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1IuZBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA117&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMessage+broker\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ClarkWeb13-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSamtani,_G.Sadhwani,_D.2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Samtani, G.; Sadhwani, D. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=2EonCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71\" target=\"_blank\">\"Integration Brokers and Web Services\"<\/a>. In Clark, M.; Fletcher, P.; Hanson, J.J.; et&#160;al. (eds.). <i>Web Services Business Strategies and Architectures<\/i>. Apress. pp.&#160;71\u201384. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781430253563<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Integration+Brokers+and+Web+Services&amp;rft.btitle=Web+Services+Business+Strategies+and+Architectures&amp;rft.pages=71-84&amp;rft.pub=Apress&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781430253563&amp;rft.au=Samtani%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Sadhwani%2C+D.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2EonCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA71&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMessage+broker\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EjsmontWeb15-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-EjsmontWeb15_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEjsmont,_A.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ejsmont, A. (2015). \"Asynchronous Processing\". <i>Web Scalability for Startup Engineers<\/i>. McGraw Hill Professional. pp.&#160;275\u2013276. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780071843669<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Asynchronous+Processing&amp;rft.btitle=Web+Scalability+for+Startup+Engineers&amp;rft.pages=275-276&amp;rft.pub=McGraw+Hill+Professional&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9780071843669&amp;rft.au=Ejsmont%2C+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMessage+broker\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-migratoryacm-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-migratoryacm_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRotaruOlariuOnicaRivi\u00e8re2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Rotaru, Mihai; et&#160;al. (December 2017). \"Reliable messaging to millions of users with migratorydata\". <i>Proceedings of the 18th ACM\/IFIP\/USENIX Middleware Conference: Industrial Track<\/i>. pp.&#160;1\u20137. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1712.09876\" target=\"_blank\">1712.09876<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F3154448.3154449\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/3154448.3154449<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781450352000<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:35552786\" target=\"_blank\">35552786<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Reliable+messaging+to+millions+of+users+with+migratorydata&amp;rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+18th+ACM%2FIFIP%2FUSENIX+Middleware+Conference%3A+Industrial+Track&amp;rft.pages=1-7&amp;rft.date=2017-12&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1712.09876&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A35552786%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F3154448.3154449&amp;rft.isbn=9781450352000&amp;rft.aulast=Rotaru&amp;rft.aufirst=Mihai&amp;rft.au=Olariu%2C+Florentin&amp;rft.au=Onica%2C+Emanuel&amp;rft.au=Rivi%C3%A8re%2C+Etienne&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMessage+broker\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1405\nCached time: 20240101004248\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.160 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.223 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 676\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 12850\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 909\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 16944\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.089\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4580109\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 188.546 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>55.18% 104.033 1 Template:Reflist\n32.29% 60.875 1 Template:Cite_web\n27.16% 51.213 1 Template:Short_description\n15.06% 28.387 1 Template:Vague\n14.03% 26.460 2 Template:Pagetype\n13.95% 26.293 4 Template:Cite_book\n13.09% 24.673 1 Template:Fix-span\n10.82% 20.402 2 Template:Category_handler\n 8.16% 15.379 3 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:7423668-0!canonical and timestamp 20240101004248 and revision id 1187088647. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_broker\" data-key=\"c5464074ad4d7a1c9f7f0413a977b027\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110062931\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.109 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.261 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 24163\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 249.896 1 wikipedia:Message_broker\n100.00% 249.896 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10586-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110062930 and revision id 33257. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Message_broker\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Message_broker<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_images":[],"b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_timestamp":1704906995,"668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_type":"article","668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_title":"Internationalization and localization","668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internationalization_and_localization","668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_plaintext":"\n\nInternationalization and localizationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchProcess of making software accessible to people in different areas of the world\nPart of a series onTranslation \nTypes\nLegal\nLiterary\nBible\nQuran\nKural\nLinguistic validation\nMedical\nRegulatory\nTechnical\nInterpretation\nCultural\nWord-for-word\nSense-for-sense\nHomophonic\n\nTheory\nTranslation studies\nSkopos theory\nTranslation project\nTranslation criticism\nDynamic and formal equivalence\nContrastive linguistics\nPolysystem theory\n\nTechnologies\nCAT\nMachine translation\nMobile translation\nTranslation management system\nDubbing\nSubtitling\nPre-editing\nPostediting\nMultimedia translation\n\nLocalization\nGlocalization\nInternationalization and localization\nLanguage localization\nVideo game localization\nDub localization\nWebsite localization\nSoftware localization\n\nInstitutional\nAssociations\nAwards\nOrganizations\nSchools\n\nRelated topics\nUntranslatability\nTranscription\nTransliteration\nVideo relay service (VRS)\nTelephone interpreting\nLanguage barrier\nFan translation (of video games)\nFansub\nFandub\nScanlation\nJournalistic translation\nBooks and magazines on translation\nBible translations by language\nTranslated books\nList of most translated works\nTranslators\nKural translations by language\nvte\nScreenshot of TDE software programs mostly localized to Chinese (traditional)\n\nIn computing, internationalization and localization (American) or internationalisation and localisation (British), often abbreviated i18n and l10n respectively,[1] are means of adapting computer software to different languages, regional peculiarities and technical requirements of a target locale.[2]\nInternationalization is the process of designing a software application so that it can be adapted to various languages and regions without engineering changes. Localization is the process of adapting internationalized software for a specific region or language by translating text and adding locale-specific components.\nLocalization (which is potentially performed multiple times, for different locales) uses the infrastructure or flexibility provided by internationalization (which is ideally performed only once before localization, or as an integral part of ongoing development).[3]\n\n\n\nNaming \nThe terms are frequently abbreviated to the numeronyms i18n (where 18 stands for the number of letters between the first i and the last n in the word internationalization, a usage coined at Digital Equipment Corporation in the 1970s or 1980s)[4][5] and l10n for localization, due to the length of the words.[1][6] Some writers have the latter term capitalized (L10n) to help distinguish the two.[7]\nSome companies, like IBM and Oracle, use the term globalization, g11n, for the combination of internationalization and localization.[8]\nMicrosoft defines internationalization as a combination of world-readiness and localization. World-readiness is a developer task, which enables a product to be used with multiple scripts and cultures (globalization) and separates user interface resources in a localizable format (localizability, abbreviated to L12y).[9][10]\nHewlett-Packard and HP-UX created a system called \"National Language Support\" or \"Native Language Support\" (NLS) to produce localizable software.[2]\n\nScope \nThe internationalization and localization process\r\n(based on a chart from the LISA website)\n\nAccording to Software without frontiers, the design aspects to consider when internationalizing a product are \"data encoding, data and documentation, software construction, hardware device support, and user interaction\"; while the key design areas to consider when making a fully internationalized product from scratch are \"user interaction, algorithm design and data formats, software services, and documentation\".[2]\nTranslation is typically the most time-consuming component of language localization.[2] This may involve:\n\nFor film, video, and audio, translation of spoken words or music lyrics, often using either dubbing or subtitles\nText translation for printed materials, and digital media (possibly including error messages and documentation)\nPotentially altering images and logos containing text to contain translations or generic icons[2]\nDifferent translation lengths and differences in character sizes (e.g. between Latin alphabet letters and Chinese characters) can cause layouts that work well in one language to work poorly in others[2]\nConsideration of differences in dialect, register or variety[2]\nWriting conventions like:\nFormatting of numbers (especially decimal separator and digit grouping)\nDate and time format, possibly including the use of different calendars (e.g. the Islamic or the Japanese calendar)\nStandard locale data \nComputer software can encounter differences above and beyond straightforward translation of words and phrases, because computer programs can generate content dynamically. These differences may need to be taken into account by the internationalization process in preparation for translation. Many of these differences are so regular that a conversion between languages can be easily automated. The Common Locale Data Repository by Unicode provides a collection of such differences. Its data is used by major operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, macOS and Debian, and by major Internet companies or projects such as Google and the Wikimedia Foundation. Examples of such differences include:\n\nDifferent \"scripts\" in different writing systems use different characters \u2013 a different set of letters, syllograms, logograms, or symbols. Modern systems use the Unicode standard to represent many different languages with a single character encoding.\nWriting direction is left to right in most European languages, right-to-left in Hebrew and Arabic, or both in boustrophedon scripts, and optionally vertical in some Asian languages.[2]\nComplex text layout, for languages where characters change shape depending on context\nCapitalization exists in some scripts and not in others\nDifferent languages and writing systems have different text sorting rules\nDifferent languages have different numeral systems, which might need to be supported if Western Arabic numerals are not used\nDifferent languages have different pluralization rules, which can complicate programs that dynamically display numerical content.[11] Other grammar rules might also vary, e.g. genitive.\nDifferent languages use different punctuation (e.g. quoting text using double-quotes (\" \") as in English, or guillemets (\u00ab&#160;\u00bb) as in French)\nKeyboard shortcuts can only make use of buttons on the keyboard layout which is being localized for. If a shortcut corresponds to a word in a particular language (e.g. Ctrl-s stands for \"save\" in English), it may need to be changed.[12]\nNational conventions \nDifferent countries have different economic conventions, including variations in:\n\nPaper sizes\nBroadcast television systems and popular storage media\nTelephone number formats\nPostal address formats, postal codes, and choice of delivery services\nCurrency (symbols, positions of currency markers, and reasonable amounts due to different inflation histories) \u2013 ISO 4217 codes are often used for internationalization\nSystem of measurement\nBattery sizes\nVoltage and current standards\nIn particular, the United States and Europe differ in most of these cases. Other areas often follow one of these.\nSpecific third-party services, such as online maps, weather reports, or payment service providers, might not be available worldwide from the same carriers, or at all.\nTime zones vary across the world, and this must be taken into account if a product originally only interacted with people in a single time zone. For internationalization, UTC is often used internally and then converted into a local time zone for display purposes.\nDifferent countries have different legal requirements, meaning for example:\n\nRegulatory compliance may require customization for a particular jurisdiction, or a change to the product as a whole, such as:\nPrivacy law compliance\nAdditional disclaimers on a website or packaging\nDifferent consumer labelling requirements\nCompliance with export restrictions and regulations on encryption\nCompliance with an Internet censorship regime or subpoena procedures\nRequirements for accessibility\nCollecting different taxes, such as sales tax, value added tax, or customs duties\nSensitivity to different political issues, like geographical naming disputes and disputed borders shown on maps (e.g., India has proposed a bill that would make failing to show Kashmir and other areas as intended by the government a crime[13][14][15])\nGovernment-assigned numbers have different formats (such as passports, Social Security Numbers and other national identification numbers)\nLocalization also may take into account differences in culture, such as:\n\nLocal holidays\nPersonal name and title conventions\nAesthetics\nComprehensibility and cultural appropriateness of images and color symbolism\nEthnicity, clothing, and socioeconomic status of people and architecture of locations pictured\nLocal customs and conventions, such as social taboos, popular local religions, or superstitions such as blood types in Japanese culture vs. astrological signs in other cultures\nBusiness process for internationalizing software \nTo internationalize a product, it is important to look at a variety of markets that the product will foreseeably enter.[2] Details such as field length for street addresses, unique format for the address, ability to make the postal code field optional to address countries that do not have postal codes or the state field for countries that do not have states, plus the introduction of new registration flows that adhere to local laws are just some of the examples that make internationalization a complex project.[7][16] A broader approach takes into account cultural factors regarding for example the adaptation of the business process logic or the inclusion of individual cultural (behavioral) aspects.[2][17]\nAlready in the 1990s, companies such as Bull used machine translation (Systran) on a large scale, for all their translation activity: human translators handled pre-editing (making the input machine-readable) and post-editing.[2]\n\nEngineering \nBoth in re-engineering an existing software or designing a new internationalized software, the first step of internationalization is to split each potentially locale-dependent part (whether code, text or data) into a separate module.[2] Each module can then either rely on a standard library\/dependency or be independently replaced as needed for each locale.\nThe current prevailing practice is for applications to place text in resource files which are loaded during program execution as needed.[2] These strings, stored in resource files, are relatively easy to translate. Programs are often built to reference resource libraries depending on the selected locale data.\nThe storage for translatable and translated strings is sometimes called a message catalog[2] as the strings are called messages. The catalog generally comprises a set of files in a specific localization format and a standard library to handle said format. One software library and format that aids this is gettext.\nThus to get an application to support multiple languages one would design the application to select the relevant language resource file at runtime. The code required to manage data entry verification and many other locale-sensitive data types also must support differing locale requirements. Modern development systems and operating systems include sophisticated libraries for international support of these types, see also Standard locale data above.\nMany localization issues (e.g. writing direction, text sorting) require more profound changes in the software than text translation. For example, OpenOffice.org achieves this with compilation switches.\n\nProcess \nA globalization method includes, after planning, three implementation steps: internationalization, localization and quality assurance.[2]\nTo some degree (e.g. for quality assurance), development teams include someone who handles the basic\/central stages of the process which then enables all the others.[2] Such persons typically understand foreign languages and cultures and have some technical background. Specialized technical writers are required to construct a culturally appropriate syntax for potentially complicated concepts, coupled with engineering resources to deploy and test the localization elements.\nOnce properly internationalized, software can rely on more decentralized models for localization: free and open source software usually rely on self-localization by end-users and volunteers, sometimes organized in teams.[18] The GNOME project, for example, has volunteer translation teams for over 100 languages.[19] MediaWiki supports over 500 languages, of which 100 are mostly complete as of September&#160;2023[update].[20]\nWhen translating existing text to other languages, it is difficult to maintain the parallel versions of texts throughout the life of the product.[21] For instance, if a message displayed to the user is modified, all of the translated versions must be changed.\n\nCommercial considerations \nIn a commercial setting, the benefit of localization is access to more markets. In the early 1980s, Lotus 1-2-3 took two years to separate program code and text and lost the market lead in Europe over Microsoft Multiplan.[2] MicroPro found that using an Austrian translator for the West German market caused its WordStar documentation to, an executive said, not \"have the tone it should have had\".[22]\nHowever, there are considerable costs involved, which go far beyond engineering. Further, business operations must adapt to manage the production, storage and distribution of multiple discrete localized products, which are often being sold in completely different currencies, regulatory environments and tax regimes.\nFinally, sales, marketing and technical support must also facilitate their operations in the new languages, to support customers for the localized products. Particularly for relatively small language populations, it may never be economically viable to offer a localized product. Even where large language populations could justify localization for a given product, and a product's internal structure already permits localization, a given software developer or publisher may lack the size and sophistication to manage the ancillary functions associated with operating in multiple locales.\n\nSee also \nSubcomponents and standards:\nBidirectional script support\nInternational Components for Unicode\nLanguage code\nLanguage localization\nWebsite localization\nRelated concepts:\nComputer accessibility\nComputer Russification, localization into Russian language\nSeparation of concerns\nMethods and examples:\nGame localization\nGlobalization Management System\nPseudolocalization, a software testing method for testing a software product's readiness for localization.\nOther:\nInput method editor\nLanguage industry\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b Ishida, Richard; Miller, Susan K. (2005-12-05). \"Localization vs. Internationalization\". W3C. Archived from the original on 2016-04-03. Retrieved 2023-09-16 . \n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Hall, P. A. V.; Hudson, R., eds. (1997). Software without Frontiers: A Multi-Platform, Multi-Cultural, Multi-Nation Approach. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN&#160;0-471-96974-5. \n\n^ Esselink, Bert (2006). \"The Evolution of Localization\" (PDF) . In Pym, Anthony; Perekrestenko, Alexander; Starink, Bram (eds.). Translation Technology and Its Teaching (With Much Mention of Localization). Tarragona: Intercultural Studies Group \u2013 URV. pp.&#160;21\u201329. ISBN&#160;84-611-1131-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2012. In a nutshell, localization revolves around combining language and technology to produce a product that can cross cultural and language barriers. No more, no less. \n\n^ \"Glossary of W3C Jargon\". W3C. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 16 September 2023 . \n\n^ \"Origin of the Abbreviation I18n\". I18nGuy. Archived from the original on 27 June 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2022 . \n\n^ \"Concepts (GNU gettext utilities)\". gnu.org. Archived from the original on 18 September 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2023 . Many people, tired of writing these long words over and over again, took the habit of writing i18n and l10n instead, quoting the first and last letter of each word, and replacing the run of intermediate letters by a number merely telling how many such letters there are. \n\n^ a b alan (29 March 2011). \"What is Internationalization (i18n), Localization (L10n) and Globalization (g11n)\". ccjk.com. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 16 September 2023 . The capital L in L10n helps to distinguish it from the lowercase i in i18n. \n\n^ \"Globalize Your Business\". IBM. Archived from the original on 31 March 2016. \n\n^ \"Globalization Step-by-Step\". Go Global Developer Center. Archived from the original on 12 April 2015. \n\n^ \"Globalization Step-by-Step: Understanding Internationalization\". Go Global Developer Center. Archived from the original on 26 May 2015. \n\n^ \"Plural forms (GNU gettext utilities)\". gnu.org. Archived from the original on 14 March 2021. Retrieved 16 September 2023 . \n\n^ \"Do We Need to Localize Keyboard Shortcuts?\". Human Translation Services \u2013 Language to Language Translation. 21 August 2014. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2022 . \n\n^ Mateen Haider (17 May 2016). \"Pakistan Expresses Concern Over India's Controversial 'Maps Bill' \". Dawn. Archived from the original on 10 May 2018. Retrieved 9 May 2018 . \n\n^ Yasser Latif Hamdani (18 May 2016). \"Changing Maps Will Not Mean Kashmir Is a Part of You, India\". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 19 February 2022 . \n\n^ \"An Overview of the Geospatial Information Regulation Bill\". Madras Courier. 24 July 2017. Archived from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 19 February 2022 . \n\n^ \"Appendix V International Address Formats\". Microsoft Docs. 2 June 2008. Archived from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2022 . \n\n^ Pawlowski, Jan M. Culture Profiles: Facilitating Global Learning and Knowledge Sharing (PDF) (Draft version). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2009-10-01 . \n\n^ Reina, Laura Arjona; Robles, Gregorio; Gonz\u00e1lez-Barahona, Jes\u00fas M. (2013). \"A Preliminary Analysis of Localization in Free Software: How Translations Are Performed\". In Petrinja, Etiel; Succi, Giancarlo; Ioini, Nabil El; Sillitti, Alberto (eds.). Open Source Software: Quality Verification. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology. Vol.&#160;404. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp.&#160;153\u2013167. doi:10.1007\/978-3-642-38928-3_11 . ISBN&#160;978-3-642-38927-6. \n\n^ \"GNOME Languages\". GNOME. Archived from the original on 29 August 2023. Retrieved 16 September 2023 . \n\n^ \"Translating:Group Statistics\". translatewiki.net. Archived from the original on 2023-08-29. Retrieved 2023-09-16 . \n\n^ \"How to Translate a Game Into 20 Languages and Avoid Going to Hell: Exorcising the Four Devils of Confusion\". PocketGamer.biz. 4 April 2014. Archived from the original on 7 December 2017. Retrieved 19 February 2022 . \n\n^ Schrage, Michael (17 February 1985). \"IBM Wins Dominance in European Computer Market\". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 29 August 2018 . \n\n\nFurther reading \n\nSmith-Ferrier, Guy (2006). .NET Internationalization: The Developer's Guide to Building Global Windows and Web Applications. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Addison Wesley Professional. ISBN&#160;0-321-34138-4. \nEsselink, Bert (2000). A Practical Guide to Localization. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. ISBN&#160;1-58811-006-0. \nAsh, Lydia (2003). The Web Testing Companion: The Insider's Guide to Efficient and Effective Tests. Indianapolis, Indiana: Wiley. ISBN&#160;0-471-43021-8. \nDePalma, Donald A. (2004). Business Without Borders: A Strategic Guide to Global Marketing. Chelmsford, Massachusetts: Globa Vista Press. ISBN&#160;0-9765169-0-X. \n\nExternal links \n\n\n \nLook up internationalization&#160;or localization in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\n\n FOSS Localization at Wikibooks\nLocalization vs. Internationalization by The World Wide Web Consortium\n Media related to Internationalization and localization at Wikimedia Commons\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internationalization_and_localization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internationalization_and_localization<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 9 May 2018, at 21:09.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,293 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Internationalization_and_localization rootpage-Internationalization_and_localization skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Internationalization and localization<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Process of making software accessible to people in different areas of the world<\/div>\n<table class=\"sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist\" style=\"\"><tbody><tr><td class=\"sidebar-pretitle\">Part of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Translation\" title=\"Category:Translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22bd5c34b349e4d16ffeb1e7a814c812\">a series<\/a> on<\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-title-with-pretitle\" style=\"background:none;padding-top:0;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Translation\" title=\"Translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a526ce862b7439064d423eec7e13c444\">Translation<\/a><\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-image\"><span typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c2650d191a631110352056d4cf36eff\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/4e\/%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg\/100px-%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"100\" height=\"100\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/td><\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\" style=\"background:antiquewhite;\">\nTypes<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legal_translation\" title=\"Legal translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7a42b0b9f8e71146ecbc17c53b33e9f\">Legal<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Translation#Literary_translation\" title=\"Translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a635f52857d36db246965fa5bfa50353\">Literary<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bible_translations\" title=\"Bible translations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c85b0790ef7affb9fda8d9325520167b\">Bible<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quran_translations\" title=\"Quran translations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63c9f961bcde201583dc06d2017cf91c\">Quran<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tirukkural_translations\" title=\"Tirukkural translations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5dc0c50598e151eaf769f6de3d54304b\">Kural<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linguistic_validation\" title=\"Linguistic validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5561246da74d737183c30bd8e4c556fa\">Linguistic validation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_translation\" title=\"Medical translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcf245ed4e30387f1bd9ecc7baa89b09\">Medical<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulatory_translation\" title=\"Regulatory translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"105e5ac7ed393666eb34aba6c6e8caf2\">Regulatory<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technical_translation\" title=\"Technical translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07c1181b049ea476fef015a852517f24\">Technical<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_interpretation\" title=\"Language interpretation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f73ec7c333061b0a2c04fafdd1569ea\">Interpretation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural_translation\" title=\"Cultural translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10fa50b0afc3cc9692d81f7e0c94a8a3\">Cultural<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Literal_translation\" title=\"Literal translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"39d0971ace3206f0f9b5720dae97ecac\">Word-for-word<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sense-for-sense_translation\" title=\"Sense-for-sense translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"108523ba38aca3fce247afecebf7db93\">Sense-for-sense<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Homophonic_translation\" title=\"Homophonic translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f747410f6dde16b962a8c590809ced34\">Homophonic<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\" style=\"background:antiquewhite;\">\nTheory<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Translation_studies\" title=\"Translation studies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fce167eb052c2d57bcd7327b70d7562\">Translation studies<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skopos_theory\" title=\"Skopos theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6137ec9800666bc5dbc236675576079e\">Skopos theory<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Translation_project\" title=\"Translation project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bd789bdaa426135bada791f72be6dad\">Translation project<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Translation_criticism\" title=\"Translation criticism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af691988e51472153ecdbbc3bdaeb63c\">Translation criticism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_and_formal_equivalence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dynamic and formal equivalence\" data-key=\"3f471b86a60ad710c417ca8dfa74a693\">Dynamic and formal equivalence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contrastive_linguistics\" title=\"Contrastive linguistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de1cdc009085b1abcc1a7eae647211f\">Contrastive linguistics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polysystem_theory\" title=\"Polysystem theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee0317426091639c36f8c631746a0be1\">Polysystem theory<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\" style=\"background:antiquewhite;\">\nTechnologies<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer-assisted_translation\" title=\"Computer-assisted translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc8079d2db895c00233945accc924cca\">CAT<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">Machine translation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_translation\" title=\"Mobile translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43ba64458698a776808fd1f4d60718d8\">Mobile translation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Translation_management_system\" title=\"Translation management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f9a0ccc31dfc9dbda53399e5380a0566\">Translation management system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dubbing\" title=\"Dubbing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8e77ad4091fb34588ab47525b9d848c\">Dubbing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subtitles\" title=\"Subtitles\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"567460e023070bd905aefed762f70a05\">Subtitling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pre-editing\" title=\"Pre-editing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc39fc20cfb5e2489c87beab33800a67\">Pre-editing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Postediting\" title=\"Postediting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b21de14ae26a0fbde02d1876b63df5dd\">Postediting<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multimedia_translation\" title=\"Multimedia translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9129ffa27a3484bf53f8f3f29d80ce9f\">Multimedia translation<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\" style=\"background:antiquewhite;\">\nLocalization<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glocalization\" title=\"Glocalization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"110d541e10d94111620db4795ee534a4\">Glocalization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Internationalization and localization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_localisation\" title=\"Language localisation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f9e65e38690f3ab81443c0ecf2cd64b\">Language localization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Video_game_localization\" title=\"Video game localization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54e347638a98afeb29d272111fae73ba\">Video game localization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dubbing_(filmmaking)#Localization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dubbing (filmmaking)\" data-key=\"a69e1824bdfdd452f7cd36466f6e33a1\">Dub localization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Website_localization\" title=\"Website localization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26b6a5378a707d97cfdf5f0f7b204271\">Website localization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-selflink selflink\">Software localization<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\" style=\"background:antiquewhite;\">\nInstitutional<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Translation_associations\" title=\"Category:Translation associations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"06bb70e8270902f44c713f396bd26e03\">Associations<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Translation_awards\" title=\"Category:Translation awards\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f14c9b435be63959ad282aa0bc024c1\">Awards<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Translation_organizations\" title=\"Category:Translation organizations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02a34082dabfdb9c67a144f00a02a0b2\">Organizations<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Translation_and_interpreting_schools\" title=\"Category:Translation and interpreting schools\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e56c34ba8072cf979df04879eef902e0\">Schools<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><th class=\"sidebar-heading\" style=\"background:antiquewhite;\">\nRelated topics<\/th><\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-content\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Untranslatability\" title=\"Untranslatability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7477c4344dcc26b68edcf962eb0bb700\">Untranslatability<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transcription_(linguistics)\" title=\"Transcription (linguistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b99b38d82cd8e9ac26455ed51fd9dd7d\">Transcription<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transliteration\" title=\"Transliteration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3eb1ef61a811735fb50a83feb138d440\">Transliteration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Video_relay_service\" title=\"Video relay service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b35f843174515425b2a2da416e7e58fe\">Video relay service<\/a> (VRS)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telephone_interpreting\" title=\"Telephone interpreting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ded598623cfe89d96cae776e83a1927\">Telephone interpreting<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_barrier\" title=\"Language barrier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b38183c5483dd2235c3c41caf7bcf140\">Language barrier<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fan_translation\" title=\"Fan translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0cb4f65eb848f6b31453f2b22c960b66\">Fan translation<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fan_translation_of_video_games\" title=\"Fan translation of video games\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cdb7985e477b7a53f438f0cb80a23f\">of video games<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fansub\" title=\"Fansub\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"071783994b300c69ed6cac84f844343f\">Fansub<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fandub\" title=\"Fandub\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7d097864af1962327dafa08a3c53471\">Fandub<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scanlation\" title=\"Scanlation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"608bbbe199c7241e6ff6fe54fbb3ce28\">Scanlation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journalistic_translation\" title=\"Journalistic translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"848678f367a5c1c607da23035565840d\">Journalistic translation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Translation_publications\" title=\"Category:Translation publications\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfe1ffbab766bbf8c03eddcba3209bbd\">Books and magazines on translation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Bible_translations_by_language\" title=\"Category:Bible translations by language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9fe18330fa7b6bc77524f89bd44317f\">Bible translations by language<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Translations\" title=\"Category:Translations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5266d4fbb14c2d94bfe3ca8fa81c31c\">Translated books<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_literary_works_by_number_of_translations\" title=\"List of literary works by number of translations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7b91ab9f77eff1bd98df96da5ad50c0\">List of most translated works<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Translators\" title=\"Category:Translators\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fa76d8b45249a77de3619262884d6b1\">Translators<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_Tirukkural_translations_by_language\" title=\"List of Tirukkural translations by language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff229dc97b5c90ad8cf798c9a87f4fae\">Kural translations by language<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td class=\"sidebar-navbar\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Debian72Trinity35132.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"73e5c29b9bf55126eb5d8eb4588f17b8\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/36\/Debian72Trinity35132.png\/350px-Debian72Trinity35132.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"350\" height=\"263\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Screenshot of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trinity_Desktop_Environment\" title=\"Trinity Desktop Environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca8ed7ab4d735ca8730a39a28ec2bc59\">TDE<\/a> software programs mostly localized to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traditional_Chinese_characters\" title=\"Traditional Chinese characters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e8ea8d114cc546c936635221d71993a\">Chinese (traditional)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing\" title=\"Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e2b41b4b3636a02cae6b06d1b0b6378\">computing<\/a>, <b>internationalization and localization<\/b> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American_English\" title=\"American English\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aecafada9f4e44fba2a5331b28a1dc45\">American<\/a>) or <b>internationalisation and localisation<\/b> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/British_English\" title=\"British English\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cddd44a61557b36be45eb5a29f64d666\">British<\/a>), often abbreviated <b>i18n<\/b> and <b>l10n<\/b> respectively,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> are means of adapting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer software\" data-key=\"e8a365bf2f5a19030dc6a6c1629a22ea\">computer software<\/a> to different languages, regional peculiarities and technical requirements of a target <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Locale_(computer_software)\" title=\"Locale (computer software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19add046884f615e75e2555fc397adc2\">locale<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Internationalization is the process of designing a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">software application<\/a> so that it can be adapted to various languages and regions without engineering changes. Localization is the process of adapting internationalized software for a specific region or language by translating text and adding locale-specific components.\n<\/p><p>Localization (which is potentially performed multiple times, for different locales) uses the infrastructure or flexibility provided by internationalization (which is ideally performed only once before localization, or as an integral part of ongoing development).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Naming\">Naming<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The terms are frequently abbreviated to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Numeronym\" title=\"Numeronym\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faa6f604c328c0653c04315fe762c0a6\">numeronyms<\/a> <i><b>i18n<\/b><\/i> (where <i>18<\/i> stands for the number of letters between the first <i>i<\/i> and the last <i>n<\/i> in the word <i>internationalization<\/i>, a usage coined at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Equipment_Corporation\" title=\"Digital Equipment Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3c857e38d5dedf2bc308a93a67955ad\">Digital Equipment Corporation<\/a> in the 1970s or 1980s)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> and <i><b>l10n<\/b><\/i> for <i>localization<\/i>, due to the length of the words.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GNU_Org.,_2019_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GNU_Org.,_2019-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Some writers have the latter term capitalized <i>(<b>L10n<\/b>)<\/i> to help distinguish the two.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-L10n_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-L10n-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Some companies, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_Corporation\" title=\"Oracle Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9d9b95cef4bc5e02dc8a6d510f8fca6\">Oracle<\/a>, use the term <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Globalization\" title=\"Globalization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d67e483cf72bd59cd7610fc7b4beda69\">globalization<\/a><\/i>, <i>g11n<\/i>, for the combination of internationalization and localization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a> defines internationalization as a combination of world-readiness and localization. World-readiness is a developer task, which enables a product to be used with multiple scripts and cultures (globalization) and separates user interface resources in a localizable format (localizability, abbreviated to <i>L12y<\/i>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hewlett-Packard\" title=\"Hewlett-Packard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3071e67fd131546e44720a6d8dc9510b\">Hewlett-Packard<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HP-UX\" title=\"HP-UX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"105a1e3a1c0d553660f9fbbb8b490f63\">HP-UX<\/a> created a system called \"National Language Support\" or \"Native Language Support\" (NLS) to produce localizable software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scope\">Scope<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Globalisationchart.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"3776c72b76d5a985618eaa8f91d68b6f\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/ce\/Globalisationchart.svg\/400px-Globalisationchart.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"mw-file-element\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><figcaption>The internationalization and localization process<br \/>(based on a chart from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Localization_Industry_Standards_Association\" title=\"Localization Industry Standards Association\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"83fe7bbeb4c4fe7e6bc619d7744f8c21\">LISA<\/a> website)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>According to <i>Software without frontiers<\/i>, the design aspects to consider when internationalizing a product are \"data encoding, data and documentation, software construction, hardware device support, and user interaction\"; while the key design areas to consider when making a fully internationalized product from scratch are \"user interaction, algorithm design and data formats, software services, and documentation\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Translation is typically the most time-consuming component of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_localization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Language localization\" data-key=\"2a9c154d60732066ec766090aebf61f6\">language localization<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> This may involve:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>For film, video, and audio, translation of spoken words or music lyrics, often using either <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dub_localization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dub localization\" data-key=\"5782e556aad5570dda5ece87f07cf39a\">dubbing<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subtitle_(captioning)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Subtitle (captioning)\" data-key=\"b7ce1eb2ee73a32a3675468d709943f0\">subtitles<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Text translation for printed materials, and digital media (possibly including error messages and documentation)<\/li>\n<li>Potentially altering images and logos containing text to contain translations or generic icons<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Different translation lengths and differences in character sizes (e.g. between <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Latin_alphabet\" title=\"Latin alphabet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb6f0075c5a2863fed73c138aa146795\">Latin alphabet<\/a> letters and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_characters\" title=\"Chinese characters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b5461b097f5cb7860fc960ca35c239a\">Chinese characters<\/a>) can cause layouts that work well in one language to work poorly in others<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Consideration of differences in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dialect\" title=\"Dialect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b093f5e7dfe858cc9ff8240814b12839\">dialect<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Register_(sociolinguistics)\" title=\"Register (sociolinguistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116ad546d4ecebae05b79c77dc8d2a50\">register<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Variety_(linguistics)\" title=\"Variety (linguistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b187ee7167c4e6f6830c921d16b3992\">variety<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Writing conventions like:\n<ul><li>Formatting of numbers (especially <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decimal_separator\" title=\"Decimal separator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b3faead75619cfd8a0e5cf6757037ef\">decimal separator<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digit_grouping\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digit grouping\" data-key=\"00d4a1a166692517020b60da8c8dc714\">digit grouping<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Date_and_time_representation_by_country\" title=\"Date and time representation by country\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a89ae1d3187b8ac618c13f4098f838cc\">Date and time format<\/a>, possibly including the use of different calendars (e.g. the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_calendar\" title=\"Islamic calendar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9acc3708a2c233ee64c1b9ee34f29592\">Islamic<\/a> or the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Japanese_calendar\" title=\"Japanese calendar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"75e2daad4c3e2913ad1db33948fc8eb4\">Japanese calendar<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standard_locale_data\">Standard locale data<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer software\" data-key=\"e8a365bf2f5a19030dc6a6c1629a22ea\">Computer software<\/a> can encounter differences above and beyond straightforward translation of words and phrases, because computer programs can generate content dynamically. These differences may need to be taken into account by the internationalization process in preparation for translation. Many of these differences are so regular that a conversion between languages can be easily automated. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_Locale_Data_Repository\" title=\"Common Locale Data Repository\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df56eb87a03d458cee92ff7f3d4909a6\">Common Locale Data Repository<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unicode\" title=\"Unicode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a0e9aab68b420ba7a330cc49decd193\">Unicode<\/a> provides a collection of such differences. Its data is used by major <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating systems<\/a>, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Windows\" title=\"Microsoft Windows\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c181121bacd156ee0ddefde38acdb60a\">Microsoft Windows<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MacOS\" title=\"MacOS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a584fd7f5fac3a71eb8e2da838f07874\">macOS<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Debian\" title=\"Debian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5b06586cbf6aa99f897d7d8a1597cf8\">Debian<\/a>, and by major Internet companies or projects such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google\" title=\"Google\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b915ee8daf11a90fecc2d0bd0513feb\">Google<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikimedia_Foundation\" title=\"Wikimedia Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cb17db82e9c5b860e6af82a8fee456f\">Wikimedia Foundation<\/a>. Examples of such differences include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Different \"scripts\" in different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Writing_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Writing systems\" data-key=\"5ce9fa3c37817963d421c1636ab90224\">writing systems<\/a> use different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Character_(symbol)\" title=\"Character (symbol)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e21a60d8854ff5a35cd9a2dfc0704a66\">characters<\/a> \u2013 a different set of letters, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Syllabary\" title=\"Syllabary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17a7176b7df7ca5091db0560528e359e\">syllograms<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logogram\" title=\"Logogram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fcd44a16a159a8f1ecacb627e78ebd4\">logograms<\/a>, or symbols. Modern systems use the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unicode\" title=\"Unicode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a0e9aab68b420ba7a330cc49decd193\">Unicode<\/a> standard to represent many different languages with a single <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Character_encoding\" title=\"Character encoding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d96fb1a8ea579113325958ec79ec0ce\">character encoding<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Writing_direction\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Writing direction\" data-key=\"2bc6823dfdc5174a9e3bb9848247adbc\">Writing direction<\/a> is left to right in most European languages, right-to-left in Hebrew and Arabic, or both in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boustrophedon\" title=\"Boustrophedon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"318a532f60f6f6d8a35bc5a589e5b2fc\">boustrophedon<\/a> scripts, and optionally vertical in some Asian languages.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Complex_text_layout\" title=\"Complex text layout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0eb1df13e7d72d3bb0a2a295595a6cef\">Complex text layout<\/a>, for languages where characters change shape depending on context<\/li>\n<li>Capitalization exists in some scripts and not in others<\/li>\n<li>Different languages and writing systems have different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collation\" title=\"Collation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da2695502f23682f0de176e61bf2405d\">text sorting<\/a> rules<\/li>\n<li>Different languages have different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Numeral_(linguistics)\" title=\"Numeral (linguistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"817bc739675c2c591fe915d82eab3d2a\">numeral systems<\/a>, which might need to be supported if <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Western_Arabic_numerals\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Western Arabic numerals\" data-key=\"d6ebc33d54e0c4250b93206356727418\">Western Arabic numerals<\/a> are not used<\/li>\n<li>Different languages have different pluralization rules, which can complicate programs that dynamically display numerical content.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Other grammar rules might also vary, e.g. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genitive\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Genitive\" data-key=\"3ff6e115247abc634ad4f53feb6361a4\">genitive<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Different languages use different punctuation (e.g. quoting text using double-quotes (\" \") as in English, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Guillemet\" title=\"Guillemet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b36190aefda271ffab9f8a9ee1bf2191\">guillemets<\/a> (\u00ab&#160;\u00bb) as in French)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Keyboard_shortcut\" title=\"Keyboard shortcut\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bfcc778f571651e197019e476ddffbc\">Keyboard shortcuts<\/a> can only make use of buttons on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Keyboard_layout\" title=\"Keyboard layout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78ea27d9fbf83c9dfe19c7eaeaa6981c\">keyboard layout<\/a> which is being localized for. If a shortcut corresponds to a word in a particular language (e.g. Ctrl-s stands for \"save\" in English), it may need to be changed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"National_conventions\">National conventions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Different countries have different economic conventions, including variations in:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paper_size\" title=\"Paper size\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d52e6df3aa8a12f8ac1c9d0ea6e6c10f\">Paper sizes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Broadcast_television_systems\" title=\"Broadcast television systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37a4cfc6568bee714323fcef0deb7d0e\">Broadcast television systems<\/a> and popular <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Storage_media\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Storage media\" data-key=\"bb3820c764949f5d522a4dd9ae68a5bd\">storage media<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_conventions_for_writing_telephone_numbers\" title=\"National conventions for writing telephone numbers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d03c4089ac39a8e97bff3d9a9264352\">Telephone number formats<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Address_(geography)#Mailing_address_format_by_country\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Address (geography)\" data-key=\"3a46fc564215e4193368115eec5234a6\">Postal address formats<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Postal_code\" title=\"Postal code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cba0893d5cd7819e40664caf8bef883d\">postal codes<\/a>, and choice of delivery services<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Currency\" title=\"Currency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"053e1dee5124718be03da09e69afb0d3\">Currency<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Currency_symbol\" title=\"Currency symbol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"955ce12edc40e6dfb5295d6918874562\">symbols<\/a>, positions of currency markers, and reasonable amounts due to different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inflation\" title=\"Inflation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4db2b4a56b4710bd7aa339c71bbe86d\">inflation<\/a> histories) \u2013 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_4217\" title=\"ISO 4217\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db13e23918ccc7cc83dae317c32a5d58\">ISO 4217<\/a> codes are often used for internationalization<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_of_measurement\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"System of measurement\" data-key=\"1a352a3dd9b8999046b904a2d152b176\">System of measurement<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Battery_sizes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Battery sizes\" data-key=\"c641d7b1c79ef6071e9311e64b568304\">Battery sizes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mains_electricity_by_country\" title=\"Mains electricity by country\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccffdffcca3e1bfaa7cd524c135f9122\">Voltage and current standards<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In particular, the United States and Europe differ in most of these cases. Other areas often follow one of these.\n<\/p><p>Specific third-party services, such as online maps, weather reports, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Payment_service_provider\" title=\"Payment service provider\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"724b9407bc104fc5431bb0e62e8d06ae\">payment service providers<\/a>, might not be available worldwide from the same carriers, or at all.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_zone\" title=\"Time zone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5fb1f55b2aee848ffe0a1e3f287e0191\">Time zones<\/a> vary across the world, and this must be taken into account if a product originally only interacted with people in a single time zone. For internationalization, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coordinated_Universal_Time\" title=\"Coordinated Universal Time\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cfebd5e225b699fff6c11e6fa3669d0\">UTC<\/a> is often used internally and then converted into a local time zone for display purposes.\n<\/p><p>Different countries have different legal requirements, meaning for example:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compliance_(regulation)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Compliance (regulation)\" data-key=\"71644bbee68707280e54bbdddeb0d129\">Regulatory compliance<\/a> may require customization for a particular jurisdiction, or a change to the product as a whole, such as:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_law\" title=\"Privacy law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58442113e93c1e202fc66e92aac1c44f\">Privacy law<\/a> compliance<\/li>\n<li>Additional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disclaimer\" title=\"Disclaimer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e67eece729c9dfcd6d3d28297106e72\">disclaimers<\/a> on a website or packaging<\/li>\n<li>Different consumer labelling requirements<\/li>\n<li>Compliance with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Export_restrictions\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Export restrictions\" data-key=\"c993433099c89aa9554dd15f77270e29\">export restrictions<\/a> and regulations on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">encryption<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Compliance with an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_censorship\" title=\"Internet censorship\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa48850fb711db41319d4bcc9252f385\">Internet censorship<\/a> regime or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subpoena\" title=\"Subpoena\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"87524346be29b3d644d79e9f35d6a112\">subpoena<\/a> procedures<\/li>\n<li>Requirements for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accessibility\" title=\"Accessibility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b03a29f12fb22a58105751f50b00570\">accessibility<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Collecting different taxes, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sales_tax\" title=\"Sales tax\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0cf7630c7e785f4dea76f029e3d1e57\">sales tax<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Value_added_tax\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Value added tax\" data-key=\"62729dc79171cd1d7349654ea3358509\">value added tax<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customs_duties\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Customs duties\" data-key=\"aeb02064b2275b3c3ce249c78ee03e00\">customs duties<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Sensitivity to different political issues, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Geographical_naming_disputes\" title=\"Category:Geographical naming disputes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2852fb8c3ab6218187c6bad255965085\">geographical naming disputes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Border_dispute\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Border dispute\" data-key=\"3c87a8884c98521d0e7b0790b5707213\">disputed borders<\/a> shown on maps (e.g., India has proposed a bill that would make failing to show <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kashmir\" title=\"Kashmir\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"708ef66f9970762190c6a18a458562c5\">Kashmir<\/a> and other areas as intended by the government a crime<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaiderPakistan16_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaiderPakistan16-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HamdaniChanging16_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HamdaniChanging16-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CourierAnOver17_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CourierAnOver17-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>)<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Government-assigned numbers have different formats (such as passports, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_Security_Number\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Social Security Number\" data-key=\"ccc5c552cd2697341af0aa14477decd7\">Social Security Numbers<\/a> and other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_identification_number\" title=\"National identification number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85b37a753769471a3bf9822521500be7\">national identification numbers<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Localization also may take into account differences in culture, such as:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_holidays_by_country\" title=\"List of holidays by country\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ae2a569711d6a2420606f909e61a5d8\">Local holidays<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_name\" title=\"Personal name\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a0f11871ddce2ee6b68c4125d77b6f4\">Personal name<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Title\" title=\"Title\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"187385a469661b1254770648a7d7d41b\">title<\/a> conventions<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aesthetics\" title=\"Aesthetics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6829afee8f425a2a2a0ea817d690d0c\">Aesthetics<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Comprehensibility and cultural appropriateness of images and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Color_symbolism\" title=\"Color symbolism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed0959bb9eb5e22d2f897dd4ab04f24c\">color symbolism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethnicity\" title=\"Ethnicity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d73a062adab00019a037f93710882704\">Ethnicity<\/a>, clothing, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Socioeconomic_status\" title=\"Socioeconomic status\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a25c149219070b1683c2b7e366ea62\">socioeconomic status<\/a> of people and architecture of locations pictured<\/li>\n<li>Local customs and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Convention_(norm)\" title=\"Convention (norm)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa1fb38a5092425b1d25772f6a0af4ae\">conventions<\/a>, such as social taboos, popular local religions, or superstitions such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blood_types_in_Japanese_culture\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Blood types in Japanese culture\" data-key=\"a83bd79302ed150f366f0462e747d7e4\">blood types in Japanese culture<\/a> vs. astrological signs in other cultures<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Business_process_for_internationalizing_software\">Business process for internationalizing software<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>To <i>internationalize<\/i> a product, it is important to look at a variety of markets that the product will foreseeably enter.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Details such as field length for street addresses, unique format for the address, ability to make the postal code field optional to address countries that do not have postal codes or the state field for countries that do not have states, plus the introduction of new registration flows that adhere to local laws are just some of the examples that make internationalization a complex project.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-L10n_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-L10n-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> A broader approach takes into account cultural factors regarding for example the adaptation of the business process logic or the inclusion of individual cultural (behavioral) aspects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Already in the 1990s, companies such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Groupe_Bull\" title=\"Groupe Bull\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f35070b2fef18a926b284eafb32f1c4\">Bull<\/a> used <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">machine translation<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systran\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Systran\" data-key=\"a0484b481caa3af015d0e331fd0db488\">Systran<\/a>) on a large scale, for all their translation activity: human translators handled pre-editing (making the input machine-readable) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Post-editing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Post-editing\" data-key=\"2b8828682bc4b1079c3f6f0cecfb3507\">post-editing<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Engineering\">Engineering<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Both in re-engineering an existing software or designing a new internationalized software, the first step of internationalization is to split each potentially locale-dependent part (whether code, text or data) into a separate module.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Each module can then either rely on a standard library\/dependency or be independently replaced as needed for each locale.\n<\/p><p>The current prevailing practice is for applications to place text in resource files which are loaded during program execution as needed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> These strings, stored in resource files, are relatively easy to translate. Programs are often built to reference resource libraries depending on the selected locale data.\n<\/p><p>The storage for translatable and translated strings is sometimes called a message catalog<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> as the strings are called messages. The catalog generally comprises a set of files in a specific localization format and a standard library to handle said format. One <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_library\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software library\" data-key=\"0a777d95355b6c51af74cda9403b2b1f\">software library<\/a> and format that aids this is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gettext\" title=\"Gettext\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d5227fdc37db91b74129b17f7de2e4a\">gettext<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Thus to get an application to support multiple languages one would design the application to select the relevant language resource file at runtime. The code required to manage data entry verification and many other locale-sensitive data types also must support differing locale requirements. Modern development systems and operating systems include sophisticated libraries for international support of these types, see also <a href=\"#Standard_locale_data\">Standard locale data<\/a> above.\n<\/p><p>Many localization issues (e.g. writing direction, text sorting) require more profound changes in the software than text translation. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenOffice.org\" title=\"OpenOffice.org\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"485845ffaac26b6ac3d9d53934f1ee33\">OpenOffice.org<\/a> achieves this with compilation switches.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Process\">Process<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A globalization method includes, after planning, three implementation steps: internationalization, localization and quality assurance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>To some degree (e.g. for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_assurance\" title=\"Quality assurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"680f2f1a2b91429b38fd9a1d2b226d01\">quality assurance<\/a>), development teams include someone who handles the basic\/central stages of the process which then enables all the others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Such persons typically understand foreign languages and cultures and have some technical background. Specialized technical writers are required to construct a culturally appropriate syntax for potentially complicated concepts, coupled with engineering resources to deploy and test the localization elements.\n<\/p><p>Once properly internationalized, software can rely on more decentralized models for localization: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Free_and_open_source_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Free and open source software\" data-key=\"3a9e898c7bf0d3c2faa6348de35770a5\">free and open source software<\/a> usually rely on self-localization by end-users and volunteers, sometimes organized in teams.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GNOME_project\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GNOME project\" data-key=\"a1aef4041894e2298c7ff720e3b0029f\">GNOME project<\/a>, for example, has volunteer translation teams for over 100 languages.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MediaWiki\" title=\"MediaWiki\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9effd79eb3752573591ae7660601f7c7\">MediaWiki<\/a> supports over 500 languages, of which 100 are mostly complete as of September&#160;2023<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>When translating existing text to other languages, it is difficult to maintain the parallel versions of texts throughout the life of the product.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> For instance, if a message displayed to the user is modified, all of the translated versions must be changed.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Commercial_considerations\">Commercial considerations<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In a commercial setting, the benefit of localization is access to more markets. In the early 1980s, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lotus_1-2-3\" title=\"Lotus 1-2-3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad1b7ca10bb1fcc91c6d9a022b610a53\">Lotus 1-2-3<\/a> took two years to separate program code and text and lost the market lead in Europe over <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Multiplan\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Microsoft Multiplan\" data-key=\"8360df2f877df906d8dcb9ddbb6d2a18\">Microsoft Multiplan<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_2-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> MicroPro found that using an Austrian translator for the West German market caused its <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WordStar\" title=\"WordStar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69108ffb7406928f8fedc6e394ef7dce\">WordStar<\/a> documentation to, an executive said, not \"have the tone it should have had\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-schrage19850217_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-schrage19850217-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, there are considerable costs involved, which go far beyond engineering. Further, business operations must adapt to manage the production, storage and distribution of multiple discrete localized products, which are often being sold in completely different currencies, regulatory environments and tax regimes.\n<\/p><p>Finally, sales, marketing and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technical_support\" title=\"Technical support\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e64a03d6b5d64d20bf1abfe092d7fb8a\">technical support<\/a> must also facilitate their operations in the new languages, to support customers for the localized products. Particularly for relatively small language populations, it may never be economically viable to offer a localized product. Even where large language populations could justify localization for a given product, and a product's internal structure already permits localization, a given software developer or publisher may lack the size and sophistication to manage the ancillary functions associated with operating in multiple locales.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Subcomponents and standards:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bidirectional_script_support\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bidirectional script support\" data-key=\"6f9186bd4d558f0dabab60751ef32c82\">Bidirectional script support<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Components_for_Unicode\" title=\"International Components for Unicode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"332ac3b6300662bf8869845c9e792a68\">International Components for Unicode<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_code\" title=\"Language code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"28f98ded144e097ddadd243c0f082e7b\">Language code<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_localisation\" title=\"Language localisation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f9e65e38690f3ab81443c0ecf2cd64b\">Language localization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Website_localization\" title=\"Website localization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26b6a5378a707d97cfdf5f0f7b204271\">Website localization<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Related concepts:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_accessibility\" title=\"Computer accessibility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c27beeac790ce7f11fb7b8c12f7a11c\">Computer accessibility<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Russification\" title=\"Computer Russification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97b2246ba747fe97037751ebbfd3ef3d\">Computer Russification<\/a>, localization into Russian language<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Separation_of_concerns\" title=\"Separation of concerns\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"197246818d742abe6a8113558b6d257b\">Separation of concerns<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Methods and examples:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_localization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Game localization\" data-key=\"895d1e51b631bfadea78ea3a73de301c\">Game localization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Globalization_Management_System\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Globalization Management System\" data-key=\"55035abaea814eef725b4ca41f49251b\">Globalization Management System<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pseudolocalization\" title=\"Pseudolocalization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14ee636c07cf25fa9297805865bbd661\">Pseudolocalization<\/a>, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing\" title=\"Software testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f063d549d38c63342218d62a80c724\">software testing<\/a> method for testing a software product's readiness for localization.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Other:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Input_method_editor\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Input method editor\" data-key=\"cfd1a4b6a4de01eae933f83dd6a643a3\">Input method editor<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_industry\" title=\"Language industry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6367c0f21a8ab14b9ff279f7a99e0557\">Language industry<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFIshidaMiller2005\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Ishida, Richard; Miller, Susan K. (2005-12-05). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/International\/questions\/qa-i18n\" target=\"_blank\">\"Localization vs. Internationalization\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W3C\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"W3C\" data-key=\"9ac7cb7a1dd566b78bc8d5b6ab1ccd27\">W3C<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160403134943\/http:\/\/www.w3.org\/International\/questions\/qa-i18n\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2016-04-03<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2023-09-16<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=W3C&amp;rft.atitle=Localization+vs.+Internationalization&amp;rft.date=2005-12-05&amp;rft.aulast=Ishida&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft.au=Miller%2C+Susan+K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2FInternational%2Fquestions%2Fqa-i18n&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SFW-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-10\"><sup><i><b>k<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-11\"><sup><i><b>l<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-12\"><sup><i><b>m<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-13\"><sup><i><b>n<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-14\"><sup><i><b>o<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-15\"><sup><i><b>p<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_2-16\"><sup><i><b>q<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHallHudson1997\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hall, P. A. V.; Hudson, R., eds. (1997). <i>Software without Frontiers: A Multi-Platform, Multi-Cultural, Multi-Nation Approach<\/i>. Chichester: Wiley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-471-96974-5<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Software+without+Frontiers%3A+A+Multi-Platform%2C+Multi-Cultural%2C+Multi-Nation+Approach&amp;rft.place=Chichester&amp;rft.pub=Wiley&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.isbn=0-471-96974-5&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEsselink2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Esselink, Bert (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120907235057\/http:\/\/isg.urv.es\/library\/papers\/Esselink_Evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Evolution of Localization\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. In Pym, Anthony; Perekrestenko, Alexander; Starink, Bram (eds.). <i>Translation Technology and Its Teaching (With Much Mention of Localization)<\/i>. Tarragona: Intercultural Studies Group \u2013 URV. pp.&#160;21\u201329. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>84-611-1131-1<\/bdi>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/isg.urv.es\/library\/papers\/Esselink_Evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 7 September 2012. <q>In a nutshell, localization revolves around combining language and technology to produce a product that can cross cultural and language barriers. No more, no less.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+Localization&amp;rft.btitle=Translation+Technology+and+Its+Teaching+%28With+Much+Mention+of+Localization%29&amp;rft.place=Tarragona&amp;rft.pages=21-29&amp;rft.pub=Intercultural+Studies+Group+%E2%80%93+URV&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=84-611-1131-1&amp;rft.aulast=Esselink&amp;rft.aufirst=Bert&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fisg.urv.es%2Flibrary%2Fpapers%2FEsselink_Evolution.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#I18N\">\"Glossary of W3C Jargon\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W3C\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"W3C\" data-key=\"9ac7cb7a1dd566b78bc8d5b6ab1ccd27\">W3C<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#I18N\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 September 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 September<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=W3C&amp;rft.atitle=Glossary+of+W3C+Jargon&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2001%2F12%2FGlossary%23I18N&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.i18nguy.com\/origini18n.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Origin of the Abbreviation I18n\"<\/a>. <i>I18nGuy<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140627034040\/http:\/\/www.i18nguy.com\/origini18n.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 June 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 February<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=I18nGuy&amp;rft.atitle=Origin+of+the+Abbreviation+I18n&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.i18nguy.com%2Forigini18n.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GNU_Org.,_2019-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GNU_Org.,_2019_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gnu.org\/software\/gettext\/manual\/html_node\/Concepts.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Concepts (GNU gettext utilities)\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gnu.org\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gnu.org\" data-key=\"a03ce7e0ec641ab3e1553fa25f787648\">gnu.org<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190918095917\/https:\/\/www.gnu.org\/software\/gettext\/manual\/html_node\/Concepts.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 18 September 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 September<\/span> 2023<\/span>. <q>Many people, tired of writing these long words over and over again, took the habit of writing <i>i18n<\/i> and <i>l10n<\/i> instead, quoting the first and last letter of each word, and replacing the run of intermediate letters by a number merely telling how many such letters there are.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=gnu.org&amp;rft.atitle=Concepts+%28GNU+gettext+utilities%29&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fsoftware%2Fgettext%2Fmanual%2Fhtml_node%2FConcepts.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-L10n-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-L10n_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-L10n_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFalan2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">alan (29 March 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ccjk.com\/what-is-internationalization-i18n-localization-l10n-and-globalization-g11n\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is Internationalization (i18n), Localization (L10n) and Globalization (g11n)\"<\/a>. <i>ccjk.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150402114350\/http:\/\/www.ccjk.com\/what-is-internationalization-i18n-localization-l10n-and-globalization-g11n\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 April 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 September<\/span> 2023<\/span>. <q>The capital L in L10n helps to distinguish it from the lowercase i in i18n.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ccjk.com&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+Internationalization+%28i18n%29%2C+Localization+%28L10n%29+and+Globalization+%28g11n%29&amp;rft.date=2011-03-29&amp;rft.au=alan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccjk.com%2Fwhat-is-internationalization-i18n-localization-l10n-and-globalization-g11n%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160331105340\/http:\/\/www-01.ibm.com\/software\/globalization\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Globalize Your Business\"<\/a>. <i>IBM<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ibm.com\/software\/globalization\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 31 March 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=IBM&amp;rft.atitle=Globalize+Your+Business&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fsoftware%2Fglobalization%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150412064148\/https:\/\/msdn.microsoft.com\/en-us\/goglobal\/bb688110.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Globalization Step-by-Step\"<\/a>. <i>Go Global Developer Center<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/msdn.microsoft.com\/en-us\/goglobal\/bb688110.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 12 April 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Go+Global+Developer+Center&amp;rft.atitle=Globalization+Step-by-Step&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmsdn.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fgoglobal%2Fbb688110.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150526235028\/https:\/\/msdn.microsoft.com\/en-us\/goglobal\/bb688112.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Globalization Step-by-Step: Understanding Internationalization\"<\/a>. <i>Go Global Developer Center<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/msdn.microsoft.com\/en-us\/goglobal\/bb688112.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 26 May 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Go+Global+Developer+Center&amp;rft.atitle=Globalization+Step-by-Step%3A+Understanding+Internationalization&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmsdn.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fgoglobal%2Fbb688112.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gnu.org\/software\/gettext\/manual\/html_node\/Plural-forms.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Plural forms (GNU gettext utilities)\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gnu.org\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gnu.org\" data-key=\"a03ce7e0ec641ab3e1553fa25f787648\">gnu.org<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210314175141\/https:\/\/www.gnu.org\/software\/gettext\/manual\/html_node\/Plural-forms.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 March 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 September<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=gnu.org&amp;rft.atitle=Plural+forms+%28GNU+gettext+utilities%29&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fsoftware%2Fgettext%2Fmanual%2Fhtml_node%2FPlural-forms.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/languagetranslationsservices.wordpress.com\/2014\/08\/21\/do-we-need-to-localize-keyboard-shortcuts\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Do We Need to Localize Keyboard Shortcuts?\"<\/a>. <i>Human Translation Services \u2013 Language to Language Translation<\/i>. 21 August 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150403113353\/http:\/\/languagetranslationsservices.wordpress.com\/2014\/08\/21\/do-we-need-to-localize-keyboard-shortcuts\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 3 April 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 February<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Human+Translation+Services+%E2%80%93+Language+to+Language+Translation&amp;rft.atitle=Do+We+Need+to+Localize+Keyboard+Shortcuts%3F&amp;rft.date=2014-08-21&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flanguagetranslationsservices.wordpress.com%2F2014%2F08%2F21%2Fdo-we-need-to-localize-keyboard-shortcuts%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HaiderPakistan16-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HaiderPakistan16_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMateen_Haider2016\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Mateen Haider (17 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dawn.com\/news\/1258908\/pakistan-expresses-concern-over-indias-controversial-maps-bill\" target=\"_blank\">\"Pakistan Expresses Concern Over India's Controversial 'Maps Bill'<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\"><\/span>\"<\/a>. <i>Dawn<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180510115216\/https:\/\/www.dawn.com\/news\/1258908\/pakistan-expresses-concern-over-indias-controversial-maps-bill\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 May 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Dawn&amp;rft.atitle=Pakistan+Expresses+Concern+Over+India%27s+Controversial+%27Maps+Bill%27&amp;rft.date=2016-05-17&amp;rft.au=Mateen+Haider&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dawn.com%2Fnews%2F1258908%2Fpakistan-expresses-concern-over-indias-controversial-maps-bill&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HamdaniChanging16-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HamdaniChanging16_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFYasser_Latif_Hamdani2016\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Yasser Latif Hamdani (18 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/tribune.com.pk\/article\/34594\/changing-maps-will-not-m\" target=\"_blank\">\"Changing Maps Will Not Mean Kashmir Is a Part of You, India\"<\/a>. <i>The Express Tribune<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 February<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Express+Tribune&amp;rft.atitle=Changing+Maps+Will+Not+Mean+Kashmir+Is+a+Part+of+You%2C+India&amp;rft.date=2016-05-18&amp;rft.au=Yasser+Latif+Hamdani&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftribune.com.pk%2Farticle%2F34594%2Fchanging-maps-will-not-m&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CourierAnOver17-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CourierAnOver17_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation news cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/madrascourier.com\/policy\/an-overview-of-the-geospatial-information-regulation-bill\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"An Overview of the Geospatial Information Regulation Bill\"<\/a>. <i>Madras Courier<\/i>. 24 July 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201029063419\/https:\/\/madrascourier.com\/policy\/an-overview-of-the-geospatial-information-regulation-bill\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 October 2020<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 February<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Madras+Courier&amp;rft.atitle=An+Overview+of+the+Geospatial+Information+Regulation+Bill&amp;rft.date=2017-07-24&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmadrascourier.com%2Fpolicy%2Fan-overview-of-the-geospatial-information-regulation-bill%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/docs.microsoft.com\/en-us\/previous-versions\/cc195167(v=msdn.10)\" target=\"_blank\">\"Appendix V International Address Formats\"<\/a>. <i>Microsoft Docs<\/i>. 2 June 2008. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210519025813\/https:\/\/docs.microsoft.com\/en-us\/previous-versions\/cc195167(v=msdn.10)\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 May 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 February<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Microsoft+Docs&amp;rft.atitle=Appendix+V+International+Address+Formats&amp;rft.date=2008-06-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocs.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fprevious-versions%2Fcc195167%28v%3Dmsdn.10%29&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPawlowski\" class=\"citation cs1\">Pawlowski, Jan M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/users.jyu.fi\/~japawlow\/culture_profiles_pawlowski_draft20080901.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Culture Profiles: Facilitating Global Learning and Knowledge Sharing<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> (Draft version). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110716064423\/http:\/\/users.jyu.fi\/~japawlow\/culture_profiles_pawlowski_draft20080901.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2011-07-16<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2009-10-01<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Culture+Profiles%3A+Facilitating+Global+Learning+and+Knowledge+Sharing&amp;rft.aulast=Pawlowski&amp;rft.aufirst=Jan+M.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.jyu.fi%2F~japawlow%2Fculture_profiles_pawlowski_draft20080901.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFReinaRoblesGonz\u00e1lez-Barahona2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Reina, Laura Arjona; Robles, Gregorio; Gonz\u00e1lez-Barahona, Jes\u00fas M. (2013). \"A Preliminary Analysis of Localization in Free Software: How Translations Are Performed\". In Petrinja, Etiel; Succi, Giancarlo; Ioini, Nabil El; Sillitti, Alberto (eds.). <i>Open Source Software: Quality Verification<\/i>. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology. Vol.&#160;404. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp.&#160;153\u2013167. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-642-38928-3_11\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-642-38928-3_11<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-642-38927-6<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=A+Preliminary+Analysis+of+Localization+in+Free+Software%3A+How+Translations+Are+Performed&amp;rft.btitle=Open+Source+Software%3A+Quality+Verification&amp;rft.series=IFIP+Advances+in+Information+and+Communication+Technology&amp;rft.pages=153-167&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-38928-3_11&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-642-38927-6&amp;rft.aulast=Reina&amp;rft.aufirst=Laura+Arjona&amp;rft.au=Robles%2C+Gregorio&amp;rft.au=Gonz%C3%A1lez-Barahona%2C+Jes%C3%BAs+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/l10n.gnome.org\/languages\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"GNOME Languages\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GNOME\" title=\"GNOME\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7247057dc3869e52a60ce60eadb4de07\">GNOME<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230829184045\/https:\/\/l10n.gnome.org\/languages\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 August 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 September<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=GNOME&amp;rft.atitle=GNOME+Languages&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fl10n.gnome.org%2Flanguages%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/translatewiki.net\/wiki\/Translating:Group_statistics\" target=\"_blank\">\"Translating:Group Statistics\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Translatewiki.net\" title=\"Translatewiki.net\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41156aa1fd2d1c7eb9cc80bb24d8368a\">translatewiki.net<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230829185828\/https:\/\/translatewiki.net\/wiki\/Translating:Group_statistics\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2023-08-29<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2023-09-16<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=translatewiki.net&amp;rft.atitle=Translating%3AGroup+Statistics&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftranslatewiki.net%2Fwiki%2FTranslating%3AGroup_statistics&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pocketgamer.biz\/feature\/58406\/sponsored-feature-how-to-translate-a-game-into-20-languages-and-avoid-going-to-hell\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to Translate a Game Into 20 Languages and Avoid Going to Hell: Exorcising the Four Devils of Confusion\"<\/a>. <i>PocketGamer.biz<\/i>. 4 April 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171207110435\/http:\/\/www.pocketgamer.biz\/feature\/58406\/sponsored-feature-how-to-translate-a-game-into-20-languages-and-avoid-going-to-hell\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 December 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 February<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=PocketGamer.biz&amp;rft.atitle=How+to+Translate+a+Game+Into+20+Languages+and+Avoid+Going+to+Hell%3A+Exorcising+the+Four+Devils+of+Confusion&amp;rft.date=2014-04-04&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pocketgamer.biz%2Ffeature%2F58406%2Fsponsored-feature-how-to-translate-a-game-into-20-languages-and-avoid-going-to-hell%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-schrage19850217-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-schrage19850217_22-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchrage1985\" class=\"citation news cs1\">Schrage, Michael (17 February 1985). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/archive\/business\/1985\/02\/17\/ibm-wins-dominance-in-european-computer-market\/bdcb9e21-8107-4dad-88d7-713f2709a8d8\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"IBM Wins Dominance in European Computer Market\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Washington_Post\" title=\"The Washington Post\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a752ef3dddeb493eda94d684a46f5e46\">The Washington Post<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180829110208\/https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/archive\/business\/1985\/02\/17\/ibm-wins-dominance-in-european-computer-market\/bdcb9e21-8107-4dad-88d7-713f2709a8d8\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 August 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 August<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&amp;rft.atitle=IBM+Wins+Dominance+in+European+Computer+Market&amp;rft.date=1985-02-17&amp;rft.aulast=Schrage&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fbusiness%2F1985%2F02%2F17%2Fibm-wins-dominance-in-european-computer-market%2Fbdcb9e21-8107-4dad-88d7-713f2709a8d8%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"refbegin\" style=\"\">\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSmith-Ferrier2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Smith-Ferrier, Guy (2006). <i>.NET Internationalization: The Developer's Guide to Building Global Windows and Web Applications<\/i>. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Addison Wesley Professional. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-321-34138-4<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=.NET+Internationalization%3A+The+Developer%27s+Guide+to+Building+Global+Windows+and+Web+Applications&amp;rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&amp;rft.pub=Addison+Wesley+Professional&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=0-321-34138-4&amp;rft.aulast=Smith-Ferrier&amp;rft.aufirst=Guy&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEsselink2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Esselink, Bert (2000). <i>A Practical Guide to Localization<\/i>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>1-58811-006-0<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+Practical+Guide+to+Localization&amp;rft.place=Amsterdam&amp;rft.pub=John+Benjamins&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=1-58811-006-0&amp;rft.aulast=Esselink&amp;rft.aufirst=Bert&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAsh2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ash, Lydia (2003). <i>The Web Testing Companion: The Insider's Guide to Efficient and Effective Tests<\/i>. Indianapolis, Indiana: Wiley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-471-43021-8<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Web+Testing+Companion%3A+The+Insider%27s+Guide+to+Efficient+and+Effective+Tests&amp;rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+Indiana&amp;rft.pub=Wiley&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=0-471-43021-8&amp;rft.aulast=Ash&amp;rft.aufirst=Lydia&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDePalma2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">DePalma, Donald A. (2004). <i>Business Without Borders: A Strategic Guide to Global Marketing<\/i>. Chelmsford, Massachusetts: Globa Vista Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-9765169-0-X<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Business+Without+Borders%3A+A+Strategic+Guide+to+Global+Marketing&amp;rft.place=Chelmsford%2C+Massachusetts&amp;rft.pub=Globa+Vista+Press&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=0-9765169-0-X&amp;rft.aulast=DePalma&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fe0856e3e8185ca28af4f13ffe46310\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/df\/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg\/16px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikibooks.org\/wiki\/FOSS_Localization\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikibooks:FOSS Localization\" data-key=\"50d20988b4c3400007be567e2133754b\">FOSS Localization<\/a> at Wikibooks<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/International\/questions\/qa-i18n.en.html\" target=\"_blank\">Localization vs. Internationalization by The World Wide Web Consortium<\/a><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Commons-logo.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"56c1eee72d1be207b2a9d9bcedb4ef6f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> Media related to <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Internationalization_and_localization\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Internationalization and localization\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Internationalization and localization<\/a> at Wikimedia Commons<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1400\nCached time: 20240106111303\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.395 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.510 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 2317\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 67954\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 2130\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 22\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 85241\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.231\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6763530\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 418.406 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>42.25% 176.765 1 Template:Reflist\n27.68% 115.808 15 Template:Cite_web\n17.28% 72.315 1 Template:Translation_sidebar\n16.49% 69.001 1 Template:Sidebar\n13.80% 57.756 1 Template:Short_description\n 8.22% 34.388 7 Template:Cite_book\n 7.99% 33.411 2 Template:Pagetype\n 6.77% 28.336 2 Template:Sister-inline\n 6.56% 27.463 1 Template:Commons_category-inline\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:126844-0!canonical and timestamp 20240106111303 and revision id 1193942258. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internationalization_and_localization\" data-key=\"e35dfdf51d08438a1e84bf1896c28cbf\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171634\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.124 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.326 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 89079\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 295.459 1 wikipedia:Internationalization_and_localization\n100.00% 295.459 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10566-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171634 and revision id 33199. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internationalization_and_localization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internationalization_and_localization<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_images":[],"668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_timestamp":1704906994,"2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_type":"article","2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_title":"Interface (computing)","2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Interface_(computing)","2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_plaintext":"\n\nInterface (computing)From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchShared boundary between elements of a computing system\n This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.\r\nFind sources:&#160;\"Interface\"&#160;computing&#160;\u2013&#160;news&#160;\u00b7 newspapers&#160;\u00b7 books&#160;\u00b7 scholar&#160;\u00b7 JSTOR (May 2010 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \nIn computing, an interface is a shared boundary across which two or more separate components of a computer system exchange information. The exchange can be between software, computer hardware, peripheral devices, humans, and combinations of these.[1] Some computer hardware devices, such as a touchscreen, can both send and receive data through the interface, while others such as a mouse or microphone may only provide an interface to send data to a given system.[2]\n\n\n\nHardware interfaces \nHardware interfaces of a laptop computer: Ethernet network socket (center), to the left a part of the VGA port, to the right (upper) a display port socket, to the right (lower) a USB-B socket.\n\nMain article: Hardware interface\nHardware interfaces exist in many components, such as the various buses, storage devices, other I\/O devices, etc. A hardware interface is described by the mechanical, electrical, and logical signals at the interface and the protocol for sequencing them (sometimes called signaling).[3] A standard interface, such as SCSI, decouples the design and introduction of computing hardware, such as I\/O devices, from the design and introduction of other components of a computing system, thereby allowing users and manufacturers great flexibility in the implementation of computing systems.[3] Hardware interfaces can be parallel with several electrical connections carrying parts of the data simultaneously or serial where data are sent one bit at a time.[4]\n\nSoftware interfaces \nSee also: Application binary interface and Application programming interface\nA software interface may refer to a wide range of different types of interface at different \"levels\". For example, an operating system may interface with pieces of hardware. Applications or programs running on the operating system may need to interact via data streams, filters, and pipelines.[5] In object oriented programs, objects within an application may need to interact via methods.[6]\n\nIn practice \nA key principle of design is to prohibit access to all resources by default, allowing access only through well-defined entry points, i.e., interfaces.[7] Software interfaces provide access to computer resources (such as memory, CPU, storage, etc.) of the underlying computer system; direct access (i.e., not through well-designed interfaces) to such resources by software can have major ramifications\u2014sometimes disastrous ones\u2014for functionality and stability.[citation needed ]\nInterfaces between software components can provide constants, data types, types of procedures, exception specifications, and method signatures. Sometimes, public variables are also defined as part of an interface.[8]\nThe interface of a software module A is deliberately defined separately from the implementation of that module. The latter contains the actual code of the procedures and methods described in the interface, as well as other \"private\" variables, procedures, etc. Another software module B, for example the client to A, that interacts with A is forced to do so only through the published interface. One practical advantage of this arrangement is that replacing the implementation of A with another implementation of the same interface should not cause B to fail\u2014how A internally meets the requirements of the interface is not relevant to B, which is only concerned with the specifications of the interface. (See also Liskov substitution principle.)[citation needed ]\n\nIn object-oriented languages \nMain articles: Interface (object-oriented programming) and Concept (generic programming)\nIn some object-oriented languages, especially those without full multiple inheritance, the term interface is used to define an abstract type that acts as an abstraction of a class. It contains no data, but defines behaviours as method signatures. A class having code and data for all the methods corresponding to that interface and declaring so is said to implement that interface.[9] Furthermore, even in single-inheritance-languages, one can implement multiple interfaces, and hence can be of different types at the same time.[10]\nAn interface is thus a type definition; anywhere an object can be exchanged (for example, in a function or method call) the type of the object to be exchanged can be defined in terms of one of its implemented interfaces or base-classes rather than specifying the specific class. This approach means that any class that implements that interface can be used.[citation needed ] For example, a dummy implementation may be used to allow development to progress before the final implementation is available. In another case, a fake or mock implementation may be substituted during testing. Such stub implementations are replaced by real code later in the development process.\nUsually, a method defined in an interface contains no code and thus cannot itself be called; it must be implemented by non-abstract code to be run when it is invoked.[citation needed ] An interface called \"<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stack_(data_structure)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Stack (data structure)\">Stack<\/a>\" might define two methods: push() and pop(). It can be implemented in different ways, for example, FastStack and GenericStack\u2014the first being fast, working with a data structure of fixed size, and the second using a data structure that can be resized, but at the cost of somewhat lower speed.\nThough interfaces can contain many methods, they may contain only one or even none at all. For example, the Java language defines the interface <span class=\"n\">Readable<\/span> that has the single <span class=\"n\">read<\/span><span class=\"p\">()<\/span> method; various implementations are used for different purposes, including <span class=\"n\">BufferedReader<\/span>, <span class=\"n\">FileReader<\/span>, <span class=\"n\">InputStreamReader<\/span>, <span class=\"n\">PipedReader<\/span>, and <span class=\"n\">StringReader<\/span>. Marker interfaces like <span class=\"n\">Serializable<\/span> contain no methods at all and serve to provide run-time information to generic processing using Reflection.[11]\n\nProgramming to the interface \nThe use of interfaces allows for a programming style called programming to the interface. The idea behind this approach is to base programming logic on the interfaces of the objects used, rather than on internal implementation details. Programming to the interface reduces dependency on implementation specifics and makes code more reusable.[12]\nPushing this idea to the extreme, inversion of control leaves the context to inject the code with the specific implementations of the interface that will be used to perform the work.\n\nUser interfaces \nMain article: User interface\nA user interface is a point of interaction between a computer and humans; it includes any number of modalities of interaction (such as graphics, sound, position, movement, etc.) where data is transferred between the user and the computer system.\n\nSee also \nAbstraction inversion\nApplication binary interface\nApplication programming interface\nBusiness Interoperability Interface\nComputer bus\nHard disk drive interface\nImplementation (computer science)\nImplementation inheritance\nInteroperability\nInheritance semantics\nModular programming\nSoftware componentry\nVirtual inheritance\nReferences \n\n\n^ Hookway, B. (2014). \"Chapter 1: The Subject of the Interface\". Interface. MIT Press. pp.&#160;1\u201358. ISBN&#160;9780262525503. \n\n^ IEEE 100 - The Authoritative Dictionary Of IEEE Standards Terms. NYC, NY, USA: IEEE Press. 2000. pp.&#160;574\u2013575. ISBN&#160;9780738126012. \n\n^ a b \nBlaauw, Gerritt A.; Brooks, Jr., Frederick P. (1997), \"Chapter 8.6, Device Interfaces\", Computer Architecture-Concepts and Evolution, Addison-Wesley, pp.&#160;489\u2013493, ISBN&#160;0-201-10557-8 \nSee also:\nPatterson, David A.; Hennessey, John L. (2005), \"Chapter 8.5, Interfacing I\/O Devices to the Processor, Memory and Operating System\", Computer Organization and Design - The Hardware\/Software Interface, Third Edition , Morgan Kaufmann, pp.&#160;588\u2013596, ISBN&#160;1-55860-604-1 \n\n^ Govindarajalu, B. (2008). \"3.15 Peripheral Interfaces and Controllers - OG\". IBM PC And Clones: Hardware, Troubleshooting And Maintenance. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd. pp.&#160;142\u2013144. ISBN&#160;9780070483118. Retrieved 15 June 2018 . \n\n^ Buyya, R. (2013). Mastering Cloud Computing. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p.&#160;2.13. ISBN&#160;9781259029950. \n\n^ Poo, D.; Kiong, D.; Ashok, S. (2008). \"Chapter 2: Object, Class, Message and Method\". Object-Oriented Programming and Java. Springer-Verlag. pp.&#160;7\u201315. ISBN&#160;9781846289637. \n\n^ \nBill Venners (2005-06-06). \"Leading-Edge Java: Design Principles from Design Patterns: Program to an interface, not an implementation - A Conversation with Erich Gamma, Part III\". artima developer. Archived from the original on 2011-08-05. Retrieved 2011-08-03 . Once you depend on interfaces only, you're decoupled from the implementation. That means the implementation can vary, and that is a healthy dependency relationship. For example, for testing purposes you can replace a heavy database implementation with a lighter-weight mock implementation. Fortunately, with today's refactoring support you no longer have to come up with an interface up front. You can distill an interface from a concrete class once you have the full insights into a problem. The intended interface is just one 'extract interface' refactoring away. ... \n\n^ Patterson, D.A.; Hennessy, J.L. (7 August 2004). Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware\/Software Interface (3rd&#160;ed.). Elsevier. p.&#160;656. ISBN&#160;9780080502571. \n\n^ \"What Is an Interface\". The Java Tutorials. Oracle. Archived from the original on 2012-04-12. Retrieved 2012-05-01 . \n\n^ \"Interfaces\". The Java Tutorials. Oracle. Archived from the original on 2012-05-26. Retrieved 2012-05-01 . \n\n^ \n\"Performance improvement techniques in Serialization\". Precise Java. Archived from the original on 2011-08-24. Retrieved 2011-08-04 . We will talk initially about Serializable interface. This is a marker interface and does not have any methods. \n\n^ Gamma; Helm; Johnson; Vlissides (1995). Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software . Addison Wesley. pp.&#160;17\u201318. ISBN&#160;9780201633610. \n\n\nAuthority control databases: National \nGermany \nCzech Republic \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Interface_(computing)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Interface_(computing)<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 September 2022, at 21:50.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,150 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Interface_computing rootpage-Interface_computing skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Interface (computing)<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Shared boundary between elements of a computing system<\/div>\n\n<p>In computing, an <b>interface<\/b> is a shared boundary across which two or more separate components of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer system\" data-key=\"49eba49cde7ee0d508d5b64acba7d82b\">computer system<\/a> exchange information. The exchange can be between <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_hardware\" title=\"Computer hardware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3af5473d082dc42736a8f0e670ebb91\">computer hardware<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peripheral\" title=\"Peripheral\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be3a141d45881dbe6509d7c9e4c94055\">peripheral<\/a> devices, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_interface\" title=\"User interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d20341f81dd69148536f2ceacaafe0b\">humans<\/a>, and combinations of these.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HookwayInterface14_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HookwayInterface14-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Some computer hardware devices, such as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Touchscreen\" title=\"Touchscreen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c17515d61b8c89aa53bb5e8970f410a6\">touchscreen<\/a>, can both send and receive data through the interface, while others such as a mouse or microphone may only provide an interface to send data to a given system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hardware_interfaces\">Hardware interfaces<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:RJ-45_Ethernet_socket_on_Lenovo_T410_Laptop.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1c78534209e5a4550d72adc4ef9b077\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/09\/RJ-45_Ethernet_socket_on_Lenovo_T410_Laptop.jpg\/310px-RJ-45_Ethernet_socket_on_Lenovo_T410_Laptop.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"310\" height=\"120\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Hardware interfaces of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laptop\" title=\"Laptop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"613b051d5e39aabd7a5711f7ac035ee3\">laptop<\/a> computer: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethernet\" title=\"Ethernet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8604e2ab3dc54bee1192999e4cf7d867\">Ethernet<\/a> network socket (center), to the left a part of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Video_Graphics_Array\" title=\"Video Graphics Array\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c25d2a265393a75c381ffacf20183d9\">VGA<\/a> port, to the right (upper) a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Display_port\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Display port\" data-key=\"7111badbb04d2d4eccb3d561e843ce53\">display port<\/a> socket, to the right (lower) a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Serial_Bus\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Universal Serial Bus\" data-key=\"238663c429d2eab6183798f6709c750b\">USB<\/a>-B socket.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hardware_interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hardware interface\" data-key=\"144ab6a07b2b6b36353c56d42a2a4bcc\">Hardware interface<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Hardware interfaces exist in many components, such as the various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bus_(computing)\" title=\"Bus (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95968ed6042d4a5c7b6f94639c427032\">buses<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_data_storage\" title=\"Computer data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c06a35ae9ff26906dd57849f8067bfdb\">storage devices<\/a>, other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I\/O\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"I\/O\" data-key=\"6408f2374834f0d38a885341356aff24\">I\/O<\/a> devices, etc. A hardware interface is described by the mechanical, electrical, and logical signals at the interface and the protocol for sequencing them (sometimes called signaling).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87Blaauw_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87Blaauw-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> A standard interface, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SCSI\" title=\"SCSI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"763979f0c49e0af7d49af7b1bc62dfcb\">SCSI<\/a>, decouples the design and introduction of computing hardware, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I\/O\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"I\/O\" data-key=\"6408f2374834f0d38a885341356aff24\">I\/O<\/a> devices, from the design and introduction of other components of a computing system, thereby allowing users and manufacturers great flexibility in the implementation of computing systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87Blaauw_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87Blaauw-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Hardware interfaces can be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel_communication\" title=\"Parallel communication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6987d8414ff97f19240a0266f1f77c06\">parallel<\/a> with several electrical connections carrying parts of the data simultaneously or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Serial_communication\" title=\"Serial communication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c28a65e356b933baf7ff98cf1a7793aa\">serial<\/a> where data are sent one <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bit\" title=\"Bit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"752f407565ee891b0deb9a745d009c09\">bit<\/a> at a time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GovindarajaluIBM08_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GovindarajaluIBM08-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Software_interfaces\">Software interfaces<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_binary_interface\" title=\"Application binary interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"87485d8bc3ef74435f90662a67971e71\">Application binary interface<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_programming_interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Application programming interface\" data-key=\"c3b6475d989fc4f46d473299c5f0a76b\">Application programming interface<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A software interface may refer to a wide range of different types of interface at different \"levels\". For example, an operating system may interface with pieces of hardware. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">Applications<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_program\" title=\"Computer program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50546cf7bdd4e8811acbcc3ce79a1f3e\">programs<\/a> running on the operating system may need to interact via data <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stream_(computing)\" title=\"Stream (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"140862a22f28321043faa26357083a68\">streams<\/a>, filters, and pipelines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BuyyaMastering13_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BuyyaMastering13-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object-oriented_programming\" title=\"Object-oriented programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89f19c8e4c919ea2942014fec0ff7a8d\">object oriented programs<\/a>, objects within an application may need to interact via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Method_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Method (computer science)\" data-key=\"99a1918951c447535adab95449533d01\">methods<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PooObject08_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PooObject08-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_practice\">In practice<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A key principle of design is to prohibit access to all resources by default, allowing access only through well-defined entry points, i.e., interfaces.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Software interfaces provide access to computer resources (such as memory, CPU, storage, etc.) of the underlying computer system; direct access (i.e., not through well-designed interfaces) to such resources by software can have major ramifications\u2014sometimes disastrous ones\u2014for functionality and stability.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Interfaces between software components can provide <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Constant_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Constant (computer science)\" data-key=\"31a8b18479171aece1a3dc43f821aab7\">constants<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_type\" title=\"Data type\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3beae0a1a0ef5c72cb4cf9a31d42812f\">data types<\/a>, types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subroutine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Subroutine\" data-key=\"0edec6abeb36ac1a8c4fb5aecdb03d00\">procedures<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exception_handling\" title=\"Exception handling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca7dc56718dc2980c73353e31b11e806\">exception<\/a> specifications, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Method_signature\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Method signature\" data-key=\"339f07f7c0f2d4ce47c3fdfd4cd7398e\">method signatures<\/a>. Sometimes, public <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Variable_(programming)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Variable (programming)\" data-key=\"4af58243e3742fa2ffaca4c7ba9382fe\">variables<\/a> are also defined as part of an interface.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PattersonComputer04_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PattersonComputer04-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The interface of a software module <i>A<\/i> is deliberately defined separately from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Implementation_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Implementation (computer science)\" data-key=\"2237903db5aeabbbed1441431ba91b0e\">implementation<\/a> of that module. The latter contains the actual code of the procedures and methods described in the interface, as well as other \"private\" variables, procedures, etc. Another software module <i>B<\/i>, for example the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Client_(computing)\" title=\"Client (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4412996949bdde132c63ef6034a949e1\">client<\/a> to <i>A<\/i>, that interacts with <i>A<\/i> is forced to do so only through the published interface. One practical advantage of this arrangement is that replacing the implementation of <i>A<\/i> with another implementation of the same interface should not cause <i>B<\/i> to fail\u2014how <i>A<\/i> internally meets the requirements of the interface is not relevant to <i>B<\/i>, which <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Separation_of_concerns\" title=\"Separation of concerns\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"197246818d742abe6a8113558b6d257b\">is only concerned<\/a> with the specifications of the interface. (See also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Liskov_substitution_principle\" title=\"Liskov substitution principle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c495d442ceba5840689e4edf4ee68dc8\">Liskov substitution principle<\/a>.)<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_object-oriented_languages\">In object-oriented languages<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interface_(object-oriented_programming)\" title=\"Interface (object-oriented programming)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b072a06adcac62d0c2da2293081b9eeb\">Interface (object-oriented programming)<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concept_(generic_programming)\" title=\"Concept (generic programming)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b5e33ab214efc3e1d2b0fcdff9d2d49\">Concept (generic programming)<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object-oriented\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Object-oriented\" data-key=\"6cef6d6d0d12cfaf07ccac35d0923f4e\">object-oriented<\/a> languages, especially those without full <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multiple_inheritance\" title=\"Multiple inheritance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17aa76504396dd23a22edce84e46cd30\">multiple inheritance<\/a>, the term <i>interface<\/i> is used to define an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abstract_data_type\" title=\"Abstract data type\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8052ead951d5ee8eef5cbfbfaa114e93\">abstract type<\/a> that acts as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abstraction\" title=\"Abstraction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"100c36f9143d61b19f71353a0bcffaa3\">abstraction<\/a> of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Class_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Class (computer science)\" data-key=\"299a664e7b473fbd0e63502993cf33e7\">class<\/a>. It contains no data, but defines behaviours as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Method_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Method (computer science)\" data-key=\"99a1918951c447535adab95449533d01\">method<\/a> signatures. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Class_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Class (computer science)\" data-key=\"299a664e7b473fbd0e63502993cf33e7\">class<\/a> having code and data for all the methods corresponding to that interface and declaring so is said to <i>implement<\/i> that interface.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Furthermore, even in single-inheritance-languages, one can implement multiple interfaces, and hence can <i>be<\/i> of different types at the same time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An interface is thus a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_type\" title=\"Data type\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3beae0a1a0ef5c72cb4cf9a31d42812f\">type<\/a> definition; anywhere an object can be exchanged (for example, in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Function_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Function (computer science)\" data-key=\"c9c2f3630b244a7bf6ca963040b160c3\">function<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Method_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Method (computer science)\" data-key=\"99a1918951c447535adab95449533d01\">method<\/a> call) the <i>type<\/i> of the object to be exchanged can be defined in terms of one of its implemented <i>interface<\/i>s or base-classes rather than specifying the specific <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Class_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Class (computer science)\" data-key=\"299a664e7b473fbd0e63502993cf33e7\">class<\/a>. This approach means that any class that implements that interface can be used.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> For example, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skeleton_(computer_programming)\" title=\"Skeleton (computer programming)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce87b3ba5f760d73bb19813df6efee94\">dummy implementation<\/a> may be used to allow development to progress before the final implementation is available. In another case, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test-driven_development#Fakes,_mocks_and_integration_tests\" title=\"Test-driven development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ddd0061d841891d0dce43d1b324d6f27\">fake or mock<\/a> implementation may be substituted during testing. Such <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Method_stub\" title=\"Method stub\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a75c124da9d672734643e169f76eb262\">stub<\/a> implementations are replaced by real code later in the development process.\n<\/p><p>Usually, a method defined in an interface contains no code and thus cannot itself be called; it must be implemented by non-abstract code to be run when it is invoked.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> An interface called \"<code><a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stack_(data_structure)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Stack (data structure)\">Stack<\/a><\/code>\" might define two methods: <code>push()<\/code> and <code>pop()<\/code>. It can be implemented in different ways, for example, <code>FastStack<\/code> and <code>GenericStack<\/code>\u2014the first being fast, working with a data structure of fixed size, and the second using a data structure that can be resized, but at the cost of somewhat lower speed.\n<\/p><p>Though interfaces can contain many methods, they may contain only one or even none at all. For example, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_(programming_language)\" title=\"Java (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444fa6d23d72fee4750d4189e5a53f53\">Java<\/a> language defines the interface <code class=\"mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-java mw-content-ltr\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">Readable<\/span><\/code> that has the single <code class=\"mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-java mw-content-ltr\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">read<\/span><span class=\"p\">()<\/span><\/code> method; various implementations are used for different purposes, including <code class=\"mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-java mw-content-ltr\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">BufferedReader<\/span><\/code>, <code class=\"mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-java mw-content-ltr\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">FileReader<\/span><\/code>, <code class=\"mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-java mw-content-ltr\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">InputStreamReader<\/span><\/code>, <code class=\"mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-java mw-content-ltr\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">PipedReader<\/span><\/code>, and <code class=\"mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-java mw-content-ltr\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">StringReader<\/span><\/code>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marker_interface_pattern\" title=\"Marker interface pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b7d8a35fffb73f6efdc37107df7852d\">Marker interfaces<\/a> like <code class=\"mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-java mw-content-ltr\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">Serializable<\/span><\/code> contain no methods at all and serve to provide run-time information to generic processing using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reflection_(computer_programming)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Reflection (computer programming)\" data-key=\"286018871c8d02381216850d9944818a\">Reflection<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Programming_to_the_interface\">Programming to the interface<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The use of interfaces allows for a programming style called <i>programming to the interface<\/i>. The idea behind this approach is to base programming logic on the interfaces of the objects used, rather than on internal implementation details. Programming to the interface reduces dependency on implementation specifics and makes code more reusable.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Pushing this idea to the extreme, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inversion_of_control\" title=\"Inversion of control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"564b0764b2d253b6187ea64c19312f81\">inversion of control<\/a> leaves the <i>context<\/i> to inject the code with the specific implementations of the interface that will be used to perform the work.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"User_interfaces\">User interfaces<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_interface\" title=\"User interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d20341f81dd69148536f2ceacaafe0b\">User interface<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A <b>user interface<\/b> is a point of interaction between a computer and humans; it includes any number of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modality_(human%E2%80%93computer_interaction)\" title=\"Modality (human\u2013computer interaction)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edbd4b6629041d003f3c38f4f8089db7\">modalities<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human-computer_interaction\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human-computer interaction\" data-key=\"4411ebf65dc6bf1410662d24953ced2a\">interaction<\/a> (such as graphics, sound, position, movement, etc.) where data is transferred between the user and the computer system.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abstraction_inversion\" title=\"Abstraction inversion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d673b7918c053745c3a33e1eb0a0a2fa\">Abstraction inversion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_binary_interface\" title=\"Application binary interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"87485d8bc3ef74435f90662a67971e71\">Application binary interface<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_programming_interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Application programming interface\" data-key=\"c3b6475d989fc4f46d473299c5f0a76b\">Application programming interface<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_Interoperability_Interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business Interoperability Interface\" data-key=\"02f6540810f3e673209d2a113a4c97b4\">Business Interoperability Interface<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_bus\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer bus\" data-key=\"468ed122d39549dafb445675604b14a7\">Computer bus<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_disk_drive_interface\" title=\"Hard disk drive interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0f656e0485f5471b6d41f45be265d36\">Hard disk drive interface<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Implementation_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Implementation (computer science)\" data-key=\"2237903db5aeabbbed1441431ba91b0e\">Implementation (computer science)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Implementation_inheritance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Implementation inheritance\" data-key=\"784f00ec05774e0b6e9562e2d8be7418\">Implementation inheritance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interoperability\" title=\"Interoperability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38415d24cde633d18de0c69db5a6d400\">Interoperability<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inheritance_semantics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inheritance semantics\" data-key=\"bd3656af6322156c96e0f7bbfa1c844d\">Inheritance semantics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_programming\" title=\"Modular programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3e2efa63b2358882429ccde40078f8f\">Modular programming<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_componentry\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software componentry\" data-key=\"181440f81f4ea4caf60035b7c9329dc3\">Software componentry<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_inheritance\" title=\"Virtual inheritance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"643992326a768b72bc427749248afe12\">Virtual inheritance<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HookwayInterface14-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HookwayInterface14_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHookway,_B.2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hookway, B. (2014). \"Chapter 1: The Subject of the Interface\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=BQM_AwAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Interface<\/i><\/a>. MIT Press. pp.&#160;1\u201358. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780262525503<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+The+Subject+of+the+Interface&amp;rft.btitle=Interface&amp;rft.pages=1-58&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=9780262525503&amp;rft.au=Hookway%2C+B.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBQM_AwAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation encyclopaedia cs1\"><i>IEEE 100 - The Authoritative Dictionary Of IEEE Standards Terms<\/i>. NYC, NY, USA: IEEE Press. 2000. pp.&#160;574\u2013575. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780738126012<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=IEEE+100+-+The+Authoritative+Dictionary+Of+IEEE+Standards+Terms&amp;rft.place=NYC%2C+NY%2C+USA&amp;rft.pages=574-575&amp;rft.pub=IEEE+Press&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=9780738126012&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-87Blaauw-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-87Blaauw_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-87Blaauw_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBlaauwBrooks,_Jr.1997\" class=\"citation cs2\">Blaauw, Gerritt A.; Brooks, Jr., Frederick P. (1997), \"Chapter 8.6, Device Interfaces\", <i>Computer Architecture-Concepts and Evolution<\/i>, Addison-Wesley, pp.&#160;489\u2013493, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-201-10557-8<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+8.6%2C+Device+Interfaces&amp;rft.btitle=Computer+Architecture-Concepts+and+Evolution&amp;rft.pages=489-493&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.isbn=0-201-10557-8&amp;rft.aulast=Blaauw&amp;rft.aufirst=Gerritt+A.&amp;rft.au=Brooks%2C+Jr.%2C+Frederick+P.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>\nSee also:\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPattersonHennessey2005\" class=\"citation cs2\">Patterson, David A.; Hennessey, John L. (2005), \"Chapter 8.5, Interfacing I\/O Devices to the Processor, Memory and Operating System\", <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/isbn_9781558606043\/page\/588\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Computer Organization and Design - The Hardware\/Software Interface, Third Edition<\/i><\/a><\/span>, Morgan Kaufmann, pp.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/isbn_9781558606043\/page\/588\" target=\"_blank\">588\u2013596<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>1-55860-604-1<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+8.5%2C+Interfacing+I%2FO+Devices+to+the+Processor%2C+Memory+and+Operating+System&amp;rft.btitle=Computer+Organization+and+Design+-+The+Hardware%2FSoftware+Interface%2C+Third+Edition&amp;rft.pages=588-596&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.isbn=1-55860-604-1&amp;rft.aulast=Patterson&amp;rft.aufirst=David+A.&amp;rft.au=Hennessey%2C+John+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9781558606043%2Fpage%2F588&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GovindarajaluIBM08-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GovindarajaluIBM08_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGovindarajalu,_B.2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Govindarajalu, B. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Hyl8SA1eHzIC&pg=PA142\" target=\"_blank\">\"3.15 Peripheral Interfaces and Controllers - OG\"<\/a>. <i>IBM PC And Clones: Hardware, Troubleshooting And Maintenance<\/i>. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd. pp.&#160;142\u2013144. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780070483118<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=3.15+Peripheral+Interfaces+and+Controllers+-+OG&amp;rft.btitle=IBM+PC+And+Clones%3A+Hardware%2C+Troubleshooting+And+Maintenance&amp;rft.pages=142-144&amp;rft.pub=Tata+McGraw-Hill+Publishing+Co.+Ltd&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=9780070483118&amp;rft.au=Govindarajalu%2C+B.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHyl8SA1eHzIC%26pg%3DPA142&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BuyyaMastering13-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BuyyaMastering13_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBuyya,_R.2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Buyya, R. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VSDZAgAAQBAJ&pg=SA2-PA13\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Mastering Cloud Computing<\/i><\/a>. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p.&#160;2.13. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781259029950<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Mastering+Cloud+Computing&amp;rft.pages=2.13&amp;rft.pub=Tata+McGraw-Hill+Education&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9781259029950&amp;rft.au=Buyya%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVSDZAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DSA2-PA13&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PooObject08-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PooObject08_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPoo,_D.Kiong,_D.Ashok,_S.2008\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Poo, D.; Kiong, D.; Ashok, S. (2008). \"Chapter 2: Object, Class, Message and Method\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/springer_10.1007-978-1-84628-963-7\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Object-Oriented Programming and Java<\/i><\/a>. Springer-Verlag. pp.&#160;7\u201315. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781846289637<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Object%2C+Class%2C+Message+and+Method&amp;rft.btitle=Object-Oriented+Programming+and+Java&amp;rft.pages=7-15&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=9781846289637&amp;rft.au=Poo%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Kiong%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Ashok%2C+S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspringer_10.1007-978-1-84628-963-7&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBill_Venners2005\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Bill Venners (2005-06-06). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.artima.com\/lejava\/articles\/designprinciples.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Leading-Edge Java: Design Principles from Design Patterns: Program to an interface, not an implementation - A Conversation with Erich Gamma, Part III\"<\/a>. <i>artima developer<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110805191904\/http:\/\/www.artima.com\/lejava\/articles\/designprinciples.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2011-08-05<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-08-03<\/span><\/span>. <q>Once you depend on interfaces only, you're decoupled from the implementation. That means the implementation can vary, and that is a healthy dependency relationship. For example, for testing purposes you can replace a heavy database implementation with a lighter-weight mock implementation. Fortunately, with today's refactoring support you no longer have to come up with an interface up front. You can distill an interface from a concrete class once you have the full insights into a problem. The intended interface is just one 'extract interface' refactoring away. ...<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=artima+developer&amp;rft.atitle=Leading-Edge+Java%3A+Design+Principles+from+Design+Patterns%3A+Program+to+an+interface%2C+not+an+implementation+-+A+Conversation+with+Erich+Gamma%2C+Part+III&amp;rft.date=2005-06-06&amp;rft.au=Bill+Venners&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.artima.com%2Flejava%2Farticles%2Fdesignprinciples.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PattersonComputer04-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PattersonComputer04_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPatterson,_D.A.Hennessy,_J.L.2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Patterson, D.A.; Hennessy, J.L. (7 August 2004). <i>Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware\/Software Interface<\/i> (3rd&#160;ed.). Elsevier. p.&#160;656. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780080502571<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computer+Organization+and+Design%3A+The+Hardware%2FSoftware+Interface&amp;rft.pages=656&amp;rft.edition=3rd&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2004-08-07&amp;rft.isbn=9780080502571&amp;rft.au=Patterson%2C+D.A.&amp;rft.au=Hennessy%2C+J.L.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/docs.oracle.com\/javase\/tutorial\/java\/concepts\/interface.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is an Interface\"<\/a>. <i>The Java Tutorials<\/i>. Oracle. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120412093619\/http:\/\/docs.oracle.com\/javase\/tutorial\/java\/concepts\/interface.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2012-04-12<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2012-05-01<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Java+Tutorials&amp;rft.atitle=What+Is+an+Interface&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocs.oracle.com%2Fjavase%2Ftutorial%2Fjava%2Fconcepts%2Finterface.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/docs.oracle.com\/javase\/tutorial\/java\/IandI\/createinterface.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Interfaces\"<\/a>. <i>The Java Tutorials<\/i>. Oracle. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120526080117\/http:\/\/docs.oracle.com\/javase\/tutorial\/java\/IandI\/createinterface.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2012-05-26<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2012-05-01<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Java+Tutorials&amp;rft.atitle=Interfaces&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocs.oracle.com%2Fjavase%2Ftutorial%2Fjava%2FIandI%2Fcreateinterface.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.precisejava.com\/javaperf\/j2se\/Serialization.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Performance improvement techniques in Serialization\"<\/a>. Precise Java. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110824150046\/http:\/\/www.precisejava.com\/javaperf\/j2se\/Serialization.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2011-08-24<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-08-04<\/span><\/span>. <q>We will talk initially about Serializable interface. This is a marker interface and does not have any methods.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Performance+improvement+techniques+in+Serialization&amp;rft.pub=Precise+Java&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.precisejava.com%2Fjavaperf%2Fj2se%2FSerialization.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGammaHelmJohnsonVlissides1995\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Gamma; Helm; Johnson; Vlissides (1995). <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/designpatternsel00gamm\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software<\/i><\/a><\/span>. Addison Wesley. pp.&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/designpatternsel00gamm\/page\/17\" target=\"_blank\">17\u201318<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780201633610<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Design+Patterns%3A+Elements+of+Reusable+Object-Oriented+Software&amp;rft.pages=17-18&amp;rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.isbn=9780201633610&amp;rft.au=Gamma&amp;rft.au=Helm&amp;rft.au=Johnson&amp;rft.au=Vlissides&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdesignpatternsel00gamm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1365\nCached time: 20240102060552\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.378 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.642 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1850\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 49476\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 3319\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 18\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 48094\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.256\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6905491\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 599.623 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>24.34% 145.955 8 Template:Java\n23.80% 142.735 1 Template:Reflist\n16.15% 96.865 1 Template:Authority_control\n15.09% 90.512 6 Template:Cite_book\n11.34% 67.994 1 Template:Refimprove\n10.40% 62.332 1 Template:Ambox\n 9.25% 55.489 1 Template:Short_description\n 8.53% 51.129 4 Template:Citation_needed\n 6.86% 41.126 4 Template:Fix\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:620746-0!canonical and timestamp 20240102060552 and revision id 1186302568. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interface_(computing)\" data-key=\"644f6c43656f398980925c784ae9372f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240109182627\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.157 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.345 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 51933\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 318.144 1 wikipedia:Interface_(computing)\n100.00% 318.144 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10646-0!canonical and timestamp 20240109182627 and revision id 49387. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Interface_(computing)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Interface_(computing)<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_images":[],"2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_timestamp":1704906994,"27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_type":"article","27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_title":"Distributed computing","27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Distributed_computing","27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_plaintext":"\n\nDistributed computingFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchSystem with multiple networked computers\nNot to be confused with Decentralized computing.\nA distributed system is a system whose components are located on different networked computers, which communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another.[1][2] Distributed computing is a field of computer science that studies distributed systems. \nThe components of a distributed system interact with one another in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant challenges of distributed systems are: maintaining concurrency of components, overcoming the lack of a global clock, and managing the independent failure of components.[1] When a component of one system fails, the entire system does not fail.[3] Examples of distributed systems vary from SOA-based systems to massively multiplayer online games to peer-to-peer applications.\nA computer program that runs within a distributed system is called a distributed program,[4] and distributed programming is the process of writing such programs.[5] There are many different types of implementations for the message passing mechanism, including pure HTTP, RPC-like connectors and message queues.[6]\nDistributed computing also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational problems. In distributed computing, a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved by one or more computers,[7] which communicate with each other via message passing.[8]\n\n\n\nIntroduction \nThe word distributed in terms such as \"distributed system\", \"distributed programming\", and \"distributed algorithm\" originally referred to computer networks where individual computers were physically distributed within some geographical area.[9] The terms are nowadays used in a much wider sense, even referring to autonomous processes that run on the same physical computer and interact with each other by message passing.[8]\nWhile there is no single definition of a distributed system,[10] the following defining properties are commonly used as:\n\nThere are several autonomous computational entities (computers or nodes), each of which has its own local memory.[11]\nThe entities communicate with each other by message passing.[12]\nA distributed system may have a common goal, such as solving a large computational problem;[13] the user then perceives the collection of autonomous processors as a unit. Alternatively, each computer may have its own user with individual needs, and the purpose of the distributed system is to coordinate the use of shared resources or provide communication services to the users.[14]\nOther typical properties of distributed systems include the following:\n\nThe system has to tolerate failures in individual computers.[15]\nThe structure of the system (network topology, network latency, number of computers) is not known in advance, the system may consist of different kinds of computers and network links, and the system may change during the execution of a distributed program.[16]\nEach computer has only a limited, incomplete view of the system. Each computer may know only one part of the input.[17]\nParallel and distributed computing \n(a), (b): a distributed system.\r\n(c): a parallel system.\n\nDistributed systems are groups of networked computers which share a common goal for their work.\nThe terms \"concurrent computing\", \"parallel computing\", and \"distributed computing\" have much overlap, and no clear distinction exists between them.[18] The same system may be characterized both as \"parallel\" and \"distributed\"; the processors in a typical distributed system run concurrently in parallel.[19] Parallel computing may be seen as a particularly tightly coupled form of distributed computing,[20] and distributed computing may be seen as a loosely coupled form of parallel computing.[10] Nevertheless, it is possible to roughly classify concurrent systems as \"parallel\" or \"distributed\" using the following criteria:\n\nIn parallel computing, all processors may have access to a shared memory to exchange information between processors.[21]\nIn distributed computing, each processor has its own private memory (distributed memory). Information is exchanged by passing messages between the processors.[22]\nThe figure on the right illustrates the difference between distributed and parallel systems. Figure (a) is a schematic view of a typical distributed system; the system is represented as a network topology in which each node is a computer and each line connecting the nodes is a communication link. Figure (b) shows the same distributed system in more detail: each computer has its own local memory, and information can be exchanged only by passing messages from one node to another by using the available communication links. Figure (c) shows a parallel system in which each processor has a direct access to a shared memory.\nThe situation is further complicated by the traditional uses of the terms parallel and distributed algorithm that do not quite match the above definitions of parallel and distributed systems (see below for more detailed discussion). Nevertheless, as a rule of thumb, high-performance parallel computation in a shared-memory multiprocessor uses parallel algorithms while the coordination of a large-scale distributed system uses distributed algorithms.[23]\n\nHistory \nThe use of concurrent processes which communicate through message-passing has its roots in operating system architectures studied in the 1960s.[24] The first widespread distributed systems were local-area networks such as Ethernet, which was invented in the 1970s.[25]\nARPANET, one of the predecessors of the Internet, was introduced in the late 1960s, and ARPANET e-mail was invented in the early 1970s. E-mail became the most successful application of ARPANET,[26] and it is probably the earliest example of a large-scale distributed application. In addition to ARPANET (and its successor, the global Internet), other early worldwide computer networks included Usenet and FidoNet from the 1980s, both of which were used to support distributed discussion systems.[27]\nThe study of distributed computing became its own branch of computer science in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The first conference in the field, Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing (PODC), dates back to 1982, and its counterpart International Symposium on Distributed Computing (DISC) was first held in Ottawa in 1985 as the International Workshop on Distributed Algorithms on Graphs.[28]\n\nArchitectures \nVarious hardware and software architectures are used for distributed computing. At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of whether that network is printed onto a circuit board or made up of loosely coupled devices and cables. At a higher level, it is necessary to interconnect processes running on those CPUs with some sort of communication system.[29]\nDistributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures: client\u2013server, three-tier, n-tier, or peer-to-peer; or categories: loose coupling, or tight coupling.[30]\n\nClient\u2013server: architectures where smart clients contact the server for data then format and display it to the users. Input at the client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change.\nThree-tier: architectures that move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that stateless clients can be used. This simplifies application deployment. Most web applications are three-tier.\nn-tier: architectures that refer typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other enterprise services. This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of application servers.\nPeer-to-peer: architectures where there are no special machines that provide a service or manage the network resources.[31]:\u200a227\u200a Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers. Peers can serve both as clients and as servers.[32] Examples of this architecture include BitTorrent and the bitcoin network.\nAnother basic aspect of distributed computing architecture is the method of communicating and coordinating work among concurrent processes. Through various message passing protocols, processes may communicate directly with one another, typically in a main\/sub relationship. Alternatively, a \"database-centric\" architecture can enable distributed computing to be done without any form of direct inter-process communication, by utilizing a shared database.[33] Database-centric architecture in particular provides relational processing analytics in a schematic architecture allowing for live environment relay. This enables distributed computing functions both within and beyond the parameters of a networked database.[34]\n\nApplications \nReasons for using distributed systems and distributed computing may include:\n\nThe very nature of an application may require the use of a communication network that connects several computers: for example, data produced in one physical location and required in another location.\nThere are many cases in which the use of a single computer would be possible in principle, but the use of a distributed system is beneficial for practical reasons. For example:\nIt can allow for much larger storage and memory, faster compute, and higher bandwidth than a single machine.\nIt can provide more reliability than a non-distributed system, as there is no single point of failure. Moreover, a distributed system may be easier to expand and manage than a monolithic uniprocessor system.[35]\nIt may be more cost-efficient to obtain the desired level of performance by using a cluster of several low-end computers, in comparison with a single high-end computer.\nExamples \nExamples of distributed systems and applications of distributed computing include the following:[36]\n\ntelecommunication networks:\ntelephone networks and cellular networks,\ncomputer networks such as the Internet,\nwireless sensor networks,\nrouting algorithms;\nnetwork applications:\nWorld Wide Web and peer-to-peer networks,\nmassively multiplayer online games and virtual reality communities,\ndistributed databases and distributed database management systems,\nnetwork file systems,\ndistributed cache such as burst buffers,\ndistributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline reservation systems;\nreal-time process control:\naircraft control systems,\nindustrial control systems;\nparallel computation:\nscientific computing, including cluster computing, grid computing, cloud computing,[37] and various volunteer computing projects,\ndistributed rendering in computer graphics.\npeer-to-peer\nTheoretical foundations \nMain article: Distributed algorithm\nModels \nMany tasks that we would like to automate by using a computer are of question\u2013answer type: we would like to ask a question and the computer should produce an answer. In theoretical computer science, such tasks are called computational problems. Formally, a computational problem consists of instances together with a solution for each instance. Instances are questions that we can ask, and solutions are desired answers to these questions.\nTheoretical computer science seeks to understand which computational problems can be solved by using a computer (computability theory) and how efficiently (computational complexity theory). Traditionally, it is said that a problem can be solved by using a computer if we can design an algorithm that produces a correct solution for any given instance. Such an algorithm can be implemented as a computer program that runs on a general-purpose computer: the program reads a problem instance from input, performs some computation, and produces the solution as output. Formalisms such as random-access machines or universal Turing machines can be used as abstract models of a sequential general-purpose computer executing such an algorithm.[38][39]\nThe field of concurrent and distributed computing studies similar questions in the case of either multiple computers, or a computer that executes a network of interacting processes: which computational problems can be solved in such a network and how efficiently? However, it is not at all obvious what is meant by \"solving a problem\" in the case of a concurrent or distributed system: for example, what is the task of the algorithm designer, and what is the concurrent or distributed equivalent of a sequential general-purpose computer?[citation needed ]\nThe discussion below focuses on the case of multiple computers, although many of the issues are the same for concurrent processes running on a single computer.\nThree viewpoints are commonly used:\n\nParallel algorithms in shared-memory model\nAll processors have access to a shared memory. The algorithm designer chooses the program executed by each processor.\nOne theoretical model is the parallel random-access machines (PRAM) that are used.[40] However, the classical PRAM model assumes synchronous access to the shared memory.\nShared-memory programs can be extended to distributed systems if the underlying operating system encapsulates the communication between nodes and virtually unifies the memory across all individual systems.\nA model that is closer to the behavior of real-world multiprocessor machines and takes into account the use of machine instructions, such as Compare-and-swap (CAS), is that of asynchronous shared memory. There is a wide body of work on this model, a summary of which can be found in the literature.[41][42]\nParallel algorithms in message-passing model\nThe algorithm designer chooses the structure of the network, as well as the program executed by each computer.\nModels such as Boolean circuits and sorting networks are used.[43] A Boolean circuit can be seen as a computer network: each gate is a computer that runs an extremely simple computer program. Similarly, a sorting network can be seen as a computer network: each comparator is a computer.\nDistributed algorithms in message-passing model\nThe algorithm designer only chooses the computer program. All computers run the same program. The system must work correctly regardless of the structure of the network.\nA commonly used model is a graph with one finite-state machine per node.\nIn the case of distributed algorithms, computational problems are typically related to graphs. Often the graph that describes the structure of the computer network is the problem instance. This is illustrated in the following example.[44]\n\nAn example \nConsider the computational problem of finding a coloring of a given graph G. Different fields might take the following approaches:\n\nCentralized algorithms[44]\nThe graph G is encoded as a string, and the string is given as input to a computer. The computer program finds a coloring of the graph, encodes the coloring as a string, and outputs the result.\nParallel algorithms\nAgain, the graph G is encoded as a string. However, multiple computers can access the same string in parallel. Each computer might focus on one part of the graph and produce a coloring for that part.\nThe main focus is on high-performance computation that exploits the processing power of multiple computers in parallel.\nDistributed algorithms\nThe graph G is the structure of the computer network. There is one computer for each node of G and one communication link for each edge of G. Initially, each computer only knows about its immediate neighbors in the graph G; the computers must exchange messages with each other to discover more about the structure of G. Each computer must produce its own color as output.\nThe main focus is on coordinating the operation of an arbitrary distributed system.[44]\nWhile the field of parallel algorithms has a different focus than the field of distributed algorithms, there is much interaction between the two fields. For example, the Cole\u2013Vishkin algorithm for graph coloring[45] was originally presented as a parallel algorithm, but the same technique can also be used directly as a distributed algorithm.\nMoreover, a parallel algorithm can be implemented either in a parallel system (using shared memory) or in a distributed system (using message passing).[46] The traditional boundary between parallel and distributed algorithms (choose a suitable network vs. run in any given network) does not lie in the same place as the boundary between parallel and distributed systems (shared memory vs. message passing).\n\nComplexity measures \nIn parallel algorithms, yet another resource in addition to time and space is the number of computers. Indeed, often there is a trade-off between the running time and the number of computers: the problem can be solved faster if there are more computers running in parallel (see speedup). If a decision problem can be solved in polylogarithmic time by using a polynomial number of processors, then the problem is said to be in the class NC.[47] The class NC can be defined equally well by using the PRAM formalism or Boolean circuits\u2014PRAM machines can simulate Boolean circuits efficiently and vice versa.[48]\nIn the analysis of distributed algorithms, more attention is usually paid on communication operations than computational steps. Perhaps the simplest model of distributed computing is a synchronous system where all nodes operate in a lockstep fashion. This model is commonly known as the LOCAL model. During each communication round, all nodes in parallel (1)&#160;receive the latest messages from their neighbours, (2)&#160;perform arbitrary local computation, and (3)&#160;send new messages to their neighbors. In such systems, a central complexity measure is the number of synchronous communication rounds required to complete the task.[49]\nThis complexity measure is closely related to the diameter of the network. Let D be the diameter of the network. On the one hand, any computable problem can be solved trivially in a synchronous distributed system in approximately 2D communication rounds: simply gather all information in one location (D rounds), solve the problem, and inform each node about the solution (D rounds).\nOn the other hand, if the running time of the algorithm is much smaller than D communication rounds, then the nodes in the network must produce their output without having the possibility to obtain information about distant parts of the network. In other words, the nodes must make globally consistent decisions based on information that is available in their local D-neighbourhood. Many distributed algorithms are known with the running time much smaller than D rounds, and understanding which problems can be solved by such algorithms is one of the central research questions of the field.[50] Typically an algorithm which solves a problem in polylogarithmic time in the network size is considered efficient in this model.\nAnother commonly used measure is the total number of bits transmitted in the network (cf. communication complexity).[51] The features of this concept are typically captured with the CONGEST(B) model, which is similarly defined as the LOCAL model, but where single messages can only contain B bits.\n\nOther problems \nTraditional computational problems take the perspective that the user asks a question, a computer (or a distributed system) processes the question, then produces an answer and stops. However, there are also problems where the system is required not to stop, including the dining philosophers problem and other similar mutual exclusion problems. In these problems, the distributed system is supposed to continuously coordinate the use of shared resources so that no conflicts or deadlocks occur.\nThere are also fundamental challenges that are unique to distributed computing, for example those related to fault-tolerance. Examples of related problems include consensus problems,[52] Byzantine fault tolerance,[53] and self-stabilisation.[54]\nMuch research is also focused on understanding the asynchronous nature of distributed systems:\n\nSynchronizers can be used to run synchronous algorithms in asynchronous systems.[55]\nLogical clocks provide a causal happened-before ordering of events.[56]\nClock synchronization algorithms provide globally consistent physical time stamps.[57]\nElection \nCoordinator election (or leader election) is the process of designating a single process as the organizer of some task distributed among several computers (nodes). Before the task is begun, all network nodes are either unaware which node will serve as the \"coordinator\" (or leader) of the task, or unable to communicate with the current coordinator. After a coordinator election algorithm has been run, however, each node throughout the network recognizes a particular, unique node as the task coordinator.[58]\nThe network nodes communicate among themselves in order to decide which of them will get into the \"coordinator\" state. For that, they need some method in order to break the symmetry among them. For example, if each node has unique and comparable identities, then the nodes can compare their identities, and decide that the node with the highest identity is the coordinator.[58]\nThe definition of this problem is often attributed to LeLann, who formalized it as a method to create a new token in a token ring network in which the token has been lost.[59]\nCoordinator election algorithms are designed to be economical in terms of total bytes transmitted, and time. The algorithm suggested by Gallager, Humblet, and Spira [60] for general undirected graphs has had a strong impact on the design of distributed algorithms in general, and won the Dijkstra Prize for an influential paper in distributed computing.\nMany other algorithms were suggested for different kinds of network graphs, such as undirected rings, unidirectional rings, complete graphs, grids, directed Euler graphs, and others. A general method that decouples the issue of the graph family from the design of the coordinator election algorithm was suggested by Korach, Kutten, and Moran.[61]\nIn order to perform coordination, distributed systems employ the concept of coordinators. The coordinator election problem is to choose a process from among a group of processes on different processors in a distributed system to act as the central coordinator. Several central coordinator election algorithms exist.[62]\n\nProperties of distributed systems \nSo far the focus has been on designing a distributed system that solves a given problem. A complementary research problem is studying the properties of a given distributed system.[63][64]\nThe halting problem is an analogous example from the field of centralised computation: we are given a computer program and the task is to decide whether it halts or runs forever. The halting problem is undecidable in the general case, and naturally understanding the behaviour of a computer network is at least as hard as understanding the behaviour of one computer.[65]\nHowever, there are many interesting special cases that are decidable. In particular, it is possible to reason about the behaviour of a network of finite-state machines. One example is telling whether a given network of interacting (asynchronous and non-deterministic) finite-state machines can reach a deadlock. This problem is PSPACE-complete,[66] i.e., it is decidable, but not likely that there is an efficient (centralised, parallel or distributed) algorithm that solves the problem in the case of large networks.\n\nSee also \n\nActor model\nAppScale\nBOINC\nCode mobility\nDataflow programming\nDecentralized computing\nDistributed algorithm\nDistributed algorithmic mechanism design\nDistributed cache\nDistributed GIS\nDistributed networking\nDistributed operating system\nEventual consistency\nEdsger W. Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing\nFederation (information technology)\nFog computing\nFolding@home\nGrid computing\nInferno\nInternet GIS\nJungle computing\nLayered queueing network\nLibrary Oriented Architecture (LOA)\nList of distributed computing conferences\nList of volunteer computing projects\nModel checking\nOpenHarmony\nHarmonyOS\nParallel distributed processing\nParallel programming model\nPlan 9 from Bell Labs\nShared nothing architecture\nWeb GIS\n\nNotes \n\n\n^ a b Tanenbaum, Andrew S.; Steen, Maarten van (2002). Distributed systems: principles and paradigms. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN&#160;0-13-088893-1. Archived from the original on 2020-08-12. Retrieved 2020-08-28 . \n\n^ \"Distributed Programs\". Texts in Computer Science. London: Springer London. 2010. pp.&#160;373\u2013406. doi:10.1007\/978-1-84882-745-5_11. ISBN&#160;978-1-84882-744-8. ISSN&#160;1868-0941. Systems consist of a number of physically distributed components that work independently using their private storage, but also communicate from time to time by explicit message passing. Such systems are called distributed systems. \n\n^ Dusseau &amp; Dusseau 2016, p.&#160;1\u20132. \n\n^ \"Distributed Programs\". Texts in Computer Science. London: Springer London. 2010. pp.&#160;373\u2013406. doi:10.1007\/978-1-84882-745-5_11. ISBN&#160;978-1-84882-744-8. ISSN&#160;1868-0941. Distributed programs are abstract descriptions of distributed systems. A distributed program consists of a collection of processes that work concurrently and communicate by explicit message passing. Each process can access a set of variables which are disjoint from the variables that can be changed by any other process. \n\n^ Andrews (2000). Dolev (2000). Ghosh (2007), p. 10. \n\n^ Magnoni, L. (2015). \"Modern Messaging for Distributed Sytems (sic)\". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 608 (1): 012038. doi:10.1088\/1742-6596\/608\/1\/012038 . ISSN&#160;1742-6596. \n\n^ Godfrey (2002). \n\n^ a b Andrews (2000), p. 291\u2013292. Dolev (2000), p. 5. \n\n^ Lynch (1996), p. 1. \n\n^ a b Ghosh (2007), p. 10. \n\n^ Andrews (2000), pp. 8\u20139, 291. Dolev (2000), p. 5. Ghosh (2007), p. 3. Lynch (1996), p. xix, 1. Peleg (2000), p. xv. \n\n^ Andrews (2000), p. 291. Ghosh (2007), p. 3. Peleg (2000), p. 4. \n\n^ Ghosh (2007), p. 3\u20134. Peleg (2000), p. 1. \n\n^ Ghosh (2007), p. 4. Peleg (2000), p. 2. \n\n^ Ghosh (2007), p. 4, 8. Lynch (1996), p. 2\u20133. Peleg (2000), p. 4. \n\n^ Lynch (1996), p. 2. Peleg (2000), p. 1. \n\n^ Ghosh (2007), p. 7. Lynch (1996), p. xix, 2. Peleg (2000), p. 4. \n\n^ Ghosh (2007), p. 10. Keidar (2008). \n\n^ Lynch (1996), p. xix, 1\u20132. Peleg (2000), p. 1. \n\n^ Peleg (2000), p. 1. \n\n^ Papadimitriou (1994), Chapter 15. Keidar (2008). \n\n^ See references in Introduction. \n\n^ Bentaleb, A.; Yifan, L.; Xin, J.; et&#160;al. (2016). \"Parallel and Distributed Algorithms\" (PDF) . National University of Singapore. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-03-26. Retrieved 20 July 2018 . \n\n^ Andrews (2000), p. 348. \n\n^ Andrews (2000), p. 32. \n\n^ Peter (2004), The history of email Archived 2009-04-15 at the Wayback Machine. \n\n^ Banks, M. (2012). On the Way to the Web: The Secret History of the Internet and its Founders. Apress. pp.&#160;44\u20135. ISBN&#160;9781430250746. Archived from the original on 2023-01-20. Retrieved 2018-07-20 . \n\n^ Tel, G. (2000). Introduction to Distributed Algorithms. Cambridge University Press. pp.&#160;35\u201336. ISBN&#160;9780521794831. Archived from the original on 2023-01-20. Retrieved 2018-07-20 . \n\n^ Ohl\u00eddal, M.; Jaro\u0161, J.; Schwarz, J.; et&#160;al. (2006). \"Evolutionary Design of OAB and AAB Communication Schedules for Interconnection Networks\". In Rothlauf, F.; Branke, J.; Cagnoni, S. (eds.). Applications of Evolutionary Computing. Springer Science &amp; Business Media. pp.&#160;267\u201378. ISBN&#160;9783540332374. \n\n^ \"Real Time And Distributed Computing Systems\" (PDF) . ISSN&#160;2278-0661. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-10. Retrieved 2017-01-09 . {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) \n\n^ Vigna P, Casey MJ. The Age of Cryptocurrency: How Bitcoin and the Blockchain Are Challenging the Global Economic Order St. Martin's Press January 27, 2015 ISBN&#160;9781250065636 \n\n^ Quang Hieu Vu; Mihai Lupu; Beng Chin Ooi (2010). Peer-to-peer computing&#160;: principles and applications. Heidelberg: Springer. p.&#160;16. ISBN&#160;9783642035135. OCLC&#160;663093862. \n\n^ Lind P, Alm M (2006), \"A database-centric virtual chemistry system\", J Chem Inf Model, 46 (3): 1034\u20139, doi:10.1021\/ci050360b, PMID&#160;16711722. \n\n^ Chiu, G (1990). \"A model for optimal database allocation in distributed computing systems\". Proceedings. IEEE INFOCOM'90: Ninth Annual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications Societies. \n\n^ Elmasri &amp; Navathe (2000), Section 24.1.2. \n\n^ Andrews (2000), p. 10\u201311. Ghosh (2007), p. 4\u20136. Lynch (1996), p. xix, 1. Peleg (2000), p. xv. Elmasri &amp; Navathe (2000), Section 24. \n\n^ Haussmann, J. (2019). \"Cost-efficient parallel processing of irregularly structured problems in cloud computing environments\". Journal of Cluster Computing. 22 (3): 887\u2013909. doi:10.1007\/s10586-018-2879-3. S2CID&#160;54447518. \n\n^ Toomarian, N.B.; Barhen, J.; Gulati, S. (1992). \"Neural Networks for Real-Time Robotic Applications\". In Fijany, A.; Bejczy, A. (eds.). Parallel Computation Systems For Robotics: Algorithms And Architectures. World Scientific. p.&#160;214. ISBN&#160;9789814506175. Archived from the original on 2020-08-01. Retrieved 2018-07-20 . \n\n^ Savage, J.E. (1998). Models of Computation: Exploring the Power of Computing. Addison Wesley. p.&#160;209. ISBN&#160;9780201895391. \n\n^ Cormen, Leiserson &amp; Rivest (1990), Section 30. \n\n^ Herlihy &amp; Shavit (2008), Chapters 2\u20136. \n\n^ Lynch (1996) \n\n^ Cormen, Leiserson &amp; Rivest (1990), Sections 28 and 29. \n\n^ a b c TULSIRAMJI GAIKWAD-PATIL College of Engineering &amp; Technology,\n\nNagpur\n\nDepartment of Information Technology\n\nIntroduction to Distributed Systems[1] \n\n^ Cole &amp; Vishkin (1986). Cormen, Leiserson &amp; Rivest (1990), Section 30.5. \n\n^ Andrews (2000), p. ix. \n\n^ Arora &amp; Barak (2009), Section 6.7. Papadimitriou (1994), Section 15.3. \n\n^ Papadimitriou (1994), Section 15.2. \n\n^ Lynch (1996), p. 17\u201323. \n\n^ Peleg (2000), Sections 2.3 and 7. Linial (1992). Naor &amp; Stockmeyer (1995). \n\n^ Schneider, J.; Wattenhofer, R. (2011). \"Trading Bit, Message, and Time Complexity of Distributed Algorithms\". In Peleg, D. (ed.). Distributed Computing. Springer Science &amp; Business Media. pp.&#160;51\u201365. ISBN&#160;9783642240997. Archived from the original on 2020-08-01. Retrieved 2018-07-20 . \n\n^ Lynch (1996), Sections 5\u20137. Ghosh (2007), Chapter 13. \n\n^ Lynch (1996), p. 99\u2013102. Ghosh (2007), p. 192\u2013193. \n\n^ Dolev (2000). Ghosh (2007), Chapter 17. \n\n^ Lynch (1996), Section 16. Peleg (2000), Section 6. \n\n^ Lynch (1996), Section 18. Ghosh (2007), Sections 6.2\u20136.3. \n\n^ Ghosh (2007), Section 6.4. \n\n^ a b Haloi, S. (2015). Apache ZooKeeper Essentials. Packt Publishing Ltd. pp.&#160;100\u2013101. ISBN&#160;9781784398323. Archived from the original on 2023-01-20. Retrieved 2018-07-20 . \n\n^ LeLann, G. (1977). \"Distributed systems - toward a formal approach\". Information Processing. 77: 155\u00b7160 \u2013 via Elsevier. \n\n^ R. G. Gallager, P. A. Humblet, and P. M. Spira (January 1983). \"A Distributed Algorithm for Minimum-Weight Spanning Trees\" (PDF) . ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems. 5 (1): 66\u201377. doi:10.1145\/357195.357200. S2CID&#160;2758285. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-09-26. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Korach, Ephraim; Kutten, Shay; Moran, Shlomo (1990). \"A Modular Technique for the Design of Efficient Distributed Leader Finding Algorithms\" (PDF) . ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems. 12 (1): 84\u2013101. CiteSeerX&#160;10.1.1.139.7342 . doi:10.1145\/77606.77610. S2CID&#160;9175968. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2007-04-18. \n\n^ Hamilton, Howard. \"Distributed Algorithms\". Archived from the original on 2012-11-24. Retrieved 2013-03-03 . \n\n^ \"Major unsolved problems in distributed systems?\". cstheory.stackexchange.com. Archived from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 16 March 2018 . \n\n^ \"How big data and distributed systems solve traditional scalability problems\". theserverside.com. Archived from the original on 17 March 2018. Retrieved 16 March 2018 . \n\n^ Svozil, K. (2011). \"Indeterminism and Randomness Through Physics\". In Hector, Z. (ed.). Randomness Through Computation: Some Answers, More Questions. World Scientific. pp.&#160;112\u20133. ISBN&#160;9789814462631. Archived from the original on 2020-08-01. Retrieved 2018-07-20 . \n\n^ Papadimitriou (1994), Section 19.3. \n\n\nReferences \n\nBooks\nAndrews, Gregory R. (2000), Foundations of Multithreaded, Parallel, and Distributed Programming , Addison\u2013Wesley, ISBN&#160;978-0-201-35752-3 .\nArora, Sanjeev; Barak, Boaz (2009), Computational Complexity \u2013 A Modern Approach, Cambridge, ISBN&#160;978-0-521-42426-4 .\nCormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L. (1990), Introduction to Algorithms (1st&#160;ed.), MIT Press, ISBN&#160;978-0-262-03141-7 .\nDolev, Shlomi (2000), Self-Stabilization, MIT Press, ISBN&#160;978-0-262-04178-2 .\nElmasri, Ramez; Navathe, Shamkant B. (2000), Fundamentals of Database Systems (3rd&#160;ed.), Addison\u2013Wesley, ISBN&#160;978-0-201-54263-9 .\nGhosh, Sukumar (2007), Distributed Systems \u2013 An Algorithmic Approach, Chapman &amp; Hall\/CRC, ISBN&#160;978-1-58488-564-1 .\nLynch, Nancy A. (1996), Distributed Algorithms , Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN&#160;978-1-55860-348-6 .\nHerlihy, Maurice P.; Shavit, Nir N. (2008), The Art of Multiprocessor Programming, Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN&#160;978-0-12-370591-4 .\nPapadimitriou, Christos H. (1994), Computational Complexity, Addison\u2013Wesley, ISBN&#160;978-0-201-53082-7 .\nPeleg, David (2000), Distributed Computing: A Locality-Sensitive Approach, SIAM, ISBN&#160;978-0-89871-464-7, archived from the original on 2009-08-06, retrieved 2009-07-16 .\nArticles\nCole, Richard; Vishkin, Uzi (1986), \"Deterministic coin tossing with applications to optimal parallel list ranking\", Information and Control, 70 (1): 32\u201353, doi:10.1016\/S0019-9958(86)80023-7 .\nKeidar, Idit (2008), \"Distributed computing column 32 \u2013 The year in review\", ACM SIGACT News, 39 (4): 53\u201354, CiteSeerX&#160;10.1.1.116.1285 , doi:10.1145\/1466390.1466402, S2CID&#160;7607391, archived from the original on 2014-01-16, retrieved 2009-08-20 .\nLinial, Nathan (1992), \"Locality in distributed graph algorithms\", SIAM Journal on Computing, 21 (1): 193\u2013201, CiteSeerX&#160;10.1.1.471.6378 , doi:10.1137\/0221015 .\nNaor, Moni; Stockmeyer, Larry (1995), \"What can be computed locally?\" (PDF) , SIAM Journal on Computing, 24 (6): 1259\u20131277, CiteSeerX&#160;10.1.1.29.669 , doi:10.1137\/S0097539793254571, archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-01-08 .\nWeb sites\nGodfrey, Bill (2002). \"A primer on distributed computing\". Archived from the original on 2021-05-13. Retrieved 2021-05-13 . \nPeter, Ian (2004). \"Ian Peter's History of the Internet\". Archived from the original on 2010-01-20. Retrieved 2009-08-04 . \n \nFurther reading \n\nBooks\nAttiya, Hagit and Jennifer Welch (2004), Distributed Computing: Fundamentals, Simulations, and Advanced Topics, Wiley-Interscience ISBN&#160;0-471-45324-2.\nChristian Cachin; Rachid Guerraoui; Lu\u00eds Rodrigues (2011), Introduction to Reliable and Secure Distributed Programming (2.&#160;ed.), Springer, Bibcode:2011itra.book.....C, ISBN&#160;978-3-642-15259-7 \nCoulouris, George; et&#160;al. (2011), Distributed Systems: Concepts and Design (5th Edition), Addison-Wesley ISBN&#160;0-132-14301-1.\nFaber, Jim (1998), Java Distributed Computing, O'Reilly, archived from the original on 2010-08-24, retrieved 2010-09-29 : Java Distributed Computing by Jim Faber, 1998 Archived 2010-08-24 at the Wayback Machine\nGarg, Vijay K. (2002), Elements of Distributed Computing, Wiley-IEEE Press ISBN&#160;0-471-03600-5.\nTel, Gerard (1994), Introduction to Distributed Algorithms, Cambridge University Press \nChandy, Mani; et&#160;al. (1988), Parallel Program Design, Addison-Wesley ISBN&#160;0201058669\nDusseau, Remzi H.; Dusseau, Andrea (2016). Operating Systems: Three Easy Pieces, Chapter 48 Distributed Systems (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2021 . \nArticles\nKeidar, Idit; Rajsbaum, Sergio, eds. (2000\u20132009), \"Distributed computing column\", ACM SIGACT News, archived from the original on 2014-01-16, retrieved 2009-08-16 .\nBirrell, A. D.; Levin, R.; Schroeder, M. D.; Needham, R. M. (April 1982). \"Grapevine: An exercise in distributed computing\" (PDF) . Communications of the ACM. 25 (4): 260\u2013274. doi:10.1145\/358468.358487. S2CID&#160;16066616. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-07-30. \nConference Papers\nRodriguez, Carlos; Villagra, Marcos; Baran, Benjamin (2007). \"Asynchronous team algorithms for Boolean Satisfiability\". 2007 2nd Bio-Inspired Models of Network, Information and Computing Systems. pp.&#160;66\u201369. doi:10.1109\/BIMNICS.2007.4610083. 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lockout\nScalability\nStarvation\n\n &#160;Category: Parallel computing\n\nAuthority control databases International\nFAST \nNational\nSpain \nFrance \nBnF data \nGermany \nIsrael \nUnited States \nOther\nIdRef \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Distributed_computing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Distributed_computing<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 July 2018, at 21:01.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,477 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Distributed_computing rootpage-Distributed_computing skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Distributed computing<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">System with multiple networked computers<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Not to be confused with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decentralized_computing\" title=\"Decentralized computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf007fc5af8169494ba202ab505fffc1\">Decentralized computing<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p>A <b>distributed system<\/b> is a system whose components are located on different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">networked computers<\/a>, which communicate and coordinate their actions by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_passing\" title=\"Message passing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e6e85b396a483ff6b5d4cb91e8eef9a\">passing messages<\/a> to one another.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tanenbaum_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tanenbaum-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Distributed_Programs_2010_pp._373\u2013406_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Distributed_Programs_2010_pp._373\u2013406-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> <b>Distributed computing <\/b>is a field of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a> that studies distributed systems. \n<\/p><p>The components of a distributed system interact with one another in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant challenges of distributed systems are: maintaining concurrency of components, overcoming the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clock_synchronization\" title=\"Clock synchronization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc65661dd8073b602d5c4d61bc2ec0c9\">lack of a global clock<\/a>, and managing the independent failure of components.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tanenbaum_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tanenbaum-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> When a component of one system fails, the entire system does not fail.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDusseauDusseau20161\u20132_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDusseauDusseau20161\u20132-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Examples of distributed systems vary from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Service-oriented_architecture\" title=\"Service-oriented architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baeda155bcadf284dc1b57450100a5e3\">SOA-based systems<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Massively_multiplayer_online_game\" title=\"Massively multiplayer online game\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0983a48bc21a90f5d3a26e90ce1cf5f\">massively multiplayer online games<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer\" title=\"Peer-to-peer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4461153add916f80b39b5acdc03c0764\">peer-to-peer applications<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_program\" title=\"Computer program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50546cf7bdd4e8811acbcc3ce79a1f3e\">computer program<\/a> that runs within a distributed system is called a <b>distributed program<\/b>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Distributed_Programs_2010_pp._373\u2013406_II_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Distributed_Programs_2010_pp._373\u2013406_II-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> and <i>distributed programming<\/i> is the process of writing such programs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> There are many different types of implementations for the message passing mechanism, including pure HTTP, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_procedure_call\" title=\"Remote procedure call\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10077982c79b5ee8217a4e149067b183\">RPC-like<\/a> connectors and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message-oriented_middleware\" title=\"Message-oriented middleware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94a5844cb549ce9a0267739dbcc1527e\">message queues<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><i>Distributed computing<\/i> also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational problems. In <i>distributed computing<\/i>, a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved by one or more computers,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> which communicate with each other via message passing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Andrews_2000_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Andrews_2000-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The word <i>distributed<\/i> in terms such as \"distributed system\", \"distributed programming\", and \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_algorithm\" title=\"Distributed algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4bdfddfceba77e1c089d0987495f120\">distributed algorithm<\/a>\" originally referred to computer networks where individual computers were physically distributed within some geographical area.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> The terms are nowadays used in a much wider sense, even referring to autonomous <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_(computing)\" title=\"Process (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5383ce66c2e76880ab455c875f900939\">processes<\/a> that run on the same physical computer and interact with each other by message passing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Andrews_2000_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Andrews_2000-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While there is no single definition of a distributed system,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> the following defining properties are commonly used as:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>There are several autonomous computational entities (<i>computers<\/i> or <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Node_(networking)\" title=\"Node (networking)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af830d76119fd05f0c97a8a8e29a79e1\">nodes<\/a><\/i>), each of which has its own local <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memory_(computers)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Memory (computers)\" data-key=\"6ad2008871ec4954d49f9376e113dd62\">memory<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The entities communicate with each other by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_passing\" title=\"Message passing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e6e85b396a483ff6b5d4cb91e8eef9a\">message passing<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>A distributed system may have a common goal, such as solving a large computational problem;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> the user then perceives the collection of autonomous processors as a unit. Alternatively, each computer may have its own user with individual needs, and the purpose of the distributed system is to coordinate the use of shared resources or provide communication services to the users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other typical properties of distributed systems include the following:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The system has to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fault_tolerance\" title=\"Fault tolerance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97e432af1c6bc5c66c944cf10b1dcecb\">tolerate failures<\/a> in individual computers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The structure of the system (network topology, network latency, number of computers) is not known in advance, the system may consist of different kinds of computers and network links, and the system may change during the execution of a distributed program.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Each computer has only a limited, incomplete view of the system. Each computer may know only one part of the input.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Parallel_and_distributed_computing\">Parallel and distributed computing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-halign-right\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Distributed-parallel.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"c00ab0a934ee77f8788cdd8376788394\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c6\/Distributed-parallel.svg\/300px-Distributed-parallel.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"mw-file-element\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><figcaption>(a), (b): a distributed system.<br \/>(c): a parallel system.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>Distributed systems are groups of networked computers which share a common goal for their work.\nThe terms \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concurrent_computing\" title=\"Concurrent computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6e726d6a9a861fad8d7335a9739e850\">concurrent computing<\/a>\", \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel_computing\" title=\"Parallel computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5fb00a72928332731aa1b83159647c5\">parallel computing<\/a>\", and \"distributed computing\" have much overlap, and no clear distinction exists between them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> The same system may be characterized both as \"parallel\" and \"distributed\"; the processors in a typical distributed system run concurrently in parallel.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> Parallel computing may be seen as a particularly tightly coupled form of distributed computing,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> and distributed computing may be seen as a loosely coupled form of parallel computing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Nevertheless, it is possible to roughly classify concurrent systems as \"parallel\" or \"distributed\" using the following criteria:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>In parallel computing, all processors may have access to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shared_memory_architecture\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Shared memory architecture\" data-key=\"29fef05453fa94005e4c6ae8651a7914\">shared memory<\/a> to exchange information between processors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In distributed computing, each processor has its own private memory (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_memory\" title=\"Distributed memory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04956a6e3941bac09da7b407fddcee93\">distributed memory<\/a>). Information is exchanged by passing messages between the processors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The figure on the right illustrates the difference between distributed and parallel systems. Figure (a) is a schematic view of a typical distributed system; the system is represented as a network topology in which each node is a computer and each line connecting the nodes is a communication link. Figure (b) shows the same distributed system in more detail: each computer has its own local memory, and information can be exchanged only by passing messages from one node to another by using the available communication links. Figure (c) shows a parallel system in which each processor has a direct access to a shared memory.\n<\/p><p>The situation is further complicated by the traditional uses of the terms parallel and distributed <i>algorithm<\/i> that do not quite match the above definitions of parallel and distributed <i>systems<\/i> (see <a href=\"#Theoretical_foundations\">below<\/a> for more detailed discussion). Nevertheless, as a rule of thumb, high-performance parallel computation in a shared-memory multiprocessor uses parallel algorithms while the coordination of a large-scale distributed system uses distributed algorithms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BetalebParallel16_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BetalebParallel16-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The use of concurrent processes which communicate through message-passing has its roots in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating system<\/a> architectures studied in the 1960s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> The first widespread distributed systems were <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local-area_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Local-area networks\" data-key=\"ee8a55ea17ece72eede532d432076e1b\">local-area networks<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethernet\" title=\"Ethernet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8604e2ab3dc54bee1192999e4cf7d867\">Ethernet<\/a>, which was invented in the 1970s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ARPANET\" title=\"ARPANET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b9dca38ecbd05b9a6dea1b3dd87111a\">ARPANET<\/a>, one of the predecessors of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a>, was introduced in the late 1960s, and ARPANET <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-mail\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"E-mail\" data-key=\"746cb71011e6b1ef47b4bf87e65d35eb\">e-mail<\/a> was invented in the early 1970s. E-mail became the most successful application of ARPANET,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> and it is probably the earliest example of a large-scale <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_application\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed application\" data-key=\"3a1e3ad16b161d550b47445d9820863b\">distributed application<\/a>. In addition to ARPANET (and its successor, the global Internet), other early worldwide computer networks included <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Usenet\" title=\"Usenet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8511923c8e36883cfb310bace5870ace\">Usenet<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FidoNet\" title=\"FidoNet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60459a30a8a1dbd65109c247fbdfcaa3\">FidoNet<\/a> from the 1980s, both of which were used to support distributed discussion systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BanksOnThe12_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BanksOnThe12-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The study of distributed computing became its own branch of computer science in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The first conference in the field, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symposium_on_Principles_of_Distributed_Computing\" title=\"Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9891045aa9f2fe68e12f310fad051e7\">Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing<\/a> (PODC), dates back to 1982, and its counterpart <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Symposium_on_Distributed_Computing\" title=\"International Symposium on Distributed Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1993f4e0d61c9f05c56e4492d224d9b\">International Symposium on Distributed Computing<\/a> (DISC) was first held in Ottawa in 1985 as the International Workshop on Distributed Algorithms on Graphs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TelIntro00_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TelIntro00-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Architectures\">Architectures<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Various hardware and software architectures are used for distributed computing. At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of whether that network is printed onto a circuit board or made up of loosely coupled devices and cables. At a higher level, it is necessary to interconnect <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_(computing)\" title=\"Process (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5383ce66c2e76880ab455c875f900939\">processes<\/a> running on those CPUs with some sort of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communication_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Communication system\" data-key=\"3a54d8acd7a7472e8aefd0f042b552b9\">communication system<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ohl\u00eddalEvo06_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ohl\u00eddalEvo06-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Client%E2%80%93server_model\" title=\"Client\u2013server model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0ef3dcf786f637a2392889b183aaf32\">client\u2013server<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Three-tier_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Three-tier (computing)\" data-key=\"e4adb403463ff9a38b991a9d74f8282c\">three-tier<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multitier_architecture\" title=\"Multitier architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08cd4933c56770f398dd15d9335ce227\"><i>n<\/i>-tier<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer\" title=\"Peer-to-peer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4461153add916f80b39b5acdc03c0764\">peer-to-peer<\/a>; or categories: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loose_coupling\" title=\"Loose coupling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6d1b4ac5b67abf91346da09f615ae57\">loose coupling<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_cluster\" title=\"Computer cluster\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d594638bfcfa89293bf1a86e43374d4\">tight coupling<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Client%E2%80%93server_model\" title=\"Client\u2013server model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0ef3dcf786f637a2392889b183aaf32\">Client\u2013server<\/a>: architectures where smart clients contact the server for data then format and display it to the users. Input at the client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Three-tier_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Three-tier (computing)\" data-key=\"e4adb403463ff9a38b991a9d74f8282c\">Three-tier<\/a>: architectures that move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stateless_protocol\" title=\"Stateless protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1226a6b44737dceb1a3cd8056236b7bf\">stateless<\/a> clients can be used. This simplifies application deployment. Most web applications are three-tier.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multitier_architecture\" title=\"Multitier architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08cd4933c56770f398dd15d9335ce227\"><i>n<\/i>-tier<\/a>: architectures that refer typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other enterprise services. This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_server\" title=\"Application server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8dcd8b1b4d7be0f2ab53000b24d9ca5e\">application servers<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer\" title=\"Peer-to-peer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4461153add916f80b39b5acdc03c0764\">Peer-to-peer<\/a>: architectures where there are no special machines that provide a service or manage the network resources.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Vigna20150127_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Vigna20150127-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\"><span title=\"Page \/ location: 227\">:\u200a227\u200a<\/span><\/sup> Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers. Peers can serve both as clients and as servers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> Examples of this architecture include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BitTorrent\" title=\"BitTorrent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49c98258a26fb6c0e59b3573645f938e\">BitTorrent<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bitcoin_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bitcoin network\" data-key=\"1d1ffe9712a49cc16696a71ab148dfc8\">bitcoin network<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Another basic aspect of distributed computing architecture is the method of communicating and coordinating work among concurrent processes. Through various message passing protocols, processes may communicate directly with one another, typically in a relationship. Alternatively, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database-centric_architecture\" title=\"Database-centric architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e71fe1b350ab5dfe975a9de483a5c725\">\"database-centric\" architecture<\/a> can enable distributed computing to be done without any form of direct <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inter-process_communication\" title=\"Inter-process communication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fca15fbcf8fd7efde5bd84521967ea8\">inter-process communication<\/a>, by utilizing a shared <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">database<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> Database-centric architecture in particular provides relational processing analytics in a schematic architecture allowing for live environment relay. This enables distributed computing functions both within and beyond the parameters of a networked database.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Reasons for using distributed systems and distributed computing may include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The very nature of an application may <i>require<\/i> the use of a communication network that connects several computers: for example, data produced in one physical location and required in another location.<\/li>\n<li>There are many cases in which the use of a single computer would be possible in principle, but the use of a distributed system is <i>beneficial<\/i> for practical reasons. For example:\n<ul><li>It can allow for much larger storage and memory, faster compute, and higher bandwidth than a single machine.<\/li>\n<li>It can provide more reliability than a non-distributed system, as there is no <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Single_point_of_failure\" title=\"Single point of failure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7d9e6db07b50b40d3d0791fc6e8d4c3\">single point of failure<\/a>. Moreover, a distributed system may be easier to expand and manage than a monolithic uniprocessor system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>It may be more cost-efficient to obtain the desired level of performance by using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cluster (computing)\" data-key=\"5ccac5a1c93dae12deef0093a428851a\">cluster<\/a> of several low-end computers, in comparison with a single high-end computer.<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Examples\">Examples<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Examples of distributed systems and applications of distributed computing include the following:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telecommunication\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Telecommunication\" data-key=\"4e6c5b88185933f9f03eb88df6b15551\">telecommunication<\/a> networks:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telephone_network\" title=\"Telephone network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7521c955abe307101f970cdf1140bf43\">telephone networks<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cellular_network\" title=\"Cellular network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c247c94343fbffb852fa6cdeb1fc8127\">cellular networks<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">computer networks<\/a> such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_sensor_network\" title=\"Wireless sensor network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6de477762202654fbd88d90d554bf13\">wireless sensor networks<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Routing_algorithm\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Routing algorithm\" data-key=\"79d74810525f8804d3485651df813a3b\">routing algorithms<\/a>;<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>network applications:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Wide_Web\" title=\"World Wide Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8167fa2a43229db150009f4a93e3a779\">World Wide Web<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Peer-to-peer network\" data-key=\"abddf8befcc849e3168d413b9891516b\">peer-to-peer networks<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Massively_multiplayer_online_game\" title=\"Massively multiplayer online game\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0983a48bc21a90f5d3a26e90ce1cf5f\">massively multiplayer online games<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_reality\" title=\"Virtual reality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"302023a2cf43c36255969764757aabb4\">virtual reality<\/a> communities,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_database\" title=\"Distributed database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65d6b8922605a906e036afb3a1455849\">distributed databases<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_database_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed database management system\" data-key=\"0ed36e98dd6ca0b2137d0a27c084989b\">distributed database management systems<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_file_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed file system\" data-key=\"da55be0f55576bd3a6b36e388726be25\">network file systems<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li>distributed cache such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Burst_buffer\" title=\"Burst buffer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ecae0d3736242edd3fcd12345c47f7aa\">burst buffers<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li>distributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline reservation systems;<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>real-time process control:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aircraft\" title=\"Aircraft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fc19d38e5285f33624093a237e3a2d5\">aircraft<\/a> control systems,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_control_system\" title=\"Industrial control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7097366ddc1f8c002dc0cf5e764769df\">industrial control systems<\/a>;<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel_computation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Parallel computation\" data-key=\"151deddf3d180a8ff12c0c944f6b7f81\">parallel computation<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_computing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Scientific computing\" data-key=\"2e29f0b607c5b16aac1d5f260961eef5\">scientific computing<\/a>, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_computing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cluster computing\" data-key=\"64477779c90ec0c3c29479f4959b24f2\">cluster computing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grid_computing\" title=\"Grid computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"931594bb3dc749a80f3b3415bb585613\">grid computing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">cloud computing<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> and various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_volunteer_computing_projects\" title=\"List of volunteer computing projects\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"404b6e48bada39ab05e4da6381c28cb5\">volunteer computing projects<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_rendering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed rendering\" data-key=\"9b5af4a0ebd143a447c071fcc656d42a\">distributed rendering<\/a> in computer graphics.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer\" title=\"Peer-to-peer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4461153add916f80b39b5acdc03c0764\">peer-to-peer<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Theoretical_foundations\">Theoretical foundations<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_algorithm\" title=\"Distributed algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4bdfddfceba77e1c089d0987495f120\">Distributed algorithm<\/a><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Models\">Models<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Many tasks that we would like to automate by using a computer are of question\u2013answer type: we would like to ask a question and the computer should produce an answer. In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theoretical_computer_science\" title=\"Theoretical computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b67bbd4f963ef9e86712a9f01271cdc\">theoretical computer science<\/a>, such tasks are called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_problem\" title=\"Computational problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64b60604afbc4ab1f75458bd73f0e924\">computational problems<\/a>. Formally, a computational problem consists of <i>instances<\/i> together with a <i>solution<\/i> for each instance. Instances are questions that we can ask, and solutions are desired answers to these questions.\n<\/p><p>Theoretical computer science seeks to understand which computational problems can be solved by using a computer (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computability_theory_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computability theory (computer science)\" data-key=\"03e9a2e0a6a9fc5fac10e8974bb7475a\">computability theory<\/a>) and how efficiently (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_complexity_theory\" title=\"Computational complexity theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ccde243d1e57cc1b4cef865a096a6be\">computational complexity theory<\/a>). Traditionally, it is said that a problem can be solved by using a computer if we can design an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithm\" title=\"Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b91430604726f884a846b998f41902e\">algorithm<\/a> that produces a correct solution for any given instance. Such an algorithm can be implemented as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_program\" title=\"Computer program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50546cf7bdd4e8811acbcc3ce79a1f3e\">computer program<\/a> that runs on a general-purpose computer: the program reads a problem instance from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">input<\/a>, performs some computation, and produces the solution as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Output_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Output (computing)\" data-key=\"7b803926a8f277fe63bd0c080c07d28f\">output<\/a>. Formalisms such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random-access_machine\" title=\"Random-access machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a5a441b9d87652e6b97b442a9090326\">random-access machines<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Turing_machine\" title=\"Universal Turing machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0dea07848f17ea9a4ae166912df7465\">universal Turing machines<\/a> can be used as abstract models of a sequential general-purpose computer executing such an algorithm.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ToomarianNeural92_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ToomarianNeural92-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SavageModels98_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SavageModels98-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The field of concurrent and distributed computing studies similar questions in the case of either multiple computers, or a computer that executes a network of interacting processes: which computational problems can be solved in such a network and how efficiently? However, it is not at all obvious what is meant by \"solving a problem\" in the case of a concurrent or distributed system: for example, what is the task of the algorithm designer, and what is the concurrent or distributed equivalent of a sequential general-purpose computer?<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2016)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The discussion below focuses on the case of multiple computers, although many of the issues are the same for concurrent processes running on a single computer.\n<\/p><p>Three viewpoints are commonly used:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Parallel algorithms in shared-memory model<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>All processors have access to a shared memory. The algorithm designer chooses the program executed by each processor.<\/li>\n<li>One theoretical model is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel_RAM\" title=\"Parallel RAM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74f78c8cd47de94e37b2a6aceaa7f52a\">parallel random-access machines<\/a> (PRAM) that are used.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup> However, the classical PRAM model assumes synchronous access to the shared memory.<\/li>\n<li>Shared-memory programs can be extended to distributed systems if the underlying operating system encapsulates the communication between nodes and virtually unifies the memory across all individual systems.<\/li>\n<li>A model that is closer to the behavior of real-world multiprocessor machines and takes into account the use of machine instructions, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compare-and-swap\" title=\"Compare-and-swap\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66dde14158b9133280980964d6b96a01\">Compare-and-swap<\/a> (CAS), is that of <i>asynchronous shared memory<\/i>. There is a wide body of work on this model, a summary of which can be found in the literature.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Parallel algorithms in message-passing model<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>The algorithm designer chooses the structure of the network, as well as the program executed by each computer.<\/li>\n<li>Models such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boolean_circuits\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Boolean circuits\" data-key=\"4e392e0ced0570f67162b38343bb75c1\">Boolean circuits<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sorting_network\" title=\"Sorting network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62e987305a27b868165c4c19f440b410\">sorting networks<\/a> are used.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> A Boolean circuit can be seen as a computer network: each gate is a computer that runs an extremely simple computer program. Similarly, a sorting network can be seen as a computer network: each comparator is a computer.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Distributed algorithms in message-passing model<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>The algorithm designer only chooses the computer program. All computers run the same program. The system must work correctly regardless of the structure of the network.<\/li>\n<li>A commonly used model is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)\" title=\"Graph (discrete mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00808684903c49e3772aa27a25ae60c6\">graph<\/a> with one <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Finite-state_machine\" title=\"Finite-state machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40f94d27502cc7e9bbddfff6affffa67\">finite-state machine<\/a> per node.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In the case of distributed algorithms, computational problems are typically related to graphs. Often the graph that describes the structure of the computer network <i>is<\/i> the problem instance. This is illustrated in the following example.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"An_example\">An example<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Consider the computational problem of finding a coloring of a given graph <i>G<\/i>. Different fields might take the following approaches:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Centralized algorithms<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_44-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup><\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>The graph <i>G<\/i> is encoded as a string, and the string is given as input to a computer. The computer program finds a coloring of the graph, encodes the coloring as a string, and outputs the result.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Parallel algorithms<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>Again, the graph <i>G<\/i> is encoded as a string. However, multiple computers can access the same string in parallel. Each computer might focus on one part of the graph and produce a coloring for that part.<\/li>\n<li>The main focus is on high-performance computation that exploits the processing power of multiple computers in parallel.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Distributed algorithms<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>The graph <i>G<\/i> is the structure of the computer network. There is one computer for each node of <i>G<\/i> and one communication link for each edge of <i>G<\/i>. Initially, each computer only knows about its immediate neighbors in the graph <i>G<\/i>; the computers must exchange messages with each other to discover more about the structure of <i>G<\/i>. Each computer must produce its own color as output.<\/li>\n<li>The main focus is on coordinating the operation of an arbitrary distributed system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_44-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>While the field of parallel algorithms has a different focus than the field of distributed algorithms, there is much interaction between the two fields. For example, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cole%E2%80%93Vishkin_algorithm\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cole\u2013Vishkin algorithm\" data-key=\"001e4547536c19944707f9ecc33e4138\">Cole\u2013Vishkin algorithm<\/a> for graph coloring<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> was originally presented as a parallel algorithm, but the same technique can also be used directly as a distributed algorithm.\n<\/p><p>Moreover, a parallel algorithm can be implemented either in a parallel system (using shared memory) or in a distributed system (using message passing).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> The traditional boundary between parallel and distributed algorithms (choose a suitable network vs. run in any given network) does not lie in the same place as the boundary between parallel and distributed systems (shared memory vs. message passing).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Complexity_measures\">Complexity measures<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In parallel algorithms, yet another resource in addition to time and space is the number of computers. Indeed, often there is a trade-off between the running time and the number of computers: the problem can be solved faster if there are more computers running in parallel (see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speedup\" title=\"Speedup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35261d8984d386bbc88f2dc4c23744b6\">speedup<\/a>). If a decision problem can be solved in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polylogarithmic_time\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Polylogarithmic time\" data-key=\"b90112879707a2090dbcc63aa353c173\">polylogarithmic time<\/a> by using a polynomial number of processors, then the problem is said to be in the class <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NC_(complexity)\" title=\"NC (complexity)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99653cc77f43f281e9701a9258695adb\">NC<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> The class NC can be defined equally well by using the PRAM formalism or Boolean circuits\u2014PRAM machines can simulate Boolean circuits efficiently and vice versa.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the analysis of distributed algorithms, more attention is usually paid on communication operations than computational steps. Perhaps the simplest model of distributed computing is a synchronous system where all nodes operate in a lockstep fashion. This model is commonly known as the LOCAL model. During each <i>communication round<\/i>, all nodes in parallel (1)&#160;receive the latest messages from their neighbours, (2)&#160;perform arbitrary local computation, and (3)&#160;send new messages to their neighbors. In such systems, a central complexity measure is the number of synchronous communication rounds required to complete the task.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>This complexity measure is closely related to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diameter_(graph_theory)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Diameter (graph theory)\" data-key=\"deae647fc095b2687b7ac00c21855e77\">diameter<\/a> of the network. Let <i>D<\/i> be the diameter of the network. On the one hand, any computable problem can be solved trivially in a synchronous distributed system in approximately 2<i>D<\/i> communication rounds: simply gather all information in one location (<i>D<\/i> rounds), solve the problem, and inform each node about the solution (<i>D<\/i> rounds).\n<\/p><p>On the other hand, if the running time of the algorithm is much smaller than <i>D<\/i> communication rounds, then the nodes in the network must produce their output without having the possibility to obtain information about distant parts of the network. In other words, the nodes must make globally consistent decisions based on information that is available in their <i>local D-neighbourhood<\/i>. Many distributed algorithms are known with the running time much smaller than <i>D<\/i> rounds, and understanding which problems can be solved by such algorithms is one of the central research questions of the field.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> Typically an algorithm which solves a problem in polylogarithmic time in the network size is considered efficient in this model.\n<\/p><p>Another commonly used measure is the total number of bits transmitted in the network (cf. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communication_complexity\" title=\"Communication complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa5cba6d9bf2048176c9ab42dc241fb3\">communication complexity<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchneiderTrading11_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchneiderTrading11-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> The features of this concept are typically captured with the CONGEST(B) model, which is similarly defined as the LOCAL model, but where single messages can only contain B bits.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_problems\">Other problems<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Traditional computational problems take the perspective that the user asks a question, a computer (or a distributed system) processes the question, then produces an answer and stops. However, there are also problems where the system is required not to stop, including the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dining_philosophers_problem\" title=\"Dining philosophers problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19697ec34641a72b92e7fc050cae5f39\">dining philosophers problem<\/a> and other similar <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mutual_exclusion\" title=\"Mutual exclusion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0dedcace50c6a74df60ce7292233d161\">mutual exclusion<\/a> problems. In these problems, the distributed system is supposed to continuously coordinate the use of shared resources so that no conflicts or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deadlock\" title=\"Deadlock\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a85bfe60f87a49fee4173cb82d75d41\">deadlocks<\/a> occur.\n<\/p><p>There are also fundamental challenges that are unique to distributed computing, for example those related to <i>fault-tolerance<\/i>. Examples of related problems include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consensus_(computer_science)\" title=\"Consensus (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ba9ce4f92a30c6edcc64482ebe6728b\">consensus problems<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Byzantine_fault_tolerance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Byzantine fault tolerance\" data-key=\"89acbb0f78bdf6b0676988557c52e410\">Byzantine fault tolerance<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-stabilisation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Self-stabilisation\" data-key=\"046be5e537c19fdbc46b7ffff49179ab\">self-stabilisation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Much research is also focused on understanding the <i>asynchronous<\/i> nature of distributed systems:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synchronizer_(algorithm)\" title=\"Synchronizer (algorithm)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fc119d84664b27ae7246c43d0e65199\">Synchronizers<\/a> can be used to run synchronous algorithms in asynchronous systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_clock\" title=\"Logical clock\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ad7dc86ad0d3588a4037666a6ce68ca\">Logical clocks<\/a> provide a causal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Happened-before\" title=\"Happened-before\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"692f273e3155968f7ce9214cf939bfb4\">happened-before<\/a> ordering of events.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clock_synchronization\" title=\"Clock synchronization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc65661dd8073b602d5c4d61bc2ec0c9\">Clock synchronization<\/a> algorithms provide globally consistent physical time stamps.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Election\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leader_election\" title=\"Leader election\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f1fcf062c78a5320541efed4539237c\">Election<\/a><\/span><\/h3>\n<p><i>Coordinator election<\/i> (or <i>leader election<\/i>) is the process of designating a single <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_(computing)\" title=\"Process (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5383ce66c2e76880ab455c875f900939\">process<\/a> as the organizer of some task distributed among several computers (nodes). Before the task is begun, all network nodes are either unaware which node will serve as the \"coordinator\" (or leader) of the task, or unable to communicate with the current coordinator. After a coordinator election algorithm has been run, however, each node throughout the network recognizes a particular, unique node as the task coordinator.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaloiApache15_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaloiApache15-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The network nodes communicate among themselves in order to decide which of them will get into the \"coordinator\" state. For that, they need some method in order to break the symmetry among them. For example, if each node has unique and comparable identities, then the nodes can compare their identities, and decide that the node with the highest identity is the coordinator.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaloiApache15_58-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaloiApache15-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The definition of this problem is often attributed to LeLann, who formalized it as a method to create a new token in a token <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ring_network\" title=\"Ring network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6cf705c8e959793fe3a6e48c026d715\">ring network<\/a> in which the token has been lost.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Coordinator election algorithms are designed to be economical in terms of total <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Byte\" title=\"Byte\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c17f5584ccbfbe8c9fafe01b5c0b091\">bytes<\/a> transmitted, and time. The algorithm suggested by Gallager, Humblet, and Spira <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup> for general undirected graphs has had a strong impact on the design of distributed algorithms in general, and won the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dijkstra_Prize\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dijkstra Prize\" data-key=\"f9d725b5d4ea4ab31076306bc3ec0f01\">Dijkstra Prize<\/a> for an influential paper in distributed computing.\n<\/p><p>Many other algorithms were suggested for different kinds of network <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)\" title=\"Graph (discrete mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00808684903c49e3772aa27a25ae60c6\">graphs<\/a>, such as undirected rings, unidirectional rings, complete graphs, grids, directed Euler graphs, and others. A general method that decouples the issue of the graph family from the design of the coordinator election algorithm was suggested by Korach, Kutten, and Moran.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In order to perform coordination, distributed systems employ the concept of coordinators. The coordinator election problem is to choose a process from among a group of processes on different processors in a distributed system to act as the central coordinator. Several central coordinator election algorithms exist.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Properties_of_distributed_systems\">Properties of distributed systems<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>So far the focus has been on <i>designing<\/i> a distributed system that solves a given problem. A complementary research problem is <i>studying<\/i> the properties of a given distributed system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Halting_problem\" title=\"Halting problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6e278b2d148fb2711f57defecd5df6d3\">halting problem<\/a> is an analogous example from the field of centralised computation: we are given a computer program and the task is to decide whether it halts or runs forever. The halting problem is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Undecidable_problem\" title=\"Undecidable problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8498efaa7d12099f78306ede235407e\">undecidable<\/a> in the general case, and naturally understanding the behaviour of a computer network is at least as hard as understanding the behaviour of one computer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SvozilIndet11_65-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SvozilIndet11-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, there are many interesting special cases that are decidable. In particular, it is possible to reason about the behaviour of a network of finite-state machines. One example is telling whether a given network of interacting (asynchronous and non-deterministic) finite-state machines can reach a deadlock. This problem is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PSPACE-complete\" title=\"PSPACE-complete\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1db81891e852fe7bd07dad2e008a7a59\">PSPACE-complete<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup> i.e., it is decidable, but not likely that there is an efficient (centralised, parallel or distributed) algorithm that solves the problem in the case of large networks.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 20em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Actor_model\" title=\"Actor model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61c4a55955f592324a316f204d1cc0f1\">Actor model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AppScale\" title=\"AppScale\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f6c59719e2e037925926d7786fbc871\">AppScale<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Berkeley_Open_Infrastructure_for_Network_Computing\" title=\"Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8395678a741a1a57c473d42c83668c15\">BOINC<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_mobility\" title=\"Code mobility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af1ed4c11bda021aa8e2bfcca616254b\">Code mobility<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dataflow_programming\" title=\"Dataflow programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61551dcae79f4f502503af43c78393d6\">Dataflow programming<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decentralized_computing\" title=\"Decentralized computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf007fc5af8169494ba202ab505fffc1\">Decentralized computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_algorithm\" title=\"Distributed algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4bdfddfceba77e1c089d0987495f120\">Distributed algorithm<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_algorithmic_mechanism_design\" title=\"Distributed algorithmic mechanism design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25944c85d53d4be67f07d285c5d75c1b\">Distributed algorithmic mechanism design<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_cache\" title=\"Distributed cache\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fec040a209f3a1597976b612e751e8d\">Distributed cache<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_GIS\" title=\"Distributed GIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63bc56fa05bcbb1fbbf8ebb4b8244b56\">Distributed GIS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_networking\" title=\"Distributed networking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"438276b5bb185f151c208a3e7c774afe\">Distributed networking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_operating_system\" title=\"Distributed operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07442654bb0036d27170ecd306502f3b\">Distributed operating system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eventual_consistency\" title=\"Eventual consistency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b85c2a9c6ba0621e5ef23becb962fd4\">Eventual consistency<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edsger_W._Dijkstra_Prize_in_Distributed_Computing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Edsger W. Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing\" data-key=\"84b5197db860359aa9f2d1a5c630915a\">Edsger W. Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federation_(information_technology)\" title=\"Federation (information technology)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a85102507f97a2b8ce901b39d4ffd72\">Federation (information technology)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fog_computing\" title=\"Fog computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb77d1158b6f7affcb45b7c8ec4aabfd\">Fog computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Folding@home\" title=\"Folding@home\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57d87cd03156c28a567830d57360f94\">Folding@home<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grid_computing\" title=\"Grid computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"931594bb3dc749a80f3b3415bb585613\">Grid computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inferno_(operating_system)\" title=\"Inferno (operating system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c90096be9e2bac94d4a2334756eccfe2\">Inferno<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_GIS\" title=\"Internet GIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23b5befd0ff260529b27b30c9e590f4b\">Internet GIS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jungle_computing\" title=\"Jungle computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff8ba7a53509054f5fdfded2e3e96039\">Jungle computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Layered_queueing_network\" title=\"Layered queueing network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6842688fb642d506beb272d20774d0c4\">Layered queueing network<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_Oriented_Architecture\" title=\"Library Oriented Architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea2a3d6a02f460df1a1f230ff4e6bc91\">Library Oriented Architecture<\/a> (LOA)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_distributed_computing_conferences\" title=\"List of distributed computing conferences\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53c99d6fbc992c93c1713f23ad71a87d\">List of distributed computing conferences<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_volunteer_computing_projects\" title=\"List of volunteer computing projects\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"404b6e48bada39ab05e4da6381c28cb5\">List of volunteer computing projects<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Model_checking\" title=\"Model checking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5a2d8c63704cfc78d6f8df17e7d9a4e\">Model checking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenHarmony\" title=\"OpenHarmony\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8ebd67ea4cc59088da60883a561d42d\">OpenHarmony<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HarmonyOS\" title=\"HarmonyOS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5da910bfac60ae1df6da8978cde4a677\">HarmonyOS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel_distributed_processing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Parallel distributed processing\" data-key=\"2f108b30d913663e582c1f96dbb24183\">Parallel distributed processing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel_programming_model\" title=\"Parallel programming model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2536778b4bdc66c429055da6758d9a6d\">Parallel programming model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs\" title=\"Plan 9 from Bell Labs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27e6e87b5b5a73757d547d4ab48a214a\">Plan 9 from Bell Labs<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shared_nothing_architecture\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Shared nothing architecture\" data-key=\"42cff8194dd32423c644f51c7d2a87f4\">Shared nothing architecture<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_GIS\" title=\"Web GIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3e6e32b2c0b484f002329bf07db7026\">Web GIS<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-tanenbaum-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-tanenbaum_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-tanenbaum_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTanenbaum,_Andrew_S.Steen,_Maarten_van2002\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Tanenbaum, Andrew S.; Steen, Maarten van (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.distributed-systems.net\/index.php\/books\/ds3\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Distributed systems: principles and paradigms<\/i><\/a>. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-13-088893-1<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200812174339\/https:\/\/www.distributed-systems.net\/index.php\/books\/ds3\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2020-08-12<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2020-08-28<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Distributed+systems%3A+principles+and+paradigms&amp;rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=0-13-088893-1&amp;rft.au=Tanenbaum%2C+Andrew+S.&amp;rft.au=Steen%2C+Maarten+van&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.distributed-systems.net%2Findex.php%2Fbooks%2Fds3%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Distributed_Programs_2010_pp._373\u2013406-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Distributed_Programs_2010_pp._373\u2013406_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\">\"Distributed Programs\". <i>Texts in Computer Science<\/i>. London: Springer London. 2010. pp.&#160;373\u2013406. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-1-84882-745-5_11\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-1-84882-745-5_11<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-84882-744-8<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1868-0941\" target=\"_blank\">1868-0941<\/a>. <q>Systems consist of a number of physically distributed components that work independently using their private storage, but also communicate from time to time by explicit message passing. Such systems are called distributed systems.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Distributed+Programs&amp;rft.btitle=Texts+in+Computer+Science&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pages=373-406&amp;rft.pub=Springer+London&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.issn=1868-0941&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-84882-745-5_11&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-84882-744-8&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDusseauDusseau20161\u20132-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDusseauDusseau20161\u20132_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDusseauDusseau2016\">Dusseau &amp; Dusseau 2016<\/a>, p.&#160;1\u20132.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Distributed_Programs_2010_pp._373\u2013406_II-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Distributed_Programs_2010_pp._373\u2013406_II_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation book cs1\">\"Distributed Programs\". <i>Texts in Computer Science<\/i>. London: Springer London. 2010. pp.&#160;373\u2013406. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-1-84882-745-5_11\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-1-84882-745-5_11<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-84882-744-8<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1868-0941\" target=\"_blank\">1868-0941<\/a>. <q>Distributed programs are abstract descriptions of distributed systems. A distributed program consists of a collection of processes that work concurrently and communicate by explicit message passing. Each process can access a set of variables which are disjoint from the variables that can be changed by any other process.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Distributed+Programs&amp;rft.btitle=Texts+in+Computer+Science&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pages=373-406&amp;rft.pub=Springer+London&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.issn=1868-0941&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-84882-745-5_11&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-84882-744-8&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>. <a href=\"#CITEREFDolev2000\">Dolev (2000)<\/a>. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 10.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMagnoni2015\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Magnoni, L. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F608%2F1%2F012038\" target=\"_blank\">\"Modern Messaging for Distributed Sytems (sic)\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Physics: Conference Series<\/i>. <b>608<\/b> (1): 012038. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F608%2F1%2F012038\" target=\"_blank\">10.1088\/1742-6596\/608\/1\/012038<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1742-6596\" target=\"_blank\">1742-6596<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Physics%3A+Conference+Series&amp;rft.atitle=Modern+Messaging+for+Distributed+Sytems+%28sic%29&amp;rft.volume=608&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=012038&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F608%2F1%2F012038&amp;rft.issn=1742-6596&amp;rft.aulast=Magnoni&amp;rft.aufirst=L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1742-6596%252F608%252F1%252F012038&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGodfrey2002\">Godfrey (2002)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Andrews_2000-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Andrews_2000_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Andrews_2000_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, p. 291\u2013292. <a href=\"#CITEREFDolev2000\">Dolev (2000)<\/a>, p. 5.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007_10-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007_10-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 10.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, pp. 8\u20139, 291. <a href=\"#CITEREFDolev2000\">Dolev (2000)<\/a>, p. 5. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 3. <a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. xix, 1. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. xv.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, p. 291. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 3. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 4.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 3\u20134. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 4. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 2.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 4, 8. <a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. 2\u20133. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 4.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. 2. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 7. <a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. xix, 2. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 4.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 10. <a href=\"#CITEREFKeidar2008\">Keidar (2008)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. xix, 1\u20132. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPapadimitriou1994\">Papadimitriou (1994)<\/a>, Chapter 15. <a href=\"#CITEREFKeidar2008\">Keidar (2008)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See references in <a href=\"#Introduction\">Introduction<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BetalebParallel16-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BetalebParallel16_23-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBentaleb,_A.Yifan,_L.Xin,_J.2016\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Bentaleb, A.; Yifan, L.; Xin, J.; et&#160;al. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.comp.nus.edu.sg\/~rahul\/allfiles\/cs6234-16-pds.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Parallel and Distributed Algorithms\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. National University of Singapore. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170326210614\/http:\/\/www.comp.nus.edu.sg\/~rahul\/allfiles\/cs6234-16-pds.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2017-03-26<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Parallel+and+Distributed+Algorithms&amp;rft.pub=National+University+of+Singapore&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.au=Bentaleb%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Yifan%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Xin%2C+J.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.comp.nus.edu.sg%2F~rahul%2Fallfiles%2Fcs6234-16-pds.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, p. 348.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, p. 32.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPeter2004\">Peter (2004)<\/a>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nethistory.info\/History%20of%20the%20Internet\/email.html\" target=\"_blank\">The history of email<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090415220152\/http:\/\/www.nethistory.info\/History%20of%20the%20Internet\/email.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2009-04-15 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BanksOnThe12-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BanksOnThe12_27-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBanks,_M.2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Banks, M. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1J78hiHKaPoC&pg=PT67\" target=\"_blank\"><i>On the Way to the Web: The Secret History of the Internet and its Founders<\/i><\/a>. Apress. pp.&#160;44\u20135. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781430250746<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230120182450\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1J78hiHKaPoC&pg=PT67\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2023-01-20<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-07-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=On+the+Way+to+the+Web%3A+The+Secret+History+of+the+Internet+and+its+Founders&amp;rft.pages=44-5&amp;rft.pub=Apress&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9781430250746&amp;rft.au=Banks%2C+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1J78hiHKaPoC%26pg%3DPT67&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TelIntro00-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TelIntro00_28-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTel,_G.2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Tel, G. (2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vlpnS25qAJQC&pg=PA35\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Distributed Algorithms<\/i><\/a>. Cambridge University Press. pp.&#160;35\u201336. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780521794831<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230120182450\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vlpnS25qAJQC&pg=PA35\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2023-01-20<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-07-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Distributed+Algorithms&amp;rft.pages=35-36&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=9780521794831&amp;rft.au=Tel%2C+G.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvlpnS25qAJQC%26pg%3DPA35&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Ohl\u00eddalEvo06-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Ohl\u00eddalEvo06_29-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOhl\u00eddal,_M.Jaro\u0161,_J.Schwarz,_J.2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Ohl\u00eddal, M.; Jaro\u0161, J.; Schwarz, J.; et&#160;al. (2006). \"Evolutionary Design of OAB and AAB Communication Schedules for Interconnection Networks\". In Rothlauf, F.; Branke, J.; Cagnoni, S. (eds.). <i>Applications of Evolutionary Computing<\/i>. Springer Science &amp; Business Media. pp.&#160;267\u201378. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783540332374<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Evolutionary+Design+of+OAB+and+AAB+Communication+Schedules+for+Interconnection+Networks&amp;rft.btitle=Applications+of+Evolutionary+Computing&amp;rft.pages=267-78&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9783540332374&amp;rft.au=Ohl%C3%ADdal%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Jaro%C5%A1%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Schwarz%2C+J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170110015222\/https:\/\/pdfs.semanticscholar.org\/2950\/37ee46ac281590f67435380cebc385ac9749.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Real Time And Distributed Computing Systems\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2278-0661\" target=\"_blank\">2278-0661<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pdfs.semanticscholar.org\/2950\/37ee46ac281590f67435380cebc385ac9749.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 2017-01-10<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2017-01-09<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Real+Time+And+Distributed+Computing+Systems&amp;rft.issn=2278-0661&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2F2950%2F37ee46ac281590f67435380cebc385ac9749.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Vigna20150127-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Vigna20150127_31-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Vigna P, Casey MJ. <i>The Age of Cryptocurrency: How Bitcoin and the Blockchain Are Challenging the Global Economic Order<\/i> St. Martin's Press January 27, 2015 <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781250065636<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFQuang_Hieu_VuMihai_LupuBeng_Chin_Ooi2010\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Quang Hieu Vu; Mihai Lupu; Beng Chin Ooi (2010). <i>Peer-to-peer computing&#160;: principles and applications<\/i>. Heidelberg: Springer. p.&#160;16. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783642035135<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/663093862\" target=\"_blank\">663093862<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Peer-to-peer+computing+%3A+principles+and+applications&amp;rft.place=Heidelberg&amp;rft.pages=16&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F663093862&amp;rft.isbn=9783642035135&amp;rft.au=Quang+Hieu+Vu&amp;rft.au=Mihai+Lupu&amp;rft.au=Beng+Chin+Ooi&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLindAlm2006\" class=\"citation cs2\">Lind P, Alm M (2006), \"A database-centric virtual chemistry system\", <i>J Chem Inf Model<\/i>, <b>46<\/b> (3): 1034\u20139, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021%2Fci050360b\" target=\"_blank\">10.1021\/ci050360b<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/16711722\" target=\"_blank\">16711722<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=J+Chem+Inf+Model&amp;rft.atitle=A+database-centric+virtual+chemistry+system&amp;rft.volume=46&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=1034-9&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fci050360b&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16711722&amp;rft.aulast=Lind&amp;rft.aufirst=P&amp;rft.au=Alm%2C+M&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChiu1990\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Chiu, G (1990). \"A model for optimal database allocation in distributed computing systems\". <i>Proceedings. IEEE INFOCOM'90: Ninth Annual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications Societies<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings.+IEEE+INFOCOM%2790%3A+Ninth+Annual+Joint+Conference+of+the+IEEE+Computer+and+Communications+Societies&amp;rft.atitle=A+model+for+optimal+database+allocation+in+distributed+computing+systems&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.aulast=Chiu&amp;rft.aufirst=G&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFElmasriNavathe2000\">Elmasri &amp; Navathe (2000)<\/a>, Section 24.1.2.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, p. 10\u201311. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 4\u20136. <a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. xix, 1. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. xv. <a href=\"#CITEREFElmasriNavathe2000\">Elmasri &amp; Navathe (2000)<\/a>, Section 24.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHaussmann2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Haussmann, J. (2019). \"Cost-efficient parallel processing of irregularly structured problems in cloud computing environments\". <i>Journal of Cluster Computing<\/i>. <b>22<\/b> (3): 887\u2013909. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10586-018-2879-3\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s10586-018-2879-3<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:54447518\" target=\"_blank\">54447518<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cluster+Computing&amp;rft.atitle=Cost-efficient+parallel+processing+of+irregularly+structured+problems+in+cloud+computing+environments&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=887-909&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10586-018-2879-3&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54447518%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Haussmann&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ToomarianNeural92-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ToomarianNeural92_38-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFToomarian,_N.B.Barhen,_J.Gulati,_S.1992\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Toomarian, N.B.; Barhen, J.; Gulati, S. (1992). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=CKTsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA214\" target=\"_blank\">\"Neural Networks for Real-Time Robotic Applications\"<\/a>. In Fijany, A.; Bejczy, A. (eds.). <i>Parallel Computation Systems For Robotics: Algorithms And Architectures<\/i>. World Scientific. p.&#160;214. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9789814506175<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200801024715\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=CKTsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA214\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2020-08-01<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-07-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Neural+Networks+for+Real-Time+Robotic+Applications&amp;rft.btitle=Parallel+Computation+Systems+For+Robotics%3A+Algorithms+And+Architectures&amp;rft.pages=214&amp;rft.pub=World+Scientific&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.isbn=9789814506175&amp;rft.au=Toomarian%2C+N.B.&amp;rft.au=Barhen%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Gulati%2C+S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCKTsCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA214&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SavageModels98-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SavageModels98_39-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSavage,_J.E.1998\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Savage, J.E. (1998). <i>Models of Computation: Exploring the Power of Computing<\/i>. Addison Wesley. p.&#160;209. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780201895391<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Models+of+Computation%3A+Exploring+the+Power+of+Computing&amp;rft.pages=209&amp;rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=9780201895391&amp;rft.au=Savage%2C+J.E.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFCormenLeisersonRivest1990\">Cormen, Leiserson &amp; Rivest (1990)<\/a>, Section 30.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFHerlihyShavit2008\">Herlihy &amp; Shavit (2008)<\/a>, Chapters 2\u20136.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFCormenLeisersonRivest1990\">Cormen, Leiserson &amp; Rivest (1990)<\/a>, Sections 28 and 29.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_44-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_44-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_44-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">TULSIRAMJI GAIKWAD-PATIL College of Engineering &amp; Technology,\n\nNagpur\n\nDepartment of Information Technology\n\nIntroduction to Distributed Systems<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tgpcet.com\/assets\/img\/IT\/Notes\/8\/Distributed-System.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">[1]<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFColeVishkin1986\">Cole &amp; Vishkin (1986)<\/a>. <a href=\"#CITEREFCormenLeisersonRivest1990\">Cormen, Leiserson &amp; Rivest (1990)<\/a>, Section 30.5.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, p. ix.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAroraBarak2009\">Arora &amp; Barak (2009)<\/a>, Section 6.7. <a href=\"#CITEREFPapadimitriou1994\">Papadimitriou (1994)<\/a>, Section 15.3.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPapadimitriou1994\">Papadimitriou (1994)<\/a>, Section 15.2.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. 17\u201323.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, Sections 2.3 and 7. <a href=\"#CITEREFLinial1992\">Linial (1992)<\/a>. <a href=\"#CITEREFNaorStockmeyer1995\">Naor &amp; Stockmeyer (1995)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchneiderTrading11-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchneiderTrading11_51-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSchneider,_J.Wattenhofer,_R.2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Schneider, J.; Wattenhofer, R. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=dT6nwpXvES4C&pg=PA51\" target=\"_blank\">\"Trading Bit, Message, and Time Complexity of Distributed Algorithms\"<\/a>. In Peleg, D. (ed.). <i>Distributed Computing<\/i>. Springer Science &amp; Business Media. pp.&#160;51\u201365. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783642240997<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200801023020\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=dT6nwpXvES4C&pg=PA51\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2020-08-01<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-07-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Trading+Bit%2C+Message%2C+and+Time+Complexity+of+Distributed+Algorithms&amp;rft.btitle=Distributed+Computing&amp;rft.pages=51-65&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=9783642240997&amp;rft.au=Schneider%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Wattenhofer%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdT6nwpXvES4C%26pg%3DPA51&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, Sections 5\u20137. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, Chapter 13.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-53\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. 99\u2013102. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 192\u2013193.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-54\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDolev2000\">Dolev (2000)<\/a>. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, Chapter 17.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, Section 16. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, Section 6.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, Section 18. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, Sections 6.2\u20136.3.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, Section 6.4.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HaloiApache15-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-HaloiApache15_58-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HaloiApache15_58-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHaloi,_S.2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Haloi, S. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Ym9uBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA100\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Apache ZooKeeper Essentials<\/i><\/a>. Packt Publishing Ltd. pp.&#160;100\u2013101. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781784398323<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230120182456\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Ym9uBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA100\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2023-01-20<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-07-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Apache+ZooKeeper+Essentials&amp;rft.pages=100-101&amp;rft.pub=Packt+Publishing+Ltd&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9781784398323&amp;rft.au=Haloi%2C+S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYm9uBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA100&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-59\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLeLann1977\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">LeLann, G. (1977). \"Distributed systems - toward a formal approach\". <i>Information Processing<\/i>. <b>77<\/b>: 155\u00b7160 \u2013 via Elsevier.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Information+Processing&amp;rft.atitle=Distributed+systems+-+toward+a+formal+approach&amp;rft.volume=77&amp;rft.pages=155%C2%B7160&amp;rft.date=1977&amp;rft.aulast=LeLann&amp;rft.aufirst=G.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFR._G._Gallager,_P._A._Humblet,_and_P._M._Spira1983\" class=\"citation journal cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert_G._Gallager\" title=\"Robert G. Gallager\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e67dfd03912de92ff8ce0cb30e2a1fad\">R. G. Gallager<\/a>, P. A. Humblet, and P. M. Spira (January 1983). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.apposite-tech.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/09\/p66-gallager.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Distributed Algorithm for Minimum-Weight Spanning Trees\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems<\/i>. <b>5<\/b> (1): 66\u201377. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F357195.357200\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/357195.357200<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:2758285\" target=\"_blank\">2758285<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170926040957\/http:\/\/www.apposite-tech.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/09\/p66-gallager.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2017-09-26.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=ACM+Transactions+on+Programming+Languages+and+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=A+Distributed+Algorithm+for+Minimum-Weight+Spanning+Trees&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=66-77&amp;rft.date=1983-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F357195.357200&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2758285%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.au=R.+G.+Gallager%2C+P.+A.+Humblet%2C+and+P.+M.+Spira&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apposite-tech.com%2Fblog%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F09%2Fp66-gallager.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1debe3ec6beda68f84866dbe0567eb4\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-61\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKorachKuttenMoran1990\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Korach, Ephraim; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shay_Kutten\" title=\"Shay Kutten\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08ed0dd74dfa5378e03559f101798ad9\">Kutten, Shay<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shlomo_Moran\" title=\"Shlomo Moran\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f5b83d75e8d7241133903e7dd359c9\">Moran, Shlomo<\/a> (1990). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cs.technion.ac.il\/~moran\/r\/PS\/kkm.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Modular Technique for the Design of Efficient Distributed Leader Finding Algorithms\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems<\/i>. <b>12<\/b> (1): 84\u2013101. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CiteSeerX (identifier)\" data-key=\"d1ea3e5168e7880002688dac1448af19\">CiteSeerX<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.139.7342\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.139.7342<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F77606.77610\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/77606.77610<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:9175968\" target=\"_blank\">9175968<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070418150944\/http:\/\/www.cs.technion.ac.il\/~moran\/r\/PS\/kkm.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2007-04-18.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=ACM+Transactions+on+Programming+Languages+and+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=A+Modular+Technique+for+the+Design+of+Efficient+Distributed+Leader+Finding+Algorithms&amp;rft.volume=12&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=84-101&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.139.7342%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9175968%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F77606.77610&amp;rft.aulast=Korach&amp;rft.aufirst=Ephraim&amp;rft.au=Kutten%2C+Shay&amp;rft.au=Moran%2C+Shlomo&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.technion.ac.il%2F~moran%2Fr%2FPS%2Fkkm.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHamilton\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Hamilton, Howard. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www2.cs.uregina.ca\/~hamilton\/courses\/330\/notes\/distributed\/distributed.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Distributed Algorithms\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121124002402\/http:\/\/www2.cs.uregina.ca\/~hamilton\/courses\/330\/notes\/distributed\/distributed.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2012-11-24<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-03-03<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Distributed+Algorithms&amp;rft.aulast=Hamilton&amp;rft.aufirst=Howard&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.cs.uregina.ca%2F~hamilton%2Fcourses%2F330%2Fnotes%2Fdistributed%2Fdistributed.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-63\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cstheory.stackexchange.com\/q\/10045\" target=\"_blank\">\"Major unsolved problems in distributed systems?\"<\/a>. <i>cstheory.stackexchange.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230120182442\/https:\/\/cstheory.stackexchange.com\/questions\/10045\/major-unsolved-problems-in-distributed-systems\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 20 January 2023<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=cstheory.stackexchange.com&amp;rft.atitle=Major+unsolved+problems+in+distributed+systems%3F&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcstheory.stackexchange.com%2Fq%2F10045&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-64\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.theserverside.com\/feature\/How-big-data-and-distributed-systems-solve-traditional-scalability-problems\" target=\"_blank\">\"How big data and distributed systems solve traditional scalability problems\"<\/a>. <i>theserverside.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180317232027\/http:\/\/www.theserverside.com\/feature\/How-big-data-and-distributed-systems-solve-traditional-scalability-problems\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 March 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=theserverside.com&amp;rft.atitle=How+big+data+and+distributed+systems+solve+traditional+scalability+problems&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theserverside.com%2Ffeature%2FHow-big-data-and-distributed-systems-solve-traditional-scalability-problems&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SvozilIndet11-65\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SvozilIndet11_65-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSvozil,_K.2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Svozil, K. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ep_FCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA112\" target=\"_blank\">\"Indeterminism and Randomness Through Physics\"<\/a>. In Hector, Z. (ed.). <i>Randomness Through Computation: Some Answers, More Questions<\/i>. World Scientific. pp.&#160;112\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9789814462631<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200801024745\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ep_FCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA112\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2020-08-01<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-07-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Indeterminism+and+Randomness+Through+Physics&amp;rft.btitle=Randomness+Through+Computation%3A+Some+Answers%2C+More+Questions&amp;rft.pages=112-3&amp;rft.pub=World+Scientific&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=9789814462631&amp;rft.au=Svozil%2C+K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dep_FCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA112&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-66\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPapadimitriou1994\">Papadimitriou (1994)<\/a>, Section 19.3.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em\">\n<dl><dt>Books<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAndrews2000\" class=\"citation cs2\">Andrews, Gregory R. (2000), <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/foundationsofmul0000andr\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Foundations of Multithreaded, Parallel, and Distributed Programming<\/i><\/a><\/span>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Addison%E2%80%93Wesley\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Addison\u2013Wesley\" data-key=\"cb269618f957d1db5639eeface2ed631\">Addison\u2013Wesley<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-201-35752-3<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Multithreaded%2C+Parallel%2C+and+Distributed+Programming&amp;rft.pub=Addison%E2%80%93Wesley&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-201-35752-3&amp;rft.aulast=Andrews&amp;rft.aufirst=Gregory+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoundationsofmul0000andr&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAroraBarak2009\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sanjeev_Arora\" title=\"Sanjeev Arora\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58fc930b1737a8bb5533dcd8b997cba6\">Arora, Sanjeev<\/a>; Barak, Boaz (2009), <i>Computational Complexity \u2013 A Modern Approach<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cambridge_University_Press\" title=\"Cambridge University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2f08c47b8f3710987767a19a2aab5e5\">Cambridge<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-521-42426-4<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computational+Complexity+%E2%80%93+A+Modern+Approach&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-42426-4&amp;rft.aulast=Arora&amp;rft.aufirst=Sanjeev&amp;rft.au=Barak%2C+Boaz&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCormenLeisersonRivest1990\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thomas_H._Cormen\" title=\"Thomas H. Cormen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ca5f2cf0ba17b27fb9ea08d22b4e3c4\">Cormen, Thomas H.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charles_E._Leiserson\" title=\"Charles E. Leiserson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26872ed736e74364e52ca7bf95ea741f\">Leiserson, Charles E.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ron_Rivest\" title=\"Ron Rivest\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d46a424dae95860a7242529fcfc5fdf4\">Rivest, Ronald L.<\/a> (1990), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Introduction_to_Algorithms\" title=\"Introduction to Algorithms\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c23ddc053378140b7cb514680fd1f73c\"><i>Introduction to Algorithms<\/i><\/a> (1st&#160;ed.), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT_Press\" title=\"MIT Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"883c3b1bfd21448f57a290249876731b\">MIT Press<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-262-03141-7<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Algorithms&amp;rft.edition=1st&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-262-03141-7&amp;rft.aulast=Cormen&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas+H.&amp;rft.au=Leiserson%2C+Charles+E.&amp;rft.au=Rivest%2C+Ronald+L.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDolev2000\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shlomi_Dolev\" title=\"Shlomi Dolev\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32b0de970b3d944c60ace03d2c95e3f3\">Dolev, Shlomi<\/a> (2000), <i>Self-Stabilization<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT_Press\" title=\"MIT Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"883c3b1bfd21448f57a290249876731b\">MIT Press<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-262-04178-2<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Self-Stabilization&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-262-04178-2&amp;rft.aulast=Dolev&amp;rft.aufirst=Shlomi&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFElmasriNavathe2000\" class=\"citation cs2\">Elmasri, Ramez; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shamkant_Navathe\" title=\"Shamkant Navathe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"964554ba1f5fde0b5e818c142e2d19c0\">Navathe, Shamkant B.<\/a> (2000), <i>Fundamentals of Database Systems<\/i> (3rd&#160;ed.), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Addison%E2%80%93Wesley\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Addison\u2013Wesley\" data-key=\"cb269618f957d1db5639eeface2ed631\">Addison\u2013Wesley<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-201-54263-9<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Database+Systems&amp;rft.edition=3rd&amp;rft.pub=Addison%E2%80%93Wesley&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-201-54263-9&amp;rft.aulast=Elmasri&amp;rft.aufirst=Ramez&amp;rft.au=Navathe%2C+Shamkant+B.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGhosh2007\" class=\"citation cs2\">Ghosh, Sukumar (2007), <i>Distributed Systems \u2013 An Algorithmic Approach<\/i>, Chapman &amp; Hall\/CRC, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-58488-564-1<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Distributed+Systems+%E2%80%93+An+Algorithmic+Approach&amp;rft.pub=Chapman+%26+Hall%2FCRC&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-58488-564-1&amp;rft.aulast=Ghosh&amp;rft.aufirst=Sukumar&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLynch1996\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nancy_Lynch\" title=\"Nancy Lynch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3aa7d936026c98250d383122b4596e72\">Lynch, Nancy A.<\/a> (1996), <span class=\"cs1-lock-registration\" title=\"Free registration required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/distributedalgor0000lync\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Distributed Algorithms<\/i><\/a><\/span>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morgan_Kaufmann_Publishers\" title=\"Morgan Kaufmann Publishers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f02dcb95f78acd33dffa3de3fec1d88\">Morgan Kaufmann<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-55860-348-6<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Distributed+Algorithms&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-55860-348-6&amp;rft.aulast=Lynch&amp;rft.aufirst=Nancy+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdistributedalgor0000lync&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHerlihyShavit2008\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maurice_Herlihy\" title=\"Maurice Herlihy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1542e091efe8b08982b5e91ce34cf594\">Herlihy, Maurice P.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nir_Shavit\" title=\"Nir Shavit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d078957185302548ec8c8dd44ed3f922\">Shavit, Nir N.<\/a> (2008), <i>The Art of Multiprocessor Programming<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morgan_Kaufmann_Publishers\" title=\"Morgan Kaufmann Publishers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f02dcb95f78acd33dffa3de3fec1d88\">Morgan Kaufmann<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-12-370591-4<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Multiprocessor+Programming&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-370591-4&amp;rft.aulast=Herlihy&amp;rft.aufirst=Maurice+P.&amp;rft.au=Shavit%2C+Nir+N.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPapadimitriou1994\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christos_Papadimitriou\" title=\"Christos Papadimitriou\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3370310dbc88cd459f7cb3c310b08016\">Papadimitriou, Christos H.<\/a> (1994), <i>Computational Complexity<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Addison%E2%80%93Wesley\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Addison\u2013Wesley\" data-key=\"cb269618f957d1db5639eeface2ed631\">Addison\u2013Wesley<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-201-53082-7<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computational+Complexity&amp;rft.pub=Addison%E2%80%93Wesley&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-201-53082-7&amp;rft.aulast=Papadimitriou&amp;rft.aufirst=Christos+H.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPeleg2000\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Peleg_(scientist)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"David Peleg (scientist)\" data-key=\"388ec58ecbd5af1eb6f3ddefad8523fa\">Peleg, David<\/a> (2000), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090806070332\/http:\/\/www.ec-securehost.com\/SIAM\/DT05.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Distributed Computing: A Locality-Sensitive Approach<\/i><\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Society_for_Industrial_and_Applied_Mathematics\" title=\"Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"669f74e15546dedcb65f95662dc680a8\">SIAM<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-89871-464-7<\/bdi>, archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ec-securehost.com\/SIAM\/DT05.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2009-08-06<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2009-07-16<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Distributed+Computing%3A+A+Locality-Sensitive+Approach&amp;rft.pub=SIAM&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-89871-464-7&amp;rft.aulast=Peleg&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ec-securehost.com%2FSIAM%2FDT05.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Articles<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFColeVishkin1986\" class=\"citation cs2\">Cole, Richard; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uzi_Vishkin\" title=\"Uzi Vishkin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c02346afb7fc7f885bec12726a60c3ac\">Vishkin, Uzi<\/a> (1986), \"Deterministic coin tossing with applications to optimal parallel list ranking\", <i>Information and Control<\/i>, <b>70<\/b> (1): 32\u201353, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0019-9958%2886%2980023-7\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/S0019-9958(86)80023-7<\/a><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Information+and+Control&amp;rft.atitle=Deterministic+coin+tossing+with+applications+to+optimal+parallel+list+ranking&amp;rft.volume=70&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=32-53&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0019-9958%2886%2980023-7&amp;rft.aulast=Cole&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft.au=Vishkin%2C+Uzi&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKeidar2008\" class=\"citation cs2\">Keidar, Idit (2008), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140116123634\/http:\/\/webee.technion.ac.il\/~idish\/sigactNews\/#column%2032\" target=\"_blank\">\"Distributed computing column 32 \u2013 The year in review\"<\/a>, <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ACM_SIGACT_News\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ACM SIGACT News\" data-key=\"f0dc946b12f3d4ba8820fd01f06ef577\">ACM SIGACT News<\/a><\/i>, <b>39<\/b> (4): 53\u201354, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CiteSeerX (identifier)\" data-key=\"d1ea3e5168e7880002688dac1448af19\">CiteSeerX<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.116.1285\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.116.1285<\/a><\/span>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F1466390.1466402\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/1466390.1466402<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:7607391\" target=\"_blank\">7607391<\/a>, archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/webee.technion.ac.il\/~idish\/sigactNews\/#column%2032\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2014-01-16<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2009-08-20<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGACT+News&amp;rft.atitle=Distributed+computing+column+32+%E2%80%93+The+year+in+review&amp;rft.volume=39&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=53-54&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.116.1285%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7607391%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1466390.1466402&amp;rft.aulast=Keidar&amp;rft.aufirst=Idit&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebee.technion.ac.il%2F~idish%2FsigactNews%2F%23column%252032&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLinial1992\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nati_Linial\" title=\"Nati Linial\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2790ed84664439ce086028f69c9e5766\">Linial, Nathan<\/a> (1992), \"Locality in distributed graph algorithms\", <i>SIAM Journal on Computing<\/i>, <b>21<\/b> (1): 193\u2013201, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CiteSeerX (identifier)\" data-key=\"d1ea3e5168e7880002688dac1448af19\">CiteSeerX<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.471.6378\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.471.6378<\/a><\/span>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1137%2F0221015\" target=\"_blank\">10.1137\/0221015<\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=SIAM+Journal+on+Computing&amp;rft.atitle=Locality+in+distributed+graph+algorithms&amp;rft.volume=21&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=193-201&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.471.6378%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1137%2F0221015&amp;rft.aulast=Linial&amp;rft.aufirst=Nathan&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNaorStockmeyer1995\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moni_Naor\" title=\"Moni Naor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4d2ed3bf2bff6f79aa4091b6212feba\">Naor, Moni<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Larry_Stockmeyer\" title=\"Larry Stockmeyer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e38a0ed46133495ad109ea07ec8cd45\">Stockmeyer, Larry<\/a> (1995), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il\/~naor\/PAPERS\/lcl.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"What can be computed locally?\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>, <i>SIAM Journal on Computing<\/i>, <b>24<\/b> (6): 1259\u20131277, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CiteSeerX (identifier)\" data-key=\"d1ea3e5168e7880002688dac1448af19\">CiteSeerX<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.29.669\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.29.669<\/a><\/span>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1137%2FS0097539793254571\" target=\"_blank\">10.1137\/S0097539793254571<\/a>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130108030723\/http:\/\/www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il\/~naor\/PAPERS\/lcl.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2013-01-08<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=SIAM+Journal+on+Computing&amp;rft.atitle=What+can+be+computed+locally%3F&amp;rft.volume=24&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=1259-1277&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.29.669%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1137%2FS0097539793254571&amp;rft.aulast=Naor&amp;rft.aufirst=Moni&amp;rft.au=Stockmeyer%2C+Larry&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il%2F~naor%2FPAPERS%2Flcl.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Web sites<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGodfrey2002\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Godfrey, Bill (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/billpg.com\/bacchae-co-uk\/docs\/dist.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A primer on distributed computing\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210513163858\/https:\/\/billpg.com\/bacchae-co-uk\/docs\/dist.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2021-05-13<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-05-13<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+primer+on+distributed+computing&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.aulast=Godfrey&amp;rft.aufirst=Bill&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbillpg.com%2Fbacchae-co-uk%2Fdocs%2Fdist.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPeter2004\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Peter, Ian (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nethistory.info\/History%20of%20the%20Internet\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ian Peter's History of the Internet\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100120220410\/http:\/\/www.nethistory.info\/History%20of%20the%20Internet\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2010-01-20<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2009-08-04<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Ian+Peter%27s+History+of+the+Internet&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.aulast=Peter&amp;rft.aufirst=Ian&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nethistory.info%2FHistory%2520of%2520the%2520Internet%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div> \n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1054258005\" \/><div class=\"refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em\">\n<dl><dt>Books<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAttiya,_Hagit_and_Jennifer_Welch2004\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hagit_Attiya\" title=\"Hagit Attiya\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a2d87857465617817b8eb40a56246a8\">Attiya, Hagit<\/a> and Jennifer Welch (2004), <i>Distributed Computing: Fundamentals, Simulations, and Advanced Topics<\/i>, Wiley-Interscience<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Distributed+Computing%3A+Fundamentals%2C+Simulations%2C+and+Advanced+Topics&amp;rft.pub=Wiley-Interscience&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.au=Attiya%2C+Hagit+and+Jennifer+Welch&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-471-45324-2.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChristian_CachinRachid_GuerraouiLu\u00eds_Rodrigues2011\" class=\"citation cs2\">Christian Cachin; Rachid Guerraoui; Lu\u00eds Rodrigues (2011), <i>Introduction to Reliable and Secure Distributed Programming<\/i> (2.&#160;ed.), Springer, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2011itra.book.....C\" target=\"_blank\">2011itra.book.....C<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-642-15259-7<\/bdi><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Reliable+and+Secure+Distributed+Programming&amp;rft.edition=2.&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011itra.book.....C&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-642-15259-7&amp;rft.au=Christian+Cachin&amp;rft.au=Rachid+Guerraoui&amp;rft.au=Lu%C3%ADs+Rodrigues&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCoulouris,_George2011\" class=\"citation cs2\">Coulouris, George; et&#160;al. (2011), <i>Distributed Systems: Concepts and Design (5th Edition)<\/i>, Addison-Wesley<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Distributed+Systems%3A+Concepts+and+Design+%285th+Edition%29&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.au=Coulouris%2C+George&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-132-14301-1.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFaber1998\" class=\"citation cs2\">Faber, Jim (1998), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/docstore.mik.ua\/orelly\/java-ent\/dist\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Java Distributed Computing<\/i><\/a>, O'Reilly, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100824170917\/http:\/\/docstore.mik.ua\/orelly\/java-ent\/dist\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">archived<\/a> from the original on 2010-08-24<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2010-09-29<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Java+Distributed+Computing&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.aulast=Faber&amp;rft.aufirst=Jim&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocstore.mik.ua%2Forelly%2Fjava-ent%2Fdist%2Findex.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/docstore.mik.ua\/orelly\/java-ent\/dist\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Java Distributed Computing by Jim Faber, 1998<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100824170917\/http:\/\/docstore.mik.ua\/orelly\/java-ent\/dist\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2010-08-24 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGarg,_Vijay_K.2002\" class=\"citation cs2\">Garg, Vijay K. (2002), <i>Elements of Distributed Computing<\/i>, Wiley-IEEE Press<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Elements+of+Distributed+Computing&amp;rft.pub=Wiley-IEEE+Press&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.au=Garg%2C+Vijay+K.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0-471-03600-5.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTel1994\" class=\"citation cs2\">Tel, Gerard (1994), <i>Introduction to Distributed Algorithms<\/i>, Cambridge University Press<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Distributed+Algorithms&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.aulast=Tel&amp;rft.aufirst=Gerard&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChandy,_Mani1988\" class=\"citation cs2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K._Mani_Chandy\" title=\"K. Mani Chandy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95dcf0b45e5f5715c4e5b1d4a0e054b9\">Chandy, Mani<\/a>; et&#160;al. (1988), <i>Parallel Program Design<\/i>, Addison-Wesley<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Parallel+Program+Design&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&amp;rft.date=1988&amp;rft.au=Chandy%2C+Mani&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0201058669<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDusseauDusseau2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Dusseau, Remzi H.; Dusseau, Andrea (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210831013525\/https:\/\/pages.cs.wisc.edu\/~remzi\/OSTEP\/dist-intro.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Operating Systems: Three Easy Pieces, Chapter 48 Distributed Systems<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pages.cs.wisc.edu\/~remzi\/OSTEP\/dist-intro.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 31 August 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 October<\/span> 2021<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Operating+Systems%3A+Three+Easy+Pieces%2C+Chapter+48+Distributed+Systems&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.aulast=Dusseau&amp;rft.aufirst=Remzi+H.&amp;rft.au=Dusseau%2C+Andrea&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpages.cs.wisc.edu%2F~remzi%2FOSTEP%2Fdist-intro.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Articles<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKeidarRajsbaum2000\u20132009\" class=\"citation cs2\">Keidar, Idit; Rajsbaum, Sergio, eds. (2000\u20132009), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140116123634\/http:\/\/webee.technion.ac.il\/~idish\/sigactNews\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Distributed computing column\"<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ACM_SIGACT_News\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ACM SIGACT News\" data-key=\"f0dc946b12f3d4ba8820fd01f06ef577\"><i>ACM SIGACT News<\/i><\/a>, archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/webee.technion.ac.il\/~idish\/sigactNews\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2014-01-16<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2009-08-16<\/span><\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Distributed+computing+column&amp;rft.btitle=ACM+SIGACT+News&amp;rft.date=2000%2F2009&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebee.technion.ac.il%2F~idish%2FsigactNews%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBirrellLevinSchroederNeedham1982\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Birrell, A. D.; Levin, R.; Schroeder, M. D.; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roger_M._Needham\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Roger M. Needham\" data-key=\"4322aa21f001c4e3070b0c6d4d3e1cc2\">Needham, R. M.<\/a> (April 1982). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.cs.wpi.edu\/~cs4513\/d07\/Papers\/Birrell,%20Levin,%20et.%20al.,%20Grapevine.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Grapevine: An exercise in distributed computing\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communications_of_the_ACM\" title=\"Communications of the ACM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd914d5636fdc976435825fe9c3999ef\">Communications of the ACM<\/a><\/i>. <b>25<\/b> (4): 260\u2013274. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F358468.358487\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/358468.358487<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:16066616\" target=\"_blank\">16066616<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160730064812\/http:\/\/web.cs.wpi.edu\/~cs4513\/d07\/Papers\/Birrell,%20Levin,%20et.%20al.,%20Grapevine.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2016-07-30.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&amp;rft.atitle=Grapevine%3A+An+exercise+in+distributed+computing&amp;rft.volume=25&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=260-274&amp;rft.date=1982-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F358468.358487&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16066616%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Birrell&amp;rft.aufirst=A.+D.&amp;rft.au=Levin%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Schroeder%2C+M.+D.&amp;rft.au=Needham%2C+R.+M.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.cs.wpi.edu%2F~cs4513%2Fd07%2FPapers%2FBirrell%2C%2520Levin%2C%2520et.%2520al.%2C%2520Grapevine.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Conference Papers<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRodriguezVillagraBaran2007\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Rodriguez, Carlos; Villagra, Marcos; Baran, Benjamin (2007). \"Asynchronous team algorithms for Boolean Satisfiability\". <i>2007 2nd Bio-Inspired Models of Network, Information and Computing Systems<\/i>. pp.&#160;66\u201369. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FBIMNICS.2007.4610083\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/BIMNICS.2007.4610083<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:15185219\" target=\"_blank\">15185219<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Asynchronous+team+algorithms+for+Boolean+Satisfiability&amp;rft.btitle=2007+2nd+Bio-Inspired+Models+of+Network%2C+Information+and+Computing+Systems&amp;rft.pages=66-69&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FBIMNICS.2007.4610083&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15185219%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Rodriguez&amp;rft.aufirst=Carlos&amp;rft.au=Villagra%2C+Marcos&amp;rft.au=Baran%2C+Benjamin&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Commons-logo.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"56c1eee72d1be207b2a9d9bcedb4ef6f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> Media related to <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Distributed_computing\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Distributed computing\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Distributed computing<\/a> at Wikimedia Commons<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/curlie.org\/Computers\/Computer_Science\/Distributed_Computing\/\" target=\"_blank\">Distributed computing<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curlie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Curlie\" data-key=\"f2bf78e9dbc70f166d4b3bd9f21cf9f3\">Curlie<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/curlie.org\/Computers\/Computer_Science\/Distributed_Computing\/Publications\/\" target=\"_blank\">Distributed computing journals<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curlie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Curlie\" data-key=\"f2bf78e9dbc70f166d4b3bd9f21cf9f3\">Curlie<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw2312\nCached time: 20240102033548\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.850 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.003 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6885\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 146034\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 2653\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 16\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 11\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 160278\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.523\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 10939755\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 877.668 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>40.82% 358.257 1 Template:Reflist\n16.59% 145.647 14 Template:Cite_book\n12.06% 105.834 23 Template:Citation\n 9.68% 84.992 1 Template:Parallel_computing\n 9.49% 83.302 1 Template:Navbox\n 9.28% 81.453 70 Template:Harvtxt\n 5.75% 50.501 1 Template:Short_description\n 5.48% 48.127 1 Template:Sfn\n 4.94% 43.317 8 Template:Cite_journal\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:8501-0!canonical and timestamp 20240102033547 and revision id 1191601290. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_computing\" data-key=\"ee813a1918606cd02eedc78a4439660f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171634\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.169 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.434 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 167535\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 384.996 1 wikipedia:Distributed_computing\n100.00% 384.996 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10694-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171633 and revision id 33600. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Distributed_computing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Distributed_computing<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_images":[],"27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_timestamp":1704906993,"e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_type":"article","e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_title":"Desktop virtualization","e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Desktop_virtualization","e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_plaintext":"\n\nDesktop virtualizationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchSoftware technology\nDesktop virtualization is a software technology that separates the desktop environment and associated application software from the physical client device that is used to access it.\nDesktop virtualization can be used in conjunction with application virtualization and user profile management systems, now termed user virtualization, to provide a comprehensive desktop environment management system. In this mode, all the components of the desktop are virtualized, which allows for a highly flexible and much more secure desktop delivery model. In addition, this approach supports a more complete desktop disaster recovery strategy as all components are essentially saved in the data center and backed up through traditional redundant maintenance systems. If a user's device or hardware is lost, the restore is straightforward and simple, because the components will be present at login from another device. In addition, because no data are saved to the user's device, if that device is lost, there is much less chance that any critical data can be retrieved and compromised.\n\n\n\nSystem architectures \nDesktop virtualization implementations are classified based on whether the virtual desktop runs remotely or locally, on whether the access is required to be constant or is designed to be intermittent, and on whether or not the virtual desktop persists between sessions. Typically, software products that deliver desktop virtualization solutions can combine local and remote implementations into a single product to provide the most appropriate support specific to requirements. The degrees of independent functionality of the client device is necessarily interdependent with the server location and access strategy. And virtualization is not strictly required for remote control to exist. Virtualization is employed to present independent instances to multiple users and requires a strategic segmentation of the host server and presentation at some layer of the host's architecture. The enabling layer\u2014usually application software\u2014is called a hypervisor.[1]\n\nRemote desktop virtualization \nSee also: Remote desktop\nRemote desktop virtualization implementations operate in a client\/server computing environment. Application execution takes place on a remote operating system which communicates with the local client device over a network using a remote display protocol through which the user interacts with applications. All applications and data used remain on the remote system with only display, keyboard, and mouse information communicated with the local client device, which may be a conventional PC\/laptop, a thin client device, a tablet, or even a smartphone. A common implementation of this approach involves hosting multiple desktop operating system instances on a server hardware platform running a hypervisor. Its latest iteration is generally referred to as Virtual Desktop Infrastructure, or \"VDI\" (note that \"VDI\" is often used incorrectly to refer to any desktop virtualization implementation[2]).\nRemote desktop virtualization is frequently used in the following scenarios:\n\nin distributed environments with high availability requirements and where desk-side technical support is not readily available, such as branch office and retail environments.\nin environments where high network latency degrades the performance of conventional client\/server applications[citation needed ]\nin environments where remote access and data security requirements create conflicting requirements that can be addressed by retaining all (application) data within the data center \u2013 with only display, keyboard, and mouse information communicated with the remote client.\nIt is also used as a means of providing access to Windows applications on non-Windows endpoints (including tablets, smartphones, and non-Windows-based desktop PCs and laptops).\nRemote desktop virtualization can also provide a means of resource sharing, to distribute low-cost desktop computing services in environments where providing every user with a dedicated desktop PC is either too expensive or otherwise unnecessary.\nFor IT administrators, this means a more centralized, efficient client environment that is easier to maintain and able to respond more quickly to the changing needs of the user and business.[3][4]\n\nPresentation virtualization \nRemote desktop software allows a user to access applications and data on a remote computer over a network using a remote-display protocol. A VDI service provides individual desktop operating system instances (e.g., Windows XP, 7, 8.1, 10, etc.) for each user, whereas remote desktop sessions run in a single shared-server operating system. Both session collections and virtual machines support full desktop based sessions and remote application deployment.[5][6]\nThe use of a single shared-server operating system instead of individual desktop operating system instances consumes significantly fewer resources than the same number of VDI sessions. At the same time, VDI licensing is both more expensive and less flexible than equivalent remote desktop licenses. Together, these factors can combine to make remote desktop-based remote desktop virtualization more attractive than VDI.\nVDI implementations allow for delivering personalized workspace back to a user, which retains all the user's customizations. There are several methods to accomplish this.\n\nApplication virtualization \nMain article: Application virtualization\nApplication virtualization improves delivery and compatibility of applications by encapsulating them from the underlying operating system on which they are executed. A fully virtualized application is not installed on hardware in the traditional sense. Instead, a hypervisor layer intercepts the application, which at runtime acts as if it is interfacing with the original operating system and all the resources managed by it when in reality it is not.\n\nUser virtualization \nMain article: User virtualization\nUser virtualization separates all of the software aspects that define a user\u2019s personality on a device from the operating system and applications to be managed independently and applied to a desktop as needed without the need for scripting, group policies, or use of roaming profiles. The term \"user virtualization\" sounds misleading; this technology is not limited to virtual desktops. User virtualization can be used regardless of platform \u2013 physical, virtual, cloud, etc. The major desktop virtualization platform vendors, Citrix, Microsoft and VMware, all offer a form of basic user virtualization in their platforms.\n\nLayering \nDesktop layering is a method of desktop virtualization that divides a disk image into logical parts to be managed individually. For example, if all members of a user group use the same OS, then the core OS only needs to be backed up once for the entire environment who share this layer. Layering can be applied to local physical disk images, client-based virtual machines, or host-based desktops. Windows operating systems are not designed for layering, therefore each vendor must engineer their own proprietary solution.\n\nDesktop as a service \nSee also: Data as a service\nRemote desktop virtualization can also be provided via cloud computing similar to that provided using a software as a service model. This approach is usually referred to as cloud-hosted virtual desktops. Cloud-hosted virtual desktops are divided into two technologies:\n\nManaged VDI, which is based on VDI technology provided as an outsourced managed service, and\nDesktop as a service (DaaS), which provides a higher level of automation and real multi-tenancy, reducing the cost of the technology. The DaaS provider typically takes full responsibility for hosting and maintaining the computer, storage, and access infrastructure, as well as applications and application software licenses needed to provide the desktop service in return for a fixed monthly fee.\nCloud-hosted virtual desktops can be implemented using both VDI and Remote Desktop Services-based systems and can be provided through the public cloud, private cloud infrastructure, and hybrid cloud platforms. Private cloud implementations are commonly referred to as \"managed VDI\". Public cloud offerings tend to be based on desktop-as-a-service technology.\n\nLocal desktop virtualization \nLocal desktop virtualization implementations run the desktop environment on the client device using hardware virtualization or emulation. For hardware virtualization, depending on the implementation both Type I and Type II hypervisors may be used.[7]\nLocal desktop virtualization is well suited for environments where continuous network connectivity cannot be assumed and where application resource requirements can be better met by using local system resources. However, local desktop virtualization implementations do not always allow applications developed for one system architecture to run on another. For example, it is possible to use local desktop virtualization to run Windows 7 on top of OS X on an Intel-based Apple Mac, using a hypervisor, as both use the same x86 architecture.\n\nSee also \nVirtual machine\nReferences \n\n\n^ Rouse, Margaret; Madden, Jack. \"Desktop virtualization\". TechTarget. Retrieved January 3, 2013 . \n\n^ Keith Schultz (16 March 2012). \"Review: V.D.I. without the server connection\". InfoWorld. Retrieved 3 January 2013 . One subset of V.D.I., dubbed client-hosted or offline mode \n\n^ Baburajan, Rajani (August 24, 2011). \"The rising cloud storage market opportunity strengthens vendors\". technews.tmcnet.com. \n\n^ Oestreich, Ken (November 15, 2010). \"Converged infrastructure\". thectoforum.com. Archived from the original on January 13, 2012. [need quotation to verify ] \n\n^ \"Configuring the R.D. session host server to host RemoteApp programs\". 17 November 2009. \n\n^ \"Configuring virtual desktops for RemoteApp and desktop connection\". 17 November 2009. \n\n^ \"Desktop virtualization cheat sheet\". networkworld.com. Archived from the original on 2010-02-27. Retrieved 2010-03-17 . \n\n\nFurther reading \nPaul Venezia (April 13, 2011) Virtualization shoot-out: Citrix, Microsoft, Red Hat, and VMware. The leading server virtualization contenders tackle InfoWorld's ultimate virtualization challenge, InfoWorld\nKeith Schultz (December 14, 2011) VDI shoot-out: Citrix XenDesktop vs. VMware View. Citrix XenDesktop 5.5 and VMware View 5 vie for the most flexible, scalable, and complete virtual desktop infrastructure, InfoWorld\nKeith Schultz (December 14, 2011) VDI shoot-out: HDX vs. PCoIP. The differences between the Citrix and VMware remote desktop protocols are more than skin deep, InfoWorld\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Desktop_virtualization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Desktop_virtualization<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 25 April 2021, at 17:18.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 8,728 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Desktop_virtualization rootpage-Desktop_virtualization skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Desktop virtualization<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Software technology<\/div>\n<p><b>Desktop virtualization<\/b> is a software technology that separates the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Desktop_environment\" title=\"Desktop environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"870f73a14183901c0bc5bcf884a85b04\">desktop environment<\/a> and associated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">application software<\/a> from the physical client device that is used to access it.\n<\/p><p>Desktop virtualization can be used in conjunction with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_virtualization\" title=\"Application virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b77cbb8ca531d1657dd865e32e21fdb3\">application virtualization<\/a> and user profile management systems, now termed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_virtualization\" title=\"User virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b32ec9877bf8214a18c51f0cbbb6be5\">user virtualization<\/a>, to provide a comprehensive desktop environment management system. In this mode, all the components of the desktop are virtualized, which allows for a highly flexible and much more secure desktop delivery model. In addition, this approach supports a more complete desktop disaster recovery strategy as all components are essentially saved in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_center\" title=\"Data center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f7623fd733432645a66e8903167fc90\">data center<\/a> and backed up through traditional redundant maintenance systems. If a user's device or hardware is lost, the restore is straightforward and simple, because the components will be present at login from another device. In addition, because no data are saved to the user's device, if that device is lost, there is much less chance that any critical data can be retrieved and compromised.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"System_architectures\">System architectures<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Desktop virtualization implementations are classified based on whether the virtual desktop runs remotely or locally, on whether the access is required to be constant or is designed to be intermittent, and on whether or not the virtual desktop persists between sessions. Typically, software products that deliver desktop virtualization solutions can combine local and remote implementations into a single product to provide the most appropriate support specific to requirements. The degrees of independent functionality of the client device is necessarily interdependent with the server location and access strategy. And virtualization is not strictly required for remote control to exist. Virtualization is employed to present independent instances to multiple users and requires a strategic segmentation of the host server and presentation at some layer of the host's architecture. The enabling layer\u2014usually application software\u2014is called a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hypervisor\" title=\"Hypervisor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e0a5270a5d34de21994c2356eb806a2\">hypervisor<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Remote_desktop_virtualization\">Remote desktop virtualization<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_desktop\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Remote desktop\" data-key=\"3ab8bfd6d877dbb618bd5f155ce2100b\">Remote desktop<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Remote desktop virtualization implementations operate in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Client\/server\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Client\/server\" data-key=\"77478e66ceddf869133591474d0dc9c6\">client\/server<\/a> computing environment. Application execution takes place on a remote operating system which communicates with the local client device over a network using a remote display protocol through which the user interacts with applications. All applications and data used remain on the remote system with only display, keyboard, and mouse information communicated with the local client device, which may be a conventional PC\/laptop, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thin_client\" title=\"Thin client\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c33d7a246da028b8f5d28de48d895025\">thin client<\/a> device, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tablet_computer\" title=\"Tablet computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9695298204caf00df290ab07d3dff9c7\">tablet<\/a>, or even a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smartphone\" title=\"Smartphone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49a2d39877c99c533d1236c163ea0100\">smartphone<\/a>. A common implementation of this approach involves hosting multiple desktop operating system instances on a server hardware platform running a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hypervisor\" title=\"Hypervisor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e0a5270a5d34de21994c2356eb806a2\">hypervisor<\/a>. Its latest iteration is generally referred to as <b>Virtual Desktop Infrastructure<\/b>, or \"VDI\" (note that \"VDI\" is often used incorrectly to refer to any desktop virtualization implementation<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>).\n<\/p><p>Remote desktop virtualization is frequently used in the following scenarios:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>in distributed environments with high availability requirements and where desk-side technical support is not readily available, such as branch office and retail environments.<\/li>\n<li>in environments where high network latency degrades the performance of conventional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Client\/server\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Client\/server\" data-key=\"77478e66ceddf869133591474d0dc9c6\">client\/server<\/a> applications<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>in environments where remote access and data security requirements create conflicting requirements that can be addressed by retaining all (application) data within the data center \u2013 with only display, keyboard, and mouse information communicated with the remote client.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>It is also used as a means of providing access to Windows applications on non-Windows endpoints (including tablets, smartphones, and non-Windows-based desktop PCs and laptops).\n<\/p><p>Remote desktop virtualization can also provide a means of resource sharing, to distribute low-cost desktop computing services in environments where providing every user with a dedicated desktop PC is either too expensive or otherwise unnecessary.\n<\/p><p>For IT administrators, this means a more centralized, efficient client environment that is easier to maintain and able to respond more quickly to the changing needs of the user and business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Presentation_virtualization\">Presentation virtualization<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Remote desktop software allows a user to access applications and data on a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_computer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Remote computer\" data-key=\"dc94fe81d0ca4a40d5fbc0b74bd443f2\">remote computer<\/a> over a network using a remote-display protocol. A VDI service provides individual desktop operating system instances (e.g., Windows XP, 7, 8.1, 10, etc.) for each user, whereas remote desktop sessions run in a single shared-server operating system. Both session collections and virtual machines support full desktop based sessions and remote application deployment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The use of a single shared-server operating system instead of individual desktop operating system instances consumes significantly fewer resources than the same number of VDI sessions. At the same time, VDI licensing is both more expensive and less flexible than equivalent remote desktop licenses. Together, these factors can combine to make remote desktop-based remote desktop virtualization more attractive than VDI.\n<\/p><p>VDI implementations allow for delivering personalized workspace back to a user, which retains all the user's customizations. There are several methods to accomplish this.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Application_virtualization\">Application virtualization<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_virtualization\" title=\"Application virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b77cbb8ca531d1657dd865e32e21fdb3\">Application virtualization<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Application virtualization improves delivery and compatibility of applications by encapsulating them from the underlying operating system on which they are executed. A fully virtualized application is not installed on hardware in the traditional sense. Instead, a hypervisor layer intercepts the application, which at runtime acts as if it is interfacing with the original operating system and all the resources managed by it when in reality it is not.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"User_virtualization\">User virtualization<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_virtualization\" title=\"User virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b32ec9877bf8214a18c51f0cbbb6be5\">User virtualization<\/a><\/div>\n<p>User virtualization separates all of the software aspects that define a user\u2019s personality on a device from the operating system and applications to be managed independently and applied to a desktop as needed without the need for scripting, group policies, or use of roaming profiles. The term \"user virtualization\" sounds misleading; this technology is not limited to virtual desktops. User virtualization can be used regardless of platform \u2013 physical, virtual, cloud, etc. The major desktop virtualization platform vendors, Citrix, Microsoft and VMware, all offer a form of basic user virtualization in their platforms.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Layering\">Layering<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Desktop layering is a method of desktop virtualization that divides a disk image into logical parts to be managed individually. For example, if all members of a user group use the same OS, then the core OS only needs to be backed up once for the entire environment who share this layer. Layering can be applied to local physical disk images, client-based virtual machines, or host-based desktops. Windows operating systems are not designed for layering, therefore each vendor must engineer their own proprietary solution.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Desktop_as_a_service\">Desktop as a service<\/span><\/h4>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_as_a_service\" title=\"Data as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7718ab9775d02ba5830d2df7f6cc983\">Data as a service<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Remote desktop virtualization can also be provided via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">cloud computing<\/a> similar to that provided using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7de27253c306bcbd5943ef8c39d055a1\">software as a service<\/a> model. This approach is usually referred to as cloud-hosted virtual desktops. Cloud-hosted virtual desktops are divided into two technologies:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Managed VDI, which is based on VDI technology provided as an outsourced managed service, and<\/li>\n<li><b>Desktop as a service<\/b> (DaaS), which provides a higher level of automation and real multi-tenancy, reducing the cost of the technology. The DaaS provider typically takes full responsibility for hosting and maintaining the computer, storage, and access infrastructure, as well as applications and application software licenses needed to provide the desktop service in return for a fixed monthly fee.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Cloud-hosted virtual desktops can be implemented using both VDI and Remote Desktop Services-based systems and can be provided through the public cloud, private cloud infrastructure, and hybrid cloud platforms. Private cloud implementations are commonly referred to as \"managed VDI\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_cloud\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Public cloud\" data-key=\"a5fb70bde01b1e3cc24d9783c31280eb\">Public cloud<\/a> offerings tend to be based on desktop-as-a-service technology.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Local_desktop_virtualization\">Local desktop virtualization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Local desktop virtualization implementations run the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Desktop_environment\" title=\"Desktop environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"870f73a14183901c0bc5bcf884a85b04\">desktop environment<\/a> on the client device using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hardware_virtualization\" title=\"Hardware virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c5321bd152463bc934575663d333790\">hardware virtualization<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emulator\" title=\"Emulator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16b879b7ccd316d5607eee1fefa2425f\">emulation<\/a>. For hardware virtualization, depending on the implementation both Type I and Type II <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hypervisor\" title=\"Hypervisor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e0a5270a5d34de21994c2356eb806a2\">hypervisors<\/a> may be used.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Local desktop virtualization is well suited for environments where continuous network connectivity cannot be assumed and where application resource requirements can be better met by using local system resources. However, local desktop virtualization implementations do not always allow applications developed for one system architecture to run on another. For example, it is possible to use local desktop virtualization to run Windows 7 on top of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OS_X\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OS X\" data-key=\"74c242fd7701dd5cb9a4174f55a3b7c9\">OS X<\/a> on an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apple%E2%80%93Intel_architecture\" title=\"Apple\u2013Intel architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63258a2fc797605df31fa6ce6ddc0d9d\">Intel-based Apple Mac<\/a>, using a hypervisor, as both use the same <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/X86\" title=\"X86\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3ae9d5f7994d29c0306af9e975af26a\">x86<\/a> architecture.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_machine\" title=\"Virtual machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16440b9ad77e099b05018bbcf21066c7\">Virtual machine<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRouseMadden\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Rouse, Margaret; Madden, Jack. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.techtarget.com\/searchvirtualdesktop\/definition\/desktop-virtualization\" target=\"_blank\">\"Desktop virtualization\"<\/a>. TechTarget<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">January 3,<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Desktop+virtualization&amp;rft.pub=TechTarget&amp;rft.aulast=Rouse&amp;rft.aufirst=Margaret&amp;rft.au=Madden%2C+Jack&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.techtarget.com%2Fsearchvirtualdesktop%2Fdefinition%2Fdesktop-virtualization&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesktop+virtualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKeith_Schultz2012\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Keith Schultz (16 March 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/article\/2619594\/review-vdi-without-the-server-connection.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Review: V.D.I. without the server connection\"<\/a>. InfoWorld<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 January<\/span> 2013<\/span>. <q>One subset of V.D.I., dubbed client-hosted or offline mode<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Review%3A+V.D.I.+without+the+server+connection&amp;rft.pub=InfoWorld&amp;rft.date=2012-03-16&amp;rft.au=Keith+Schultz&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoworld.com%2Farticle%2F2619594%2Freview-vdi-without-the-server-connection.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesktop+virtualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBaburajan2011\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Baburajan, Rajani (August 24, 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/technews.tmcnet.com\/channels\/cloud-storage\/articles\/211183-rising-cloud-storage-market-opportunity-strengthens-vendors.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"The rising cloud storage market opportunity strengthens vendors\"<\/a>. <i>technews.tmcnet.com<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=technews.tmcnet.com&amp;rft.atitle=The+rising+cloud+storage+market+opportunity+strengthens+vendors&amp;rft.date=2011-08-24&amp;rft.aulast=Baburajan&amp;rft.aufirst=Rajani&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechnews.tmcnet.com%2Fchannels%2Fcloud-storage%2Farticles%2F211183-rising-cloud-storage-market-opportunity-strengthens-vendors.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesktop+virtualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOestreich2010\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Oestreich, Ken (November 15, 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120113094920\/http:\/\/www.thectoforum.com\/content\/converged-infrastructure-0\" target=\"_blank\">\"Converged infrastructure\"<\/a>. <i>thectoforum.com<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thectoforum.com\/content\/converged-infrastructure-0\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on January 13, 2012.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=thectoforum.com&amp;rft.atitle=Converged+infrastructure&amp;rft.date=2010-11-15&amp;rft.aulast=Oestreich&amp;rft.aufirst=Ken&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thectoforum.com%2Fcontent%2Fconverged-infrastructure-0&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesktop+virtualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Verifiability\" title=\"Wikipedia:Verifiability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b70863ff3b9768f27f5ce6cddbbe05eb\"><span title=\"Quotation needed from source to verify. (November 2015)\">need quotation to verify<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/technet.microsoft.com\/en-us\/library\/cc753788.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Configuring the R.D. session host server to host RemoteApp programs\"<\/a>. 17 November 2009.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Configuring+the+R.D.+session+host+server+to+host+RemoteApp+programs&amp;rft.date=2009-11-17&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechnet.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Flibrary%2Fcc753788.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesktop+virtualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/technet.microsoft.com\/en-us\/library\/ee216749.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Configuring virtual desktops for RemoteApp and desktop connection\"<\/a>. 17 November 2009.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Configuring+virtual+desktops+for+RemoteApp+and+desktop+connection&amp;rft.date=2009-11-17&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechnet.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Flibrary%2Fee216749.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesktop+virtualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100227085125\/http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/news\/2009\/112409-vdi-desktop-virtualization-cheat-sheet.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Desktop virtualization cheat sheet\"<\/a>. networkworld.com. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/news\/2009\/112409-vdi-desktop-virtualization-cheat-sheet.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2010-02-27<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2010-03-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Desktop+virtualization+cheat+sheet&amp;rft.pub=networkworld.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Fnews%2F2009%2F112409-vdi-desktop-virtualization-cheat-sheet.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesktop+virtualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Paul Venezia (April 13, 2011) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/article\/2623813\/virtualization-shoot-out--citrix--microsoft--red-hat--and-vmware.html\" target=\"_blank\">Virtualization shoot-out: Citrix, Microsoft, Red Hat, and VMware. The leading server virtualization contenders tackle InfoWorld's ultimate virtualization challenge<\/a>, <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/InfoWorld\" title=\"InfoWorld\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b5cca5cc162d5dee3b6b2d51fedaf84\">InfoWorld<\/a><\/i><\/li>\n<li>Keith Schultz (December 14, 2011) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/article\/2618261\/vdi-shoot-out--citrix-xendesktop-vs--vmware-view.html\" target=\"_blank\">VDI shoot-out: Citrix XenDesktop vs. VMware View. Citrix XenDesktop 5.5 and VMware View 5 vie for the most flexible, scalable, and complete virtual desktop infrastructure<\/a>, <i>InfoWorld<\/i><\/li>\n<li>Keith Schultz (December 14, 2011) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/article\/2618873\/vdi-shoot-out--hdx-vs--pcoip.html\" target=\"_blank\">VDI shoot-out: HDX vs. PCoIP. The differences between the Citrix and VMware remote desktop protocols are more than skin deep<\/a>, <i>InfoWorld<\/i><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1369\nCached time: 20231215175415\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.194 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.265 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 852\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 17051\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1448\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 6\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 21260\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.117\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4991644\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 244.778 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>46.69% 114.276 1 Template:Reflist\n36.95% 90.453 7 Template:Cite_web\n23.11% 56.563 1 Template:Short_description\n15.64% 38.286 1 Template:Cn\n15.20% 37.209 2 Template:Fix\n12.17% 29.801 2 Template:Pagetype\n10.13% 24.800 3 Template:Category_handler\n 7.83% 19.159 1 Template:See_also\n 6.35% 15.542 4 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:7308303-0!canonical and timestamp 20231215175415 and revision id 1170784791. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Desktop_virtualization\" data-key=\"ab8f6e3bbdf1b4908e1ca4cec424ed3a\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171633\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.096 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.244 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 26668\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 232.230 1 wikipedia:Desktop_virtualization\n100.00% 232.230 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:12470-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171633 and revision id 42358. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Desktop_virtualization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Desktop_virtualization<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_images":[],"e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_timestamp":1704906993,"9f5f939040d714745138ee295af8be71_type":"article","9f5f939040d714745138ee295af8be71_title":"Data center","9f5f939040d714745138ee295af8be71_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_center","9f5f939040d714745138ee295af8be71_plaintext":"\n\nData centerFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search A team from Intel reviews the inner workings of Facebook's first built-from-scratch data center in 2013.\nA data center is a facility used to house computer systems and associated components such as telecommunications and storage systems. A data center generally includes redundant or backup power supplies, redundant data communications connections, environmental controls (e.g. air conditioning and fire suppression), and various security devices. Data centers vary in size&#91;1&#93;, with some large data centers capable of using as much electricity as a \"medium-size town.\"&#91;2&#93; \nThe main purpose of many data centers is for running applications that handle the core business and operational data of one or more organizations. Often those applications will be composed of multiple hosts, each running a single component. Common components of such applications include databases, file servers, application servers, and middleware. Such systems may be proprietary and developed internally by the organization or bought from enterprise software vendors. However, a data center may also solely be concerned with operations architecture or other services.\nData centers are also used for off-site backups. Companies may subscribe to backup services provided by a data center. This is often used in conjunction with backup tapes. Backups can be taken off servers locally on to tapes. However, tapes stored on site pose a security threat and are also susceptible to fire and flooding. Larger companies may also send their backups off site for added security. This can be done by backing up to a data center.&#91;3&#93; Encrypted backups can be sent over the Internet to another data center where they can be stored securely.\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Standards and design guidelines \n3 Design considerations \n4 Carbon footprint \n\n4.1 Efficiency ratings \n\n\n5 Notes \n6 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nData centers have their roots in the huge computer rooms of the early ages of the computing industry. Early computer systems were complex to operate and maintain, and required a special environment in which to operate. Many cables were necessary to connect all the components, and methods to accommodate and organize these were devised, such as standard racks to mount equipment, raised floors, and cable trays (installed overhead or under the elevated floor). Also, a single mainframe required a great deal of power and had to be cooled to avoid overheating. Security was important; computers were expensive, and were often used for military purposes.&#91;4&#93;\nDuring the boom of the microcomputer industry, especially during the 1980s, computers started to be deployed everywhere, in many cases with little or no care about operating requirements. However, as information technology (IT) operations started to grow in complexity, companies grew aware of the need to control IT resources.&#91;5&#93; With the advent of Linux and the subsequent proliferation of freely available Unix-compatible PC operating systems during the 1990s, as well as MS-DOS finally giving way to a multi-tasking capable Windows operating system, personal computers started to replace the older systems found in computer rooms.&#91;4&#93;&#91;6&#93; These were called \"servers,\" as time sharing operating systems like Unix rely heavily on the client-server model to facilitate sharing unique resources between multiple users. The availability of inexpensive networking equipment, coupled with new standards for network structured cabling, made it possible to use a hierarchical design that put the servers in a specific room inside the company. The use of the term \"data center,\" as applied to specially designed computer rooms, started to gain popular recognition.&#91;7&#93;\nThe dot-com boom of the late '90s and early '00s brought about significant investment into what would be called Internet data centers (IDCs). As these grew in size, new technologies and practices were designed to better handle the scale and operational requirements of these facilities. These practices eventually migrated toward private data centers and were adopted largely because of their practical results.&#91;8&#93;&#91;4&#93; As cloud computing became more prominent in the 2000s, business and government organizations scrutinized data centers to a higher degree in areas such as security, availability, environmental impact, and adherence to standards.&#91;8&#93;\n\nStandards and design guidelines \n Racks of telecommunications equipment in part of a data center\nIT operations are a crucial aspect of most organizations' business continuity, often relying on their information systems to run business operations. Organizations thus depend on reliable infrastructure for IT operations in order to minimize any chance of disruption caused by power failure and\/or security breach. That reliable infrastructure is normally built on a sound set of widely accepted standards and design guidelines. \nThe Telecommunications Industry Association's (TIA's) Telecommunications Infrastructure Standard for Data Centers (ANSI\/TIA-942) is one such example, specifying \"the minimum requirements for the telecommunications infrastructure\" of organizations large and small, from large \"multi-tenant Internet hosting data centers\" to smaller \"single-tenant enterprise data centers.\"&#91;9&#93; Up until early 2014, TIA also ranked data centers from Tier 1, essentially a server room, to Tier 4, which hosts mission-critical computer systems with fully redundant subsystems and compartmentalized security zones controlled by biometric access controls methods.&#91;9&#93;\nThe Uptime Institute, \"an unbiased, third-party data center research, education, and consulting organization,\"&#91;10&#93; also has a four-tier standard (described in their document Tier Standard: Operational Sustainability) that describes the availability of data from the hardware at a data center, with the higher tiers offering greater availability.&#91;11&#93; The institute, however, at times voiced discontent with TIA's use of tiers in its standard, and in March 2014 TIA announced it would remove the word \"tier\" from its ANSI\/TIA-942 standard.&#91;12&#93;\nOther standards and guidelines for data center planning, installation, and operation include:\n\nBICSI's (Building Industry Consulting Services International's) ANSI\/BICSI 002-2011: a data center standard which integrates information and standards from other entities&#91;13&#93;\nOVE's \u00d6VE\/\u00d6NORM EN 50600-1: a developing European standard for \"data centre facilities and infrastructures\"&#91;14&#93;&#91;15&#93;\nTelcordia's NEBS (Network Equipment - Building System) documents: telecommunication and environmental design guidelines for data center spaces&#91;16&#93;\neco's Datacenter Star Audit (DCSA): auditing documents that allow IT personnel to assess the functionality of planned or operational data centers&#91;17&#93;\nAmerican Institute of CPAs' (AICPA's) SOC (Service Organization Control) Reports: auditing reports which provide \"a standard benchmark by which two data center audits can be compared against the same set of criteria\"&#91;18&#93;&#91;19&#93;\nInternational Organization for Standardization's (ISO's) various standards: optimal operation of a data center is dictated by several ISO standards, including ISO 14001:2004 Environmental Management System Standard, ISO \/ IEC 27001:2005 Information Security Management System Standard, and ISO 50001:2011 Energy Management System Standard&#91;20&#93;&#91;21&#93;\nDesign considerations \nA data center can occupy one room of a building, one or more floors, or an entire building. Most of the equipment is often in the form of servers mounted in 19-inch rack cabinets, which are usually placed in single rows forming corridors or aisles between them. This allows people access to the front and rear of each cabinet. Servers differ greatly in size from rack units to large freestanding storage silos which occupy many square feet of floor space. Some equipment such as mainframe computers and storage devices are often as big as the racks themselves and are placed alongside them. Local building codes may govern minimum ceiling heights.\nWhat follows is a list of other considerations made during the design and implementation phase.\n\n Data center designers and operators must be cognizant of metal whisker growth on galvanized metal surfaces.\n A bank of batteries in a large data center, used to provide power until diesel generators can start\n FM200 Fire Suppression Tanks\n\n\n\nData center design considerations\n\n\nConsideration\n\nDescription\n\n\nDesign programming\n\nArchitecture of the building aside, three additional considerations to design programming data centers are facility topology design (space planning), engineering infrastructure design (mechanical systems such as cooling and electrical systems including power), and technology infrastructure design (cable plant). Each is influenced by performance assessments and modelling to identify gaps pertaining to the operator's performance desires over time.&#91;1&#93;\n\n\nDesign modeling and recommendation\n\nModeling criteria are used to develop future-state scenarios for space, power, cooling, and costs.&#91;22&#93; Based on previous design reviews and the modeling results, recommendations on power, cooling capacity, and resiliency level can be made. Additionally, availability expectations may also be reviewed.\n\n\nConceptual and detail design\n\nA conceptual design combines the results of design recommendation with \"what if\" scenarios to ensure all operational outcomes are met in order to future-proof the facility, including the addition of modular expansion components that can be constructed, moved, or added to quickly as needs change. This process yields a proof of concept, which is then incorporated into a detail design that focuses on creating the facility schematics, construction documents, and IT infrastructure design and documentation.&#91;1&#93;\n\n\nMechanical and electrical engineering infrastructure design\n\nMechanical engineering infrastructure design addresses mechanical systems involved in maintaining the interior environment of a data center, while electrical engineering infrastructure design focuses on designing electrical configurations that accommodate the data center's various services and reliability requirements.&#91;23&#93;\nBoth phases involve recognizing the need to save space, energy, and costs. Availability expectations are fully considered as part of these savings. For example, if the estimated cost of downtime within a specified time unit exceeds the amortized capital costs and operational expenses, a higher level of availability should be factored into the design. If, however, the cost of avoiding downtime greatly exceeds the cost of downtime itself, a lower level of availability will likely get factored into the design.&#91;24&#93;\n\n\n\nTechnology infrastructure design\n\nNumerous cabling systems for data center environments exist, including horizontal cabling; voice, modem, and facsimile telecommunications services; premises switching equipment; computer and telecommunications management connections; monitoring station connections; and data communications. Technology infrastructure design addresses all of these systems.&#91;1&#93;\n\n\nSite selection\n\nWhen choosing a location for a data center, aspects such as proximity to available power grids, telecommunications infrastructure, networking services, transportation lines, and emergency services must be considered. Another consideration is climatic conditions, which may dictate what cooling technologies should be deployed.&#91;25&#93;\n\n\nPower management\n\nThe power supply to a data center must be uninterrupted. To achieve this, designers will use a combination of uninterruptible power supplies, battery banks, and\/or fueled turbine generators. Static transfer switches are typically used to ensure instantaneous switchover from one supply to the other in the event of a power failure.\n&#91;26&#93;\n\n\n\nEnvironmental control\n\nAs heat is a byproduct of supplying power to electrical components, appropriate cooling mechanisms like air conditioning or economizer cooling \u2014 which uses outside air to cool components \u2014 must be used. In addition to cooling the air, humidity levels must be controlled to prevent both condensation from too much humidity and static electricity discharge from too little humidity.&#91;27&#93; Additional considerations are made for using raised flooring to cater for better and uniform air distribution and circulation as well as providing cabling space.&#91;28&#93; However, the concern of zinc whisker build-up on those raised floor tiles and other metal racks must also be addressed; they risk short circuiting electrical components after being dislodged during maintenance and installs.&#91;29&#93;\n\n\nFire protection\n\nLike most other buildings, fire protection and prevention systems are required. However, due to the investment in and criticality of the data center, extra measures are designed into the facility and its operation. High-sensitivity aspirating smoke detectors can be connected to several types of alarms, allowing for a soft warning alarm for technicians to investigate at one threshold and the activation of fire suppression systems at another threshold. Aside from manual fire extinguishers, gas-based or clean agent fire suppression systems provide fire suppression without the possibility of ruining more equipment than necessary using water-based systems, which are still used for the most critical of situations.&#91;30&#93; Passive fire wall materials are also installed to restrict fire to only a portion of the facility.\n\n\nPhysical security\n\nDepending on the sensitivity of information contained in the data center, physical access controls are used to prevent unauthorized entry into the facility. Small posts of bollards may be placed to prevent vehicles or carts above a certain size from passing. Access control vestibules or \"man traps\" with two sets of interlocking doors may be used to force verification of credentials before admittance into the center. Video cameras, security guards, and fingerprint recognition devices may also be applied as part of a security protocol.&#91;31&#93;\n\n\nCarbon footprint \n Google Data Center, The Dalles, Oregon\nEnergy use is a central issue for data centers. Power draw for data centers ranges from a few kW for a rack of servers in a closet to several tens of MW for large facilities. Some facilities have power densities more than 100 times that of a typical office building.&#91;32&#93; For power-dense facilities, electricity costs are a dominant operating expense; in 2007 electricity purchases accounted for over 10 percent of the total cost of ownership of a data center.&#91;33&#93; On a larger, national scale, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) found 1.5 percent of the country's power supply (61 billion kilowatt-hours) was used to power data centers in 2006. The following year in Western Europe, 56 terawatt-hours of energy fed data centers, with the European Union estimating that number to nearly double by 2020.&#91;34&#93;\nAs with any other power consumption, a data center's power consumption has an associated carbon footprint associated with it. That footprint is generally defined as \"the carbon emissions equivalent of the total amount of electricity a particular data center consumes.\"&#91;34&#93; Data centers that use numerous diesel generators for backup power stand to increase that carbon footprint even further.&#91;35&#93; However, in the U.S. at least, new non-mobile diesel generators will need to comply with new EPA Tier 4 Final requirements of reduced emissions and toxins by 2015&#91;36&#93;\nOne way designers and operators of data centers can track energy use is through an energy efficiency analysis, which measures factors such as a data center's power use effectiveness (PUE) against industry standards, identifies mechanical and electrical sources of inefficiency, and identifies air-management metrics.&#91;37&#93; The average data center in the US has a PUE of 2.0&#91;38&#93;, meaning that the facility uses one watt of overhead power for every watt delivered to IT equipment. Energy efficiency can also be analyzed through the use of a power and cooling analysis. This can help identify hot spots, over-cooled areas that can handle greater power use density, the breakpoint of equipment loading, the effectiveness of a raised-floor strategy, and optimal equipment positioning (such as AC units) to balance temperatures across the data center. \nThe building's location is also a factor that affects the energy consumption and environmental effects of a data center. In areas where climate favors cooling and lots of renewable electricity is available, the environmental footprint will be more moderate. Thus countries with such favorable conditions \u2014 like Canada&#91;39&#93;, Finland&#91;40&#93;, Sweden&#91;41&#93;, and Switzerland&#91;42&#93; \u2014 are trying to attract cloud computing data centers. Meanwhile, companies like Apple have tried to lessen their data centers' carbon footprints by siting new data centers in places like the more arid U.S. state of Nevada.&#91;43&#93;\n\nEfficiency ratings \nIn the U.S., the EPA began offering in 2010 an Energy Star rating for standalone or large data centers. To qualify for the ecolabel, a data center had to be within the top quartile of energy efficiency of all reported facilities.&#91;44&#93; The European Union also developed a similar initiative: The European Code of Conduct for Energy Efficiency in Data Centre.&#91;45&#93;\n\nNotes \nThis article reuses numerous content elements from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Bruno, Anthony; Jordan, Steve&#32;(2011).&#32;Official Cert Guide: CCDA 640-864&#32;(4th ed.).&#32;Cisco Press.&#32;p.&#160;130.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780132372145.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cuOoV5u3WCUC&amp;pg=PA130 .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Glanz, James&#32;(22 September 2012).&#32;\"Power, Pollution and the Internet\".&#32;The New York Times.&#32;http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2012\/09\/23\/technology\/data-centers-waste-vast-amounts-of-energy-belying-industry-image.html .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Geer, David&#32;(25 July 2012).&#32;\"4 Steps For Secure Tape Backups\".&#32;InformationWeek.&#32;UBM Tech.&#32;http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/4-steps-for-secure-tape-backups\/d\/d-id\/1105506? .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 4.2 Bartels, Angela&#32;(31 August 2011).&#32;\"[INFOGRAPHIC Data Center Evolution: 1960 to 2000\"].&#32;The Rackspace Blog! &amp; Newsroom.&#32;Rackspace, US Inc.&#32;http:\/\/www.rackspace.com\/blog\/datacenter-evolution-1960-to-2000\/ .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Murray, John P.&#32;(26 October 1981).&#32;\"Data Center Problems: You're Not Alone\".&#32;Computerworld.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1REkdf3I86oC&amp;pg=PA35 .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Barton, Jim&#32;(1 October 2003).&#32;\"From Server Room to Living Room\".&#32;Queue.&#32;Association for Computing Machinery.&#32;http:\/\/queue.acm.org\/detail.cfm?id=945076 .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Axelrod, C. Warren; Blanding, Steve (ed.)&#32;(1998).&#32;\"Enterprise Operations Management Handbook\".&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp. 75\u201384.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781420052169.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XrEwl7VWXXMC&amp;pg=PA75 .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 Katz, Randy H&#32;(1 February 2009).&#32;\"Tech Titans Building Boom\".&#32;IEEE Spectrum.&#32;IEEE.&#32;http:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/green-tech\/buildings\/tech-titans-building-boom .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 9.0 9.1 \"TIA-942: Telecommunications Infrastructure Standard for Data Centers\".&#32;Telecommunications Industry Association.&#32;1 March 2014.&#32;https:\/\/global.ihs.com\/doc_detail.cfm?&amp;rid=TIA&amp;input_doc_number=TIA-942&amp;item_s_key=00414811&amp;item_key_date=860905&amp;input_doc_number=TIA-942&amp;input_doc_title=#abstract .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"About Uptime Institute\".&#32;451 Group, Inc.&#32;http:\/\/uptimeinstitute.com\/about-us .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; 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\n \n\n\u2191 \"NEBS Documents and Technical Services\".&#32;Telcordia Technologies, Inc.&#32;http:\/\/telecom-info.telcordia.com\/site-cgi\/ido\/docs2.pl?ID=239065400&amp;page=nebs .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"About DCSA\".&#32;eco.&#32;http:\/\/www.dcaudit.com\/about-dcsa.html .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Klein, Mike&#32;(3 March 2011).&#32;\"SAS 70, SSAE 16, SOC and Data Center Standards\".&#32;Data Center Knowledge.&#32;iNET Interactive.&#32;http:\/\/www.datacenterknowledge.com\/archives\/2011\/03\/03\/sas-70-ssae-16-soc-and-data-center-standards\/ .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"SOC Reports Information for CPAs\".&#32;AICPA.&#32;http:\/\/www.aicpa.org\/interestareas\/frc\/assuranceadvisoryservices\/pages\/cpas.aspx .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO Certified Data Centers\".&#32;Equinix, Inc.&#32;http:\/\/www.equinix.com\/solutions\/by-services\/colocation\/standards-and-compliance\/iso-certified-data-centers\/ .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Inside our data centers\".&#32;Google Data Centers.&#32;Google.&#32;https:\/\/www.google.com\/about\/datacenters\/inside\/ .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Mullins, Robert&#32;(29 June 2011).&#32;\"Romonet Offers Predictive Modelling Tool For Data Center Planning\".&#32;Information Week Network Computing.&#32;UBM Tech.&#32;http:\/\/www.networkcomputing.com\/data-centers\/romonet-offers-predictive-modeling-tool-for-data-center-planning\/d\/d-id\/1232857? .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jew, Jonathan&#32;(May\/June 2010).&#32;\"BICSI Data Center Standard: A Resource for Today\u2019s Data Center Operators and Designers\".&#32;BICSI News Magazine.&#32;BISCI.&#32;pp. 26\u201330.&#32;http:\/\/www.nxtbook.com\/nxtbooks\/bicsi\/news_20100506\/#\/26 .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Clark, Jeffrey&#32;(12 October 2011).&#32;\"The Price of Data Center Availability\".&#32;The Data Center Journal.&#32;http:\/\/www.datacenterjournal.com\/design\/the-price-of-data-center-availability\/ .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Tucci, Linda&#32;(7 May 2008).&#32;\"Five tips on selecting a data center location\".&#32;SearchCIO.&#32;TechTarget.&#32;http:\/\/searchcio.techtarget.com\/news\/1312614\/Five-tips-on-selecting-a-data-center-location .&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Evaluating the Economic Impact of UPS Technology\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Liebert Corporation.&#32;2004.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 22 November 2010.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101122074817\/http:\/\/emersonnetworkpower.com\/en-US\/Brands\/Liebert\/Documents\/White%20Papers\/Evaluating%20the%20Economic%20Impact%20of%20UPS%20Technology.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 ASHRAE Technical Committee 9.9&#32;(2012).&#32;Thermal Guidelines for Data Processing Environments&#32;(3rd ed.).&#32;American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.&#32;pp.&#160;136.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781936504336.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AgWcMQEACAAJ .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 GR-2930 \"NEBS: Raised Floor Generic Requirements for Network and Data Centers\".&#32;Telcordia Technologies, Inc.&#32;July 2012.&#32;http:\/\/telecom-info.telcordia.com\/site-cgi\/ido\/docs.cgi?ID=SEARCH&amp;DOCUMENT=GR-2930&amp; GR-2930 .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Other Metal Whiskers\".&#32;Tin Whisker (and Other Metal Whisker) Homepage.&#32;NASA.&#32;24 January 2011.&#32;http:\/\/nepp.nasa.gov\/whisker\/other_whisker\/index.htm .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Tubbs, Jeffrey; DiSalvo, Garr; Neviackas, Andrew&#32;(December 2013).&#32;\"Data Center Fire Protection\".&#32;FacilitiesNet.&#32;Trade Press.&#32;http:\/\/www.facilitiesnet.com\/datacenters\/article\/A-Comprehensive-Approach-To-Data-Center-Fire-Safety--14593 .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Effective Data Center Physical Security Best Practices for SAS 70 Compliance\".&#32;NDB LLP.&#32;2008.&#32;http:\/\/www.sas70.us.com\/industries\/data-center-colocations.php .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Data Center Energy Consumption Trends\".&#32;U.S. Department of Energy.&#32;30 May 2009.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 22 February 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120222115559\/http:\/\/www1.eere.energy.gov\/femp\/program\/dc_energy_consumption.html .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Koomey, Jonathan G.&#160;; Belady, Christian; Patterson, Michael; Santos, Anthony; Lange, Klaus-Dieter&#32;(17 August 2009).&#32;\"Assessing Trends Over Time in Performance, Costs, and Energy Use for Servers\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Intel Corporation.&#32;http:\/\/www.intel.com\/assets\/pdf\/general\/servertrendsreleasecomplete-v25.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 34.0 34.1 Bouley, Dennis&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Estimating a Data Center's Electrical Carbon Footprint\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Schneider Electric.&#32;http:\/\/ensynch.com\/content\/dam\/insight\/en_US\/pdfs\/apc\/apc-estimating-data-centers-carbon-footprint.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Glanz, James&#32;(23 September 2012).&#32;\"Data Barns in a Farm Town, Gobbling Power and Flexing Muscle\".&#32;The New York Times.&#32;http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2012\/09\/24\/technology\/data-centers-in-rural-washington-state-gobble-power.html .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Answers to Your Tier 4 Questions\".&#32;Cummins Power Generation, Inc.&#32;http:\/\/tier4answers.com\/tier-4-answers .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Efficiency: How we do it\".&#32;Google Data Centers.&#32;Google.&#32;http:\/\/www.google.com\/about\/datacenters\/efficiency\/internal\/ .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Report to Congress on Server and Data Center Energy Efficiency\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;ENERGY STAR Program, EPA.&#32;7 August 2007.&#32;http:\/\/www.energystar.gov\/ia\/partners\/prod_development\/downloads\/EPA_Datacenter_Report_Congress_Final1.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Ladurantaye, Steve&#32;(22 June 2011).&#32;\"Canada Called Prime Real Estate for Massive Data Computers\".&#32;The Globe &amp; Mail.&#32;http:\/\/www.theglobeandmail.com\/report-on-business\/canada-called-prime-real-estate-for-massive-data-computers\/article2071677\/ .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Finland - First Choice for Siting Your Cloud Computing Data Center\".&#32;Invest in Finland.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 10 January 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130110111357\/http:\/\/www.fincloud.freehostingcloud.com\/ .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Stockholm sets sights on data center customers\".&#32;Stockholm Business Region.&#32;19 August 2010.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 19 August 2010.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100819190918\/http:\/\/www.stockholmbusinessregion.se\/templates\/page____41724.aspx?epslanguage=EN .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wheeland, Matthew&#32;(30 June 2010).&#32;\"Swiss Carbon-Neutral Servers Hit the Cloud\".&#32;GreenBiz Group.&#32;http:\/\/www.greenbiz.com\/news\/2010\/06\/30\/swiss-carbon-neutral-servers-hit-cloud .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Levy, Steven&#32;(21 April 2014).&#32;\"Apple Aims to Shrink Its Carbon Footprint With New Data Centers\".&#32;Wired.&#32;Cond\u00e9 Nast.&#32;http:\/\/www.wired.com\/2014\/04\/green-apple\/ .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Pouchet, Jack&#32;(15 June 2010).&#32;\"Introducing EPA ENERGY STAR for Data Centers\".&#32;Efficient Data Centers.&#32;Emerson Electric Co.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 29 February 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120229143352\/http:\/\/www.efficientdatacenters.com\/post\/2010\/06\/15\/Introducing-EPA-ENERGY-STARc2ae-for-Data-Centers.aspx .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Data Centres Energy Efficiency\".&#32;Joint Research Centre, Institute for Energy and Transport.&#32;22 August 2014.&#32;http:\/\/iet.jrc.ec.europa.eu\/energyefficiency\/ict-codes-conduct\/data-centres-energy-efficiency .&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_center\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_center<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 27 August 2014, at 22:37.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 20,342 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","9f5f939040d714745138ee295af8be71_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_center rootpage-Data_center skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data center<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Intel_Team_Inside_Facebook_Data_Center.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce3d79d3b7f9187a3c5a56d1f35de111\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/1f\/Intel_Team_Inside_Facebook_Data_Center.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Intel_Team_Inside_Facebook_Data_Center.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"ce3d79d3b7f9187a3c5a56d1f35de111\"><\/a><\/div>A team from Intel reviews the inner workings of Facebook's first built-from-scratch data center in 2013.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>A <b>data center<\/b> is a facility used to house computer systems and associated components such as telecommunications and storage systems. A data center generally includes redundant or backup power supplies, redundant data communications connections, environmental controls (e.g. air conditioning and fire suppression), and various security devices. Data centers vary in size<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CCDA640-864_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CCDA640-864-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, with some large data centers capable of using as much electricity as a \"medium-size town.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GlanzData_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GlanzData-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>The main purpose of many data centers is for running applications that handle the core business and operational data of one or more organizations. Often those applications will be composed of multiple hosts, each running a single component. Common components of such applications include databases, file servers, application servers, and middleware. Such systems may be proprietary and developed internally by the organization or bought from enterprise software vendors. However, a data center may also solely be concerned with operations architecture or other services.\n<\/p><p>Data centers are also used for off-site backups. Companies may subscribe to backup services provided by a data center. This is often used in conjunction with backup tapes. Backups can be taken off servers locally on to tapes. However, tapes stored on site pose a security threat and are also susceptible to fire and flooding. Larger companies may also send their backups off site for added security. This can be done by backing up to a data center.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GeerBackup_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GeerBackup-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Encrypted backups can be sent over the Internet to another data center where they can be stored securely.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Data centers have their roots in the huge computer rooms of the early ages of the computing industry. Early computer systems were complex to operate and maintain, and required a special environment in which to operate. Many cables were necessary to connect all the components, and methods to accommodate and organize these were devised, such as standard racks to mount equipment, raised floors, and cable trays (installed overhead or under the elevated floor). Also, a single mainframe required a great deal of power and had to be cooled to avoid overheating. Security was important; computers were expensive, and were often used for military purposes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BartelsDCE_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BartelsDCE-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>During the boom of the microcomputer industry, especially during the 1980s, computers started to be deployed everywhere, in many cases with little or no care about operating requirements. However, as information technology (IT) operations started to grow in complexity, companies grew aware of the need to control IT resources.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MurrayDC81_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MurrayDC81-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> With the advent of Linux and the subsequent proliferation of freely available Unix-compatible PC operating systems during the 1990s, as well as MS-DOS finally giving way to a multi-tasking capable Windows operating system, personal computers started to replace the older systems found in computer rooms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BartelsDCE_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BartelsDCE-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BartonACM_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BartonACM-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> These were called \"servers,\" as time sharing operating systems like Unix rely heavily on the client-server model to facilitate sharing unique resources between multiple users. The availability of inexpensive networking equipment, coupled with new standards for network structured cabling, made it possible to use a hierarchical design that put the servers in a specific room inside the company. The use of the term \"data center,\" as applied to specially designed computer rooms, started to gain popular recognition.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BlandingDCM_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BlandingDCM-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The dot-com boom of the late '90s and early '00s brought about significant investment into what would be called Internet data centers (IDCs). As these grew in size, new technologies and practices were designed to better handle the scale and operational requirements of these facilities. These practices eventually migrated toward private data centers and were adopted largely because of their practical results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KatzTech_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KatzTech-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BartelsDCE_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BartelsDCE-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f\">cloud computing<\/a> became more prominent in the 2000s, business and government organizations scrutinized data centers to a higher degree in areas such as security, availability, environmental impact, and adherence to standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KatzTech_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KatzTech-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards_and_design_guidelines\">Standards and design guidelines<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:242px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Datacenter-telecom.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"53029c5458691aa5bc18c447d6f6758c\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a0\/Datacenter-telecom.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"240\" height=\"160\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Datacenter-telecom.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"53029c5458691aa5bc18c447d6f6758c\"><\/a><\/div>Racks of telecommunications equipment in part of a data center<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>IT operations are a crucial aspect of most organizations' business continuity, often relying on their information systems to run business operations. Organizations thus depend on reliable infrastructure for IT operations in order to minimize any chance of disruption caused by power failure and\/or security breach. That reliable infrastructure is normally built on a sound set of widely accepted standards and design guidelines. \n<\/p><p>The Telecommunications Industry Association's (TIA's) <i>Telecommunications Infrastructure Standard for Data Centers<\/i> (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ANSI\" data-key=\"682431568a190846c1164f8943aedded\">ANSI<\/a>\/TIA-942) is one such example, specifying \"the minimum requirements for the telecommunications infrastructure\" of organizations large and small, from large \"multi-tenant Internet hosting data centers\" to smaller \"single-tenant enterprise data centers.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TIA-942_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TIA-942-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Up until early 2014, TIA also ranked data centers from Tier 1, essentially a server room, to Tier 4, which hosts mission-critical computer systems with fully redundant subsystems and compartmentalized security zones controlled by biometric access controls methods.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TIA-942_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TIA-942-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The Uptime Institute, \"an unbiased, third-party data center research, education, and consulting organization,\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UIAbout_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UIAbout-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> also has a four-tier standard (described in their document <i>Tier Standard: Operational Sustainability<\/i>) that describes the availability of data from the hardware at a data center, with the higher tiers offering greater availability.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UIDocs_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UIDocs-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The institute, however, at times voiced discontent with TIA's use of tiers in its standard, and in March 2014 TIA announced it would remove the word \"tier\" from its ANSI\/TIA-942 standard.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TIAUITiers_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TIAUITiers-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other standards and guidelines for data center planning, installation, and operation include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>BICSI's (Building Industry Consulting Services International's) ANSI\/BICSI 002-2011: a data center standard which integrates information and standards from other entities<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BISCI002_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BISCI002-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>OVE's \u00d6VE\/\u00d6NORM EN 50600-1: a developing European standard for \"data centre facilities and infrastructures\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CIS50600_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CIS50600-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OVE50600_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OVE50600-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Telcordia's NEBS (Network Equipment - Building System) documents: telecommunication and environmental design guidelines for data center spaces<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NEBS_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NEBS-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>eco's Datacenter Star Audit (DCSA): auditing documents that allow IT personnel to assess the functionality of planned or operational data centers<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AboutDCSA_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AboutDCSA-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>American Institute of CPAs' (AICPA's) SOC (Service Organization Control) Reports: auditing reports which provide \"a standard benchmark by which two data center audits can be compared against the same set of criteria\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DCKStandards_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DCKStandards-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AICPASOC_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AICPASOC-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a>'s (ISO's) various standards: optimal operation of a data center is dictated by several ISO standards, including ISO 14001:2004 Environmental Management System Standard, ISO \/ IEC 27001:2005 Information Security Management System Standard, and ISO 50001:2011 Energy Management System Standard<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EquinixStands_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EquinixStands-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GoogleDC_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GoogleDC-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Design_considerations\">Design considerations<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A data center can occupy one room of a building, one or more floors, or an entire building. Most of the equipment is often in the form of servers mounted in 19-inch rack cabinets, which are usually placed in single rows forming corridors or aisles between them. This allows people access to the front and rear of each cabinet. Servers differ greatly in size from rack units to large freestanding storage silos which occupy many square feet of floor space. Some equipment such as mainframe computers and storage devices are often as big as the racks themselves and are placed alongside them. Local building codes may govern minimum ceiling heights.\n<\/p><p>What follows is a list of other considerations made during the design and implementation phase.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Zinc_whiskers.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6a906366841d114555eb0d2682fc799\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/49\/Zinc_whiskers.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"188\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Zinc_whiskers.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"f6a906366841d114555eb0d2682fc799\"><\/a><\/div>Data center designers and operators must be cognizant of metal whisker growth on galvanized metal surfaces.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Datacenter_Backup_Batteries.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"d990714cc15315ed68ddf947fbd9ac3e\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/cc\/Datacenter_Backup_Batteries.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"219\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Datacenter_Backup_Batteries.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"d990714cc15315ed68ddf947fbd9ac3e\"><\/a><\/div>A bank of batteries in a large data center, used to provide power until diesel generators can start<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:FM200_Three.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f3686e05df8744610cf8e933c7fe56d\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/3e\/FM200_Three.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:FM200_Three.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"9f3686e05df8744610cf8e933c7fe56d\"><\/a><\/div>FM200 Fire Suppression Tanks<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" style=\"padding:5px;\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\">Data center design considerations\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; padding:5px;\">Consideration\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; padding:5px;\">Description\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><b>Design programming<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Architecture of the building aside, three additional considerations to design programming data centers are facility topology design (space planning), engineering infrastructure design (mechanical systems such as cooling and electrical systems including power), and technology infrastructure design (cable plant). Each is influenced by performance assessments and modelling to identify gaps pertaining to the operator's performance desires over time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CCDA640-864_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CCDA640-864-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><b>Design modeling and recommendation<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Modeling criteria are used to develop future-state scenarios for space, power, cooling, and costs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MullinsRomo_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MullinsRomo-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Based on previous design reviews and the modeling results, recommendations on power, cooling capacity, and resiliency level can be made. Additionally, availability expectations may also be reviewed.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><b>Conceptual and detail design<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">A conceptual design combines the results of design recommendation with \"what if\" scenarios to ensure all operational outcomes are met in order to future-proof the facility, including the addition of modular expansion components that can be constructed, moved, or added to quickly as needs change. This process yields a proof of concept, which is then incorporated into a detail design that focuses on creating the facility schematics, construction documents, and IT infrastructure design and documentation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CCDA640-864_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CCDA640-864-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><b>Mechanical and electrical engineering infrastructure design<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Mechanical engineering infrastructure design addresses mechanical systems involved in maintaining the interior environment of a data center, while electrical engineering infrastructure design focuses on designing electrical configurations that accommodate the data center's various services and reliability requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JewBISCI_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JewBISCI-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>Both phases involve recognizing the need to save space, energy, and costs. Availability expectations are fully considered as part of these savings. For example, if the estimated cost of downtime within a specified time unit exceeds the amortized capital costs and operational expenses, a higher level of availability should be factored into the design. If, however, the cost of avoiding downtime greatly exceeds the cost of downtime itself, a lower level of availability will likely get factored into the design.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ClarkPrice_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ClarkPrice-24\">&#91;24&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><b>Technology infrastructure design<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Numerous cabling systems for data center environments exist, including horizontal cabling; voice, modem, and facsimile telecommunications services; premises switching equipment; computer and telecommunications management connections; monitoring station connections; and data communications. Technology infrastructure design addresses all of these systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CCDA640-864_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CCDA640-864-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><b>Site selection<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">When choosing a location for a data center, aspects such as proximity to available power grids, telecommunications infrastructure, networking services, transportation lines, and emergency services must be considered. Another consideration is climatic conditions, which may dictate what cooling technologies should be deployed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TucciFive_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TucciFive-25\">&#91;25&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><b>Power management<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">The power supply to a data center must be uninterrupted. To achieve this, designers will use a combination of uninterruptible power supplies, battery banks, and\/or fueled turbine generators. Static transfer switches are typically used to ensure instantaneous switchover from one supply to the other in the event of a power failure.\n<p><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EmersonUPS_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EmersonUPS-26\">&#91;26&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><b>Environmental control<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">As heat is a byproduct of supplying power to electrical components, appropriate cooling mechanisms like air conditioning or economizer cooling \u2014 which uses outside air to cool components \u2014 must be used. In addition to cooling the air, humidity levels must be controlled to prevent both condensation from too much humidity and static electricity discharge from too little humidity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASHRAETherm_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASHRAETherm-27\">&#91;27&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Additional considerations are made for using raised flooring to cater for better and uniform air distribution and circulation as well as providing cabling space.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NEBSFloor_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NEBSFloor-28\">&#91;28&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, the concern of zinc whisker build-up on those raised floor tiles and other metal racks must also be addressed; they risk short circuiting electrical components after being dislodged during maintenance and installs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NASAWhisk_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NASAWhisk-29\">&#91;29&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><b>Fire protection<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Like most other buildings, fire protection and prevention systems are required. However, due to the investment in and criticality of the data center, extra measures are designed into the facility and its operation. High-sensitivity aspirating smoke detectors can be connected to several types of alarms, allowing for a soft warning alarm for technicians to investigate at one threshold and the activation of fire suppression systems at another threshold. Aside from manual fire extinguishers, gas-based or clean agent fire suppression systems provide fire suppression without the possibility of ruining more equipment than necessary using water-based systems, which are still used for the most critical of situations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FacilitiesDC_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FacilitiesDC-30\">&#91;30&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Passive fire wall materials are also installed to restrict fire to only a portion of the facility.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><b>Physical security<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Depending on the sensitivity of information contained in the data center, physical access controls are used to prevent unauthorized entry into the facility. Small posts of bollards may be placed to prevent vehicles or carts above a certain size from passing. Access control vestibules or \"man traps\" with two sets of interlocking doors may be used to force verification of credentials before admittance into the center. Video cameras, security guards, and fingerprint recognition devices may also be applied as part of a security protocol.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SAS70Security_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SAS70Security-31\">&#91;31&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Carbon_footprint\">Carbon footprint<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:322px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Google_Data_Center,_The_Dalles.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"be7f014f9bfd3b727949f4860bf2e1f1\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/29\/Google_Data_Center%2C_The_Dalles.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"320\" height=\"213\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Google_Data_Center,_The_Dalles.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"be7f014f9bfd3b727949f4860bf2e1f1\"><\/a><\/div>Google Data Center, The Dalles, Oregon<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Energy use is a central issue for data centers. Power draw for data centers ranges from a few kW for a rack of servers in a closet to several tens of MW for large facilities. Some facilities have power densities more than 100 times that of a typical office building.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DCDeptEnergy_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DCDeptEnergy-32\">&#91;32&#93;<\/a><\/sup> For power-dense facilities, electricity costs are a dominant operating expense; in 2007 electricity purchases accounted for over 10 percent of the total cost of ownership of a data center.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KoomeyAssessing_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KoomeyAssessing-33\">&#91;33&#93;<\/a><\/sup> On a larger, national scale, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) found 1.5 percent of the country's power supply (61 billion kilowatt-hours) was used to power data centers in 2006. The following year in Western Europe, 56 terawatt-hours of energy fed data centers, with the European Union estimating that number to nearly double by 2020.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APCCarbonFoot_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APCCarbonFoot-34\">&#91;34&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As with any other power consumption, a data center's power consumption has an associated carbon footprint associated with it. That footprint is generally defined as \"the carbon emissions equivalent of the total amount of electricity a particular data center consumes.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APCCarbonFoot_34-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APCCarbonFoot-34\">&#91;34&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Data centers that use numerous diesel generators for backup power stand to increase that carbon footprint even further.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GlanzGobble_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GlanzGobble-35\">&#91;35&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, in the U.S. at least, new non-mobile diesel generators will need to comply with new EPA Tier 4 Final requirements of reduced emissions and toxins by 2015<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tier4_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tier4-36\">&#91;36&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>One way designers and operators of data centers can track energy use is through an energy efficiency analysis, which measures factors such as a data center's power use effectiveness (PUE) against industry standards, identifies mechanical and electrical sources of inefficiency, and identifies air-management metrics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PUEGoogle_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PUEGoogle-37\">&#91;37&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The average data center in the US has a PUE of 2.0<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ESRepo_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ESRepo-38\">&#91;38&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, meaning that the facility uses one watt of overhead power for every watt delivered to IT equipment. Energy efficiency can also be analyzed through the use of a power and cooling analysis. This can help identify hot spots, over-cooled areas that can handle greater power use density, the breakpoint of equipment loading, the effectiveness of a raised-floor strategy, and optimal equipment positioning (such as AC units) to balance temperatures across the data center. \n<\/p><p>The building's location is also a factor that affects the energy consumption and environmental effects of a data center. In areas where climate favors cooling and lots of renewable electricity is available, the environmental footprint will be more moderate. Thus countries with such favorable conditions \u2014 like Canada<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LadurantayeCanada_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LadurantayeCanada-39\">&#91;39&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, Finland<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FinCloud_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FinCloud-40\">&#91;40&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, Sweden<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StockDC_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StockDC-41\">&#91;41&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, and Switzerland<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WheelandDC_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WheelandDC-42\">&#91;42&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \u2014 are trying to attract cloud computing data centers. Meanwhile, companies like Apple have tried to lessen their data centers' carbon footprints by siting new data centers in places like the more arid U.S. state of Nevada.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AppleFoot_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AppleFoot-43\">&#91;43&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Efficiency_ratings\">Efficiency ratings<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the U.S., the EPA began offering in 2010 an Energy Star rating for standalone or large data centers. To qualify for the ecolabel, a data center had to be within the top quartile of energy efficiency of all reported facilities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PouchetStar_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PouchetStar-44\">&#91;44&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The European Union also developed a similar initiative: The European Code of Conduct for Energy Efficiency in Data Centre.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JRCDC_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JRCDC-45\">&#91;45&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article reuses numerous content elements from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_center\" data-key=\"88db5859ef5dcbbc694a806b9a3d3d48\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 40em; -webkit-column-width: 40em; column-width: 40em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-CCDA640-864-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CCDA640-864_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CCDA640-864_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CCDA640-864_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CCDA640-864_1-3\">1.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Bruno, Anthony; Jordan, Steve&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cuOoV5u3WCUC&pg=PA130\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Official Cert Guide: CCDA 640-864<\/i><\/a>&#32;(4th ed.).&#32;Cisco Press.&#32;p.&#160;130.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780132372145<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cuOoV5u3WCUC&pg=PA130\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cuOoV5u3WCUC&amp;pg=PA130<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Official+Cert+Guide%3A+CCDA+640-864&amp;rft.aulast=Bruno%2C+Anthony%3B+Jordan%2C+Steve&amp;rft.au=Bruno%2C+Anthony%3B+Jordan%2C+Steve&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B130&amp;rft.edition=4th&amp;rft.pub=Cisco+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9780132372145&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcuOoV5u3WCUC%26pg%3DPA130&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GlanzData-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GlanzData_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Glanz, James&#32;(22 September 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2012\/09\/23\/technology\/data-centers-waste-vast-amounts-of-energy-belying-industry-image.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Power, Pollution and the Internet\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The New York Times<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2012\/09\/23\/technology\/data-centers-waste-vast-amounts-of-energy-belying-industry-image.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2012\/09\/23\/technology\/data-centers-waste-vast-amounts-of-energy-belying-industry-image.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Power%2C+Pollution+and+the+Internet&amp;rft.atitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.aulast=Glanz%2C+James&amp;rft.au=Glanz%2C+James&amp;rft.date=22+September+2012&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F09%2F23%2Ftechnology%2Fdata-centers-waste-vast-amounts-of-energy-belying-industry-image.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GeerBackup-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GeerBackup_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Geer, David&#32;(25 July 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/4-steps-for-secure-tape-backups\/d\/d-id\/1105506\" target=\"_blank\">\"4 Steps For Secure Tape Backups\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>InformationWeek<\/i>.&#32;UBM Tech<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/4-steps-for-secure-tape-backups\/d\/d-id\/1105506\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/4-steps-for-secure-tape-backups\/d\/d-id\/1105506<\/a>?<\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=4+Steps+For+Secure+Tape+Backups&amp;rft.atitle=InformationWeek&amp;rft.aulast=Geer%2C+David&amp;rft.au=Geer%2C+David&amp;rft.date=25+July+2012&amp;rft.pub=UBM+Tech&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2F4-steps-for-secure-tape-backups%2Fd%2Fd-id%2F1105506%3F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BartelsDCE-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BartelsDCE_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BartelsDCE_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BartelsDCE_4-2\">4.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Bartels, Angela&#32;(31 August 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rackspace.com\/blog\/datacenter-evolution-1960-to-2000\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"[INFOGRAPHIC<\/a> Data Center Evolution: 1960 to 2000\"].&#32;<i>The Rackspace Blog! &amp; Newsroom<\/i>.&#32;Rackspace, US Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rackspace.com\/blog\/datacenter-evolution-1960-to-2000\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.rackspace.com\/blog\/datacenter-evolution-1960-to-2000\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=%5BINFOGRAPHIC%5D+Data+Center+Evolution%3A+1960+to+2000&amp;rft.atitle=The+Rackspace+Blog%21+%26+Newsroom&amp;rft.aulast=Bartels%2C+Angela&amp;rft.au=Bartels%2C+Angela&amp;rft.date=31+August+2011&amp;rft.pub=Rackspace%2C+US+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rackspace.com%2Fblog%2Fdatacenter-evolution-1960-to-2000%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MurrayDC81-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MurrayDC81_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Murray, John P.&#32;(26 October 1981).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1REkdf3I86oC&pg=PA35\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Center Problems: You're Not Alone\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Computerworld<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1REkdf3I86oC&pg=PA35\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1REkdf3I86oC&amp;pg=PA35<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Center+Problems%3A+You%27re+Not+Alone&amp;rft.atitle=Computerworld&amp;rft.aulast=Murray%2C+John+P.&amp;rft.au=Murray%2C+John+P.&amp;rft.date=26+October+1981&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1REkdf3I86oC%26pg%3DPA35&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BartonACM-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BartonACM_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Barton, Jim&#32;(1 October 2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/queue.acm.org\/detail.cfm?id=945076\" target=\"_blank\">\"From Server Room to Living Room\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Queue<\/i>.&#32;Association for Computing Machinery<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/queue.acm.org\/detail.cfm?id=945076\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/queue.acm.org\/detail.cfm?id=945076<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=From+Server+Room+to+Living+Room&amp;rft.atitle=Queue&amp;rft.aulast=Barton%2C+Jim&amp;rft.au=Barton%2C+Jim&amp;rft.date=1+October+2003&amp;rft.pub=Association+for+Computing+Machinery&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fqueue.acm.org%2Fdetail.cfm%3Fid%3D945076&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BlandingDCM-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BlandingDCM_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Axelrod, C. Warren; Blanding, Steve (ed.)&#32;(1998).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XrEwl7VWXXMC&pg=PA75\" target=\"_blank\">\"Enterprise Operations Management Handbook\"<\/a>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp. 75\u201384.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781420052169<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XrEwl7VWXXMC&pg=PA75\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XrEwl7VWXXMC&amp;pg=PA75<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Enterprise+Operations+Management+Handbook&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Axelrod%2C+C.+Warren%3B+Blanding%2C+Steve+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.au=Axelrod%2C+C.+Warren%3B+Blanding%2C+Steve+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.pages=pp.+75%E2%80%9384&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781420052169&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXrEwl7VWXXMC%26pg%3DPA75&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KatzTech-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KatzTech_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KatzTech_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Katz, Randy H&#32;(1 February 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/green-tech\/buildings\/tech-titans-building-boom\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tech Titans Building Boom\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>IEEE Spectrum<\/i>.&#32;IEEE<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/green-tech\/buildings\/tech-titans-building-boom\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/green-tech\/buildings\/tech-titans-building-boom<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Tech+Titans+Building+Boom&amp;rft.atitle=IEEE+Spectrum&amp;rft.aulast=Katz%2C+Randy+H&amp;rft.au=Katz%2C+Randy+H&amp;rft.date=1+February+2009&amp;rft.pub=IEEE&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Fgreen-tech%2Fbuildings%2Ftech-titans-building-boom&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TIA-942-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-TIA-942_9-0\">9.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-TIA-942_9-1\">9.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#abstract\">\"TIA-942: Telecommunications Infrastructure Standard for Data Centers\"<\/a>.&#32;Telecommunications Industry Association.&#32;1 March 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#abstract\">https:\/\/global.ihs.com\/doc_detail.cfm?&amp;rid=TIA&amp;input_doc_number=TIA-942&amp;item_s_key=00414811&amp;item_key_date=860905&amp;input_doc_number=TIA-942&amp;input_doc_title=#abstract<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=TIA-942%3A+Telecommunications+Infrastructure+Standard+for+Data+Centers&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=1+March+2014&amp;rft.pub=Telecommunications+Industry+Association&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.ihs.com%2Fdoc_detail.cfm%3F%26rid%3DTIA%26input_doc_number%3DTIA-942%26item_s_key%3D00414811%26item_key_date%3D860905%26input_doc_number%3DTIA-942%26input_doc_title%3D%23abstract&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-UIAbout-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-UIAbout_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/uptimeinstitute.com\/about-us\" target=\"_blank\">\"About Uptime Institute\"<\/a>.&#32;451 Group, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/uptimeinstitute.com\/about-us\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/uptimeinstitute.com\/about-us<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+Uptime+Institute&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=451+Group%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuptimeinstitute.com%2Fabout-us&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-UIDocs-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-UIDocs_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/uptimeinstitute.com\/publications\" target=\"_blank\">\"Uptime Institute Publications\"<\/a>.&#32;451 Group, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/uptimeinstitute.com\/publications\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/uptimeinstitute.com\/publications<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Uptime+Institute+Publications&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=451+Group%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuptimeinstitute.com%2Fpublications&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TIAUITiers-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TIAUITiers_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cablinginstall.com\/articles\/2014\/03\/tia-942-tiers.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"TIA to remove the word \u2018Tier\u2019 from its 942 Data Center standards\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Cabling Installation &amp; Maintenance<\/i>.&#32;PennWell Corporation.&#32;18 March 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cablinginstall.com\/articles\/2014\/03\/tia-942-tiers.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.cablinginstall.com\/articles\/2014\/03\/tia-942-tiers.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=TIA+to+remove+the+word+%E2%80%98Tier%E2%80%99+from+its+942+Data+Center+standards&amp;rft.atitle=Cabling+Installation+%26+Maintenance&amp;rft.date=18+March+2014&amp;rft.pub=PennWell+Corporation&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cablinginstall.com%2Farticles%2F2014%2F03%2Ftia-942-tiers.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BISCI002-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BISCI002_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bicsi.org\/book_details.aspx?Book=BICSI-002-CM-11-v5&d=0\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANSI\/BICSI 002-2011, <i>Data Center Design and Implementation Best Practices<\/i>\"<\/a>.&#32;BISCI<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bicsi.org\/book_details.aspx?Book=BICSI-002-CM-11-v5&d=0\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.bicsi.org\/book_details.aspx?Book=BICSI-002-CM-11-v5&amp;d=0<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ANSI%2FBICSI+002-2011%2C+%27%27Data+Center+Design+and+Implementation+Best+Practices%27%27&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=BISCI&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bicsi.org%2Fbook_details.aspx%3FBook%3DBICSI-002-CM-11-v5%26d%3D0&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CIS50600-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CIS50600_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cis-cert.com\/Pages\/com\/System-Zertifizierung\/Data-Centers\/Certification\/European-Standard-EN-50600.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"The European Standard EN 50600\"<\/a>.&#32;CIS International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cis-cert.com\/Pages\/com\/System-Zertifizierung\/Data-Centers\/Certification\/European-Standard-EN-50600.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.cis-cert.com\/Pages\/com\/System-Zertifizierung\/Data-Centers\/Certification\/European-Standard-EN-50600.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+European+Standard+EN+50600&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=CIS+International&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cis-cert.com%2FPages%2Fcom%2FSystem-Zertifizierung%2FData-Centers%2FCertification%2FEuropean-Standard-EN-50600.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OVE50600-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OVE50600_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ove.at\/webshop\/artikel\/9f5a9db895-ove-onorm-en-50600-1-2013-06-01.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"\u00d6VE\/\u00d6NORM EN 50600-1:2013-06-01\"<\/a>.&#32;\u00d6sterreichischer Verband f\u00fcr Elektrotechnik<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ove.at\/webshop\/artikel\/9f5a9db895-ove-onorm-en-50600-1-2013-06-01.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ove.at\/webshop\/artikel\/9f5a9db895-ove-onorm-en-50600-1-2013-06-01.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=%C3%96VE%2F%C3%96NORM+EN+50600-1%3A2013-06-01&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=%C3%96sterreichischer+Verband+f%C3%BCr+Elektrotechnik&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ove.at%2Fwebshop%2Fartikel%2F9f5a9db895-ove-onorm-en-50600-1-2013-06-01.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NEBS-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NEBS_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/telecom-info.telcordia.com\/site-cgi\/ido\/docs2.pl?ID=239065400&page=nebs\" target=\"_blank\">\"NEBS Documents and Technical Services\"<\/a>.&#32;Telcordia Technologies, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/telecom-info.telcordia.com\/site-cgi\/ido\/docs2.pl?ID=239065400&page=nebs\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/telecom-info.telcordia.com\/site-cgi\/ido\/docs2.pl?ID=239065400&amp;page=nebs<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=NEBS+Documents+and+Technical+Services&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Telcordia+Technologies%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftelecom-info.telcordia.com%2Fsite-cgi%2Fido%2Fdocs2.pl%3FID%3D239065400%26page%3Dnebs&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AboutDCSA-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AboutDCSA_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dcaudit.com\/about-dcsa.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"About DCSA\"<\/a>.&#32;eco<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dcaudit.com\/about-dcsa.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.dcaudit.com\/about-dcsa.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+DCSA&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=eco&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dcaudit.com%2Fabout-dcsa.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DCKStandards-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DCKStandards_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Klein, Mike&#32;(3 March 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.datacenterknowledge.com\/archives\/2011\/03\/03\/sas-70-ssae-16-soc-and-data-center-standards\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"SAS 70, SSAE 16, SOC and Data Center Standards\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Data Center Knowledge<\/i>.&#32;iNET Interactive<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.datacenterknowledge.com\/archives\/2011\/03\/03\/sas-70-ssae-16-soc-and-data-center-standards\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.datacenterknowledge.com\/archives\/2011\/03\/03\/sas-70-ssae-16-soc-and-data-center-standards\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=SAS+70%2C+SSAE+16%2C+SOC+and+Data+Center+Standards&amp;rft.atitle=Data+Center+Knowledge&amp;rft.aulast=Klein%2C+Mike&amp;rft.au=Klein%2C+Mike&amp;rft.date=3+March+2011&amp;rft.pub=iNET+Interactive&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.datacenterknowledge.com%2Farchives%2F2011%2F03%2F03%2Fsas-70-ssae-16-soc-and-data-center-standards%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AICPASOC-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AICPASOC_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aicpa.org\/interestareas\/frc\/assuranceadvisoryservices\/pages\/cpas.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"SOC Reports Information for CPAs\"<\/a>.&#32;AICPA<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aicpa.org\/interestareas\/frc\/assuranceadvisoryservices\/pages\/cpas.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.aicpa.org\/interestareas\/frc\/assuranceadvisoryservices\/pages\/cpas.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=SOC+Reports+Information+for+CPAs&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=AICPA&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aicpa.org%2Finterestareas%2Ffrc%2Fassuranceadvisoryservices%2Fpages%2Fcpas.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EquinixStands-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EquinixStands_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.equinix.com\/solutions\/by-services\/colocation\/standards-and-compliance\/iso-certified-data-centers\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO Certified Data Centers\"<\/a>.&#32;Equinix, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.equinix.com\/solutions\/by-services\/colocation\/standards-and-compliance\/iso-certified-data-centers\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.equinix.com\/solutions\/by-services\/colocation\/standards-and-compliance\/iso-certified-data-centers\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+Certified+Data+Centers&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Equinix%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.equinix.com%2Fsolutions%2Fby-services%2Fcolocation%2Fstandards-and-compliance%2Fiso-certified-data-centers%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GoogleDC-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GoogleDC_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/about\/datacenters\/inside\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Inside our data centers\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Google Data Centers<\/i>.&#32;Google<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/about\/datacenters\/inside\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.google.com\/about\/datacenters\/inside\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Inside+our+data+centers&amp;rft.atitle=Google+Data+Centers&amp;rft.pub=Google&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fabout%2Fdatacenters%2Finside%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MullinsRomo-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MullinsRomo_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Mullins, Robert&#32;(29 June 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.networkcomputing.com\/data-centers\/romonet-offers-predictive-modeling-tool-for-data-center-planning\/d\/d-id\/1232857\" target=\"_blank\">\"Romonet Offers Predictive Modelling Tool For Data Center Planning\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Information Week Network Computing<\/i>.&#32;UBM Tech<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.networkcomputing.com\/data-centers\/romonet-offers-predictive-modeling-tool-for-data-center-planning\/d\/d-id\/1232857\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.networkcomputing.com\/data-centers\/romonet-offers-predictive-modeling-tool-for-data-center-planning\/d\/d-id\/1232857<\/a>?<\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Romonet+Offers+Predictive+Modelling+Tool+For+Data+Center+Planning&amp;rft.atitle=Information+Week+Network+Computing&amp;rft.aulast=Mullins%2C+Robert&amp;rft.au=Mullins%2C+Robert&amp;rft.date=29+June+2011&amp;rft.pub=UBM+Tech&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkcomputing.com%2Fdata-centers%2Fromonet-offers-predictive-modeling-tool-for-data-center-planning%2Fd%2Fd-id%2F1232857%3F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JewBISCI-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-JewBISCI_23-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jew, Jonathan&#32;(May\/June 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#\/26\">\"BICSI Data Center Standard: A Resource for Today\u2019s Data Center Operators and Designers\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>BICSI News Magazine<\/i>.&#32;BISCI.&#32;pp. 26\u201330<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#\/26\">http:\/\/www.nxtbook.com\/nxtbooks\/bicsi\/news_20100506\/#\/26<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=BICSI+Data+Center+Standard%3A+A+Resource+for+Today%E2%80%99s+Data+Center+Operators+and+Designers&amp;rft.atitle=BICSI+News+Magazine&amp;rft.aulast=Jew%2C+Jonathan&amp;rft.au=Jew%2C+Jonathan&amp;rft.date=May%2FJune+2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.+26%E2%80%9330&amp;rft.pub=BISCI&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nxtbook.com%2Fnxtbooks%2Fbicsi%2Fnews_20100506%2F%23%2F26&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ClarkPrice-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ClarkPrice_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Clark, Jeffrey&#32;(12 October 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.datacenterjournal.com\/design\/the-price-of-data-center-availability\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Price of Data Center Availability\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Data Center Journal<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.datacenterjournal.com\/design\/the-price-of-data-center-availability\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.datacenterjournal.com\/design\/the-price-of-data-center-availability\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Price+of+Data+Center+Availability&amp;rft.atitle=The+Data+Center+Journal&amp;rft.aulast=Clark%2C+Jeffrey&amp;rft.au=Clark%2C+Jeffrey&amp;rft.date=12+October+2011&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.datacenterjournal.com%2Fdesign%2Fthe-price-of-data-center-availability%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TucciFive-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TucciFive_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Tucci, Linda&#32;(7 May 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/searchcio.techtarget.com\/news\/1312614\/Five-tips-on-selecting-a-data-center-location\" target=\"_blank\">\"Five tips on selecting a data center location\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>SearchCIO<\/i>.&#32;TechTarget<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/searchcio.techtarget.com\/news\/1312614\/Five-tips-on-selecting-a-data-center-location\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/searchcio.techtarget.com\/news\/1312614\/Five-tips-on-selecting-a-data-center-location<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 26 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Five+tips+on+selecting+a+data+center+location&amp;rft.atitle=SearchCIO&amp;rft.aulast=Tucci%2C+Linda&amp;rft.au=Tucci%2C+Linda&amp;rft.date=7+May+2008&amp;rft.pub=TechTarget&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearchcio.techtarget.com%2Fnews%2F1312614%2FFive-tips-on-selecting-a-data-center-location&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EmersonUPS-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EmersonUPS_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101122074817\/http:\/\/emersonnetworkpower.com\/en-US\/Brands\/Liebert\/Documents\/White%20Papers\/Evaluating%20the%20Economic%20Impact%20of%20UPS%20Technology.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Evaluating the Economic Impact of UPS Technology\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Liebert Corporation.&#32;2004.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.emersonnetworkpower.com\/en-US\/Brands\/Liebert\/Documents\/White%20Papers\/Evaluating%20the%20Economic%20Impact%20of%20UPS%20Technology.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 22 November 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101122074817\/http:\/\/emersonnetworkpower.com\/en-US\/Brands\/Liebert\/Documents\/White%20Papers\/Evaluating%20the%20Economic%20Impact%20of%20UPS%20Technology.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101122074817\/http:\/\/emersonnetworkpower.com\/en-US\/Brands\/Liebert\/Documents\/White%20Papers\/Evaluating%20the%20Economic%20Impact%20of%20UPS%20Technology.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Evaluating+the+Economic+Impact+of+UPS+Technology&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.pub=Liebert+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20101122074817%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Femersonnetworkpower.com%2Fen-US%2FBrands%2FLiebert%2FDocuments%2FWhite%2520Papers%2FEvaluating%2520the%2520Economic%2520Impact%2520of%2520UPS%2520Technology.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASHRAETherm-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASHRAETherm_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">ASHRAE Technical Committee 9.9&#32;(2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AgWcMQEACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Thermal Guidelines for Data Processing Environments<\/i><\/a>&#32;(3rd ed.).&#32;American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.&#32;pp.&#160;136.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781936504336<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AgWcMQEACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AgWcMQEACAAJ<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Thermal+Guidelines+for+Data+Processing+Environments&amp;rft.aulast=ASHRAE+Technical+Committee+9.9&amp;rft.au=ASHRAE+Technical+Committee+9.9&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B136&amp;rft.edition=3rd&amp;rft.pub=American+Society+of+Heating%2C+Refrigerating+and+Air-Conditioning+Engineers&amp;rft.isbn=9781936504336&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAgWcMQEACAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NEBSFloor-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NEBSFloor_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/telecom-info.telcordia.com\/site-cgi\/ido\/docs.cgi?ID=SEARCH&DOCUMENT=GR-2930&\" target=\"_blank\">GR-2930 \"NEBS: Raised Floor Generic Requirements for Network and Data Centers\"<\/a>.&#32;Telcordia Technologies, Inc.&#32;July 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/telecom-info.telcordia.com\/site-cgi\/ido\/docs.cgi?ID=SEARCH&DOCUMENT=GR-2930&\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/telecom-info.telcordia.com\/site-cgi\/ido\/docs.cgi?ID=SEARCH&amp;DOCUMENT=GR-2930&amp;<\/a> GR-2930<\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=NEBS%3A+Raised+Floor+Generic+Requirements+for+Network+and+Data+Centers&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=July+2012&amp;rft.pub=Telcordia+Technologies%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftelecom-info.telcordia.com%2Fsite-cgi%2Fido%2Fdocs.cgi%3FID%3DSEARCH%26DOCUMENT%3DGR-2930%26+GR-2930&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NASAWhisk-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NASAWhisk_29-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/nepp.nasa.gov\/whisker\/other_whisker\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Other Metal Whiskers\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Tin Whisker (and Other Metal Whisker) Homepage<\/i>.&#32;NASA.&#32;24 January 2011<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/nepp.nasa.gov\/whisker\/other_whisker\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/nepp.nasa.gov\/whisker\/other_whisker\/index.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Other+Metal+Whiskers&amp;rft.atitle=Tin+Whisker+%28and+Other+Metal+Whisker%29+Homepage&amp;rft.date=24+January+2011&amp;rft.pub=NASA&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnepp.nasa.gov%2Fwhisker%2Fother_whisker%2Findex.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FacilitiesDC-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FacilitiesDC_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Tubbs, Jeffrey; DiSalvo, Garr; Neviackas, Andrew&#32;(December 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.facilitiesnet.com\/datacenters\/article\/A-Comprehensive-Approach-To-Data-Center-Fire-Safety--14593\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Center Fire Protection\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>FacilitiesNet<\/i>.&#32;Trade Press<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.facilitiesnet.com\/datacenters\/article\/A-Comprehensive-Approach-To-Data-Center-Fire-Safety--14593\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.facilitiesnet.com\/datacenters\/article\/A-Comprehensive-Approach-To-Data-Center-Fire-Safety--14593<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Center+Fire+Protection&amp;rft.atitle=FacilitiesNet&amp;rft.aulast=Tubbs%2C+Jeffrey%3B+DiSalvo%2C+Garr%3B+Neviackas%2C+Andrew&amp;rft.au=Tubbs%2C+Jeffrey%3B+DiSalvo%2C+Garr%3B+Neviackas%2C+Andrew&amp;rft.date=December+2013&amp;rft.pub=Trade+Press&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.facilitiesnet.com%2Fdatacenters%2Farticle%2FA-Comprehensive-Approach-To-Data-Center-Fire-Safety--14593&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SAS70Security-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SAS70Security_31-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sas70.us.com\/industries\/data-center-colocations.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"Effective Data Center Physical Security Best Practices for SAS 70 Compliance\"<\/a>.&#32;NDB LLP.&#32;2008<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sas70.us.com\/industries\/data-center-colocations.php\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.sas70.us.com\/industries\/data-center-colocations.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Effective+Data+Center+Physical+Security+Best+Practices+for+SAS+70+Compliance&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.pub=NDB+LLP&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sas70.us.com%2Findustries%2Fdata-center-colocations.php&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DCDeptEnergy-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DCDeptEnergy_32-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120222115559\/http:\/\/www1.eere.energy.gov\/femp\/program\/dc_energy_consumption.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Center Energy Consumption Trends\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Department of Energy.&#32;30 May 2009.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www1.eere.energy.gov\/femp\/program\/dc_energy_consumption.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 22 February 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120222115559\/http:\/\/www1.eere.energy.gov\/femp\/program\/dc_energy_consumption.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120222115559\/http:\/\/www1.eere.energy.gov\/femp\/program\/dc_energy_consumption.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Center+Energy+Consumption+Trends&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=30+May+2009&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Energy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120222115559%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww1.eere.energy.gov%2Ffemp%2Fprogram%2Fdc_energy_consumption.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KoomeyAssessing-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KoomeyAssessing_33-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Koomey, Jonathan G.&#160;; Belady, Christian; Patterson, Michael; Santos, Anthony; Lange, Klaus-Dieter&#32;(17 August 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.intel.com\/assets\/pdf\/general\/servertrendsreleasecomplete-v25.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Assessing Trends Over Time in Performance, Costs, and Energy Use for Servers\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Intel Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.intel.com\/assets\/pdf\/general\/servertrendsreleasecomplete-v25.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.intel.com\/assets\/pdf\/general\/servertrendsreleasecomplete-v25.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Assessing+Trends+Over+Time+in+Performance%2C+Costs%2C+and+Energy+Use+for+Servers&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Koomey%2C+Jonathan+G.+%3B+Belady%2C+Christian%3B+Patterson%2C+Michael%3B+Santos%2C+Anthony%3B+Lange%2C+Klaus-Dieter&amp;rft.au=Koomey%2C+Jonathan+G.+%3B+Belady%2C+Christian%3B+Patterson%2C+Michael%3B+Santos%2C+Anthony%3B+Lange%2C+Klaus-Dieter&amp;rft.date=17+August+2009&amp;rft.pub=Intel+Corporation&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.intel.com%2Fassets%2Fpdf%2Fgeneral%2Fservertrendsreleasecomplete-v25.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-APCCarbonFoot-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-APCCarbonFoot_34-0\">34.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-APCCarbonFoot_34-1\">34.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Bouley, Dennis&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ensynch.com\/content\/dam\/insight\/en_US\/pdfs\/apc\/apc-estimating-data-centers-carbon-footprint.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Estimating a Data Center's Electrical Carbon Footprint\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Schneider Electric<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/ensynch.com\/content\/dam\/insight\/en_US\/pdfs\/apc\/apc-estimating-data-centers-carbon-footprint.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/ensynch.com\/content\/dam\/insight\/en_US\/pdfs\/apc\/apc-estimating-data-centers-carbon-footprint.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Estimating+a+Data+Center%27s+Electrical+Carbon+Footprint&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Bouley%2C+Dennis&amp;rft.au=Bouley%2C+Dennis&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pub=Schneider+Electric&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fensynch.com%2Fcontent%2Fdam%2Finsight%2Fen_US%2Fpdfs%2Fapc%2Fapc-estimating-data-centers-carbon-footprint.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GlanzGobble-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GlanzGobble_35-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Glanz, James&#32;(23 September 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2012\/09\/24\/technology\/data-centers-in-rural-washington-state-gobble-power.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Barns in a Farm Town, Gobbling Power and Flexing Muscle\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The New York Times<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2012\/09\/24\/technology\/data-centers-in-rural-washington-state-gobble-power.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2012\/09\/24\/technology\/data-centers-in-rural-washington-state-gobble-power.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Barns+in+a+Farm+Town%2C+Gobbling+Power+and+Flexing+Muscle&amp;rft.atitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.aulast=Glanz%2C+James&amp;rft.au=Glanz%2C+James&amp;rft.date=23+September+2012&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F09%2F24%2Ftechnology%2Fdata-centers-in-rural-washington-state-gobble-power.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Tier4-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Tier4_36-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/tier4answers.com\/tier-4-answers\" target=\"_blank\">\"Answers to Your Tier 4 Questions\"<\/a>.&#32;Cummins Power Generation, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/tier4answers.com\/tier-4-answers\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/tier4answers.com\/tier-4-answers<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Answers+to+Your+Tier+4+Questions&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Cummins+Power+Generation%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftier4answers.com%2Ftier-4-answers&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PUEGoogle-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PUEGoogle_37-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.google.com\/about\/datacenters\/efficiency\/internal\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Efficiency: How we do it\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Google Data Centers<\/i>.&#32;Google<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.google.com\/about\/datacenters\/efficiency\/internal\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.google.com\/about\/datacenters\/efficiency\/internal\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Efficiency%3A+How+we+do+it&amp;rft.atitle=Google+Data+Centers&amp;rft.pub=Google&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fabout%2Fdatacenters%2Fefficiency%2Finternal%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ESRepo-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ESRepo_38-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.energystar.gov\/ia\/partners\/prod_development\/downloads\/EPA_Datacenter_Report_Congress_Final1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Report to Congress on Server and Data Center Energy Efficiency\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;ENERGY STAR Program, EPA.&#32;7 August 2007<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.energystar.gov\/ia\/partners\/prod_development\/downloads\/EPA_Datacenter_Report_Congress_Final1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.energystar.gov\/ia\/partners\/prod_development\/downloads\/EPA_Datacenter_Report_Congress_Final1.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Report+to+Congress+on+Server+and+Data+Center+Energy+Efficiency&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=7+August+2007&amp;rft.pub=ENERGY+STAR+Program%2C+EPA&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.energystar.gov%2Fia%2Fpartners%2Fprod_development%2Fdownloads%2FEPA_Datacenter_Report_Congress_Final1.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LadurantayeCanada-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LadurantayeCanada_39-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Ladurantaye, Steve&#32;(22 June 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.theglobeandmail.com\/report-on-business\/canada-called-prime-real-estate-for-massive-data-computers\/article2071677\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Canada Called Prime Real Estate for Massive Data Computers\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Globe &amp; Mail<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.theglobeandmail.com\/report-on-business\/canada-called-prime-real-estate-for-massive-data-computers\/article2071677\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.theglobeandmail.com\/report-on-business\/canada-called-prime-real-estate-for-massive-data-computers\/article2071677\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Canada+Called+Prime+Real+Estate+for+Massive+Data+Computers&amp;rft.atitle=The+Globe+%26+Mail&amp;rft.aulast=Ladurantaye%2C+Steve&amp;rft.au=Ladurantaye%2C+Steve&amp;rft.date=22+June+2011&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theglobeandmail.com%2Freport-on-business%2Fcanada-called-prime-real-estate-for-massive-data-computers%2Farticle2071677%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FinCloud-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FinCloud_40-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130110111357\/http:\/\/www.fincloud.freehostingcloud.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Finland - First Choice for Siting Your Cloud Computing Data Center\"<\/a>.&#32;Invest in Finland.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fincloud.freehostingcloud.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 10 January 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130110111357\/http:\/\/www.fincloud.freehostingcloud.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130110111357\/http:\/\/www.fincloud.freehostingcloud.com\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Finland+-+First+Choice+for+Siting+Your+Cloud+Computing+Data+Center&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Invest+in+Finland&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130110111357%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.fincloud.freehostingcloud.com%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-StockDC-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-StockDC_41-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100819190918\/http:\/\/www.stockholmbusinessregion.se\/templates\/page____41724.aspx?epslanguage=EN\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stockholm sets sights on data center customers\"<\/a>.&#32;Stockholm Business Region.&#32;19 August 2010.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.stockholmbusinessregion.se\/templates\/page____41724.aspx?epslanguage=EN\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 19 August 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100819190918\/http:\/\/www.stockholmbusinessregion.se\/templates\/page____41724.aspx?epslanguage=EN\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100819190918\/http:\/\/www.stockholmbusinessregion.se\/templates\/page____41724.aspx?epslanguage=EN<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Stockholm+sets+sights+on+data+center+customers&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=19+August+2010&amp;rft.pub=Stockholm+Business+Region&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20100819190918%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.stockholmbusinessregion.se%2Ftemplates%2Fpage&#95;_&#95;_41724.aspx%3Fepslanguage%3DEN&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WheelandDC-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WheelandDC_42-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wheeland, Matthew&#32;(30 June 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.greenbiz.com\/news\/2010\/06\/30\/swiss-carbon-neutral-servers-hit-cloud\" target=\"_blank\">\"Swiss Carbon-Neutral Servers Hit the Cloud\"<\/a>.&#32;GreenBiz Group<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.greenbiz.com\/news\/2010\/06\/30\/swiss-carbon-neutral-servers-hit-cloud\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.greenbiz.com\/news\/2010\/06\/30\/swiss-carbon-neutral-servers-hit-cloud<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Swiss+Carbon-Neutral+Servers+Hit+the+Cloud&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Wheeland%2C+Matthew&amp;rft.au=Wheeland%2C+Matthew&amp;rft.date=30+June+2010&amp;rft.pub=GreenBiz+Group&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greenbiz.com%2Fnews%2F2010%2F06%2F30%2Fswiss-carbon-neutral-servers-hit-cloud&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AppleFoot-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AppleFoot_43-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Levy, Steven&#32;(21 April 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wired.com\/2014\/04\/green-apple\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Apple Aims to Shrink Its Carbon Footprint With New Data Centers\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Wired<\/i>.&#32;Cond\u00e9 Nast<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wired.com\/2014\/04\/green-apple\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.wired.com\/2014\/04\/green-apple\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Apple+Aims+to+Shrink+Its+Carbon+Footprint+With+New+Data+Centers&amp;rft.atitle=Wired&amp;rft.aulast=Levy%2C+Steven&amp;rft.au=Levy%2C+Steven&amp;rft.date=21+April+2014&amp;rft.pub=Cond%C3%A9+Nast&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2014%2F04%2Fgreen-apple%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PouchetStar-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PouchetStar_44-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Pouchet, Jack&#32;(15 June 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120229143352\/http:\/\/www.efficientdatacenters.com\/post\/2010\/06\/15\/Introducing-EPA-ENERGY-STARc2ae-for-Data-Centers.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introducing EPA ENERGY STAR for Data Centers\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Efficient Data Centers<\/i>.&#32;Emerson Electric Co.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.efficientdatacenters.com\/post\/2010\/06\/15\/Introducing-EPA-ENERGY-STARc2ae-for-Data-Centers.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 29 February 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120229143352\/http:\/\/www.efficientdatacenters.com\/post\/2010\/06\/15\/Introducing-EPA-ENERGY-STARc2ae-for-Data-Centers.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120229143352\/http:\/\/www.efficientdatacenters.com\/post\/2010\/06\/15\/Introducing-EPA-ENERGY-STARc2ae-for-Data-Centers.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Introducing+EPA+ENERGY+STAR+for+Data+Centers&amp;rft.atitle=Efficient+Data+Centers&amp;rft.aulast=Pouchet%2C+Jack&amp;rft.au=Pouchet%2C+Jack&amp;rft.date=15+June+2010&amp;rft.pub=Emerson+Electric+Co&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120229143352%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.efficientdatacenters.com%2Fpost%2F2010%2F06%2F15%2FIntroducing-EPA-ENERGY-STARc2ae-for-Data-Centers.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JRCDC-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-JRCDC_45-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/iet.jrc.ec.europa.eu\/energyefficiency\/ict-codes-conduct\/data-centres-energy-efficiency\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Centres Energy Efficiency\"<\/a>.&#32;Joint Research Centre, Institute for Energy and Transport.&#32;22 August 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/iet.jrc.ec.europa.eu\/energyefficiency\/ict-codes-conduct\/data-centres-energy-efficiency\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/iet.jrc.ec.europa.eu\/energyefficiency\/ict-codes-conduct\/data-centres-energy-efficiency<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Centres+Energy+Efficiency&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=22+August+2014&amp;rft.pub=Joint+Research+Centre%2C+Institute+for+Energy+and+Transport&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiet.jrc.ec.europa.eu%2Fenergyefficiency%2Fict-codes-conduct%2Fdata-centres-energy-efficiency&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Data_center\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171633\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 3.028 seconds\nReal time usage: 5.864 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 30368\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 197329\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 85429\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 67066\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 615.019 1 -total\n100.00% 615.019 1 Template:Reflist\n 80.92% 497.646 45 Template:Citation\/core\n 77.16% 474.527 43 Template:Cite_web\n 14.61% 89.840 29 Template:Date\n 10.65% 65.501 2 Template:Cite_book\n 5.39% 33.165 70 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 3.59% 22.107 3 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 1.02% 6.299 1 Template:Column-width\n 0.88% 5.406 6 Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:5238-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171627 and revision id 15612. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_center\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_center<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","9f5f939040d714745138ee295af8be71_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/1f\/Intel_Team_Inside_Facebook_Data_Center.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a0\/Datacenter-telecom.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/49\/Zinc_whiskers.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/cc\/Datacenter_Backup_Batteries.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/3e\/FM200_Three.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/29\/Google_Data_Center%2C_The_Dalles.jpg"],"9f5f939040d714745138ee295af8be71_timestamp":1704906987,"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f_type":"article","fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f_title":"Cloud computing","fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing","fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f_plaintext":"\n\nCloud computingFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search Cloud computing logical diagram\nCloud computing is the delivery of computing as a service rather than a product, whereby shared resources, software, and information are provided to computers and other devices as a utility (like the electricity grid) over a network, typically the Internet.\nCloud computing describes a new supplement, consumption, and delivery model for IT services based on Internet protocols, and it typically involves provisioning of dynamically scalable and often virtualized resources&#91;1&#93;&#91;2&#93; Details are abstracted from end-users, who no longer have need for expertise in, or control over, the technology infrastructure \"in the cloud\" that supports them.&#91;3&#93;\nCloud computing typically takes the form of web-based tools or applications that users can access and use through a web browser as if they were programs installed locally on their own computers. Those applications and resulting data are stored on servers at a remote location. In some cases, legacy applications (line of business applications that until now have been prevalent in thin client Windows computing) are delivered via a screen-sharing technology, while the computing resources are consolidated at a remote data center location; in other cases, entire business applications have been coded using web-based technologies such as Ajax.\n\nContents \n\n1 Overview \n\n1.1 Term \n1.2 Characteristics \n1.3 Service models \n\n1.3.1 SaaS \n1.3.2 PaaS \n1.3.3 IaaS \n\n\n1.4 Deployment models \n\n\n2 History \n3 Issues and concerns \n\n3.1 Privacy \n3.2 Compliance \n3.3 Performance \n3.4 Legal \n3.5 Open standards \n3.6 Security \n3.7 Contracts \n\n\n4 Further reading \n5 Notes \n6 References \n\n\n\nOverview \nTerm \nThe term \"cloud\" is used as a metaphor for the Internet, based on the cloud drawing used in the past to represent the telephone network,&#91;4&#93; and later to depict the Internet in computer network diagrams as an abstraction of the underlying infrastructure it represents.&#91;5&#93;\n\nCharacteristics \nThe National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) offers an authoritative definition of cloud computing. That definition encompasses the essential characteristics, service models, and deployment models of the service. Of the essential characteristics, cloud computing must&#91;6&#93;:\n\nprovide computing capabilities and services on an as-needed basis, without human intervention;\nbe broadly accessible from a wide variety of standard desktop and mobile platforms;\nmake storage, processing, memory, and network bandwidth available as pooled, multi-tenant resources;\nmake those resources scalable with demand, often automatically, at any time; and\nmeter those resources and make the resulting information transparently available to both provider and consumer.\nAdditional, more granular characteristics of cloud computing include the following.\n\nAn application programming interface (API) enables machines to interact with cloud software in the same way the user interface facilitates interaction between humans and computers. Cloud computing systems typically use REST-based APIs.\nCost is potentially reduced in a public cloud delivery model, with capital expenditure being converted to operational expenditure, including research, development, and sales.&#91;7&#93; This is purported to lower barriers to entry, as infrastructure is typically provided by a third-party and does not need to be purchased for one-time or infrequent intensive computing tasks. Pricing on a utility computing basis is fine-grained with usage-based options and fewer in-house IT skills are required for implementation.&#91;8&#93;\nDevice and location independence enable users to access systems using a web browser regardless of their location or what device they are using (e.g., PC, mobile phone).&#91;9&#93; As infrastructure is off-site (typically provided by a third-party) and accessed via the Internet, users can connect from anywhere.&#91;8&#93;\nMulti-tenancy enables sharing of resources and costs across a large pool of users, allowing for centralization of infrastructure in locations with lower costs, peak-load capacity increases, and utilization and efficiency improvements.\nReliability is improved if multiple redundant sites are used, which makes well-designed cloud computing suitable for business continuity and disaster recovery.&#91;10&#93;\nServices are scalable and elastic via dynamic, \"on-demand\" provisioning of resources on a fine-grained, self-service basis in real-time, without users having to engineer for peak loads.&#91;11&#93;\nPerformance is monitored, and consistent and loosely coupled architectures are constructed using web services as the system interface.&#91;8&#93;\nSecurity could improve due to centralization of data, increased security-focused resources, etc., but concerns may persist about loss of control over certain sensitive data and the lack of security for stored kernels.\nMaintenance of cloud computing applications is easier, because they do not need to be installed on each user's computer. They are easier to support and to improve, as the changes reach the clients instantly.\nService models \nThe NIST definition also details the service models, which include software as a service (SaaS; provider's application runs on their infrastructure), platform as a service (PaaS; consumer-created or -acquired application runs on provider's infrastructure), and infrastructure as a service (IaaS; customer deploys operating systems and applications over fundamental computing resources provisioned by the provider).&#91;6&#93;\n\nSaaS \nNIST's definition of cloud computing defines SaaS as&#91;6&#93;:\n\nThe capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider's applications running on a cloud infrastructure. The applications are accessible from various client devices through either a thin client interface, such as a web browser (e.g., web-based email), or a program interface. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, storage, or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited user-specific application configuration settings.\nBy not needing to manage the cloud infrastructure and platform where the application runs, the need to install and run the application on the cloud user's own computers is eliminated, simplifying maintenance and support. The pricing model for SaaS applications is typically a monthly or yearly flat fee per user, and as such prices become scalable and adjustable if users are added or removed at any point.\nProponents of this model claim that SaaS has the potential to reduce IT operational costs by outsourcing hardware and software maintenance and support to the cloud provider. This enables the business to reallocate IT operations costs away from hardware\/software spending and from personnel expenses, towards meeting other goals. In addition, with applications hosted centrally, updates can be released without the need for users to install new software.&#91;12&#93;\n\nPaaS \nNIST's definition of cloud computing defines PaaS as&#91;6&#93;:\n\nThe capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-created or acquired applications created using programming languages, libraries, services, and tools supported by the provider. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application-hosting environment.\nAs such, PaaS users do not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure, including network, servers, operating systems, or storage. Rather, they have control over the deployed applications, and in some cases the configuration settings for the application-hosting environment.&#91;12&#93;\n\nIaaS \nNIST's definition of cloud computing describes IaaS as a platform \"where the consumer is able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and applications. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage, and deployed applications, and possibly limited control of select networking components (e.g., host firewalls).\"&#91;6&#93;\nIaaS-cloud providers supply these resources on-demand from their large pools of equipment installed in data centers. For wide area network connectivity, customers can use either the internet or carrier clouds (dedicated virtual private networks). To deploy their applications, cloud users install operating-system images and their application software on the cloud infrastructure. The cloud user patches and maintains the operating systems and the application software on the infrastructure. Cloud providers typically bill IaaS services on a utility computing basis: cost reflects the amount of resources allocated and consumed.&#91;12&#93;\n\nDeployment models \n Cloud computing deployment types\nThe NIST definition identifies four deployment models for cloud computing.&#91;6&#93;\nPrivate cloud: an infrastructure operated solely for a single organization, whether managed internally or by a third-party and hosted internally or externally\nCommunity cloud: an infrastructure shared between several organisations from a specific community with common concerns (security, compliance, jurisdiction, etc.), managed internally or by a third-party and hosted internally or externally\nPublic cloud: an infrastructure where resources are dynamically provisioned to the general public on a fine-grained, self-service basis over the Internet, via web applications\/web services, from an off-site third-party provider who bills on a metered basis\nHybrid cloud: a composition of two or more clouds (private, community, or public) that remain unique entities but are bound together, offering the benefits of multiple deployment models\nOther deployment options have arisen as well. Another (potentially classifiable as \"hybrid\") that has become more notable is carrier cloud, cloud computing services integrated into a communications service provider's network infrastructure.&#91;13&#93;&#91;14&#93; Others include distributed cloud (a distributed set of machines in different locations)&#91;15&#93;, high-performance computing cloud (able to handle high-performance computing applications)&#91;16&#93;, and polycloud (use of multiple public clouds from different providers, levaraging specific services each offers).&#91;17&#93;\n\nHistory \nThe underlying concept of cloud computing dates back to the 1960s, when John McCarthy opined that \"computation may someday be organized as a public utility.\"&#91;18&#93; Almost all the modern-day characteristics of cloud computing (elastic provision, provided as a utility, online, illusion of infinite supply), as well as the comparison to the electricity industry and the use of public, private, government, and community forms, were thoroughly explored in Douglas Parkhill's 1966 book, The Challenge of the Computer Utility.&#91;19&#93;\nThe actual term \"cloud\" borrows from telephony in that telecommunications companies, that until the 1990s offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits, began offering virtual private network (VPN) services with comparable quality of service but at a much lower cost. By switching traffic to balance utilization as they saw fit, they were able to utilize their overall network bandwidth more effectively. The cloud symbol was used to denote the demarcation point between that which was the responsibility of the provider and that which was the responsibility of the user. Cloud computing extends this boundary to cover servers as well as the network infrastructure.&#91;20&#93;\nBy the beginning of the twenty-first century, the advent of virtualization technology and cost effective computing hardware, as well as ubiquitous Internet connectivity, enabled a first wave of cloud services, including Salesforce.com in 1999 and Amazon Web Services in 2002.&#91;21&#93; After the dot-com bubble, Amazon continued to play key role in the development of cloud computing by modernizing their data centers, which, like most computer networks, were using as little as 10 percent of their capacity at any one time, just to leave room for occasional spikes. Having found the new cloud architecture resulted in significant internal efficiency improvements whereby small, fast-moving \"two-pizza teams\" could add new features faster and more easily, Amazon initiated a new commercial cloud-based project, launching its Elastic Compute cloud (EC2) in 2006.&#91;21&#93;\nIn May 2008, Eucalyptus became the first open-source, Amazon Web Service API-compatible platform for deploying private clouds.&#91;22&#93; In early 2008, OpenNebula, enhanced in the RESERVOIR European Commission-funded project, became the first open-source software for deploying private and hybrid clouds and for the federation of clouds.&#91;23&#93; By mid-2008, technology research firm Gartner saw an opportunity for cloud computing \"to shape the relationship among consumers of IT services, those who use IT services and those who sell them\"&#91;24&#93; and observed that \"organisations are switching from company-owned hardware and software assets to per-use service-based models\" so that the \"projected shift to cloud computing ... will result in dramatic growth in IT products in some areas and significant reductions in other areas.\"&#91;25&#93; \nBy 2013, Gartner was reporting the public cloud services market was forecast to grow 18.5 percent in 2013, totalling $131 billion worldwide, up from $111 billion in 2012. Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) made up the fastest-growing segment of the market, growing 42.4 percent in 2012 to $6.1 billion, with expectations of it growing 47.3 percent in 2013 to $9 billion.&#91;26&#93;\nBy 2017, \"edge computing\" began to emerge as a viable option. Edge computing is a distributed computing paradigm that brings computation and storage closer to the location where is needed, thus improving response times and saving bandwidth. This in part has been driven by increasing use of mobile applications, and sensor-based internet of things devices.&#91;27&#93; More broadly, by the late 2010s, a distinct trend in cloud computing was emerging, as noted by Varghese and Buyya: \"The general trend seems to be towards making use of infrastructure from multiple providers and decentralising computing away from resources currently concentrated in data centers. This is in contrast to traditional cloud offerings from single providers. Consequently, new computing models to suit the demands of the market are emerging.\"&#91;28&#93;\n\nIssues and concerns \nGeneral criticisms of cloud computing state the term is too unspecific or even misleading. CEO Larry Ellison of Oracle Corporation asserts that cloud computing is \"everything that we already do\"&#91;29&#93; and that the company could simply \"change the wording on some of our ads\"\n&#91;30&#93; to deploy cloud-based services.\nIn 2008, Forrester Research VP Frank Gillett questioned the very nature of and motivation behind the push for cloud computing, describing what he calls \"cloud washing\"\u2014companies simply relabeling their products as \"cloud computing\", resulting in mere marketing innovation instead of \"real\" innovation. &#91;31&#93; That same year, GNU's Richard Stallman insisted the industry will only use the model to deliver services at ever increasing rates over proprietary systems, otherwise likening it to a \"marketing hype campaign.\"&#91;32&#93;\n\nPrivacy \nThe cloud model has been criticized by privacy advocates for the greater ease in which the companies hosting the cloud services control and monitor at will, lawfully or unlawfully, the communication and data stored between the user and the host company, leading to questions about whether or not privacy concerns can be addressed.&#91;33&#93;&#91;34&#93;\n\nCompliance \nIn order to obtain compliance with regulations including FISMA, HIPAA, and SOX in the United States, the Data Protection Directive in the European Union, and the credit card industry's PCI DSS, users may have to adopt community or hybrid deployment modes that are typically more expensive and may offer restricted benefits. This is how Google is able to \"manage and meet additional government policy requirements beyond FISMA\"&#91;35&#93;&#91;36&#93; and Rackspace Cloud are able to claim PCI compliance.&#91;37&#93;\nMany providers also obtain SAS 70 Type II certification, but this has been criticized on the grounds that the hand-picked set of goals and standards determined by the auditor and the auditee are often not disclosed and can vary widely.&#91;38&#93; Providers typically make this information available on request, under non-disclosure agreement.&#91;39&#93;\nCustomers in the European Union contracting with cloud providers established outside the area have to adhere to the European Union's regulations on export of personal data.&#91;40&#93;\n\nPerformance \nPublic cloud instances typically function well at the server and client hardware; however, speed across the connecting public Internet pipeline can vary significantly. Internet speeds can be asymmetrical and non-guaranteed, bandwidth may need to be shared, and Internet traffic rarely follow the same path, constraining performance and making a cloud option less appealing than a localized option.&#91;41&#93; Poor upload speeds, especially from non-business home accounts, are also quoted as a factor limiting cloud computing's appeal.&#91;42&#93;\n\nLegal \nSince 2007, the number of trademark filings covering cloud computing brands, goods, and services has increased rapidly. For example, in March 2007, Dell applied to trademark the term \"cloud computing\" (U.S. Trademark 77,139,082 ) in the United States. The \"Notice of Allowance\" the company received in July 2008 was canceled in August, resulting in a formal rejection of the trademark application less than a week later. As Dell and other companies sought to better position themselves for cloud computing branding and marketing efforts, cloud computing trademark filings increased by 483 percent between 2008 and 2009. In 2009, 116 cloud computing trademarks were filed, and trademark analysts predicted that over 500 such marks could be filed during 2010.&#91;43&#93;\nOther legal cases may shape the use of cloud computing by the public sector. On October 29, 2010, Google filed a lawsuit against the U.S. Department of Interior, which opened up a bid for software that required bidders use Microsoft's Business Productivity Online Suite. Google sued, calling the requirement \"unduly restrictive of competition.\"&#91;44&#93; Scholars have pointed out that, beginning in 2005, the prevalence of open standards and open-source software options may have an impact on the way public entities choose to select vendors and their software.&#91;45&#93;\nConcerns about the legal and financial repercussions of a cloud provider shutting down, which has happened in a number of cases, also exist.&#91;46&#93;\n\nOpen standards \nMost cloud providers expose APIs that are typically well-documented (often under a Creative Commons license&#91;47&#93;) but also unique to their implementation and thus not interoperable. Some vendors have adopted others' APIs, and there are a number of open standards under development, with a view to delivering interoperability and portability.&#91;48&#93;\n\nSecurity \nAs cloud computing increases in popularity, concerns are being raised about the security issues introduced through the adoption of this new model. The effectiveness and efficiency of traditional protection mechanisms are being reconsidered as the characteristics of this innovative deployment model differ widely from those of traditional architectures.&#91;49&#93;\nIssues barring the adoption of cloud computing are due in large part to the private and public sectors' unease surrounding the external management of security based services. It is the very nature of cloud computing based services, private or public, that promote external management of provided services. This delivers great incentive among cloud computing service providers in producing a priority in building and maintaining strong management of secure services.&#91;50&#93; Security issues have been categorized into sensitive data access, data segregation, privacy, bug exploitation, recovery, accountability, malicious insiders, management console security, account control, and multi-tenancy issues. Solutions to various cloud security issues vary from cryptography (particularly public key infrastructure), use of multiple cloud providers, standardization of APIs, improving virtual machine support, and legal support.&#91;49&#93;&#91;51&#93;&#91;52&#93;\nThe complexity of security is further increased when data is distributed over a wider area or greater number of devices and in multi-tenant systems that are being shared by unrelated users. In addition, user access to security audit logs may be difficult or impossible. The move to private cloud installations are in part motivated by users' desire to retain control over the infrastructure and avoid losing control of information security.\n\nContracts \nMost transitions to a cloud computing solution entail a change from a technically managed solution to a contractually managed solution. This change necessitates increased IT contract negotiation skills to establish the terms of the relationship and vendor management skills to maintain the relationship. All rights and responsibilities associated with the relationship between a client and a provider must be codified in the contract and effectively managed until the relationship has been terminated. Key risks and issues that are either unique to cloud computing or essential to its effective adoption typically involve service level agreements; data processing and access; provider infrastructure and security; and contract and vendor management.&#91;53&#93;\n\nFurther reading \nHalpert, Ben&#32;(2011).&#32;Auditing Cloud Computing: A Security and Privacy Guide.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;206.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780470874745.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&amp;pg=PT10&amp;lpg=PT10 . &#160; \nKavis, Michael J&#32;(2014).&#32;Architecting the Cloud: Design Decisions for Cloud Computing Service Models (SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS).&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;224.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781118617618.&#32;https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Architecting-Cloud-Decisions-Computing-Service\/dp\/1118617614 . &#160; \nNotes \nThis article reuses numerous content elements from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Gartner Says Cloud Computing Will Be As Influential As E-business\".&#32;Gartner, Inc.&#32;26 June 2008.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 28 August 2018.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180828134416\/https:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/707508 .&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Knorr, E.&#32;(2 October 2018).&#32;\"What is cloud computing? Everything you need to know now\".&#32;InfoWorld.&#32;IDG Network.&#32;https:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/article\/2683784\/what-is-cloud-computing.html .&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Danielson, K.&#32;(26 March 2008).&#32;\"Distinguishing Cloud Computing from Utility Computing\".&#32;ebizQ.&#32;TechTarget.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 24 January 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200124141938\/http:\/\/www.ebizq.net\/blogs\/saasweek\/2008\/03\/distinguishing_cloud_computing\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sells, Chris&#32;(1 July 1998).&#32;\"Windows Telephony Programming: A Developer's Guide to TAPI\".&#32;Sellsbrothers.com.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 02 May 2005.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050502192319\/http:\/\/www.sellsbrothers.com\/writing\/intro2tapi\/default.aspx?content=pstn.htm .&#32;Retrieved 21 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Scanlon,Jessie Holliday; Wieners, Brad&#32;(9 July 1999).&#32;\"The Internet Cloud\".&#32;The Industry Standard.&#32;IDG Network.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 11 February 2010.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100211133442\/http:\/\/www.thestandard.com\/article\/0,1902,5466,00.html .&#32;Retrieved 2010-08-22 . &#160; 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\n \n\n\u2191 Casson, T.; Ryan, P.S.&#32;(1 May 2006).&#32;\"Open Standards, Open Source Adoption in the Public Sector, and Their Relationship to Microsoft\u2019s Market Dominance\".&#32;Social Science Electronic Publishing.&#32;https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656616 .&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Scheier, R.L&#32;(20 April 2009).&#32;\"What to do if your cloud provider disappears\".&#32;InfoWorld.&#32;IDG Network.&#32;https:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/article\/2634406\/cloud-computing-what-to-do-if-your-cloud-provider-disappears.html .&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"GoGrid Moves API Specification to Creative Commons\".&#32;ServePath.&#32;20 January 2009.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 01 February 2009.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090201061221\/http:\/\/gogrid.com\/company\/press-releases\/gogrid-moves-api-specification-to-creativecommons.php .&#32;Retrieved 21 August 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Brockmeier, J.&#32;(19 February 2010).&#32;\"Eucalyptus Completes Amazon Web Services Specs with Latest Release\".&#32;OStatic.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 07 March 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120307062957\/http:\/\/ostatic.com\/blog\/eucalyptus-completes-amazon-web-services-specs-with-latest-release .&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 49.0 49.1 Zissis, D.; Lekkas, D.&#32;(2012).&#32;\"Addressing cloud computing security issues\".&#32;Future Generation Computer Systems&#32;28&#32;(3): 583\u201392.&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.future.2010.12.006. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Messmer, E.&#32;(22 February 2010).&#32;\"Security of virtualization, cloud computing divides IT and security pros\".&#32;Network World.&#32;https:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2244954\/security-of-virtualization--cloud-computing-divides-it-and-security-pros.html .&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Armbrust, M.; Fox, A.; Griffith, R. et al.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"A view of cloud computing\".&#32;Communications of the ACM&#32;53&#32;(4): 50\u201358.&#32;doi:10.1145\/1721654.1721672. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Anthes, G.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Security in the cloud\".&#32;Communications of the ACM&#32;53&#32;(11): 16\u201318.&#32;doi:10.1145\/1839676.1839683. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Trappier, T.&#32;(24 June 2010).&#32;\"If It's in the Cloud, Get It on Paper: Cloud Computing Contract Issues\".&#32;EDUCAUSE.&#32;https:\/\/er.educause.edu\/articles\/2010\/6\/if-its-in-the-cloud-get-it-on-paper-cloud-computing-contract-issues .&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing<\/a>\nCategory: Cloud computingNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 September 2022, at 21:08.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 58,980 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Cloud_computing rootpage-Cloud_computing skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Cloud computing<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Cloud_computing.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"68b2398137bd2f9af0e50289acecc0e7\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b5\/Cloud_computing.svg\/400px-Cloud_computing.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Cloud_computing.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"68b2398137bd2f9af0e50289acecc0e7\"><\/a><\/div>Cloud computing logical diagram<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Cloud computing<\/b> is the delivery of computing as a service rather than a product, whereby shared resources, software, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> are provided to computers and other devices as a utility (like the electricity grid) over a network, typically the Internet.\n<\/p><p>Cloud computing describes a new supplement, consumption, and delivery model for IT services based on Internet protocols, and it typically involves provisioning of dynamically scalable and often virtualized resources<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerCC_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerCC-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GrumanReally_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GrumanReally-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Details are abstracted from end-users, who no longer have need for expertise in, or control over, the technology infrastructure \"in the cloud\" that supports them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Danielson_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Danielson-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Cloud computing typically takes the form of web-based tools or applications that users can access and use through a web browser as if they were programs installed locally on their own computers. Those applications and resulting data are stored on servers at a remote location. In some cases, legacy applications (line of business applications that until now have been prevalent in thin client Windows computing) are delivered via a screen-sharing technology, while the computing resources are consolidated at a remote data center location; in other cases, entire business applications have been coded using web-based technologies such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Ajax\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ajax\" data-key=\"d1788e5514945246a28ea24b23ae5b67\">Ajax<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overview\">Overview<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Term\">Term<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The term \"cloud\" is used as a metaphor for the Internet, based on the cloud drawing used in the past to represent the telephone network,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TAPI_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TAPI-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and later to depict the Internet in computer network diagrams as an abstraction of the underlying infrastructure it represents.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ScanlonCloud_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ScanlonCloud-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Characteristics\">Characteristics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) offers an authoritative definition of cloud computing. That definition encompasses the essential characteristics, service models, and deployment models of the service. Of the essential characteristics, cloud computing must<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISTCloudDef-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>provide computing capabilities and services on an as-needed basis, without human intervention;<\/li>\n<li>be broadly accessible from a wide variety of standard desktop and mobile platforms;<\/li>\n<li>make storage, processing, memory, and network bandwidth available as pooled, multi-tenant resources;<\/li>\n<li>make those resources scalable with demand, often automatically, at any time; and<\/li>\n<li>meter those resources and make the resulting information transparently available to both provider and consumer.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Additional, more granular characteristics of cloud computing include the following.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>An application programming interface (API) enables machines to interact with cloud software in the same way the user interface facilitates interaction between humans and computers. Cloud computing systems typically use REST-based APIs.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Cost is potentially reduced in a public cloud delivery model, with capital expenditure being converted to operational expenditure, including research, development, and sales.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ColumbusMaking_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ColumbusMaking-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This is purported to lower barriers to entry, as infrastructure is typically provided by a third-party and does not need to be purchased for one-time or infrequent intensive computing tasks. Pricing on a utility computing basis is fine-grained with usage-based options and fewer in-house IT skills are required for implementation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GensCloud_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GensCloud-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Device and location independence enable users to access systems using a web browser regardless of their location or what device they are using (e.g., PC, mobile phone).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FarberData_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FarberData-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As infrastructure is off-site (typically provided by a third-party) and accessed via the Internet, users can connect from anywhere.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GensCloud_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GensCloud-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Multi-tenancy enables sharing of resources and costs across a large pool of users, allowing for centralization of infrastructure in locations with lower costs, peak-load capacity increases, and utilization and efficiency improvements.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Reliability is improved if multiple redundant sites are used, which makes well-designed cloud computing suitable for business continuity and disaster recovery.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KingCloud_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KingCloud-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Services are scalable and elastic via dynamic, \"on-demand\" provisioning of resources on a fine-grained, self-service basis in real-time, without users having to engineer for peak loads.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kuperberg_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kuperberg-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Performance is monitored, and consistent and loosely coupled architectures are constructed using web services as the system interface.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GensCloud_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GensCloud-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Security could improve due to centralization of data, increased security-focused resources, etc., but concerns may persist about loss of control over certain sensitive data and the lack of security for stored kernels.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Maintenance of cloud computing applications is easier, because they do not need to be installed on each user's computer. They are easier to support and to improve, as the changes reach the clients instantly.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Service_models\">Service models<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The NIST definition also details the service models, which include <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> (SaaS; provider's application runs on their infrastructure), platform as a service (PaaS; consumer-created or -acquired application runs on provider's infrastructure), and infrastructure as a service (IaaS; customer deploys operating systems and applications over fundamental computing resources provisioned by the provider).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISTCloudDef-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"SaaS\">SaaS<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>NIST's definition of cloud computing defines SaaS as<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISTCloudDef-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>The capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider's applications running on a cloud infrastructure. The applications are accessible from various client devices through either a thin client interface, such as a web browser (e.g., web-based email), or a program interface. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, storage, or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited user-specific application configuration settings.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>By not needing to manage the cloud infrastructure and platform where the application runs, the need to install and run the application on the cloud user's own computers is eliminated, simplifying maintenance and support. The pricing model for SaaS applications is typically a monthly or yearly flat fee per user, and as such prices become scalable and adjustable if users are added or removed at any point.\n<\/p><p>Proponents of this model claim that SaaS has the potential to reduce IT operational costs by outsourcing hardware and software maintenance and support to the cloud provider. This enables the business to reallocate IT operations costs away from hardware\/software spending and from personnel expenses, towards meeting other goals. In addition, with applications hosted centrally, updates can be released without the need for users to install new software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GriffinInternet18_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GriffinInternet18-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"PaaS\">PaaS<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>NIST's definition of cloud computing defines PaaS as<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISTCloudDef-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-created or acquired applications created using programming languages, libraries, services, and tools supported by the provider. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application-hosting environment.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>As such, PaaS users do not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure, including network, servers, operating systems, or storage. Rather, they have control over the deployed applications, and in some cases the configuration settings for the application-hosting environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GriffinInternet18_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GriffinInternet18-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"IaaS\">IaaS<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>NIST's definition of cloud computing describes IaaS as a platform \"where the consumer is able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and applications. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage, and deployed applications, and possibly limited control of select networking components (e.g., host firewalls).\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISTCloudDef-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>IaaS-cloud providers supply these resources on-demand from their large pools of equipment installed in data centers. For wide area network connectivity, customers can use either the internet or carrier clouds (dedicated virtual private networks). To deploy their applications, cloud users install operating-system images and their application software on the cloud infrastructure. The cloud user patches and maintains the operating systems and the application software on the infrastructure. Cloud providers typically bill IaaS services on a utility computing basis: cost reflects the amount of resources allocated and consumed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GriffinInternet18_12-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GriffinInternet18-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Deployment_models\">Deployment models<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:327px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Cloud_computing_types.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"82ef454ecf2be216251195c0181f71fe\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/87\/Cloud_computing_types.svg\/325px-Cloud_computing_types.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"325\" height=\"192\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Cloud_computing_types.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"82ef454ecf2be216251195c0181f71fe\"><\/a><\/div>Cloud computing deployment types<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The NIST definition identifies four deployment models for cloud computing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISTCloudDef-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><i>Private cloud<\/i>: an infrastructure operated solely for a single organization, whether managed internally or by a third-party and hosted internally or externally\n<\/p><p><i>Community cloud<\/i>: an infrastructure shared between several organisations from a specific community with common concerns (security, compliance, jurisdiction, etc.), managed internally or by a third-party and hosted internally or externally\n<\/p><p><i>Public cloud<\/i>: an infrastructure where resources are dynamically provisioned to the general public on a fine-grained, self-service basis over the Internet, via web applications\/web services, from an off-site third-party provider who bills on a metered basis\n<\/p><p><i>Hybrid cloud<\/i>: a composition of two or more clouds (private, community, or public) that remain unique entities but are bound together, offering the benefits of multiple deployment models\n<\/p><p>Other deployment options have arisen as well. Another (potentially classifiable as \"hybrid\") that has become more notable is <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Carrier_cloud\" title=\"Carrier cloud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a58a167c3e14d1d8ab5bbd29835e2ea4\">carrier cloud<\/a>, cloud computing services integrated into a communications service provider's network infrastructure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KontronWP_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KontronWP-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NarcisiCC_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NarcisiCC-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Others include distributed cloud (a distributed set of machines in different locations)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CunsoloVolunteer09_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CunsoloVolunteer09-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, high-performance computing cloud (able to handle applications)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NettoHPC18_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NettoHPC18-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, and polycloud (use of multiple public clouds from different providers, levaraging specific services each offers).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GallPoly18_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GallPoly18-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The underlying concept of cloud computing dates back to the 1960s, when John McCarthy opined that \"computation may someday be organized as a public utility.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HalpertAuditing_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HalpertAuditing-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Almost all the modern-day characteristics of cloud computing (elastic provision, provided as a utility, online, illusion of infinite supply), as well as the comparison to the electricity industry and the use of public, private, government, and community forms, were thoroughly explored in Douglas Parkhill's 1966 book, <i>The Challenge of the Computer Utility<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ParkhillChall_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ParkhillChall-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The actual term \"cloud\" borrows from telephony in that telecommunications companies, that until the 1990s offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits, began offering virtual private network (VPN) services with comparable quality of service but at a much lower cost. By switching traffic to balance utilization as they saw fit, they were able to utilize their overall network bandwidth more effectively. The cloud symbol was used to denote the demarcation point between that which was the responsibility of the provider and that which was the responsibility of the user. Cloud computing extends this boundary to cover servers as well as the network infrastructure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ATMMins_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ATMMins-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By the beginning of the twenty-first century, the advent of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Desktop_virtualization\" title=\"Desktop virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76\">virtualization<\/a> technology and cost effective computing hardware, as well as ubiquitous Internet connectivity, enabled a first wave of cloud services, including Salesforce.com in 1999 and Amazon Web Services in 2002.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CWHistOfCC_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CWHistOfCC-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup> After the dot-com bubble, Amazon continued to play key role in the development of cloud computing by modernizing their <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_center\" title=\"Data center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f5f939040d714745138ee295af8be71\">data centers<\/a>, which, like most computer networks, were using as little as 10 percent of their capacity at any one time, just to leave room for occasional spikes. Having found the new cloud architecture resulted in significant internal efficiency improvements whereby small, fast-moving \"two-pizza teams\" could add new features faster and more easily, Amazon initiated a new commercial cloud-based project, launching its Elastic Compute cloud (EC2) in 2006.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CWHistOfCC_21-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CWHistOfCC-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In May 2008, Eucalyptus became the first open-source, Amazon Web Service API-compatible platform for deploying private clouds.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EucHist_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EucHist-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In early 2008, OpenNebula, enhanced in the RESERVOIR European Commission-funded project, became the first open-source software for deploying private and hybrid clouds and for the federation of clouds.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RochwergerIBM_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RochwergerIBM-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup> By mid-2008, technology research firm Gartner saw an opportunity for cloud computing \"to shape the relationship among consumers of IT services, those who use IT services and those who sell them\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchurrKeep_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchurrKeep-24\">&#91;24&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and observed that \"organisations are switching from company-owned hardware and software assets to per-use service-based models\" so that the \"projected shift to cloud computing ... will result in dramatic growth in IT products in some areas and significant reductions in other areas.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerITSpend_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerITSpend-25\">&#91;25&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>By 2013, Gartner was reporting the public cloud services market was forecast to grow 18.5 percent in 2013, totalling $131 billion worldwide, up from $111 billion in 2012. Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) made up the fastest-growing segment of the market, growing 42.4 percent in 2012 to $6.1 billion, with expectations of it growing 47.3 percent in 2013 to $9 billion.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerCloudSpend_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerCloudSpend-26\">&#91;26&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By 2017, \"edge computing\" began to emerge as a viable option. Edge computing is a distributed computing paradigm that brings computation and storage closer to the location where is needed, thus improving response times and saving bandwidth. This in part has been driven by increasing use of mobile applications, and sensor-based <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things\" title=\"Internet of things\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f\">internet of things<\/a> devices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SatyanarayananTheEmerg17_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SatyanarayananTheEmerg17-27\">&#91;27&#93;<\/a><\/sup> More broadly, by the late 2010s, a distinct trend in cloud computing was emerging, as noted by Varghese and Buyya: \"The general trend seems to be towards making use of infrastructure from multiple providers and decentralising computing away from resources currently concentrated in data centers. This is in contrast to traditional cloud offerings from single providers. Consequently, new computing models to suit the demands of the market are emerging.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VargheseNextGen18_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VargheseNextGen18-28\">&#91;28&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Issues_and_concerns\">Issues and concerns<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>General criticisms of cloud computing state the term is too unspecific or even misleading. CEO Larry Ellison of Oracle Corporation asserts that cloud computing is \"everything that we already do\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FarberOracle_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FarberOracle-29\">&#91;29&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and that the company could simply \"change the wording on some of our ads\"\n<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KanaracusOracle_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KanaracusOracle-30\">&#91;30&#93;<\/a><\/sup> to deploy cloud-based services.\n<\/p><p>In 2008, Forrester Research VP Frank Gillett questioned the very nature of and motivation behind the push for cloud computing, describing what he calls \"cloud washing\"\u2014companies simply relabeling their products as \"cloud computing\", resulting in mere marketing innovation instead of \"real\" innovation. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PlesserYT_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PlesserYT-31\">&#91;31&#93;<\/a><\/sup> That same year, GNU's Richard Stallman insisted the industry will only use the model to deliver services at ever increasing rates over proprietary systems, otherwise likening it to a \"marketing hype campaign.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Stallman_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Stallman-32\">&#91;32&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Privacy\">Privacy<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The cloud model has been criticized by privacy advocates for the greater ease in which the companies hosting the cloud services control and monitor at will, lawfully or unlawfully, the communication and data stored between the user and the host company, leading to questions about whether or not privacy concerns can be addressed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MaierCloud_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MaierCloud-33\">&#91;33&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchwartzCloud_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchwartzCloud-34\">&#91;34&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Compliance\">Compliance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In order to obtain compliance with regulations including FISMA, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HIPAA\" data-key=\"70050974d1eda9ff8cf9ecf7e4fcd015\">HIPAA<\/a>, and SOX in the United States, the Data Protection Directive in the European Union, and the credit card industry's PCI DSS, users may have to adopt community or hybrid deployment modes that are typically more expensive and may offer restricted benefits. This is how Google is able to \"manage and meet additional government policy requirements beyond FISMA\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HowardFed_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HowardFed-35\">&#91;35&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GlotzbachGov_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GlotzbachGov-36\">&#91;36&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and Rackspace Cloud are able to claim PCI compliance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BartelsSecure_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BartelsSecure-37\">&#91;37&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many providers also obtain SAS 70 Type II certification, but this has been criticized on the grounds that the hand-picked set of goals and standards determined by the auditor and the auditee are often not disclosed and can vary widely.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BrooksAmazon_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BrooksAmazon-38\">&#91;38&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Providers typically make this information available on request, under non-disclosure agreement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">&#91;39&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Customers in the European Union contracting with cloud providers established outside the area have to adhere to the European Union's regulations on export of personal data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">&#91;40&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Performance\">Performance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Public cloud instances typically function well at the server and client hardware; however, speed across the connecting public Internet pipeline can vary significantly. Internet speeds can be asymmetrical and non-guaranteed, bandwidth may need to be shared, and Internet traffic rarely follow the same path, constraining performance and making a cloud option less appealing than a localized option.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RichardsSpeed_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RichardsSpeed-41\">&#91;41&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Poor upload speeds, especially from non-business home accounts, are also quoted as a factor limiting cloud computing's appeal.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JenksCloud_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JenksCloud-42\">&#91;42&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Legal\">Legal<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Since 2007, the number of trademark filings covering cloud computing brands, goods, and services has increased rapidly. For example, in March 2007, Dell applied to trademark the term \"cloud computing\" (<span class=\"plainlinks\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/tarr.uspto.gov\/servlet\/tarr?regser=serial&entry=77139082\" target=\"_blank\">U.S. Trademark 77,139,082<\/a><\/span>) in the United States. The \"Notice of Allowance\" the company received in July 2008 was canceled in August, resulting in a formal rejection of the trademark application less than a week later. As Dell and other companies sought to better position themselves for cloud computing branding and marketing efforts, cloud computing trademark filings increased by 483 percent between 2008 and 2009. In 2009, 116 cloud computing trademarks were filed, and trademark analysts predicted that over 500 such marks could be filed during 2010.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Trademarks_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Trademarks-43\">&#91;43&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other legal cases may shape the use of cloud computing by the public sector. On October 29, 2010, Google filed a lawsuit against the U.S. Department of Interior, which opened up a bid for software that required bidders use Microsoft's Business Productivity Online Suite. Google sued, calling the requirement \"unduly restrictive of competition.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GoogleUS_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GoogleUS-44\">&#91;44&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Scholars have pointed out that, beginning in 2005, the prevalence of open standards and open-source software options may have an impact on the way public entities choose to select vendors and their software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">&#91;45&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Concerns about the legal and financial repercussions of a cloud provider shutting down, which has happened in a number of cases, also exist.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ScheiferCloud_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ScheiferCloud-46\">&#91;46&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Open_standards\">Open standards<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Most cloud providers expose APIs that are typically well-documented (often under a Creative Commons license<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GoGrid_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GoGrid-47\">&#91;47&#93;<\/a><\/sup>) but also unique to their implementation and thus not interoperable. Some vendors have adopted others' APIs, and there are a number of open standards under development, with a view to delivering interoperability and portability.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EucAma_48-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EucAma-48\">&#91;48&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security\">Security<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As cloud computing increases in popularity, concerns are being raised about the security issues introduced through the adoption of this new model. The effectiveness and efficiency of traditional protection mechanisms are being reconsidered as the characteristics of this innovative deployment model differ widely from those of traditional architectures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Zissis10_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Zissis10-49\">&#91;49&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Issues barring the adoption of cloud computing are due in large part to the private and public sectors' unease surrounding the external management of security based services. It is the very nature of cloud computing based services, private or public, that promote external management of provided services. This delivers great incentive among cloud computing service providers in producing a priority in building and maintaining strong management of secure services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MessmerSecurity10_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MessmerSecurity10-50\">&#91;50&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Security issues have been categorized into sensitive data access, data segregation, privacy, bug exploitation, recovery, accountability, malicious insiders, management console security, account control, and multi-tenancy issues. Solutions to various cloud security issues vary from cryptography (particularly public key infrastructure), use of multiple cloud providers, standardization of APIs, improving virtual machine support, and legal support.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Zissis10_49-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Zissis10-49\">&#91;49&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Armbrust10_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Armbrust10-51\">&#91;51&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AnthesSecurity10_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AnthesSecurity10-52\">&#91;52&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The complexity of security is further increased when data is distributed over a wider area or greater number of devices and in multi-tenant systems that are being shared by unrelated users. In addition, user access to security audit logs may be difficult or impossible. The move to private cloud installations are in part motivated by users' desire to retain control over the infrastructure and avoid losing control of information security.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Contracts\">Contracts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Most transitions to a cloud computing solution entail a change from a technically managed solution to a contractually managed solution. This change necessitates increased IT contract negotiation skills to establish the terms of the relationship and vendor management skills to maintain the relationship. All rights and responsibilities associated with the relationship between a client and a provider must be codified in the contract and effectively managed until the relationship has been terminated. Key risks and issues that are either unique to cloud computing or essential to its effective adoption typically involve service level agreements; data processing and access; provider infrastructure and security; and contract and vendor management.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TrappierCloud_53-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TrappierCloud-53\">&#91;53&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Halpert, Ben&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&pg=PT10&lpg=PT10\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Auditing Cloud Computing: A Security and Privacy Guide<\/i><\/a>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;206.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780470874745<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&pg=PT10&lpg=PT10\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&amp;pg=PT10&amp;lpg=PT10<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Auditing+Cloud+Computing%3A+A+Security+and+Privacy+Guide&amp;rft.aulast=Halpert%2C+Ben&amp;rft.au=Halpert%2C+Ben&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B206&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9780470874745&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGjsH0HJ2PmYC%26pg%3DPT10%26lpg%3DPT10&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Kavis, Michael J&#32;(2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Architecting-Cloud-Decisions-Computing-Service\/dp\/1118617614\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Architecting the Cloud: Design Decisions for Cloud Computing Service Models (SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS)<\/i><\/a>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;224.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781118617618<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Architecting-Cloud-Decisions-Computing-Service\/dp\/1118617614\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Architecting-Cloud-Decisions-Computing-Service\/dp\/1118617614<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Architecting+the+Cloud%3A+Design+Decisions+for+Cloud+Computing+Service+Models+%28SaaS%2C+PaaS%2C+and+IaaS%29&amp;rft.aulast=Kavis%2C+Michael+J&amp;rft.au=Kavis%2C+Michael+J&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B224&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9781118617618&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FArchitecting-Cloud-Decisions-Computing-Service%2Fdp%2F1118617614&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article reuses numerous content elements from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-GartnerCC-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GartnerCC_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180828134416\/https:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/707508\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gartner Says Cloud Computing Will Be As Influential As E-business\"<\/a>.&#32;Gartner, Inc.&#32;26 June 2008.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/707508\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 August 2018<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180828134416\/https:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/707508\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180828134416\/https:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/707508<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Gartner+Says+Cloud+Computing+Will+Be+As+Influential+As+E-business&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=26+June+2008&amp;rft.pub=Gartner%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20180828134416%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.gartner.com%2Fnewsroom%2Fid%2F707508&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GrumanReally-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GrumanReally_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Knorr, E.&#32;(2 October 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/article\/2683784\/what-is-cloud-computing.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is cloud computing? Everything you need to know now\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>InfoWorld<\/i>.&#32;IDG Network<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/article\/2683784\/what-is-cloud-computing.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/article\/2683784\/what-is-cloud-computing.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+cloud+computing%3F+Everything+you+need+to+know+now&amp;rft.atitle=InfoWorld&amp;rft.aulast=Knorr%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Knorr%2C+E.&amp;rft.date=2+October+2018&amp;rft.pub=IDG+Network&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoworld.com%2Farticle%2F2683784%2Fwhat-is-cloud-computing.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Danielson-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Danielson_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Danielson, K.&#32;(26 March 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200124141938\/http:\/\/www.ebizq.net\/blogs\/saasweek\/2008\/03\/distinguishing_cloud_computing\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Distinguishing Cloud Computing from Utility Computing\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ebizQ<\/i>.&#32;TechTarget.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ebizq.net\/blogs\/saasweek\/2008\/03\/distinguishing_cloud_computing\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 24 January 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200124141938\/http:\/\/www.ebizq.net\/blogs\/saasweek\/2008\/03\/distinguishing_cloud_computing\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200124141938\/http:\/\/www.ebizq.net\/blogs\/saasweek\/2008\/03\/distinguishing_cloud_computing\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Distinguishing+Cloud+Computing+from+Utility+Computing&amp;rft.atitle=ebizQ&amp;rft.aulast=Danielson%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Danielson%2C+K.&amp;rft.date=26+March+2008&amp;rft.pub=TechTarget&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200124141938%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ebizq.net%2Fblogs%2Fsaasweek%2F2008%2F03%2Fdistinguishing_cloud_computing%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TAPI-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TAPI_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Sells, Chris&#32;(1 July 1998).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050502192319\/http:\/\/www.sellsbrothers.com\/writing\/intro2tapi\/default.aspx?content=pstn.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Windows Telephony Programming: A Developer's Guide to TAPI\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Sellsbrothers.com<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sellsbrothers.com\/writing\/intro2tapi\/default.aspx?content=pstn.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 02 May 2005<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050502192319\/http:\/\/www.sellsbrothers.com\/writing\/intro2tapi\/default.aspx?content=pstn.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050502192319\/http:\/\/www.sellsbrothers.com\/writing\/intro2tapi\/default.aspx?content=pstn.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Windows+Telephony+Programming%3A+A+Developer%27s+Guide+to+TAPI&amp;rft.atitle=Sellsbrothers.com&amp;rft.aulast=Sells%2C+Chris&amp;rft.au=Sells%2C+Chris&amp;rft.date=1+July+1998&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20050502192319%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.sellsbrothers.com%2Fwriting%2Fintro2tapi%2Fdefault.aspx%3Fcontent%3Dpstn.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ScanlonCloud-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ScanlonCloud_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Scanlon,Jessie Holliday; Wieners, Brad&#32;(9 July 1999).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100211133442\/http:\/\/www.thestandard.com\/article\/0,1902,5466,00.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Internet Cloud\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Industry Standard<\/i>.&#32;IDG Network.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thestandard.com\/article\/0,1902,5466,00.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 11 February 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100211133442\/http:\/\/www.thestandard.com\/article\/0,1902,5466,00.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100211133442\/http:\/\/www.thestandard.com\/article\/0,1902,5466,00.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 2010-08-22<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Internet+Cloud&amp;rft.atitle=The+Industry+Standard&amp;rft.aulast=Scanlon%2CJessie+Holliday%3B+Wieners%2C+Brad&amp;rft.au=Scanlon%2CJessie+Holliday%3B+Wieners%2C+Brad&amp;rft.date=9+July+1999&amp;rft.pub=IDG+Network&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20100211133442%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.thestandard.com%2Farticle%2F0%2C1902%2C5466%2C00.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NISTCloudDef-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-2\">6.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-3\">6.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-4\">6.4<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-5\">6.5<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Mell, P.; Grance, T.&#32;(September 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/publications\/detail\/sp\/800-145\/final\" target=\"_blank\">\"The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing\"<\/a>.&#32;National Institute of Standards and Technology<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/publications\/detail\/sp\/800-145\/final\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/publications\/detail\/sp\/800-145\/final<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+NIST+Definition+of+Cloud+Computing&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Mell%2C+P.%3B+Grance%2C+T.&amp;rft.au=Mell%2C+P.%3B+Grance%2C+T.&amp;rft.date=September+2011&amp;rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcsrc.nist.gov%2Fpublications%2Fdetail%2Fsp%2F800-145%2Ffinal&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ColumbusMaking-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ColumbusMaking_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Columbus, L.&#32;(10 April 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/louiscolumbus\/2013\/04\/10\/making-cloud-computing-pay-2\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Making Cloud Computing Pay\"<\/a>.&#32;Forbes<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/louiscolumbus\/2013\/04\/10\/making-cloud-computing-pay-2\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/louiscolumbus\/2013\/04\/10\/making-cloud-computing-pay-2\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Making+Cloud+Computing+Pay&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Columbus%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Columbus%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=10+April+2013&amp;rft.pub=Forbes&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Flouiscolumbus%2F2013%2F04%2F10%2Fmaking-cloud-computing-pay-2%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GensCloud-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GensCloud_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GensCloud_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GensCloud_8-2\">8.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Gens, Frank&#32;(23 September 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170528125047\/http:\/\/blogs.idc.com\/ie\/?p=190\" target=\"_blank\">\"Defining \"Cloud Services\" and \"Cloud Computing\"\"<\/a>.&#32;IDC.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blogs.idc.com\/ie\/?p=190\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 May 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170528125047\/http:\/\/blogs.idc.com\/ie\/?p=190\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170528125047\/http:\/\/blogs.idc.com\/ie\/?p=190<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Defining+%22Cloud+Services%22+and+%22Cloud+Computing%22&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Gens%2C+Frank&amp;rft.au=Gens%2C+Frank&amp;rft.date=23+September+2008&amp;rft.pub=IDC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170528125047%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fblogs.idc.com%2Fie%2F%3Fp%3D190&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FarberData-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FarberData_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Farber, D.&#32;(25 June 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cnet.com\/news\/the-new-geek-chic-data-centers\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The new geek chic: Data centers\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>CNET<\/i>.&#32;CBS Interactive<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cnet.com\/news\/the-new-geek-chic-data-centers\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cnet.com\/news\/the-new-geek-chic-data-centers\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+new+geek+chic%3A+Data+centers&amp;rft.atitle=CNET&amp;rft.aulast=Farber%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Farber%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=25+June+2008&amp;rft.pub=CBS+Interactive&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnet.com%2Fnews%2Fthe-new-geek-chic-data-centers%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KingCloud-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KingCloud_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">King, R.&#32;(4 August 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2008-08-04\/cloud-computing-small-companies-take-flightbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud Computing: Small Companies Take Flight\"<\/a>.&#32;Bloomberg<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2008-08-04\/cloud-computing-small-companies-take-flightbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2008-08-04\/cloud-computing-small-companies-take-flightbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cloud+Computing%3A+Small+Companies+Take+Flight&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=King%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=King%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=4+August+2008&amp;rft.pub=Bloomberg&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2008-08-04%2Fcloud-computing-small-companies-take-flightbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Kuperberg-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kuperberg_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Kuperberg, M.; Herbst, N.; von Kistowski, J.; Reussner, R.&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/publikationen.bibliothek.kit.edu\/1000023476\" target=\"_blank\">\"Defining and Quantifying Elasticity of Resources in Cloud Computing and Scalable Platforms\"<\/a>.&#32;Karlsruher Institut f\u00fcr Technologie<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/publikationen.bibliothek.kit.edu\/1000023476\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/publikationen.bibliothek.kit.edu\/1000023476<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Defining+and+Quantifying+Elasticity+of+Resources+in+Cloud+Computing+and+Scalable+Platforms&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Kuperberg%2C+M.%3B+Herbst%2C+N.%3B++von+Kistowski%2C+J.%3B+Reussner%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Kuperberg%2C+M.%3B+Herbst%2C+N.%3B++von+Kistowski%2C+J.%3B+Reussner%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pub=Karlsruher+Institut+f%C3%BCr+Technologie&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublikationen.bibliothek.kit.edu%2F1000023476&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GriffinInternet18-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GriffinInternet18_12-0\">12.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GriffinInternet18_12-1\">12.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GriffinInternet18_12-2\">12.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Griffin, R.&#32;(2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=OuTEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Internet Governance<\/i><\/a>.&#32;ED-Tech Press.&#32;pp.&#160;111\u201313.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781839473951<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=OuTEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=OuTEDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA111<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Internet+Governance&amp;rft.aulast=Griffin%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Griffin%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B111%E2%80%9313&amp;rft.pub=ED-Tech+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781839473951&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOuTEDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA111&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KontronWP-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KontronWP_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.kontron.com\/resources\/collateral\/white_papers\/kontroncarriercloudwp.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud Evolution: The Carrier Cloud\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Kontron.&#32;2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.kontron.com\/resources\/collateral\/white_papers\/kontroncarriercloudwp.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.kontron.com\/resources\/collateral\/white_papers\/kontroncarriercloudwp.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cloud+Evolution%3A+The+Carrier+Cloud&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.pub=Kontron&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kontron.com%2Fresources%2Fcollateral%2Fwhite_papers%2Fkontroncarriercloudwp.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NarcisiCC-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NarcisiCC_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Narcisi, G.&#32;(November 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190624173258\/https:\/\/searchnetworking.techtarget.com\/feature\/Carrier-cloud-services-Do-customers-care-if-you-own-the-network\" target=\"_blank\">\"Carrier cloud services: Do customers care if you own the network?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>SearchNetworking<\/i>.&#32;TechTarget.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/searchnetworking.techtarget.com\/feature\/Carrier-cloud-services-Do-customers-care-if-you-own-the-network\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 24 June 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190624173258\/https:\/\/searchnetworking.techtarget.com\/feature\/Carrier-cloud-services-Do-customers-care-if-you-own-the-network\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190624173258\/https:\/\/searchnetworking.techtarget.com\/feature\/Carrier-cloud-services-Do-customers-care-if-you-own-the-network<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Carrier+cloud+services%3A+Do+customers+care+if+you+own+the+network%3F&amp;rft.atitle=SearchNetworking&amp;rft.aulast=Narcisi%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Narcisi%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=November+2013&amp;rft.pub=TechTarget&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20190624173258%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fsearchnetworking.techtarget.com%2Ffeature%2FCarrier-cloud-services-Do-customers-care-if-you-own-the-network&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CunsoloVolunteer09-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CunsoloVolunteer09_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Cunsolo, V.D.; Distefano, S.; Puliafito, A. et al.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Volunteer Computing and Desktop Cloud: The Cloud@Home Paradigm\".&#32;<i>2009 Eighth IEEE International Symposium on Network Computing and Applications<\/i>: 134\u20139.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1109%2FNCA.2009.41\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/NCA.2009.41<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Volunteer+Computing+and+Desktop+Cloud%3A+The+Cloud%40Home+Paradigm&amp;rft.jtitle=2009+Eighth+IEEE+International+Symposium+on+Network+Computing+and+Applications&amp;rft.aulast=Cunsolo%2C+V.D.%3B+Distefano%2C+S.%3B+Puliafito%2C+A.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Cunsolo%2C+V.D.%3B+Distefano%2C+S.%3B+Puliafito%2C+A.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=134%E2%80%939&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1109%2FNCA.2009.41&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NettoHPC18-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NettoHPC18_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Netto, M.A.S.; Calheiros, R.N.; Rodrigues, E.R. et al.&#32;(2018).&#32;\"HPC Cloud for Scientific and Business Applications: Taxonomy, Vision, and Research Challenges\".&#32;<i>AMC Computing Surveys<\/i>&#32;<b>51<\/b>&#32;(1): 8.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1145%2F3150224\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/3150224<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=HPC+Cloud+for+Scientific+and+Business+Applications%3A+Taxonomy%2C+Vision%2C+and+Research+Challenges&amp;rft.jtitle=AMC+Computing+Surveys&amp;rft.aulast=Netto%2C+M.A.S.%3B+Calheiros%2C+R.N.%3B+Rodrigues%2C+E.R.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Netto%2C+M.A.S.%3B+Calheiros%2C+R.N.%3B+Rodrigues%2C+E.R.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.volume=51&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=8&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1145%2F3150224&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GallPoly18-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GallPoly18_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Gall, R.&#32;(16 May 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hub.packtpub.com\/polycloud-a-better-alternative-to-cloud-agnosticism\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Polycloud: A better alternative to cloud agnosticism\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Cloud and Networking News<\/i>.&#32;Packt Publishing<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/hub.packtpub.com\/polycloud-a-better-alternative-to-cloud-agnosticism\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/hub.packtpub.com\/polycloud-a-better-alternative-to-cloud-agnosticism\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Polycloud%3A+A+better+alternative+to+cloud+agnosticism&amp;rft.atitle=Cloud+and+Networking+News&amp;rft.aulast=Gall%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Gall%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=16+May+2018&amp;rft.pub=Packt+Publishing&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhub.packtpub.com%2Fpolycloud-a-better-alternative-to-cloud-agnosticism%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HalpertAuditing-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HalpertAuditing_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Halpert, Ben&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&pg=PT10&lpg=PT10\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Introduction to Cloud Computing\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Auditing Cloud Computing: A Security and Privacy Guide<\/i>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201313.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781118116043<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&pg=PT10&lpg=PT10\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&amp;pg=PT10&amp;lpg=PT10<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction+to+Cloud+Computing&amp;rft.atitle=Auditing+Cloud+Computing%3A+A+Security+and+Privacy+Guide&amp;rft.aulast=Halpert%2C+Ben&amp;rft.au=Halpert%2C+Ben&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%9313&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9781118116043&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGjsH0HJ2PmYC%26pg%3DPT10%26lpg%3DPT10&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ParkhillChall-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ParkhillChall_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Parhill, Douglas&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=8kJZAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Challenge of the Computer Utility<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Addison-Wesley Pub. Co<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=8kJZAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=8kJZAAAAMAAJ<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Challenge+of+the+Computer+Utility&amp;rft.aulast=Parhill%2C+Douglas&amp;rft.au=Parhill%2C+Douglas&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley+Pub.+Co&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8kJZAAAAMAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ATMMins-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ATMMins_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Laubach, Mark&#32;(July 1993).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20030722214022\/http:\/\/ftp.univie.ac.at\/netinfo\/ietf\/atm\/atm-minutes-93jul.txt\" target=\"_blank\">\"Minutes of the IP Over Asynchronous Transfer Mode Working Group (ATM)\"<\/a>.&#32;Hewlett-Packard.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ftp.univie.ac.at\/netinfo\/ietf\/atm\/atm-minutes-93jul.txt\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 22 July 2003<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20030722214022\/http:\/\/ftp.univie.ac.at\/netinfo\/ietf\/atm\/atm-minutes-93jul.txt\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20030722214022\/http:\/\/ftp.univie.ac.at\/netinfo\/ietf\/atm\/atm-minutes-93jul.txt<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Minutes+of+the+IP+Over+Asynchronous+Transfer+Mode+Working+Group+%28ATM%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Laubach%2C+Mark&amp;rft.au=Laubach%2C+Mark&amp;rft.date=July+1993&amp;rft.pub=Hewlett-Packard&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20030722214022%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fftp.univie.ac.at%2Fnetinfo%2Fietf%2Fatm%2Fatm-minutes-93jul.txt&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CWHistOfCC-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CWHistOfCC_21-0\">21.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CWHistOfCC_21-1\">21.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Mohamed, A.&#32;(9 April 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210828084309\/https:\/\/www.computerweekly.com\/feature\/A-history-of-cloud-computing\" target=\"_blank\">\"A history of cloud computing\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ComputerWeekly.com<\/i>.&#32;TechTarget.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.computerweekly.com\/feature\/A-history-of-cloud-computing\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 August 2021<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210828084309\/https:\/\/www.computerweekly.com\/feature\/A-history-of-cloud-computing\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210828084309\/https:\/\/www.computerweekly.com\/feature\/A-history-of-cloud-computing<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=A+history+of+cloud+computing&amp;rft.atitle=ComputerWeekly.com&amp;rft.aulast=Mohamed%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Mohamed%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=9+April+2018&amp;rft.pub=TechTarget&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20210828084309%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerweekly.com%2Ffeature%2FA-history-of-cloud-computing&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EucHist-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EucHist_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140626125211\/https:\/\/www.eucalyptus.com\/about\/story\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Eucalyptus Story\"<\/a>.&#32;Eucalyptus Systems, Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.eucalyptus.com\/about\/story\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 26 June 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140626125211\/https:\/\/www.eucalyptus.com\/about\/story\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140626125211\/https:\/\/www.eucalyptus.com\/about\/story<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Eucalyptus+Story&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Eucalyptus+Systems%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140626125211%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.eucalyptus.com%2Fabout%2Fstory&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RochwergerIBM-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RochwergerIBM_23-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Rochwerger, B.; Caceres, J.; Montero, R.S. et al.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120108183022\/http:\/\/researchweb.watson.ibm.com\/journal\/abstracts\/rd\/534\/rochwerger.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The RESERVOIR Model and Architecture for Open Federated Cloud Computing\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>IBM Journal of Research and Development<\/i>&#32;<b>53<\/b>&#32;(4).&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/researchweb.watson.ibm.com\/journal\/abstracts\/rd\/534\/rochwerger.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 08 January 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120108183022\/http:\/\/researchweb.watson.ibm.com\/journal\/abstracts\/rd\/534\/rochwerger.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120108183022\/http:\/\/researchweb.watson.ibm.com\/journal\/abstracts\/rd\/534\/rochwerger.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+RESERVOIR+Model+and+Architecture+for+Open+Federated+Cloud+Computing&amp;rft.jtitle=IBM+Journal+of+Research+and+Development&amp;rft.aulast=Rochwerger%2C+B.%3B+Caceres%2C+J.%3B+Montero%2C+R.S.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Rochwerger%2C+B.%3B+Caceres%2C+J.%3B+Montero%2C+R.S.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.volume=53&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120108183022%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fresearchweb.watson.ibm.com%2Fjournal%2Fabstracts%2Frd%2F534%2Frochwerger.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchurrKeep-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchurrKeep_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Schurr, A.&#32;(8 July 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2281563\/keep-an-eye-on-cloud-computing.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Keep an eye on cloud computing\"<\/a>.&#32;Network World<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2281563\/keep-an-eye-on-cloud-computing.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2281563\/keep-an-eye-on-cloud-computing.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Keep+an+eye+on+cloud+computing&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Schurr%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Schurr%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=8+July+2008&amp;rft.pub=Network+World&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Farticle%2F2281563%2Fkeep-an-eye-on-cloud-computing.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GartnerITSpend-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GartnerITSpend_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170703131346\/http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/742913\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gartner Says Worldwide IT Spending On Pace to Surpass Trillion in 2008\"<\/a>.&#32;Gartner, Inc.&#32;18 August 2008.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/it\/page.jsp?id=742913\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 July 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170703131346\/http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/742913\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170703131346\/http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/742913<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Gartner+Says+Worldwide+IT+Spending+On+Pace+to+Surpass+Trillion+in+2008&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=18+August+2008&amp;rft.pub=Gartner%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170703131346%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.gartner.com%2Fnewsroom%2Fid%2F742913&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GartnerCloudSpend-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GartnerCloudSpend_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170218030806\/http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/2352816\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gartner Says Worldwide Public Cloud Services Market to Total $131 Billion\"<\/a>.&#32;Gartner, Inc.&#32;28 February 2013.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/2352816\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 18 February 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170218030806\/http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/2352816\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170218030806\/http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/2352816<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Gartner+Says+Worldwide+Public+Cloud+Services+Market+to+Total+%24131+Billion&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=28+February+2013&amp;rft.pub=Gartner%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170218030806%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.gartner.com%2Fnewsroom%2Fid%2F2352816&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SatyanarayananTheEmerg17-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SatyanarayananTheEmerg17_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Satyanarayanan, M.&#32;(2017).&#32;\"The Emergence of Edge Computing\".&#32;<i>Computer<\/i>&#32;<b>50<\/b>&#32;(1): 30\u201339.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1109%2FMC.2017.9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/MC.2017.9<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+Emergence+of+Edge+Computing&amp;rft.jtitle=Computer&amp;rft.aulast=Satyanarayanan%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Satyanarayanan%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.volume=50&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=30%E2%80%9339&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1109%2FMC.2017.9&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VargheseNextGen18-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-VargheseNextGen18_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Varghese, B.; Buyya, R.&#32;(2018).&#32;\"Next generation cloud computing: New trends and research directions\".&#32;<i>Future Generation Computer Systems<\/i>&#32;<b>79<\/b>&#32;(Part 3): 849\u201361.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.future.2017.09.020\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.future.2017.09.020<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Next+generation+cloud+computing%3A+New+trends+and+research+directions&amp;rft.jtitle=Future+Generation+Computer+Systems&amp;rft.aulast=Varghese%2C+B.%3B+Buyya%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Varghese%2C+B.%3B+Buyya%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.volume=79&amp;rft.issue=Part+3&amp;rft.pages=849%E2%80%9361&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.future.2017.09.020&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FarberOracle-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FarberOracle_29-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Farber, D.&#32;(26 September 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cnet.com\/news\/oracles-ellison-nails-cloud-computing\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Oracle's Ellison nails cloud computing\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>CNET<\/i>.&#32;CBS Interactive<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cnet.com\/news\/oracles-ellison-nails-cloud-computing\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cnet.com\/news\/oracles-ellison-nails-cloud-computing\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Oracle%27s+Ellison+nails+cloud+computing&amp;rft.atitle=CNET&amp;rft.aulast=Farber%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Farber%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=26+September+2008&amp;rft.pub=CBS+Interactive&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnet.com%2Fnews%2Foracles-ellison-nails-cloud-computing%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KanaracusOracle-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KanaracusOracle_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Kanaracus, C.&#32;(9 February 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2244231\/oracle-launches-worldwide-cloud-computing-tour.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Oracle launches worldwide cloud-computing tour\"<\/a>.&#32;Network World<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2244231\/oracle-launches-worldwide-cloud-computing-tour.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2244231\/oracle-launches-worldwide-cloud-computing-tour.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Oracle+launches+worldwide+cloud-computing+tour&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Kanaracus%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Kanaracus%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=9+February+2010&amp;rft.pub=Network+World&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Farticle%2F2244231%2Foracle-launches-worldwide-cloud-computing-tour.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PlesserYT-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PlesserYT_31-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Plesser, A.&#32;(29 September 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=f7wv1i8ubng\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud Computing is Hyped and Overblown\"<\/a>.&#32;YouTube<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=f7wv1i8ubng\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=f7wv1i8ubng<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cloud+Computing+is+Hyped+and+Overblown&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Plesser%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Plesser%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=29+September+2008&amp;rft.pub=YouTube&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Df7wv1i8ubng&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Stallman-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Stallman_32-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Johnson, B.&#32;(29 September 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2008\/sep\/29\/cloud.computing.richard.stallman\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud computing is a trap, warns GNU founder Richard Stallman\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Guardian<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2008\/sep\/29\/cloud.computing.richard.stallman\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2008\/sep\/29\/cloud.computing.richard.stallman<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cloud+computing+is+a+trap%2C+warns+GNU+founder+Richard+Stallman&amp;rft.atitle=The+Guardian&amp;rft.aulast=Johnson%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Johnson%2C+B.&amp;rft.date=29+September+2008&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2008%2Fsep%2F29%2Fcloud.computing.richard.stallman&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MaierCloud-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MaierCloud_33-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Maier, F.&#32;(19 October 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/mashable.com\/2011\/10\/19\/cloud-privacy\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Can There Ever Really Be Privacy in the Cloud?\"<\/a>.&#32;Mashable<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/mashable.com\/2011\/10\/19\/cloud-privacy\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/mashable.com\/2011\/10\/19\/cloud-privacy\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Can+There+Ever+Really+Be+Privacy+in+the+Cloud%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Maier%2C+F.&amp;rft.au=Maier%2C+F.&amp;rft.date=19+October+2011&amp;rft.pub=Mashable&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmashable.com%2F2011%2F10%2F19%2Fcloud-privacy%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchwartzCloud-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchwartzCloud_34-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Schwartz, P.M.&#32;(2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2290303\" target=\"_blank\">\"Information Privacy in the Cloud\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>University of Pennsylvania Law Review<\/i>&#32;<b>161<\/b>&#32;(1623): 2290303<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2290303\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2290303<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Information+Privacy+in+the+Cloud&amp;rft.jtitle=University+of+Pennsylvania+Law+Review&amp;rft.aulast=Schwartz%2C+P.M.&amp;rft.au=Schwartz%2C+P.M.&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.volume=161&amp;rft.issue=1623&amp;rft.pages=2290303&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2290303&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HowardFed-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HowardFed_35-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Howard, A.B.&#32;(18 December 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200812174422\/https:\/\/searchcompliance.techtarget.com\/news\/1377298\/FISMA-compliance-for-federal-cloud-computing-on-the-horizon-in-2010\" target=\"_blank\">\"FISMA compliance for federal cloud computing on the horizon in 2010\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>SearchCompliance<\/i>.&#32;TechTarget.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/searchcompliance.techtarget.com\/news\/1377298\/FISMA-compliance-for-federal-cloud-computing-on-the-horizon-in-2010\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 12 August 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200812174422\/https:\/\/searchcompliance.techtarget.com\/news\/1377298\/FISMA-compliance-for-federal-cloud-computing-on-the-horizon-in-2010\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200812174422\/https:\/\/searchcompliance.techtarget.com\/news\/1377298\/FISMA-compliance-for-federal-cloud-computing-on-the-horizon-in-2010<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FISMA+compliance+for+federal+cloud+computing+on+the+horizon+in+2010&amp;rft.atitle=SearchCompliance&amp;rft.aulast=Howard%2C+A.B.&amp;rft.au=Howard%2C+A.B.&amp;rft.date=18+December+2009&amp;rft.pub=TechTarget&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200812174422%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fsearchcompliance.techtarget.com%2Fnews%2F1377298%2FFISMA-compliance-for-federal-cloud-computing-on-the-horizon-in-2010&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GlotzbachGov-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GlotzbachGov_36-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Glotzbach, M.&#32;(15 September 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cloud.googleblog.com\/2009\/09\/google-apps-and-government.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Google Apps and Government\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Google Official Enterprise Blog<\/i>.&#32;Google<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cloud.googleblog.com\/2009\/09\/google-apps-and-government.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cloud.googleblog.com\/2009\/09\/google-apps-and-government.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Google+Apps+and+Government&amp;rft.atitle=Google+Official+Enterprise+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Glotzbach%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Glotzbach%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=15+September+2009&amp;rft.pub=Google&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcloud.googleblog.com%2F2009%2F09%2Fgoogle-apps-and-government.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BartelsSecure-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BartelsSecure_37-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Bartels, Angela&#32;(5 March 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110223172816\/http:\/\/www.rackspace.com\/cloud\/blog\/2009\/03\/05\/cloud-hosting-is-secure-for-take-off-mosso-enables-the-spreadsheet-store-an-online-merchant-to-become-pci-compliant\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud Hosting is Secure for Take-off: Mosso Enables The Spreadsheet Store, an Online Merchant, to become PCI Compliant\"<\/a>.&#32;Rackspace.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rackspace.com\/cloud\/blog\/2009\/03\/05\/cloud-hosting-is-secure-for-take-off-mosso-enables-the-spreadsheet-store-an-online-merchant-to-become-pci-compliant\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 23 February 2011<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110223172816\/http:\/\/www.rackspace.com\/cloud\/blog\/2009\/03\/05\/cloud-hosting-is-secure-for-take-off-mosso-enables-the-spreadsheet-store-an-online-merchant-to-become-pci-compliant\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110223172816\/http:\/\/www.rackspace.com\/cloud\/blog\/2009\/03\/05\/cloud-hosting-is-secure-for-take-off-mosso-enables-the-spreadsheet-store-an-online-merchant-to-become-pci-compliant\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cloud+Hosting+is+Secure+for+Take-off%3A+Mosso+Enables+The+Spreadsheet+Store%2C+an+Online+Merchant%2C+to+become+PCI+Compliant&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Bartels%2C+Angela&amp;rft.au=Bartels%2C+Angela&amp;rft.date=5+March+2009&amp;rft.pub=Rackspace&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20110223172816%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.rackspace.com%2Fcloud%2Fblog%2F2009%2F03%2F05%2Fcloud-hosting-is-secure-for-take-off-mosso-enables-the-spreadsheet-store-an-online-merchant-to-become-pci-compliant%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BrooksAmazon-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BrooksAmazon_38-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Brooks, C.&#32;(17 November 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181022113325\/https:\/\/searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com\/news\/1374629\/Amazon-gets-SAS-70-Type-II-audit-stamp-but-analysts-not-satisfied\" target=\"_blank\">\"Amazon gets SAS 70 Type II audit stamp, but analysts not satisfied\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>SearchCloudComputing<\/i>.&#32;TechTarget.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com\/news\/1374629\/Amazon-gets-SAS-70-Type-II-audit-stamp-but-analysts-not-satisfied\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 22 October 2018<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181022113325\/https:\/\/searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com\/news\/1374629\/Amazon-gets-SAS-70-Type-II-audit-stamp-but-analysts-not-satisfied\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181022113325\/https:\/\/searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com\/news\/1374629\/Amazon-gets-SAS-70-Type-II-audit-stamp-but-analysts-not-satisfied<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Amazon+gets+SAS+70+Type+II+audit+stamp%2C+but+analysts+not+satisfied&amp;rft.atitle=SearchCloudComputing&amp;rft.aulast=Brooks%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Brooks%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=17+November+2009&amp;rft.pub=TechTarget&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20181022113325%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fsearchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com%2Fnews%2F1374629%2FAmazon-gets-SAS-70-Type-II-audit-stamp-but-analysts-not-satisfied&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-39\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Norton, Jerry&#32;(31 December 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150403061012\/http:\/\/wtnnews.com\/articles\/6954\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Assessing Cloud Computing Agreements and Controls\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>WTN News<\/i>.&#32;WTN Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wtnnews.com\/articles\/6954\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 April 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150403061012\/http:\/\/wtnnews.com\/articles\/6954\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150403061012\/http:\/\/wtnnews.com\/articles\/6954\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Assessing+Cloud+Computing+Agreements+and+Controls&amp;rft.atitle=WTN+News&amp;rft.aulast=Norton%2C+Jerry&amp;rft.au=Norton%2C+Jerry&amp;rft.date=31+December+2009&amp;rft.pub=WTN+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150403061012%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwtnnews.com%2Farticles%2F6954%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Helbing, T.&#32;(29 August 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.thomashelbing.com\/en\/blog\/how-new-eu-rules-data-export-affect-companies-and-outside-eu\" target=\"_blank\">\"How the New EU Rules on Data Export Affect Companies in and Outside the EU\"<\/a>.&#32;Dr. Thomas Helbing<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.thomashelbing.com\/en\/blog\/how-new-eu-rules-data-export-affect-companies-and-outside-eu\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.thomashelbing.com\/en\/blog\/how-new-eu-rules-data-export-affect-companies-and-outside-eu<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+the+New+EU+Rules+on+Data+Export+Affect+Companies+in+and+Outside+the+EU&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Helbing%2C+T.&amp;rft.au=Helbing%2C+T.&amp;rft.date=29+August+2012&amp;rft.pub=Dr.+Thomas+Helbing&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thomashelbing.com%2Fen%2Fblog%2Fhow-new-eu-rules-data-export-affect-companies-and-outside-eu&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RichardsSpeed-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RichardsSpeed_41-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Richards, B.&#32;(17 June 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150121005425\/http:\/\/www.trinustech.com\/cloud-computing-storm-or-silver-lining-pt-2\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud Computing \u2013 Storm or Silver Lining? Pt 2\"<\/a>.&#32;Trinus Technologies Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.trinustech.com\/cloud-computing-storm-or-silver-lining-pt-2\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 21 January 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150121005425\/http:\/\/www.trinustech.com\/cloud-computing-storm-or-silver-lining-pt-2\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150121005425\/http:\/\/www.trinustech.com\/cloud-computing-storm-or-silver-lining-pt-2\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cloud+Computing+%E2%80%93+Storm+or+Silver+Lining%3F+Pt+2&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Richards%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Richards%2C+B.&amp;rft.date=17+June+2013&amp;rft.pub=Trinus+Technologies+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150121005425%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.trinustech.com%2Fcloud-computing-storm-or-silver-lining-pt-2%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JenksCloud-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-JenksCloud_42-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jenks, Stephen&#32;(8 November 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.stephenjenks.com\/2011\/11\/cloud-computing-for-home-has-huge-problems\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud Computing for Home Has Huge Problems\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Stephen Jenks' Blog<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.stephenjenks.com\/2011\/11\/cloud-computing-for-home-has-huge-problems\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.stephenjenks.com\/2011\/11\/cloud-computing-for-home-has-huge-problems\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cloud+Computing+for+Home+Has+Huge+Problems&amp;rft.atitle=Stephen+Jenks%27+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Jenks%2C+Stephen&amp;rft.au=Jenks%2C+Stephen&amp;rft.date=8+November+2011&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stephenjenks.com%2F2011%2F11%2Fcloud-computing-for-home-has-huge-problems%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Trademarks-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Trademarks_43-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100328121742\/http:\/\/insidetrademarks.com\/2010\/03\/24\/cloud-computing-trademark-trends\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud Computing Trademark Trends\"<\/a>.&#32;Inside Trademarks.&#32;24 March 2010.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/insidetrademarks.com\/2010\/03\/24\/cloud-computing-trademark-trends\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 March 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100328121742\/http:\/\/insidetrademarks.com\/2010\/03\/24\/cloud-computing-trademark-trends\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100328121742\/http:\/\/insidetrademarks.com\/2010\/03\/24\/cloud-computing-trademark-trends\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cloud+Computing+Trademark+Trends&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=24+March+2010&amp;rft.pub=Inside+Trademarks&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20100328121742%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Finsidetrademarks.com%2F2010%2F03%2F24%2Fcloud-computing-trademark-trends%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GoogleUS-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GoogleUS_44-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scribd.com\/document\/40513712\/Google-v-US-Complaint\" target=\"_blank\">\"Google v US Complaint\"<\/a>.&#32;Scribd.&#32;31 October 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scribd.com\/document\/40513712\/Google-v-US-Complaint\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scribd.com\/document\/40513712\/Google-v-US-Complaint<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Google+v+US+Complaint&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=31+October+2010&amp;rft.pub=Scribd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdocument%2F40513712%2FGoogle-v-US-Complaint&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Casson, T.; Ryan, P.S.&#32;(1 May 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656616\" target=\"_blank\">\"Open Standards, Open Source Adoption in the Public Sector, and Their Relationship to Microsoft\u2019s Market Dominance\"<\/a>.&#32;Social Science Electronic Publishing<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656616\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656616<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Open+Standards%2C+Open+Source+Adoption+in+the+Public+Sector%2C+and+Their+Relationship+to+Microsoft%E2%80%99s+Market+Dominance&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Casson%2C+T.%3B+Ryan%2C+P.S.&amp;rft.au=Casson%2C+T.%3B+Ryan%2C+P.S.&amp;rft.date=1+May+2006&amp;rft.pub=Social+Science+Electronic+Publishing&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1656616&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ScheiferCloud-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ScheiferCloud_46-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Scheier, R.L&#32;(20 April 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/article\/2634406\/cloud-computing-what-to-do-if-your-cloud-provider-disappears.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"What to do if your cloud provider disappears\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>InfoWorld<\/i>.&#32;IDG Network<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/article\/2634406\/cloud-computing-what-to-do-if-your-cloud-provider-disappears.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/article\/2634406\/cloud-computing-what-to-do-if-your-cloud-provider-disappears.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+to+do+if+your+cloud+provider+disappears&amp;rft.atitle=InfoWorld&amp;rft.aulast=Scheier%2C+R.L&amp;rft.au=Scheier%2C+R.L&amp;rft.date=20+April+2009&amp;rft.pub=IDG+Network&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoworld.com%2Farticle%2F2634406%2Fcloud-computing-what-to-do-if-your-cloud-provider-disappears.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GoGrid-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GoGrid_47-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090201061221\/http:\/\/gogrid.com\/company\/press-releases\/gogrid-moves-api-specification-to-creativecommons.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"GoGrid Moves API Specification to Creative Commons\"<\/a>.&#32;ServePath.&#32;20 January 2009.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gogrid.com\/company\/press-releases\/gogrid-moves-api-specification-to-creativecommons.php\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 01 February 2009<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090201061221\/http:\/\/gogrid.com\/company\/press-releases\/gogrid-moves-api-specification-to-creativecommons.php\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090201061221\/http:\/\/gogrid.com\/company\/press-releases\/gogrid-moves-api-specification-to-creativecommons.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=GoGrid+Moves+API+Specification+to+Creative+Commons&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=20+January+2009&amp;rft.pub=ServePath&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20090201061221%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fgogrid.com%2Fcompany%2Fpress-releases%2Fgogrid-moves-api-specification-to-creativecommons.php&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EucAma-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EucAma_48-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Brockmeier, J.&#32;(19 February 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120307062957\/http:\/\/ostatic.com\/blog\/eucalyptus-completes-amazon-web-services-specs-with-latest-release\" target=\"_blank\">\"Eucalyptus Completes Amazon Web Services Specs with Latest Release\"<\/a>.&#32;OStatic.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ostatic.com\/blog\/eucalyptus-completes-amazon-web-services-specs-with-latest-release\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 07 March 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120307062957\/http:\/\/ostatic.com\/blog\/eucalyptus-completes-amazon-web-services-specs-with-latest-release\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120307062957\/http:\/\/ostatic.com\/blog\/eucalyptus-completes-amazon-web-services-specs-with-latest-release<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Eucalyptus+Completes+Amazon+Web+Services+Specs+with+Latest+Release&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Brockmeier%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Brockmeier%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=19+February+2010&amp;rft.pub=OStatic&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120307062957%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fostatic.com%2Fblog%2Feucalyptus-completes-amazon-web-services-specs-with-latest-release&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Zissis10-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Zissis10_49-0\">49.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Zissis10_49-1\">49.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Zissis, D.; Lekkas, D.&#32;(2012).&#32;\"Addressing cloud computing security issues\".&#32;<i>Future Generation Computer Systems<\/i>&#32;<b>28<\/b>&#32;(3): 583\u201392.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.future.2010.12.006\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.future.2010.12.006<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Addressing+cloud+computing+security+issues&amp;rft.jtitle=Future+Generation+Computer+Systems&amp;rft.aulast=Zissis%2C+D.%3B+Lekkas%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Zissis%2C+D.%3B+Lekkas%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.volume=28&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=583%E2%80%9392&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.future.2010.12.006&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MessmerSecurity10-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MessmerSecurity10_50-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Messmer, E.&#32;(22 February 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2244954\/security-of-virtualization--cloud-computing-divides-it-and-security-pros.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Security of virtualization, cloud computing divides IT and security pros\"<\/a>.&#32;Network World<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2244954\/security-of-virtualization--cloud-computing-divides-it-and-security-pros.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2244954\/security-of-virtualization--cloud-computing-divides-it-and-security-pros.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Security+of+virtualization%2C+cloud+computing+divides+IT+and+security+pros&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Messmer%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Messmer%2C+E.&amp;rft.date=22+February+2010&amp;rft.pub=Network+World&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Farticle%2F2244954%2Fsecurity-of-virtualization--cloud-computing-divides-it-and-security-pros.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Armbrust10-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Armbrust10_51-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Armbrust, M.; Fox, A.; Griffith, R. et al.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"A view of cloud computing\".&#32;<i>Communications of the ACM<\/i>&#32;<b>53<\/b>&#32;(4): 50\u201358.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1145%2F1721654.1721672\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/1721654.1721672<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=A+view+of+cloud+computing&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&amp;rft.aulast=Armbrust%2C+M.%3B+Fox%2C+A.%3B+Griffith%2C+R.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Armbrust%2C+M.%3B+Fox%2C+A.%3B+Griffith%2C+R.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.volume=53&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=50%E2%80%9358&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1145%2F1721654.1721672&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AnthesSecurity10-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AnthesSecurity10_52-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Anthes, G.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Security in the cloud\".&#32;<i>Communications of the ACM<\/i>&#32;<b>53<\/b>&#32;(11): 16\u201318.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1145%2F1839676.1839683\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/1839676.1839683<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Security+in+the+cloud&amp;rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&amp;rft.aulast=Anthes%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Anthes%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.volume=53&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=16%E2%80%9318&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1145%2F1839676.1839683&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TrappierCloud-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TrappierCloud_53-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Trappier, T.&#32;(24 June 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/er.educause.edu\/articles\/2010\/6\/if-its-in-the-cloud-get-it-on-paper-cloud-computing-contract-issues\" target=\"_blank\">\"If It's in the Cloud, Get It on Paper: Cloud Computing Contract Issues\"<\/a>.&#32;EDUCAUSE<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/er.educause.edu\/articles\/2010\/6\/if-its-in-the-cloud-get-it-on-paper-cloud-computing-contract-issues\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/er.educause.edu\/articles\/2010\/6\/if-its-in-the-cloud-get-it-on-paper-cloud-computing-contract-issues<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 April 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=If+It%27s+in+the+Cloud%2C+Get+It+on+Paper%3A+Cloud+Computing+Contract+Issues&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Trappier%2C+T.&amp;rft.au=Trappier%2C+T.&amp;rft.date=24+June+2010&amp;rft.pub=EDUCAUSE&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fer.educause.edu%2Farticles%2F2010%2F6%2Fif-its-in-the-cloud-get-it-on-paper-cloud-computing-contract-issues&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110154308\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 1.284 seconds\nReal time usage: 2.249 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 39739\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 274326\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 127442\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 85737\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 504.864 1 -total\n 86.97% 439.087 1 Template:Reflist\n 79.30% 400.379 55 Template:Citation\/core\n 60.50% 305.467 41 Template:Cite_web\n 14.87% 75.050 40 Template:Date\n 14.17% 71.524 5 Template:Cite_book\n 12.26% 61.902 9 Template:Cite_journal\n 4.70% 23.718 92 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 3.96% 20.017 11 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b5\/Cloud_computing.svg\/800px-Cloud_computing.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/87\/Cloud_computing_types.svg\/650px-Cloud_computing_types.svg.png"],"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f_timestamp":1704906986,"36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934_type":"article","36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934_title":"Application programming interface","36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Application_programming_interface","36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934_plaintext":"\n\nApplication programming interfaceFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchSoftware interface between computer programs\nFor other uses, see API (disambiguation).\n\"Api.php\" redirects here. For the Wikipedia API, see Special:ApiHelp.\nScreenshot of web API documentation written by NASA\n\nAn application programming interface (API) is a way for two or more computer programs to communicate with each other. It is a type of software interface, offering a service to other pieces of software.[1] A document or standard that describes how to build or use such a connection or interface is called an API specification. A computer system that meets this standard is said to implement or expose an API. The term API may refer either to the specification or to the implementation. Whereas a system's user interface dictates how its end-users interact with the system in question, its API dictates how to write code that takes advantage of that system's capabilities.\nIn contrast to a user interface, which connects a computer to a person, an application programming interface connects computers or pieces of software to each other. It is not intended to be used directly by a person (the end user) other than a computer programmer who is incorporating it into the software. An API is often made up of different parts which act as tools or services that are available to the programmer. A program or a programmer that uses one of these parts is said to call that portion of the API. The calls that make up the API are also known as subroutines, methods, requests, or endpoints. An API specification defines these calls, meaning that it explains how to use or implement them.\nOne purpose of APIs is to hide the internal details of how a system works, exposing only those parts that a programmer will find useful, and keeping them consistent even if the internal details change later. An API may be custom-built for a particular pair of systems, or it may be a shared standard allowing interoperability among many systems.\nThere are APIs for programming languages, software libraries, computer operating systems, and computer hardware. APIs originated in the 1940s, though the term did not emerge until the 1960s and 1970s. Contemporary usage of the term API often refers to web APIs,[2] which allow communication between computers that are joined by the internet. Recent developments in APIs have led to the rise in popularity of microservices, which are loosely coupled services accessed through public APIs.[3]\n\n\n\nPurpose \nIn building applications, an API simplifies programming by abstracting the underlying implementation and only exposing objects or actions the developer needs. While a graphical interface for an email client might provide a user with a button that performs all the steps for fetching and highlighting new emails, an API for file input\/output might give the developer a function that copies a file from one location to another without requiring that the developer understand the file system operations occurring behind the scenes.[4]\n\nHistory of the term \nA diagram from 1978 proposing the expansion of the idea of the API to become a general programming interface, beyond application programs alone[5]\n\nThe term API initially described an interface only for end-user-facing programs, known as application programs. This origin is still reflected in the name \"application programming interface.\" Today, the term is broader, including also utility software and even hardware interfaces.[6]\n\n1940s and 50s \nThe idea of the API is much older than the term itself. British computer scientists Maurice Wilkes and David Wheeler worked on a modular software library in the 1940s for EDSAC, an early computer. The subroutines in this library were stored on punched paper tape organized in a filing cabinet. This cabinet also contained what Wilkes and Wheeler called a \"library catalog\" of notes about each subroutine and how to incorporate it into a program. Today, such a catalog would be called an API (or an API specification or API documentation) because it instructs a programmer on how to use (or \"call\") each subroutine that the programmer needs.[6]\nWilkes and Wheeler's 1951 book The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer contains the first published API specification. Joshua Bloch considers that Wilkes and Wheeler \"latently invented\" the API because it is more of a concept that is discovered than invented.[6]\n\nAlthough the people who coined the term API were implementing software on a Univac 1108, the goal of their API was to make hardware independent programs possible.[7]\n\n1960s and 70s \nThe term \"application program interface\" (without an \u2011ing suffix) is first recorded in a paper called Data structures and techniques for remote computer graphics presented at an AFIPS conference in 1968.[8][6] The authors of this paper use the term to describe the interaction of an application\u2014a graphics program in this case\u2014with the rest of the computer system. A consistent application interface (consisting of Fortran subroutine calls) was intended to free the programmer from dealing with idiosyncrasies of the graphics display device, and to provide hardware independence if the computer or the display were replaced.[7]\nThe term was introduced to the field of databases by C. J. Date[9] in a 1974 paper called The Relational and Network Approaches: Comparison of the Application Programming Interface.[10] An API became a part of the ANSI\/SPARC framework for database management systems. This framework treated the application programming interface separately from other interfaces, such as the query interface. Database professionals in the 1970s observed these different interfaces could be combined; a sufficiently rich application interface could support the other interfaces as well.[5]\nThis observation led to APIs that supported all types of programming, not just application programming.\n\n1990s \nBy 1990, the API was defined simply as \"a set of services available to a programmer for performing certain tasks\" by technologist Carl Malamud.[11]\nThe idea of the API was expanded again with the dawn of remote procedure calls and web APIs. As computer networks became common in the 1970s and 1980s, programmers wanted to call libraries located not only on their local computers but on computers located elsewhere. These remote procedure calls were well supported by the Java language in particular. In the 1990s, with the spread of the internet, standards like CORBA, COM, and DCOM competed to become the most common way to expose API services.[12]\n\n2000s \nRoy Fielding's dissertation Architectural Styles and the Design of Network-based Software Architectures at UC Irvine in 2000 outlined Representational state transfer (REST) and described the idea of a \"network-based Application Programming Interface\" that Fielding contrasted with traditional \"library-based\" APIs.[13] XML and JSON web APIs saw widespread commercial adoption beginning in 2000 and continuing as of 2022. The web API is now the most common meaning of the term API.[2]\nThe Semantic Web proposed by Tim Berners-Lee in 2001 included \"semantic APIs\" that recasts the API as an open, distributed data interface rather than a software behavior interface.[14] Proprietary interfaces and agents became more widespread than open ones, but the idea of the API as a data interface took hold. Because web APIs are widely used to exchange data of all kinds online, API has become a broad term describing much of the communication on the internet.[12] When used in this way, the term API has overlap in meaning with the term communication protocol.\n\nUsage \nLibraries and frameworks \nThe interface to a software library is one type of API. The API describes and prescribes the \"expected behavior\" (a specification) while the library is an \"actual implementation\" of this set of rules.\nA single API can have multiple implementations (or none, being abstract) in the form of different libraries that share the same programming interface.\nThe separation of the API from its implementation can allow programs written in one language to use a library written in another. For example, because Scala and Java compile to compatible bytecode, Scala developers can take advantage of any Java API.[15]\nAPI use can vary depending on the type of programming language involved.\nAn API for a procedural language such as Lua could consist primarily of basic routines to execute code, manipulate data or handle errors while an API for an object-oriented language, such as Java, would provide a specification of classes and its class methods.[16][17] Hyrum's law[18] states that \"With a sufficient number of users of an API, it does not matter what you promise in the contract: all observable behaviors of your system will be depended on by somebody.\" Meanwhile, several studies show that most applications that use an API tend to use a small part of the API.[19]\n\nLanguage bindings are also APIs. By mapping the features and capabilities of one language to an interface implemented in another language, a language binding allows a library or service written in one language to be used when developing in another language.[citation needed ]\nTools such as SWIG and F2PY, a Fortran-to-Python interface generator, facilitate the creation of such interfaces.[20]\nAn API can also be related to a software framework: a framework can be based on several libraries implementing several APIs, but unlike the normal use of an API, the access to the behavior built into the framework is mediated by extending its content with new classes plugged into the framework itself.\nMoreover, the overall program flow of control can be out of the control of the caller and in the framework's hands by inversion of control or a similar mechanism.[21][22]\n\nOperating systems \nAn API can specify the interface between an application and the operating system.[23] POSIX, for example, provides a set of common API specifications that aim to enable an application written for a POSIX conformant operating system to be compiled for another POSIX conformant operating system.\nLinux and Berkeley Software Distribution are examples of operating systems that implement the POSIX APIs.[24]\nMicrosoft has shown a strong commitment to a backward-compatible API, particularly within its Windows API (Win32) library, so older applications may run on newer versions of Windows using an executable-specific setting called \"Compatibility Mode\".[25]\nAn API differs from an application binary interface (ABI) in that an API is source code based while an ABI is binary based. For instance, POSIX provides APIs while the Linux Standard Base provides an ABI.[26][27]\n\nRemote APIs \nRemote APIs allow developers to manipulate remote resources through protocols, specific standards for communication that allow different technologies to work together, regardless of language or platform.\nFor example, the Java Database Connectivity API allows developers to query many different types of databases with the same set of functions, while the Java remote method invocation API uses the Java Remote Method Protocol to allow invocation of functions that operate remotely but appear local to the developer.[28][29]\nTherefore, remote APIs are useful in maintaining the object abstraction in object-oriented programming; a method call, executed locally on a proxy object, invokes the corresponding method on the remote object, using the remoting protocol, and acquires the result to be used locally as a return value.\nA modification of the proxy object will also result in a corresponding modification of the remote object.[30]\n\nWeb APIs \nMain article: Web API\nWeb APIs are a service accessed from client devices (mobile phones, laptops, etc.) to a web server using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Client devices send a request in the form of an HTTP request, and are met with a response message usually in JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) or Extensible Markup Language (XML) format. Developers typically use Web APIs to query a server for a specific set of data from that server.\nAn example might be a shipping company API that can be added to an eCommerce-focused website to facilitate ordering shipping services and automatically include current shipping rates, without the site developer having to enter the shipper's rate table into a web database. While \"web API\" historically has been virtually synonymous with web service, the recent trend (so-called Web 2.0) has been moving away from Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) based web services and service-oriented architecture (SOA) towards more direct representational state transfer (REST) style web resources and resource-oriented architecture (ROA).[31] Part of this trend is related to the Semantic Web movement toward Resource Description Framework (RDF), a concept to promote web-based ontology engineering technologies. Web APIs allow the combination of multiple APIs into new applications known as mashups.[32]\nIn the social media space, web APIs have allowed web communities to facilitate sharing content and data between communities and applications. In this way, content that is created in one place dynamically can be posted and updated to multiple locations on the web.[33] For example, Twitter's REST API allows developers to access core Twitter data and the Search API provides methods for developers to interact with Twitter Search and trends data.[34]\n\nDesign \nThe design of an API has a significant impact on its usage.[4] First of all, the design of programming interfaces represents an important part of software architecture, the organization of a complex piece of software.[35] The principle of information hiding describes the role of programming interfaces as enabling modular programming by hiding the implementation details of the modules so that users of modules need not understand the complexities inside the modules.[36]\nAside from the previous underlying principle, other metrics for measuring the usability of an API may include properties such as functional efficiency, overall correctness, and learnability for novices.[37] One straightforward and commonly adopted way of designing APIs is to follow Nielsen's heuristic evaluation guidelines. The Factory method pattern is also typical in designing APIs due to their reusable nature.[38] Thus, the design of an API attempts to provide only the tools a user would expect.[4]\n\nSynchronous versus asynchronous \nAn application programming interface can be synchronous or asynchronous. A synchronous API call is a design pattern where the call site is blocked while waiting for the called code to finish.[39] With an asynchronous API call, however, the call site is not blocked while waiting for the called code to finish, and instead the calling thread is notified when the reply arrives.\n\nSecurity \nAPI security is very critical when developing a public facing API. Common threats include SQL injection, Denial-of-service attack (DoS), broken authentication, and exposing sensitive data.[40] Without ensuring proper security practices bad actors can get access to information they should not have or even gain privileges to make changes to your server. Some common security practices include proper connection security using HTTPS, content security to mitigate data injection attacks, and requiring an API key to use your service.[41] Many public facing API services require you to use an assigned API key, and will refuse to serve data without sending the key with your request.[42]\n\nRelease policies \nAPIs are one of the more common ways technology companies integrate. Those that provide and use APIs are considered as being members of a business ecosystem.[43]\nThe main policies for releasing an API are:[44]\n\nPrivate: The API is for internal company use only.\nPartner: Only specific business partners can use the API. For example, vehicle for hire companies such as Uber and Lyft allow approved third-party developers to directly order rides from within their apps. This allows the companies to exercise quality control by curating which apps have access to the API and provides them with an additional revenue stream.[45]\nPublic: The API is available for use by the public. For example, Microsoft makes the Windows API public, and Apple releases its API Cocoa so that software can be written for their platforms. Not all public APIs are generally accessible by everybody. For example, Internet service providers like Cloudflare or Voxility, use RESTful APIs to allow customers and resellers access to their infrastructure information, DDoS stats, network performance, or dashboard controls.[46] Access to such APIs is granted either by \"API tokens\", or customer status validations.[47]\nPublic API implications \nAn important factor when an API becomes public is its \"interface stability\". Changes to the API\u2014for example adding new parameters to a function call\u2014could break compatibility with the clients that depend on that API.[48]\nWhen parts of a publicly presented API are subject to change and thus not stable, such parts of a particular API should be documented explicitly as \"unstable\". For example, in the Google Guava library, the parts that are considered unstable, and that might change soon, are marked with the Java annotation @Beta.[49]\nA public API can sometimes declare parts of itself as deprecated or rescinded. This usually means that part of the API should be considered a candidate for being removed, or modified in a backward incompatible way. Therefore, these changes allow developers to transition away from parts of the API that will be removed or not supported in the future.[50]\nOn February 19, 2020, Akamai published their annual \"State of the Internet\" report, showcasing the growing trend of cybercriminals targeting public API platforms at financial services worldwide. From December 2017 through November 2019, Akamai witnessed 85.42 billion credential violation attacks. About 20%, or 16.55 billion, were against hostnames defined as API endpoints. Of these, 473.5 million have targeted financial services sector organizations.[51]\n\nDocumentation \nAPI documentation describes the services an API offers and how to use those services, aiming to cover everything a client would need to know for practical purposes.\nDocumentation is crucial for the development and maintenance of applications using the API.[52]\nAPI documentation is traditionally found in documentation files but can also be found in social media such as blogs, forums, and Q&amp;A websites.[53]\n\nTraditional documentation files are often presented via a documentation system, such as Javadoc or Pydoc, that has a consistent appearance and structure.\nHowever, the types of content included in the documentation differ from API to API.[54]\n\nIn the interest of clarity, API documentation may include a description of classes and methods in the API as well as \"typical usage scenarios, code snippets, design rationales, performance discussions, and contracts\", but implementation details of the API services themselves are usually omitted.\nReference documentation for a REST API can be generated automatically from an OpenAPI document, which is a machine-readable text file that uses a prescribed format and syntax defined in the OpenAPI Specification. The OpenAPI document defines basic information such as the API's name and description, as well as describing operations the API provides access to.[55]\nAPI documentation can be enriched with metadata information like Java annotations. This metadata can be used by the compiler, tools, and by the run-time environment to implement custom behaviors or custom handling.[56]\n\nDispute over copyright protection for APIs \nMain article: Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.\nIn 2010, Oracle Corporation sued Google for having distributed a new implementation of Java embedded in the Android operating system.[57] Google had not acquired any permission to reproduce the Java API, although permission had been given to the similar OpenJDK project. Google had approached Oracle to negotiate a license for their API, but were turned down due to trust issues. Despite the disagreement, Google chose to use Oracle's code anyway. Judge William Alsup ruled in the Oracle v. Google case that APIs cannot be copyrighted in the U.S and that a victory for Oracle would have widely expanded copyright protection to a \"functional set of symbols\" and allowed the copyrighting of simple software commands:\n\nTo accept Oracle's claim would be to allow anyone to copyright one version of code to carry out a system of commands and thereby bar all others from writing its different versions to carry out all or part of the same commands.[58][59]\nAlsup's ruling was overturned in 2014 on appeal to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, though the question of whether such use of APIs constitutes fair use was left unresolved.[60][61]\nIn 2016, following a two-week trial, a jury determined that Google's reimplementation of the Java API constituted fair use, but Oracle vowed to appeal the decision.[62] Oracle won on its appeal, with the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruling that Google's use of the APIs did not qualify for fair use.[63] In 2019, Google appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States over both the copyrightability and fair use rulings, and the Supreme Court granted review.[64] Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the oral hearings in the case were delayed until October 2020.[65]\nThe case was decided by the Supreme Court in Google's favor with a ruling of 6\u20132. Justice Stephen Breyer delivered the opinion of the court and at one point mentioned that \"The declaring code is, if copyrightable at all, further than are most computer programs from the core of copyright.\" This means the code used in APIs are more similar to dictionaries than novels in terms of copyright protection.[66]\n\nExamples \nMain category: Application programming interfaces\n\nASPI for SCSI device interfacing\nCocoa and Carbon for the Macintosh\nDirectX for Microsoft Windows\nEHLLAPI\nJava APIs\nODBC for Microsoft Windows\nOpenAL cross-platform sound API\nOpenCL cross-platform API for general-purpose computing for CPUs &amp; GPUs\nOpenGL cross-platform graphics API\nOpenMP API that supports multi-platform shared memory multiprocessing programming in C, C++, and Fortran on many architectures, including Unix and Microsoft Windows platforms.\nServer application programming interface (SAPI)\nSimple DirectMedia Layer (SDL)\n\nSee also \n\nAPI testing\nAPI writer\nAugmented web\nCalling convention\nCommon Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA)\nComparison of application virtual machines\nDocument Object Model (DOM)\nDouble-chance function\nForeign function interface\nFront and back ends\nInterface (computing)\nInterface control document\nList of 3D graphics APIs\nMicroservices\nName mangling\nOpen API\nOpen Service Interface Definitions\nParsing\nPlugin\nRAML (software)\nSoftware development kit (SDK)\nStructured Financial Messaging System\nWeb API\nWeb content vendor\nXPCOM\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ Reddy, Martin (2011). API Design for C++. Elsevier Science. p.&#160;1. ISBN&#160;9780123850041. \n\n^ a b Lane, Kin (October 10, 2019). \"Intro to APIs: History of APIs\". Postman. Retrieved September 18, 2020 . When you hear the acronym \"API\" or its expanded version \"Application Programming Interface\", it is almost always in reference to our modern approach, in that we use HTTP to provide access to machine readable data in a JSON or XML format, often simply referred to as \"web APIs.\" APIs have been around almost as long as computing, but modern web APIs began taking shape in the early 2000s. \n\n^ Wood, Laura (2021-08-25). \"Global Cloud Microservices Market (2021 to 2026)\". businesswire.com. Retrieved 2022-03-29 . \n\n^ a b c Clarke, Steven (2004). \"Measuring API Usability\". Dr. Dobb's. Retrieved 29 July 2016 . \n\n^ a b Database architectures \u2013 a feasibility workshop (Report). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards. April 1981. pp.&#160;45\u201347. hdl:2027\/mdp.39015077587742. LCCN&#160;81600004. NBS special publication 500-76. Retrieved September 18, 2020 . \n\n^ a b c d Bloch, Joshua (August 8, 2018). A Brief, Opinionated History of the API (Speech). QCon. San Francisco: InfoQ. Retrieved September 18, 2020 . \n\n^ a b Cotton, Ira W.; Greatorex, Frank S. (December 1968). \"Data structures and techniques for remote computer graphics\". AFIPS '68: Proceedings of the December 9\u201311, 1968, Fall Joint Computer Conference. AFIPS 1968 Fall Joint Computer Conference. Vol.&#160;I. San Francisco, California: Association for Computing Machinery. pp.&#160;533\u2013544. doi:10.1145\/1476589.1476661. ISBN&#160;978-1450378994. OCLC&#160;1175621908. \n\n^ \"application program interface\" . Oxford English Dictionary (Online&#160;ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) \n\n^ Date, C. J. (2019). E. F. Codd and Relational Theory: A Detailed Review and Analysis of Codd's Major Database Writings. Lulu.com. p.&#160;135. ISBN&#160;978-1684705276. \n\n^ Date, C. J.; Codd, E. F. (January 1975). \"The relational and network approaches: Comparison of the application programming interfaces\". In Randall Rustin (ed.). Proceedings of 1974 ACM-SIGMOD Workshop on Data Description, Access and Control. SIGMOD Workshop 1974. Vol.&#160;2. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Association for Computing Machinery. pp.&#160;83\u2013113. doi:10.1145\/800297.811532. ISBN&#160;978-1450374187. OCLC&#160;1175623233. \n\n^ Carl, Malamud (1990). Analyzing Novell Networks. Van Nostrand Reinhold. p.&#160;294. ISBN&#160;978-0442003647. \n\n^ a b Jin, Brenda; Sahni, Saurabh; Shevat, Amir (2018). Designing Web APIs. O'Reilly Media. ISBN&#160;9781492026877. \n\n^ Fielding, Roy (2000). Architectural Styles and the Design of Network-based Software Architectures (PhD). University of California, Irvine. Retrieved September 18, 2020 . \n\n^ Dotsika, Fefie (August 2010). \"Semantic APIs: Scaling up towards the Semantic Web\". International Journal of Information Management. 30 (4): 335\u2013342. doi:10.1016\/j.ijinfomgt.2009.12.003. \n\n^ Odersky, Martin; Spoon, Lex; Venners, Bill (10 December 2008). \"Combining Scala and Java\". artima.com. Retrieved 29 July 2016 . \n\n^ de Figueiredo, Luiz Henrique; Ierusalimschy, Roberto; Filho, Waldemar Celes (1994). \"The design and implementation of a language for extending applications\". TeCGraf Grupo de Tecnologia Em Computacao Grafica: 273\u2013284. CiteSeerX&#160;10.1.1.47.5194 . S2CID&#160;59833827. Retrieved 29 July 2016 . \n\n^ Sintes, Tony (13 July 2001). \"Just what is the Java API anyway?\". JavaWorld. Retrieved 2020-07-18 . \n\n^ Winters, Titus; Tom Manshreck; Hyrum Wright, eds. (2020). Software engineering at Google: lessons learned from programming over time. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media. ISBN&#160;9781492082798. OCLC&#160;1144086840. \n\n^ Mastrangelo, Luis; Ponzanelli, Luca; Mocci, Andrea; Lanza, Michele; Hauswirth, Matthias; Nystrom, Nathaniel (2015-10-23). \"Use at your own risk: the Java unsafe API in the wild\". Proceedings of the 2015 ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Object-Oriented Programming, Systems, Languages, and Applications. OOPSLA 2015. New York, NY, US: Association for Computing Machinery. pp.&#160;695\u2013710. doi:10.1145\/2814270.2814313. ISBN&#160;978-1-4503-3689-5. \n\n^ \"F2PY.org\". F2PY.org. Retrieved 2011-12-18 . \n\n^ Fowler, Martin. \"Inversion Of Control\". \n\n^ Fayad, Mohamed. \"Object-Oriented Application Frameworks\". \n\n^ Lewine, Donald A. (1991). POSIX Programmer's Guide. O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc. p.&#160;1. ISBN&#160;9780937175736. Retrieved 2 August 2016 . \n\n^ West, Joel; Dedrick, Jason (2001). \"Open source standardization: the rise of Linux in the network era\" (PDF) . Knowledge, Technology &amp; Policy. 14 (2): 88\u2013112. doi:10.1007\/PL00022278. S2CID&#160;46082812. Retrieved 2 August 2016 . \n\n^ \nMicrosoft (October 2001). \"Support for Windows XP\". Microsoft. p.&#160;4. Archived from the original on 2009-09-26. \n\n^ \"LSB Introduction\". Linux Foundation. 21 June 2012. Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2015-03-27 . \n\n^ Stoughton, Nick (April 2005). \"Update on Standards\" (PDF) . USENIX. Retrieved 2009-06-04 . \n\n^ Bierhoff, Kevin (23 April 2009). API Protocol Compliance in Object-Oriented Software (PDF) (PhD). Carnegie Mellon University. ISBN&#160;978-1-109-31660-5. ProQuest&#160;304864018. Retrieved 29 July 2016 . \n\n^ Wilson, M. Jeff (10 November 2000). \"Get smart with proxies and RMI\". JavaWorld. Retrieved 2020-07-18 . \n\n^ Henning, Michi; Vinoski, Steve (1999). Advanced CORBA Programming with C++ . Addison-Wesley. ISBN&#160;978-0201379273. Retrieved 16 June 2015 . \n\n^ Benslimane, Djamal; Schahram Dustdar; Amit Sheth (2008). \"Services Mashups: The New Generation of Web Applications\". IEEE Internet Computing, vol. 12, no. 5. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. pp.&#160;13\u201315. Archived from the original on 2011-09-28. Retrieved 2019-10-01 . \n\n^ Niccolai, James (2008-04-23), \"So What Is an Enterprise Mashup, Anyway?\", PC World [permanent dead link ] \n\n^ Parr, Ben (21 May 2009). \"The Evolution of the Social Media API\". Mashable. Retrieved 26 July 2016 . \n\n^ \"GET trends\/place\". developer.twitter.com. Retrieved 2020-04-30 . \n\n^ Garlan, David; Shaw, Mary (January 1994). \"An Introduction to Software Architecture\" (PDF) . Advances in Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering. 1. Retrieved 8 August 2016 . \n\n^ Parnas, D.L. (1972). \"On the Criteria To Be Used in Decomposing Systems into Modules\". Communications of the ACM. 15 (12): 1053\u20131058. doi:10.1145\/361598.361623 . S2CID&#160;53856438. \n\n^ Myers, Brad A.; Stylos, Jeffrey (2016). \"Improving API usability\". Communications of the ACM. 59 (6): 62\u201369. doi:10.1145\/2896587. S2CID&#160;543853. \n\n^ Brian Ellis, Jeffrey Stylos, and Brad Myers. 2007. The Factory Pattern in API Design: A Usability Evaluation. In Proceedings of the 29th international conference on Software Engineering (ICSE '07). IEEE Computer Society, USA, 302\u2013312. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ICSE.2007.85 http:\/\/www.cs.cmu.edu\/~NatProg\/papers\/Ellis2007FactoryUsability.pdf \n\n^ Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Writes - Packaged Contact Center Enterprise - Document - Cisco DevNet \n\n^ Silva, Paulo (2019). \"Global Cloud Microservices Market (2021 to 2026)\". Retrieved 2022-03-29 . \n\n^ \"Web Security\". 2022-02-18. Retrieved 2022-03-29 . \n\n^ \"API Keys \u2013 What Is an API Key? | APILayer Blog\". 2022-03-01. Retrieved 2022-07-15 . \n\n^ de Ternay, Guerric (Oct 10, 2015). \"Business Ecosystem: Creating an Economic Moat\". BoostCompanies. Retrieved 2016-02-01 . \n\n^ Boyd, Mark (2014-02-21). \"Private, Partner or Public: Which API Strategy Is Best for Business?\". ProgrammableWeb. Retrieved 2 August 2016 . \n\n^ Weissbrot, Alison (7 July 2016). \"Car Service APIs Are Everywhere, But What's In It For Partner Apps?\". AdExchanger. \n\n^ \"Cloudflare API v4 Documentation\". cloudflare. 25 February 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2020 . \n\n^ Liew, Zell (17 January 2018). \"Car Service APIs Are Everywhere, But What's In It For Partner Apps\". Smashing Magazine. Retrieved 27 February 2020 . \n\n^ Shi, Lin; Zhong, Hao; Xie, Tao; Li, Mingshu (2011). \"An Empirical Study on Evolution of API Documentation\". Fundamental Approaches to Software Engineering. International Conference on Fundamental Approaches to Software Engineering. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol.&#160;6603. pp.&#160;416\u2013431. doi:10.1007\/978-3-642-19811-3_29 . ISBN&#160;978-3-642-19810-6. Retrieved 22 July 2016 . \n\n^ \"guava-libraries \u2013 Guava: Google Core Libraries for Java 1.6+\". Google Project Hosting. 2014-02-04. Archived from the original on Mar 26, 2014. Retrieved 2014-02-11 . \n\n^ Oracle. \"How and When to Deprecate APIs\". Java SE Documentation. Retrieved 2 August 2016 . \n\n^ Takanashi, Dean (19 February 2020). \"Akamai: Cybercriminals are attacking APIs at financial services firms\". Venture Beat. Retrieved 27 February 2020 . \n\n^ Dekel, Uri; Herbsleb, James D. (May 2009). \"Improving API Documentation Usability with Knowledge Pushing\". Institute for Software Research, School of Computer Science. CiteSeerX&#160;10.1.1.446.4214 . \n\n^ Parnin, Chris; Treude, Cristoph (May 2011). \"Measuring API documentation on the web\". Web2SE '11: Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Web 2.0 for Software Engineering. pp.&#160;25\u201330. doi:10.1145\/1984701.1984706. ISBN&#160;9781450305952. S2CID&#160;17751901. \n\n^ Maalej, Waleed; Robillard, Martin P. (April 2012). \"Patterns of Knowledge in API Reference Documentation\" (PDF) . IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering. Retrieved 22 July 2016 . \n\n^ \"Structure of an OpenAPI Document\". OpenAPI Documentation. Retrieved 2022-11-06 . \n\n^ \"Annotations\". Sun Microsystems. Archived from the original on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2011-09-30 . . \n\n^ \"Oracle and the End of Programming As We Know It\". DrDobbs. 2012-05-01. Retrieved 2012-05-09 . \n\n^ \"APIs Can't be Copyrighted Says Judge in Oracle Case\". TGDaily. 2012-06-01. Retrieved 2012-12-06 . \n\n^ \"Oracle America, Inc. vs. Google Inc.\" (PDF) . Wired. 2012-05-31. Retrieved 2013-09-22 . \n\n^ \"Oracle Am., Inc. v. Google Inc., No. 13-1021, Fed. Cir. 2014\". Archived from the original on 2014-10-10. \n\n^ Rosenblatt, Seth (May 9, 2014). \"Court sides with Oracle over Android in Java patent appeal\". CNET. Retrieved 2014-05-10 . \n\n^ \"Google beats Oracle \u2013 Android makes \"fair use\" of Java APIs\". Ars Technica. 2016-05-26. Retrieved 2016-07-28 . \n\n^ Decker, Susan (March 27, 2018). \"Oracle Wins Revival of Billion-Dollar Case Against Google\". Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved March 27, 2018 . \n\n^ Lee, Timothy (January 25, 2019). \"Google asks Supreme Court to overrule disastrous ruling on API copyrights\". Ars Technica. Retrieved February 8, 2019 . \n\n^ vkimber (2020-09-28). \"Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc\". LII \/ Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 2021-03-06 . \n\n^ \"Supreme Court of the United States, No. 18\u2013956, GOOGLE LLC, PETITIONER v. ORACLE AMERICA, INC\" (PDF) . April 5, 2021. \n\n\nFurther reading \nTaina Bucher (16 November 2013). \"Objects of Intense Feeling: The Case of the Twitter API\". Computational Culture (3). ISSN&#160;2047-2390. Argues that \"APIs are far from neutral tools\" and form a key part of contemporary programming, understood as a fundamental part of culture.\nWhat is an API? \u2013 in the U.S. Supreme Court opinion, Google v. Oracle 2021, pp.&#160;3\u20137 \u2013 \"For each task, there is computer code; API (also known as Application Programming Interface) is the method for calling that 'computer code' (instruction \u2013 like a recipe \u2013 rather than cooking instruction, this is machine instruction) to be carry out\"\nMaury, Innovation and Change \u2013 Cory Ondrejka, February 28, 2014, \" ...proposed a public API to let computers talk to each other\". (Textise URL)\nExternal links \nForrester&#160;: IT industry&#160;: API Case&#160;: Google v. Oracle \u2013 May 20, 2021 \u2013 content format: Audio with text \u2013 length 26:41\nvteOperating systemsGeneral\nComparison\nForensic engineering\nHistory\nList\nTimeline\nUsage share\nUser features comparison\nVariants\nDisk operating system\nDistributed operating system\nEmbedded operating system\nHobbyist operating system\nJust enough operating system\nMobile operating system\nNetwork operating system\nObject-oriented operating system\nReal-time operating system\nSupercomputer operating system\nKernelArchitectures\nExokernel\nHybrid\nMicrokernel\nMonolithic\nMultikernel\nvkernel\nRump kernel\nUnikernel\nComponents\nDevice driver\nLoadable kernel module\nUser space and kernel space\nProcess managementConcepts\nComputer multitasking (Cooperative, Preemptive)\nContext switch\nInterrupt\nIPC\nProcess\nProcess control block\nReal-time\nThread\nTime-sharing\nScheduling\r\nalgorithms\nFixed-priority preemptive\nMultilevel feedback queue\nRound-robin\nShortest job next\nMemory management,\r\nresource protection\nBus error\nGeneral protection fault\nMemory paging\nMemory protection\nProtection ring\nSegmentation fault\nVirtual memory\nStorage access,\r\nfile systems\nBoot loader\nDefragmentation\nDevice file\nFile attribute\nInode\nJournal\nPartition\nVirtual file system\nVirtual tape library\nSupporting concepts\nAPI\nComputer network\nHAL\nLive CD\nLive USB\nShell\nCLI\nUser interface\nPXE\n\nAuthority control databases: National \nFrance \nBnF data \nGermany \nIsrael \nUnited States \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Application_programming_interface\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Application_programming_interface<\/a>\nCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 17 September 2022, at 21:15.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 14,118 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Application_programming_interface rootpage-Application_programming_interface skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Application programming interface<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Software interface between computer programs<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For other uses, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/API_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"API (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"eeb084975affd10b0a0dd3e02bf2b5cb\">API (disambiguation)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref\">\"Api.php\" redirects here. For the Wikipedia API, see Special:ApiHelp.<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Screenshot_of_NASA_API_documentation.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"3de4774a861ea2d8a5482cf76f32379b\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c0\/Screenshot_of_NASA_API_documentation.png\/220px-Screenshot_of_NASA_API_documentation.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"328\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Screenshot of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_API\" title=\"Web API\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8c0e15c5627b873dc3b20e031b57d41\">web API<\/a> documentation written by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NASA\" title=\"NASA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d666d9c051f2a41f30ae5c766fe4cb99\">NASA<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>An <strong>application programming interface<\/strong> (<strong>API<\/strong>) is a way for two or more <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_program\" title=\"Computer program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50546cf7bdd4e8811acbcc3ce79a1f3e\">computer programs<\/a> to communicate with each other. It is a type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software interface\" data-key=\"c6e8ed0f4eae6ed871049de1e307cc2f\">software interface<\/a>, offering a service to other pieces of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> A document or standard that describes how to build or use such a connection or interface is called an <em>API specification<\/em>. A computer system that meets this standard is said to <em>implement<\/em> or <em>expose<\/em> an API. The term API may refer either to the specification or to the implementation. Whereas a system's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_interface\" title=\"User interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d20341f81dd69148536f2ceacaafe0b\">user interface<\/a> dictates how its end-users interact with the system in question, its API dictates how to write code that takes advantage of that system's capabilities.\n<\/p><p>In contrast to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_interface\" title=\"User interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d20341f81dd69148536f2ceacaafe0b\">user interface<\/a>, which connects a computer to a person, an application programming interface connects computers or pieces of software to each other. It is not intended to be used directly by a person (the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/End_user\" title=\"End user\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32b92ad43512dfac27f60b77fc7d1a85\">end user<\/a>) other than a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_programmer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer programmer\" data-key=\"90d1bafc328381b22eb784d7ef7362f6\">computer programmer<\/a> who is incorporating it into the software. An API is often made up of different parts which act as tools or services that are available to the programmer. A program or a programmer that uses one of these parts is said to <em>call<\/em> that portion of the API. The calls that make up the API are also known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subroutine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Subroutine\" data-key=\"0edec6abeb36ac1a8c4fb5aecdb03d00\">subroutines<\/a>, methods, requests, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communication_endpoint\" title=\"Communication endpoint\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c89f527cae47299f78860aa8014dac2e\">endpoints<\/a>. An API specification <em>defines<\/em> these calls, meaning that it explains how to use or implement them.\n<\/p><p>One purpose of APIs is to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_hiding\" title=\"Information hiding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac8c8274f6c847bb1b090af9167f1641\">hide the internal details<\/a> of how a system works, exposing only those parts that a programmer will find useful, and keeping them consistent even if the internal details change later. An API may be custom-built for a particular pair of systems, or it may be a shared standard allowing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interoperability\" title=\"Interoperability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38415d24cde633d18de0c69db5a6d400\">interoperability<\/a> among many systems.\n<\/p><p>There are APIs for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programming_language\" title=\"Programming language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c33f61aa9cacdeed3a83742756b0942d\">programming languages<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_(computing)\" title=\"Library (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84130a23065396774961cc3e9fed287e\">software libraries<\/a>, computer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating systems<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_hardware\" title=\"Computer hardware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3af5473d082dc42736a8f0e670ebb91\">computer hardware<\/a>. APIs originated in the 1940s, though the term did not emerge until the 1960s and 1970s. Contemporary usage of the term API often refers to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_API\" title=\"Web API\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8c0e15c5627b873dc3b20e031b57d41\">web APIs<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Lane2019_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Lane2019-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> which allow communication between computers that are joined by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Protocol_television\" title=\"Internet Protocol television\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b221db11e506943bab88a14ad2717aca\">internet<\/a>. Recent developments in APIs have led to the rise in popularity of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microservices\" title=\"Microservices\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6ee87c2f78abd09a0aee73a5a3a7e8b\">microservices<\/a>, which are loosely coupled services accessed through public APIs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In building applications, an API simplifies programming by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abstraction_(software_engineering)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Abstraction (software engineering)\" data-key=\"542cc81dce55aa61bf2b26795a295980\">abstracting<\/a> the underlying implementation and only exposing objects or actions the developer needs. While a graphical interface for an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Email_client\" title=\"Email client\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36bc6a6cc2ea3fb1b7e25a7db7520406\">email client<\/a> might provide a user with a button that performs all the steps for fetching and highlighting new emails, an API for file <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Input\/output\" title=\"Input\/output\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52f8bc60be30c4a0fe544943142caa2b\">input\/output<\/a> might give the developer a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subroutine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Subroutine\" data-key=\"0edec6abeb36ac1a8c4fb5aecdb03d00\">function<\/a> that copies a file from one location to another without requiring that the developer understand the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journaling_file_system\" title=\"Journaling file system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fabcdb6f956f352a3f6293f56fa7388b\">file system<\/a> operations occurring behind the scenes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Clarke4_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Clarke4-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_the_term\">History of the term<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Database_management_system_diagram_from_1978_workshop.png\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"960113655247c0a593106bbd82127193\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/41\/Database_management_system_diagram_from_1978_workshop.png\/280px-Database_management_system_diagram_from_1978_workshop.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"mw-file-element\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><figcaption>A diagram from 1978 proposing the expansion of the idea of the API to become a general programming interface, beyond <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_program\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Application program\" data-key=\"7891d16e7d0f6f305b6710ccec6054ba\">application programs<\/a> alone<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NBS1981_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NBS1981-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p>The term <i>API<\/i> initially described an interface only for end-user-facing programs, known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_program\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Application program\" data-key=\"7891d16e7d0f6f305b6710ccec6054ba\">application programs<\/a>. This origin is still reflected in the name \"application programming interface.\" Today, the term is broader, including also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Utility_software\" title=\"Utility software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f66ccc89c478bbb3fd89fe0d94cf361\">utility software<\/a> and even <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hardware_interface_design\" title=\"Hardware interface design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"085ba03a3e2ebf557220bc2380bea37e\">hardware interfaces<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bloch2018_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bloch2018-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1940s_and_50s\">1940s and 50s<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The idea of the API is much older than the term itself. British computer scientists <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maurice_Wilkes\" title=\"Maurice Wilkes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e9081e3b1bb981f4a1bb68fa4bc560f\">Maurice Wilkes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Wheeler_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"David Wheeler (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e3b7e263931232b1f95453ad4f695f0\">David Wheeler<\/a> worked on a modular <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_library\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software library\" data-key=\"0a777d95355b6c51af74cda9403b2b1f\">software library<\/a> in the 1940s for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EDSAC\" title=\"EDSAC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6e1b81ae83913999415b495971d8f56\">EDSAC<\/a>, an early computer. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subroutine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Subroutine\" data-key=\"0edec6abeb36ac1a8c4fb5aecdb03d00\">subroutines<\/a> in this library were stored on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Punched_paper_tape\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Punched paper tape\" data-key=\"ce676bdf4f9bebb8083abf26e6086dbf\">punched paper tape<\/a> organized in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Filing_cabinet\" title=\"Filing cabinet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40a33d36cb9fb12f38ca39fa8f0b6225\">filing cabinet<\/a>. This cabinet also contained what Wilkes and Wheeler called a \"library catalog\" of notes about each subroutine and how to incorporate it into a program. Today, such a catalog would be called an API (or an API specification or API documentation) because it instructs a programmer on how to use (or \"call\") each subroutine that the programmer needs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bloch2018_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bloch2018-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Wilkes and Wheeler's 1951 book <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Preparation_of_Programs_for_an_Electronic_Digital_Computer\" title=\"The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93aea072b6fc4cab14e10ee059c98821\">The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer<\/a><\/i> contains the first published API specification. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joshua_Bloch\" title=\"Joshua Bloch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53b4673f6bff209ae95429cc4e0d95ef\">Joshua Bloch<\/a> considers that Wilkes and Wheeler \"latently invented\" the API because it is more of a concept that is discovered than invented.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bloch2018_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bloch2018-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure class=\"mw-default-size\" typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Univac_1108_Census_Bureau.jpg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"7514a909041f58ee16ec96becc5460ce\"><img src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/85\/Univac_1108_Census_Bureau.jpg\/220px-Univac_1108_Census_Bureau.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"143\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Although the people who coined the term API were implementing software on a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UNIVAC_1100\/2200_series#1108\" title=\"UNIVAC 1100\/2200 series\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66136288e33e71db71181256a41e2493\">Univac 1108<\/a>, the goal of their API was to make <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hardware_independent\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hardware independent\" data-key=\"b02501c42642975d1413eaf756ed9dfe\">hardware independent<\/a> programs possible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CottonGreatorex1968_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CottonGreatorex1968-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1960s_and_70s\">1960s and 70s<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The term \"application program interface\" (without an <i>\u2011ing<\/i> suffix) is first recorded in a paper called <i>Data structures and techniques for remote <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_graphics\" title=\"Computer graphics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac2a68f62093cc021711e0a095f27b7e\">computer graphics<\/a><\/i> presented at an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AFIPS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AFIPS\" data-key=\"446357af119a2711900a4a47f1086ea3\">AFIPS<\/a> conference in 1968.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bloch2018_6-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bloch2018-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> The authors of this paper use the term to describe the interaction of an application\u2014a graphics program in this case\u2014with the rest of the computer system. A consistent application interface (consisting of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fortran\" title=\"Fortran\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23e2d44345f88159bae11cb26709759d\">Fortran<\/a> subroutine calls) was intended to free the programmer from dealing with idiosyncrasies of the graphics display device, and to provide <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hardware_independence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hardware independence\" data-key=\"7e6afafeea3e29907965cbc22ae18174\">hardware independence<\/a> if the computer or the display were replaced.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CottonGreatorex1968_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CottonGreatorex1968-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The term was introduced to the field of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">databases<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christopher_J._Date\" title=\"Christopher J. Date\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aaf91ed866dcdf02b0559868fa0d6bfb\">C. J. Date<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> in a 1974 paper called <i>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relational_database\" title=\"Relational database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86b6b5174c671988f4e5dba65702a9c0\">Relational<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_model\" title=\"Network model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6441bc86b8957826dba6eada85a8ddcb\">Network<\/a> Approaches: Comparison of the Application Programming Interface<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> An API became a part of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ANSI-SPARC_Architecture\" title=\"ANSI-SPARC Architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba02373ad670bd53286b9bd270015072\">ANSI\/SPARC framework<\/a> for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Database management system\" data-key=\"824748614afaae7c7e98b483b4aee777\">database management systems<\/a>. This framework treated the application programming interface separately from other interfaces, such as the query interface. Database professionals in the 1970s observed these different interfaces could be combined; a sufficiently rich application interface could support the other interfaces as well.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NBS1981_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NBS1981-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>This observation led to APIs that supported all types of programming, not just application programming.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1990s\">1990s<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>By 1990, the API was defined simply as \"a set of services available to a programmer for performing certain tasks\" by technologist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carl_Malamud\" title=\"Carl Malamud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c78d740da2ecde27d8c87fc6b608a611\">Carl Malamud<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The idea of the API was expanded again with the dawn of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_procedure_calls\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Remote procedure calls\" data-key=\"b29b8d14576a30d2a62d48d36dd00e16\">remote procedure calls<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_API\" title=\"Web API\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8c0e15c5627b873dc3b20e031b57d41\">web APIs<\/a>. As <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">computer networks<\/a> became common in the 1970s and 1980s, programmers wanted to call libraries located not only on their local computers but on computers located elsewhere. These remote procedure calls were well supported by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_(programming_language)\" title=\"Java (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444fa6d23d72fee4750d4189e5a53f53\">Java<\/a> language in particular. In the 1990s, with the spread of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">internet<\/a>, standards like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CORBA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CORBA\" data-key=\"20cec6ee2c719e17a9058016c6c56d9d\">CORBA<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Component_Object_Model\" title=\"Component Object Model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42f0049096e50f7467e638d6222bdf80\">COM<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_Component_Object_Model\" title=\"Distributed Component Object Model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcb74d63a5510960c8712462e0ad8aad\">DCOM<\/a> competed to become the most common way to expose API services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JinSahniShevat2018_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JinSahniShevat2018-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"2000s\">2000s<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roy_Fielding\" title=\"Roy Fielding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50503f7800e6633f25c8cb6d7f179d61\">Roy Fielding<\/a>'s dissertation <i>Architectural Styles and the Design of Network-based Software Architectures<\/i> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UC_Irvine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UC Irvine\" data-key=\"4d563c1870bb0ca3151a200b9d10bba0\">UC Irvine<\/a> in 2000 outlined <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Representational_state_transfer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Representational state transfer\" data-key=\"e54b62a1f8ac222520161f4177ee552a\">Representational state transfer<\/a> (REST) and described the idea of a \"network-based Application Programming Interface\" that Fielding contrasted with traditional \"library-based\" APIs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSON\" title=\"JSON\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0022d8edede1d399deb288231b10aad\">JSON<\/a> web APIs saw widespread commercial adoption beginning in 2000 and continuing as of 2022. The web API is now the most common meaning of the term API.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Lane2019_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Lane2019-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_Web\" title=\"Semantic Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9ae7ad3bff2f083332c721eff5ad88f\">Semantic Web<\/a> proposed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tim_Berners-Lee\" title=\"Tim Berners-Lee\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3db44cf95fa4453a3fb03570e22c542c\">Tim Berners-Lee<\/a> in 2001 included \"semantic APIs\" that recasts the API as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_innovation\" title=\"Open innovation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36a71d4bac38aed6efcb85e9d88b8cc2\">open<\/a>, distributed data interface rather than a software behavior interface.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proprietary_software\" title=\"Proprietary software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5eed10213068e32a88a812799ed69c58\">Proprietary<\/a> interfaces and agents became more widespread than open ones, but the idea of the API as a data interface took hold. Because web APIs are widely used to exchange data of all kinds online, API has become a broad term describing much of the communication on the internet.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JinSahniShevat2018_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JinSahniShevat2018-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> When used in this way, the term API has overlap in meaning with the term <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communication_protocol\" title=\"Communication protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"863d6c5459532e6b7ed0f2537c33000e\">communication protocol<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Usage\">Usage<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Libraries_and_frameworks\">Libraries and frameworks<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The interface to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_(computing)\" title=\"Library (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84130a23065396774961cc3e9fed287e\">software library<\/a> is one type of API. The API describes and prescribes the \"expected behavior\" (a specification) while the library is an \"actual implementation\" of this set of rules.\n<\/p><p>A single API can have multiple implementations (or none, being abstract) in the form of different libraries that share the same programming interface.\n<\/p><p>The separation of the API from its implementation can allow programs written in one language to use a library written in another. For example, because <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scala_(programming_language)\" title=\"Scala (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df0dbd0f62f672cb97c0dfcbc559b73c\">Scala<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_(programming_language)\" title=\"Java (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444fa6d23d72fee4750d4189e5a53f53\">Java<\/a> compile to compatible <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bytecode\" title=\"Bytecode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32109a6a0ccf629bc7326783afe9fb66\">bytecode<\/a>, Scala developers can take advantage of any Java API.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OderskySpoonVenners8_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OderskySpoonVenners8-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>API use can vary depending on the type of programming language involved.\n<\/p><p>An API for a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Procedural_programming\" title=\"Procedural programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1cf5f284110320fb711595360b477c3\">procedural language<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lua_(programming_language)\" title=\"Lua (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9a0954a915c487972f220764a49e537\">Lua<\/a> could consist primarily of basic routines to execute code, manipulate data or handle errors while an API for an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object-oriented_programming\" title=\"Object-oriented programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89f19c8e4c919ea2942014fec0ff7a8d\">object-oriented language<\/a>, such as Java, would provide a specification of classes and its <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Class_method\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Class method\" data-key=\"c6879946a021b55a8ed45338f8389c3c\">class methods<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sintes16_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sintes16-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"rdp-ebb-Hyrums\"><\/span>Hyrum's law<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> states that \"With a sufficient number of users of an API, it does not matter what you promise in the contract: all observable behaviors of your system will be depended on by somebody.\" Meanwhile, several studies show that most applications that use an API tend to use a small part of the API.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_binding\" title=\"Language binding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3db8b8b315df284825dce6727fff25d\">Language bindings<\/a> are also APIs. By mapping the features and capabilities of one language to an interface implemented in another language, a language binding allows a library or service written in one language to be used when developing in another language.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Tools such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SWIG\" title=\"SWIG\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7e93d2335bfe23e5738e1deed217b9f\">SWIG<\/a> and F2PY, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fortran\" title=\"Fortran\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23e2d44345f88159bae11cb26709759d\">Fortran<\/a>-to-<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Python_(programming_language)\" title=\"Python (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f46180939245bdafa4d5be32df12a34\">Python<\/a> interface generator, facilitate the creation of such interfaces.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An API can also be related to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Framework_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Framework (computer science)\" data-key=\"4c093a8332a5be9f2d9af78cd49a69e6\">software framework<\/a>: a framework can be based on several libraries implementing several APIs, but unlike the normal use of an API, the access to the behavior built into the framework is mediated by extending its content with new classes plugged into the framework itself.\n<\/p><p>Moreover, the overall program flow of control can be out of the control of the caller and in the framework's hands by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inversion_of_control\" title=\"Inversion of control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"564b0764b2d253b6187ea64c19312f81\">inversion of control<\/a> or a similar mechanism.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Operating_systems\">Operating systems<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An API can specify the interface between an application and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating system<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Oreilly91_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Oreilly91-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/POSIX\" title=\"POSIX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e39c1b006d7d69e0733bbe242179975f\">POSIX<\/a>, for example, provides a set of common API specifications that aim to enable an application written for a POSIX conformant operating system to be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compiler\" title=\"Compiler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bacf6f1d998f0c6010da2357979e04c\">compiled<\/a> for another POSIX conformant operating system.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linux\" title=\"Linux\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccfb1826b029961cb72ef84704ee2bcb\">Linux<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Berkeley_Software_Distribution\" title=\"Berkeley Software Distribution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1809148396dec5ccfa315efa3db0e91b\">Berkeley Software Distribution<\/a> are examples of operating systems that implement the POSIX APIs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WestDedrick16_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WestDedrick16-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a> has shown a strong commitment to a backward-compatible API, particularly within its <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Windows_API\" title=\"Windows API\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3dbcef5d71e02841004a0991014d708d\">Windows API<\/a> (Win32) library, so older applications may run on newer versions of Windows using an executable-specific setting called \"Compatibility Mode\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An API differs from an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_binary_interface\" title=\"Application binary interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"87485d8bc3ef74435f90662a67971e71\">application binary interface<\/a> (ABI) in that an API is source code based while an ABI is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Binary_file\" title=\"Binary file\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a035b80fc3ccb32b0638c37be958784b\">binary<\/a> based. For instance, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/POSIX\" title=\"POSIX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e39c1b006d7d69e0733bbe242179975f\">POSIX<\/a> provides APIs while the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linux_Standard_Base\" title=\"Linux Standard Base\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7504000e0088752ae41c462952cfaa5b\">Linux Standard Base<\/a> provides an ABI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Remote_APIs\">Remote APIs<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Remote APIs allow developers to manipulate remote resources through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communications_protocol\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Communications protocol\" data-key=\"876c7ac63fcc9c2d217d15ff04020014\">protocols<\/a>, specific standards for communication that allow different technologies to work together, regardless of language or platform.\nFor example, the Java Database Connectivity API allows developers to query many different types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">databases<\/a> with the same set of functions, while the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_remote_method_invocation\" title=\"Java remote method invocation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7e00a7a043f78615555b66d0b383a2b\">Java remote method invocation<\/a> API uses the Java Remote Method Protocol to allow <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_procedure_call\" title=\"Remote procedure call\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10077982c79b5ee8217a4e149067b183\">invocation<\/a> of functions that operate remotely but appear local to the developer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bierhoff9_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bierhoff9-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Wilson16_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Wilson16-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Therefore, remote APIs are useful in maintaining the object abstraction in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object-oriented_programming\" title=\"Object-oriented programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89f19c8e4c919ea2942014fec0ff7a8d\">object-oriented programming<\/a>; a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Method_call\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Method call\" data-key=\"3103d4b2ef4c02966893ecd8234e731d\">method call<\/a>, executed locally on a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proxy_pattern\" title=\"Proxy pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebf5cb91f8576a1d9b8d408971c9f73a\">proxy<\/a> object, invokes the corresponding method on the remote object, using the remoting protocol, and acquires the result to be used locally as a return value.\n<\/p><p>A modification of the proxy object will also result in a corresponding modification of the remote object.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AdvancedCorba_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AdvancedCorba-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Web_APIs\">Web APIs<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_API\" title=\"Web API\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8c0e15c5627b873dc3b20e031b57d41\">Web API<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Web APIs are a service accessed from client devices (mobile phones, laptops, etc.) to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_server\" title=\"Web server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"594f91c19b26d6e9b03722d08d9be4f0\">web server<\/a> using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hypertext Transfer Protocol\" data-key=\"acb87023fb7f84b4f4414e52af86b5a6\">Hypertext Transfer Protocol<\/a> (HTTP). Client devices send a request in the form of an HTTP request, and are met with a response message usually in JavaScript Object Notation (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSON\" title=\"JSON\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0022d8edede1d399deb288231b10aad\">JSON<\/a>) or Extensible Markup Language (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a>) format. Developers typically use Web APIs to query a server for a specific set of data from that server.\n<\/p><p>An example might be a shipping company API that can be added to an eCommerce-focused website to facilitate ordering shipping services and automatically include current shipping rates, without the site developer having to enter the shipper's rate table into a web database. While \"web API\" historically has been virtually synonymous with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_service\" title=\"Web service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e72dffc79d570a758fb072280ae0ca6e\">web service<\/a>, the recent trend (so-called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_2.0\" title=\"Web 2.0\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7a8f7a8050c23e0130ff11e99a9f941\">Web 2.0<\/a>) has been moving away from Simple Object Access Protocol (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SOAP\" title=\"SOAP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"952e7ea001d98d86e8321b60c06caa6d\">SOAP<\/a>) based web services and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Service-oriented_architecture\" title=\"Service-oriented architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baeda155bcadf284dc1b57450100a5e3\">service-oriented architecture<\/a> (SOA) towards more direct <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Representational_state_transfer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Representational state transfer\" data-key=\"e54b62a1f8ac222520161f4177ee552a\">representational state transfer<\/a> (REST) style <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_resource\" title=\"Web resource\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8510a672415a2f33a96648780661433c\">web resources<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource-oriented_architecture\" title=\"Resource-oriented architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbf86991bea51ca9acc2a7fe8f35178a\">resource-oriented architecture<\/a> (ROA).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> Part of this trend is related to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_Web\" title=\"Semantic Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9ae7ad3bff2f083332c721eff5ad88f\">Semantic Web<\/a> movement toward <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource_Description_Framework\" title=\"Resource Description Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84df3c8186c49293d7c93180e1489de\">Resource Description Framework<\/a> (RDF), a concept to promote web-based <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_engineering\" title=\"Ontology engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7301add05a4401a3cf8a4206c33f8ab\">ontology engineering<\/a> technologies. Web APIs allow the combination of multiple APIs into new applications known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)\" title=\"Mashup (web application hybrid)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a67e37a3d7b9ff9e5b5514be24ed479\">mashups<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the social media space, web APIs have allowed web communities to facilitate sharing content and data between communities and applications. In this way, content that is created in one place dynamically can be posted and updated to multiple locations on the web.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Parr16_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Parr16-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> For example, Twitter's REST API allows developers to access core Twitter data and the Search API provides methods for developers to interact with Twitter Search and trends data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Design\">Design<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The design of an API has a significant impact on its usage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Clarke4_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Clarke4-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> First of all, the design of programming interfaces represents an important part of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_architecture\" title=\"Software architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43f46c00cad09fc2ff69a1344d2ae771\">software architecture<\/a>, the organization of a complex piece of software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GarlanShaw94_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GarlanShaw94-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> The principle of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_hiding\" title=\"Information hiding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac8c8274f6c847bb1b090af9167f1641\">information hiding<\/a> describes the role of programming interfaces as enabling <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_programming\" title=\"Modular programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3e2efa63b2358882429ccde40078f8f\">modular programming<\/a> by hiding the implementation details of the modules so that users of modules need not understand the complexities inside the modules.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Parnas72_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Parnas72-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\nAside from the previous underlying principle, other metrics for measuring the usability of an API may include properties such as functional efficiency, overall correctness, and learnability for novices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> One straightforward and commonly adopted way of designing APIs is to follow <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nielsen%27s_heuristics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nielsen's heuristics\" data-key=\"f43849cd27b693cb292b78fae8f11dc5\">Nielsen's heuristic<\/a> evaluation guidelines. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Factory_method_pattern\" title=\"Factory method pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b1a7c819720b377f0cf436fff26cc91\">Factory method pattern<\/a> is also typical in designing APIs due to their reusable nature.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> Thus, the design of an API attempts to provide only the tools a user would expect.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Clarke4_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Clarke4-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Synchronous_versus_asynchronous\">Synchronous versus asynchronous<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An application programming interface can be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Asynchronous_method_invocation\" title=\"Asynchronous method invocation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"824c6140688e4a710e50701659959b9b\">synchronous or asynchronous<\/a>. A synchronous API call is a design pattern where the call site is blocked while waiting for the called code to finish.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> With an asynchronous API call, however, the call site is not blocked while waiting for the called code to finish, and instead the calling thread is notified when the reply arrives.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security\">Security<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>API security is very critical when developing a public facing API. Common threats include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SQL_injection\" title=\"SQL injection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"241ac5083c3ddb380c01ac1166f0c108\">SQL injection<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denial-of-service_attack\" title=\"Denial-of-service attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60592f037a0652dd16c640127be8ca89\">Denial-of-service attack<\/a> (DoS), broken authentication, and exposing sensitive data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup> Without ensuring proper security practices bad actors can get access to information they should not have or even gain privileges to make changes to your server. Some common security practices include proper connection security using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTTPS\" title=\"HTTPS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"12d3d428d7a70406f198e258c806a867\">HTTPS<\/a>, content security to mitigate data injection attacks, and requiring an API key to use your service.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> Many public facing API services require you to use an assigned API key, and will refuse to serve data without sending the key with your request.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Release_policies\">Release policies<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>APIs are one of the more common ways technology companies integrate. Those that provide and use APIs are considered as being members of a business ecosystem.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The main policies for releasing an API are:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Boyd16_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Boyd16-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><u>Private<\/u>: The API is for internal company use only.<\/li>\n<li><u>Partner<\/u>: Only specific business partners can use the API. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vehicle_for_hire\" title=\"Vehicle for hire\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc172f9d9ca41744b7aa0f214c01d93\">vehicle for hire<\/a> companies such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uber\" title=\"Uber\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eb0bccbaa389a07e4a72d81113dad78\">Uber<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lyft\" title=\"Lyft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2874c40b7bc608e9094778f072d740b\">Lyft<\/a> allow approved third-party developers to directly order rides from within their apps. This allows the companies to exercise quality control by curating which apps have access to the API and provides them with an additional revenue stream.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><u>Public<\/u>: The API is available for use by the public. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a> makes the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Windows_API\" title=\"Windows API\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3dbcef5d71e02841004a0991014d708d\">Windows API<\/a> public, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apple_Inc.\" title=\"Apple Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"071b1bca39b3a61799e49233d2df16a3\">Apple<\/a> releases its API <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cocoa_(API)\" title=\"Cocoa (API)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d11ae3f36c318acae757a4a7e2417c3\">Cocoa<\/a> so that software can be written for their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing_platform\" title=\"Computing platform\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5cff13173668891d3aaacb9b2f356e9b\">platforms<\/a>. Not all public APIs are generally accessible by everybody. For example, Internet service providers like Cloudflare or Voxility, use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RESTful\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"RESTful\" data-key=\"98820021dbc5834f8c3e936073c3da5f\">RESTful<\/a> APIs to allow customers and resellers access to their infrastructure information, DDoS stats, network performance, or dashboard controls.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cloudflare_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cloudflare-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> Access to such APIs is granted either by \"API tokens\", or customer status validations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SmashMagazine_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SmashMagazine-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Public_API_implications\">Public API implications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An important factor when an API becomes public is its \"interface stability\". Changes to the API\u2014for example adding new parameters to a function call\u2014could break compatibility with the clients that depend on that API.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-researchgate.net_48-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-researchgate.net-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>When parts of a publicly presented API are subject to change and thus not stable, such parts of a particular API should be documented explicitly as \"unstable\". For example, in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Guava\" title=\"Google Guava\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7dbea15d4f845468139ea0af17b1fa6\">Google Guava<\/a> library, the parts that are considered unstable, and that might change soon, are marked with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_annotation\" title=\"Java annotation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3cdb307fdf46e004fc990bece1c884e\">Java annotation<\/a> <code>@Beta<\/code>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A public API can sometimes declare parts of itself as <i>deprecated<\/i> or rescinded. This usually means that part of the API should be considered a candidate for being removed, or modified in a backward incompatible way. Therefore, these changes allow developers to transition away from parts of the API that will be removed or not supported in the future.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OracleDeprecation16_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OracleDeprecation16-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On February 19, 2020, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Akamai_Technologies\" title=\"Akamai Technologies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c24e250f8d1d6fd29af7c027918bfe4\">Akamai<\/a> published their annual \"State of the Internet\" report, showcasing the growing trend of cybercriminals targeting public API platforms at financial services worldwide. From December 2017 through November 2019, Akamai witnessed 85.42 billion credential violation attacks. About 20%, or 16.55 billion, were against hostnames defined as API endpoints. Of these, 473.5 million have targeted financial services sector organizations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VentureBeat_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VentureBeat-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Documentation\">Documentation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>API documentation describes the services an API offers and how to use those services, aiming to cover everything a client would need to know for practical purposes.\n<\/p><p>Documentation is crucial for the development and maintenance of applications using the API.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DekelHerbsleb9_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DekelHerbsleb9-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>API documentation is traditionally found in documentation files but can also be found in social media such as blogs, forums, and Q&amp;A websites.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ParninTreude11_53-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ParninTreude11-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>Traditional documentation files are often presented via a documentation system, such as Javadoc or Pydoc, that has a consistent appearance and structure.\n<\/p><p>However, the types of content included in the documentation differ from API to API.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MaalejRobillard12_54-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MaalejRobillard12-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>In the interest of clarity, API documentation may include a description of classes and methods in the API as well as \"typical usage scenarios, code snippets, design rationales, performance discussions, and contracts\", but implementation details of the API services themselves are usually omitted.\n<\/p><p>Reference documentation for a REST API can be generated automatically from an OpenAPI document, which is a machine-readable text file that uses a prescribed format and syntax defined in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenAPI_Specification\" title=\"OpenAPI Specification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93d9f5c4079cb9f02ab70d17eb1f1238\">OpenAPI Specification<\/a>. The OpenAPI document defines basic information such as the API's name and description, as well as describing operations the API provides access to.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>API documentation can be enriched with metadata information like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_annotation\" title=\"Java annotation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3cdb307fdf46e004fc990bece1c884e\">Java annotations<\/a>. This metadata can be used by the compiler, tools, and by the <i>run-time<\/i> environment to implement custom behaviors or custom handling.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Dispute_over_copyright_protection_for_APIs\">Dispute over copyright protection for APIs<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_America,_Inc._v._Google,_Inc.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.\" data-key=\"07b1416e9b754cea55ebef9277e304ca\"><i>Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.<\/i><\/a><\/div>\n<p>In 2010, Oracle Corporation sued Google for having distributed a new implementation of Java embedded in the Android operating system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> Google had not acquired any permission to reproduce the Java API, although permission had been given to the similar OpenJDK project. Google had approached Oracle to negotiate a license for their API, but were turned down due to trust issues. Despite the disagreement, Google chose to use Oracle's code anyway. Judge <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/William_Alsup\" title=\"William Alsup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44286cb4bc7ae09b02e9cb9bab124636\">William Alsup<\/a> ruled in the <i>Oracle v. Google<\/i> case that APIs cannot be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copyrighted\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Copyrighted\" data-key=\"8b3f3148ffbe52a6d5f0933d2919e6a6\">copyrighted<\/a> in the U.S and that a victory for Oracle would have widely expanded copyright protection to a \"functional set of symbols\" and allowed the copyrighting of simple software commands:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>To accept Oracle's claim would be to allow anyone to copyright one version of code to carry out a system of commands and thereby bar all others from writing its different versions to carry out all or part of the same commands.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Alsup's ruling was overturned in 2014 on appeal to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Federal_Circuit\" title=\"United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1da00223179c4ff11dbd1feb1113b3d0\">Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit<\/a>, though the question of whether such use of APIs constitutes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fair_use\" title=\"Fair use\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81755a5a6ab114aae0653c1067615aa0\">fair use<\/a> was left unresolved.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2016, following a two-week trial, a jury determined that Google's reimplementation of the Java API constituted <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fair_use\" title=\"Fair use\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81755a5a6ab114aae0653c1067615aa0\">fair use<\/a>, but Oracle vowed to appeal the decision.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup> Oracle won on its appeal, with the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruling that Google's use of the APIs did not qualify for fair use.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bbn_march2018_63-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bbn_march2018-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup> In 2019, Google appealed to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States\" title=\"Supreme Court of the United States\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe7eef555dc7090998728535b9e55de0\">Supreme Court of the United States<\/a> over both the copyrightability and fair use rulings, and the Supreme Court granted review.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ars_Jan2019_64-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ars_Jan2019-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> Due to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/COVID-19_pandemic\" title=\"COVID-19 pandemic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62779441490b02d216fabd541f906307\">COVID-19 pandemic<\/a>, the oral hearings in the case were delayed until October 2020.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The case was decided by the Supreme Court in Google's favor with a ruling of 6\u20132. Justice <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stephen_Breyer\" title=\"Stephen Breyer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"621f7f8dc4fca88f4455f8a50a8a21e0\">Stephen Breyer<\/a> delivered the opinion of the court and at one point mentioned that \"The declaring code is, if copyrightable at all, further than are most computer programs from the core of copyright.\" This means the code used in APIs are more similar to dictionaries than novels in terms of copyright protection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Examples\">Examples<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main category: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Application_programming_interfaces\" title=\"Category:Application programming interfaces\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44dfdb626fcb12d3083ddff644ae4694\">Application programming interfaces<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"div-col\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_SCSI_programming_interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Advanced SCSI programming interface\" data-key=\"2455ba9e76ca70eb67161faedfb62917\">ASPI<\/a> for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SCSI\" title=\"SCSI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"763979f0c49e0af7d49af7b1bc62dfcb\">SCSI<\/a> device interfacing<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cocoa_(API)\" title=\"Cocoa (API)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d11ae3f36c318acae757a4a7e2417c3\">Cocoa<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_(API)\" title=\"Carbon (API)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1eb73b31352e9d63bb59f80967399595\">Carbon<\/a> for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Macintosh\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Macintosh\" data-key=\"24850c0884ecc4539486bf2481d3a51c\">Macintosh<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DirectX\" title=\"DirectX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbe043c8ee41a8233f14ee3547ac2728\">DirectX<\/a> for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Windows\" title=\"Microsoft Windows\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c181121bacd156ee0ddefde38acdb60a\">Microsoft Windows<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EHLLAPI\" title=\"EHLLAPI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4fb4f05ee6201bf5bd505c08a339672\">EHLLAPI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_Java_APIs\" title=\"List of Java APIs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3892b47f64fb3121f023efe64b20ddf7\">Java APIs<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Database_Connectivity\" title=\"Open Database Connectivity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e25775d5a29e7aff78505cc582f8033\">ODBC<\/a> for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Windows\" title=\"Microsoft Windows\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c181121bacd156ee0ddefde38acdb60a\">Microsoft Windows<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenAL\" title=\"OpenAL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81275052d393fb8d9c729cb17f1f4031\">OpenAL<\/a> cross-platform sound API<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenCL\" title=\"OpenCL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"259504bc3c03dd36bc921e9f3f023696\">OpenCL<\/a> cross-platform API for general-purpose computing for CPUs &amp; GPUs<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenGL\" title=\"OpenGL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c74ceddc894d47dfe54a2b817507d9f\">OpenGL<\/a> cross-platform graphics API<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenMP\" title=\"OpenMP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5cafe080f1126cd10961d5fc204ed3b\">OpenMP<\/a> API that supports multi-platform shared memory multiprocessing programming in C, C++, and Fortran on many architectures, including Unix and Microsoft Windows platforms.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Server_application_programming_interface\" title=\"Server application programming interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4af3b068e28708275662e39de298dc6d\">Server application programming interface<\/a> (SAPI)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Simple_DirectMedia_Layer\" title=\"Simple DirectMedia Layer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c568924ed1c90795986824ba04c7ce4\">Simple DirectMedia Layer<\/a> (SDL)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115\" \/><div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 20em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/API_testing\" title=\"API testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e650366f38f7a3d89a250375cc792006\">API testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/API_writer\" title=\"API writer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"883ebb1dd5c908e505e0982474393780\">API writer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Augmented_web\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Augmented web\" data-key=\"0f6a20c12dd8084ef7e84d94be79460b\">Augmented web<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Calling_convention\" title=\"Calling convention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36947b0726c748d7d69c7e0b9987deac\">Calling convention<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_Object_Request_Broker_Architecture\" title=\"Common Object Request Broker Architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fed4f4ed8535bf90ca233c3d85471c1\">Common Object Request Broker Architecture<\/a> (CORBA)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comparison_of_application_virtual_machines\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Comparison of application virtual machines\" data-key=\"428e67492f4a039503b1a859d243c528\">Comparison of application virtual machines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_Object_Model\" title=\"Document Object Model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7003624844f2122629cbe95fb02adb86\">Document Object Model<\/a> (DOM)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Double-chance_function\" title=\"Double-chance function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0aafb6c2a2ffd28be23c1318ac3d3add\">Double-chance function<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Foreign_function_interface\" title=\"Foreign function interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8215dc0c2850239db9abf48aba33743\">Foreign function interface<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Front_and_back_ends\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Front and back ends\" data-key=\"191bcceb67b3494833b619729c1a66de\">Front and back ends<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interface_(computing)\" title=\"Interface (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"644f6c43656f398980925c784ae9372f\">Interface (computing)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interface_control_document\" title=\"Interface control document\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b34d90b397e5b2692356ac44d64e36f8\">Interface control document<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_3D_graphics_APIs\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"List of 3D graphics APIs\" data-key=\"42759c0f50686cece45c8d1e39479ede\">List of 3D graphics APIs<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microservices\" title=\"Microservices\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6ee87c2f78abd09a0aee73a5a3a7e8b\">Microservices<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Name_mangling\" title=\"Name mangling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c755f80a095b9daa5925ba330a933b5d\">Name mangling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_API\" title=\"Open API\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20840625f868ef6c79228cd2f429c4c2\">Open API<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Service_Interface_Definitions\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Open Service Interface Definitions\" data-key=\"cf24c0a89ed6dbbfea7170f51b6a6bcd\">Open Service Interface Definitions<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parsing\" title=\"Parsing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11c515e2d7ed50476884e48423992975\">Parsing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plug-in_(computing)\" title=\"Plug-in (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1533fd24bd6c7d5c9015b4267cea09f4\">Plugin<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RAML_(software)\" title=\"RAML (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fd1afc20d3d9c2f093d0980ac60ebc4\">RAML (software)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_development_kit\" title=\"Software development kit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"29eb826f8bda81a15cbc2e179e69e2fe\">Software development kit<\/a> (SDK)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structured_Financial_Messaging_System\" title=\"Structured Financial Messaging System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72b15371a8cd22ae4404381217faf915\">Structured Financial Messaging System<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_API\" title=\"Web API\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8c0e15c5627b873dc3b20e031b57d41\">Web API<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_content_vendor\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web content vendor\" data-key=\"a060a94985fae2b9abab68a03ecf9408\">Web content vendor<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XPCOM\" title=\"XPCOM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d24fa30a298216149a2c582193c5052d\">XPCOM<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFReddy2011\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Reddy, Martin (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=IY29LylT85wC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>API Design for C++<\/i><\/a>. Elsevier Science. p.&#160;1. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780123850041<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=API+Design+for+C%2B%2B&amp;rft.pages=1&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier+Science&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=9780123850041&amp;rft.aulast=Reddy&amp;rft.aufirst=Martin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIY29LylT85wC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Lane2019-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Lane2019_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Lane2019_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLane2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Lane, Kin (October 10, 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.postman.com\/intro-to-apis-history-of-apis\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Intro to APIs: History of APIs\"<\/a>. <i>Postman<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">September 18,<\/span> 2020<\/span>. <q>When you hear the acronym \"API\" or its expanded version \"Application Programming Interface\", it is almost always in reference to our modern approach, in that we use HTTP to provide access to machine readable data in a JSON or XML format, often simply referred to as \"web APIs.\" APIs have been around almost as long as computing, but modern web APIs began taking shape in the early 2000s.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Postman&amp;rft.atitle=Intro+to+APIs%3A+History+of+APIs&amp;rft.date=2019-10-10&amp;rft.aulast=Lane&amp;rft.aufirst=Kin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.postman.com%2Fintro-to-apis-history-of-apis%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWood2021\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Wood, Laura (2021-08-25). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.businesswire.com\/news\/home\/20210825005630\/en\/Global-Cloud-Microservices-Market-2021-to-2026---Growth-Trends-COVID-19-Impact-and-Forecasts---ResearchAndMarkets.com\" target=\"_blank\">\"Global Cloud Microservices Market (2021 to 2026)\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Businesswire.com\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Businesswire.com\" data-key=\"8bbd72a171826f1455bde8bac1f05ae1\">businesswire.com<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2022-03-29<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=businesswire.com&amp;rft.atitle=Global+Cloud+Microservices+Market+%282021+to+2026%29&amp;rft.date=2021-08-25&amp;rft.aulast=Wood&amp;rft.aufirst=Laura&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businesswire.com%2Fnews%2Fhome%2F20210825005630%2Fen%2FGlobal-Cloud-Microservices-Market-2021-to-2026---Growth-Trends-COVID-19-Impact-and-Forecasts---ResearchAndMarkets.com&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Clarke4-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Clarke4_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Clarke4_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Clarke4_4-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFClarke2004\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Clarke, Steven (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.drdobbs.com\/windows\/measuring-api-usability\/184405654\" target=\"_blank\">\"Measuring API Usability\"<\/a>. <i>Dr. Dobb's<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 July<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Dr.+Dobb%27s&amp;rft.atitle=Measuring+API+Usability&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.aulast=Clarke&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.drdobbs.com%2Fwindows%2Fmeasuring-api-usability%2F184405654&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NBS1981-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-NBS1981_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-NBS1981_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation report cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/2027\/mdp.39015077587742?urlappend=%3Bseq=53\" target=\"_blank\">Database architectures \u2013 a feasibility workshop<\/a> (Report). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards. April 1981. pp.&#160;45\u201347. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hdl (identifier)\" data-key=\"e94e1ec39bdb0b58479ac2c362cd4b22\">hdl<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/2027%2Fmdp.39015077587742?urlappend=%3Bseq=53\" target=\"_blank\">2027\/mdp.39015077587742<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LCCN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LCCN (identifier)\" data-key=\"ba0fd5211c48671576e8e562c4662655\">LCCN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lccn.loc.gov\/81600004\" target=\"_blank\">81600004<\/a>. NBS special publication 500-76<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">September 18,<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Database+architectures+%E2%80%93+a+feasibility+workshop&amp;rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&amp;rft.pages=45-47&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Commerce%2C+National+Bureau+of+Standards&amp;rft.date=1981-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fmdp.39015077587742%3Furlappend%3D%253Bseq%3D53&amp;rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F81600004&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F2027%2Fmdp.39015077587742%3Furlappend%3D%253Bseq%3D53&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bloch2018-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Bloch2018_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Bloch2018_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Bloch2018_6-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Bloch2018_6-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBloch2018\" class=\"citation speech cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joshua_Bloch\" title=\"Joshua Bloch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53b4673f6bff209ae95429cc4e0d95ef\">Bloch, Joshua<\/a> (August 8, 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoq.com\/presentations\/history-api\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A Brief, Opinionated History of the API<\/i><\/a> (Speech). QCon. San Francisco: InfoQ<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">September 18,<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Brief%2C+Opinionated+History+of+the+API&amp;rft.place=San+Francisco&amp;rft.pub=InfoQ&amp;rft.date=2018-08-08&amp;rft.aulast=Bloch&amp;rft.aufirst=Joshua&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoq.com%2Fpresentations%2Fhistory-api%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CottonGreatorex1968-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-CottonGreatorex1968_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CottonGreatorex1968_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCottonGreatorex1968\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Cotton, Ira W.; Greatorex, Frank S. (December 1968). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.computer.org\/csdl\/pds\/api\/csdl\/proceedings\/download-article\/12OmNyRPgFZ\/pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data structures and techniques for remote computer graphics\"<\/a>. <i>AFIPS '68: Proceedings of the December 9\u201311, 1968, Fall Joint Computer Conference<\/i>. AFIPS 1968 Fall Joint Computer Conference. Vol.&#160;I. San Francisco, California: Association for Computing Machinery. pp.&#160;533\u2013544. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F1476589.1476661\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/1476589.1476661<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1450378994<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1175621908\" target=\"_blank\">1175621908<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.atitle=Data+structures+and+techniques+for+remote+computer+graphics&amp;rft.btitle=AFIPS+%2768%3A+Proceedings+of+the+December+9%E2%80%9311%2C+1968%2C+Fall+Joint+Computer+Conference&amp;rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&amp;rft.pages=533-544&amp;rft.pub=Association+for+Computing+Machinery&amp;rft.date=1968-12&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1175621908&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1476589.1476661&amp;rft.isbn=978-1450378994&amp;rft.aulast=Cotton&amp;rft.aufirst=Ira+W.&amp;rft.au=Greatorex%2C+Frank+S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computer.org%2Fcsdl%2Fpds%2Fapi%2Fcsdl%2Fproceedings%2Fdownload-article%2F12OmNyRPgFZ%2Fpdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFReference-OED-application_program_interface\" class=\"citation encyclopaedia cs1\"><span class=\"cs1-lock-subscription\" title=\"Paid subscription required\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oed.com\/search\/dictionary\/?q=application+program+interface\" target=\"_blank\">\"application program interface\"<\/a><\/span>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_English_Dictionary\" title=\"Oxford English Dictionary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"743af949d4c299fb87e4b8615e0393f7\">Oxford English Dictionary<\/a><\/i> (Online&#160;ed.). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_University_Press\" title=\"Oxford University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d18ae98bb880a41214eeea3e78f31ffe\">Oxford University Press<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=application+program+interface&amp;rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&amp;rft.edition=Online&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dapplication%2Bprogram%2Binterface&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span style=\"font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color:#555\">(Subscription or <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#withyourlibrary\">participating institution membership<\/a> required.)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDate2019\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christopher_J._Date\" title=\"Christopher J. Date\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aaf91ed866dcdf02b0559868fa0d6bfb\">Date, C. J.<\/a> (2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=2Sy4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA135\" target=\"_blank\"><i>E. F. Codd and Relational Theory: A Detailed Review and Analysis of Codd's Major Database Writings<\/i><\/a>. Lulu.com. p.&#160;135. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1684705276<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=E.+F.+Codd+and+Relational+Theory%3A+A+Detailed+Review+and+Analysis+of+Codd%27s+Major+Database+Writings&amp;rft.pages=135&amp;rft.pub=Lulu.com&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.isbn=978-1684705276&amp;rft.aulast=Date&amp;rft.aufirst=C.+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Sy4DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA135&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDateCodd1975\" class=\"citation conference cs1\">Date, C. J.; Codd, E. F. (January 1975). \"The relational and network approaches: Comparison of the application programming interfaces\". In Randall Rustin (ed.). <i>Proceedings of 1974 ACM-SIGMOD Workshop on Data Description, Access and Control<\/i>. SIGMOD Workshop 1974. Vol.&#160;2. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Association for Computing Machinery. pp.&#160;83\u2013113. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F800297.811532\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/800297.811532<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1450374187<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OCLC (identifier)\" data-key=\"65293f6550b25329e0ca75376f94071a\">OCLC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/1175623233\" target=\"_blank\">1175623233<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.atitle=The+relational+and+network+approaches%3A+Comparison+of+the+application+programming+interfaces&amp;rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+1974+ACM-SIGMOD+Workshop+on+Data+Description%2C+Access+and+Control&amp;rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Michigan&amp;rft.pages=83-113&amp;rft.pub=Association+for+Computing+Machinery&amp;rft.date=1975-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1175623233&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F800297.811532&amp;rft.isbn=978-1450374187&amp;rft.aulast=Date&amp;rft.aufirst=C.+J.&amp;rft.au=Codd%2C+E.+F.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCarl1990\" class=\"citation book cs1\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carl_Malamud\" title=\"Carl Malamud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c78d740da2ecde27d8c87fc6b608a611\">Carl, Malamud<\/a> (1990). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/babel.hathitrust.org\/cgi\/pt?id=mdp.39015018454903&seq=314\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Analyzing Novell Networks<\/i><\/a>. Van Nostrand Reinhold. p.&#160;294. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0442003647<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Analyzing+Novell+Networks&amp;rft.pages=294&amp;rft.pub=Van+Nostrand+Reinhold&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.isbn=978-0442003647&amp;rft.aulast=Carl&amp;rft.aufirst=Malamud&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dmdp.39015018454903%26seq%3D314&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JinSahniShevat2018-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-JinSahniShevat2018_12-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-JinSahniShevat2018_12-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJinSahniShevat2018\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Jin, Brenda; Sahni, Saurabh; Shevat, Amir (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Dg1rDwAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Designing Web APIs<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781492026877<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Designing+Web+APIs&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.isbn=9781492026877&amp;rft.aulast=Jin&amp;rft.aufirst=Brenda&amp;rft.au=Sahni%2C+Saurabh&amp;rft.au=Shevat%2C+Amir&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDg1rDwAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFielding2000\" class=\"citation thesis cs1\">Fielding, Roy (2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ics.uci.edu\/~fielding\/pubs\/dissertation\/top.htm\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Architectural Styles and the Design of Network-based Software Architectures<\/i><\/a> (PhD). 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-05-10<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=CNET&amp;rft.atitle=Court+sides+with+Oracle+over+Android+in+Java+patent+appeal&amp;rft.date=2014-05-09&amp;rft.au=Rosenblatt%2C+Seth&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnet.com%2Fnews%2Fcourt-sides-with-oracle-over-android-in-java-patent-appeal%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/tech-policy\/2016\/05\/google-wins-trial-against-oracle-as-jury-finds-android-is-fair-use\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Google beats Oracle \u2013 Android makes \"fair use\" of Java APIs\"<\/a>. <i>Ars Technica<\/i>. 2016-05-26<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-07-28<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&amp;rft.atitle=Google+beats+Oracle+%E2%80%93+Android+makes+%22fair+use%22+of+Java+APIs&amp;rft.date=2016-05-26&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Ftech-policy%2F2016%2F05%2Fgoogle-wins-trial-against-oracle-as-jury-finds-android-is-fair-use%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-bbn_march2018-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-bbn_march2018_63-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDecker2018\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Decker, Susan (March 27, 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2018-03-27\/oracle-wins-revival-of-billion-dollar-case-against-google\" target=\"_blank\">\"Oracle Wins Revival of Billion-Dollar Case Against Google\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bloomberg_Businessweek\" title=\"Bloomberg Businessweek\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2dbf8b3f3ca91f5a9fb9725d89ef4d7\">Bloomberg Businessweek<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">March 27,<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Bloomberg+Businessweek&amp;rft.atitle=Oracle+Wins+Revival+of+Billion-Dollar+Case+Against+Google&amp;rft.date=2018-03-27&amp;rft.aulast=Decker&amp;rft.aufirst=Susan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2018-03-27%2Foracle-wins-revival-of-billion-dollar-case-against-google&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ars_Jan2019-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ars_Jan2019_64-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLee2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Lee, Timothy (January 25, 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/tech-policy\/2019\/01\/google-asks-supreme-court-to-overrule-disastrous-ruling-on-api-copyrights\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Google asks Supreme Court to overrule disastrous ruling on API copyrights\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ars_Technica\" title=\"Ars Technica\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52d6ca3d789935f2be1e396acbfbfe9c\">Ars Technica<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">February 8,<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&amp;rft.atitle=Google+asks+Supreme+Court+to+overrule+disastrous+ruling+on+API+copyrights&amp;rft.date=2019-01-25&amp;rft.aulast=Lee&amp;rft.aufirst=Timothy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Ftech-policy%2F2019%2F01%2Fgoogle-asks-supreme-court-to-overrule-disastrous-ruling-on-api-copyrights%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-65\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-65\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFvkimber2020\" class=\"citation web cs1\">vkimber (2020-09-28). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/supct\/cert\/18-956\" target=\"_blank\">\"Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc\"<\/a>. <i>LII \/ Legal Information Institute<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2021-03-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&amp;rft.atitle=Google+LLC+v.+Oracle+America%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.date=2020-09-28&amp;rft.au=vkimber&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fsupct%2Fcert%2F18-956&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-66\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.supremecourt.gov\/opinions\/20pdf\/18-956_d18f.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Supreme Court of the United States, No. 18\u2013956, GOOGLE LLC, PETITIONER v. ORACLE AMERICA, INC\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. April 5, 2021.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States%2C+No.+18%E2%80%93956%2C+GOOGLE+LLC%2C+PETITIONER+v.+ORACLE+AMERICA%2C+INC.&amp;rft.date=2021-04-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fopinions%2F20pdf%2F18-956_d18f.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation journal cs1\">Taina Bucher (16 November 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/computationalculture.net\/article\/objects-of-intense-feeling-the-case-of-the-twitter-api\" target=\"_blank\">\"Objects of Intense Feeling: The Case of the Twitter API\"<\/a>. <i>Computational Culture<\/i> (3). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2047-2390\" target=\"_blank\">2047-2390<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Computational+Culture&amp;rft.atitle=Objects+of+Intense+Feeling%3A+The+Case+of+the+Twitter+API&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.date=2013-11-16&amp;rft.issn=2047-2390&amp;rft.au=Taina+Bucher&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcomputationalculture.net%2Farticle%2Fobjects-of-intense-feeling-the-case-of-the-twitter-api&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAPI\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> Argues that \"APIs are far from neutral tools\" and form a key part of contemporary programming, understood as a fundamental part of culture.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.supremecourt.gov\/opinions\/20pdf\/18-956_d18f.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">What is an API?<\/a> \u2013 in the U.S. Supreme <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Court_opinion\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Court opinion\" data-key=\"6e032669a1190093341e49648e71f1e3\">Court opinion<\/a>, <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_LLC_v._Oracle_America,_Inc.\" title=\"Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c87375f5deb8bf540252d029eb447a81\">Google v. Oracle 2021<\/a><\/i>, pp.&#160;3\u20137 \u2013 \"For each task, there is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer code\" data-key=\"40fbba5c49cafda02fff8b2f5480d131\">computer code<\/a>; API (also known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_Programming_Interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Application Programming Interface\" data-key=\"11402d99d2199852181f2278b4c3dc62\">Application Programming Interface<\/a>) is the method for calling that '<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer code\" data-key=\"40fbba5c49cafda02fff8b2f5480d131\">computer code<\/a>' (instruction \u2013 like a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recipe\" title=\"Recipe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb1cb572abb23b3413c4fe6f899616ba\">recipe<\/a> \u2013 rather than cooking instruction, this is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer\" title=\"Computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90ce149db23a6fc17d1d225fac611846\">machine<\/a> instruction) to be carry out\"<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ondrejka.net\/history\/2014\/02\/28\/maury.html\" target=\"_blank\">Maury, Innovation and Change<\/a> \u2013 Cory Ondrejka, February 28, 2014, \" ...proposed a public API to let computers talk to each other\". (<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.textise.net\/showText.aspx?strURL=http:\/\/ondrejka.net\/history\/2014\/02\/28\/maury.html\" target=\"_blank\">Textise<\/a> URL)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/go.forrester.com\/what-it-means\/ep218-google-oracle-api-case\/\" target=\"_blank\">Forrester&#160;: IT industry&#160;: API Case&#160;: Google v. Oracle<\/a> \u2013 May 20, 2021 \u2013 content format: Audio with text \u2013 length 26:41<\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw\u2010api\u2010ext.eqiad.main\u201056d78498dc\u2010l2gs7\nCached time: 20240106055111\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.769 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.995 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4221\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 149286\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 2881\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 17\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 11\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 205642\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.491\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 8559250\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 866.732 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>54.26% 470.267 1 Template:Reflist\n18.63% 161.472 37 Template:Cite_web\n13.71% 118.829 8 Template:Cite_book\n10.75% 93.182 1 Template:Operating_system\n10.65% 92.302 3 Template:Navbox\n 8.75% 75.878 1 Template:Citation_needed\n 8.35% 72.378 2 Template:Fix\n 7.21% 62.516 4 Template:Category_handler\n 7.12% 61.748 1 Template:Short_description\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:27697009-0!canonical and timestamp 20240106055110 and revision id 1193905608. Rendering was triggered because: api-parse\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/API\" data-key=\"bf35ff5bc89a7836d172e0daec66b5db\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110042843\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.153 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.424 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 162041\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 372.966 1 wikipedia:API\n100.00% 372.966 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:2133-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110042842 and revision id 49280. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Application_programming_interface\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Application_programming_interface<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934_images":[],"36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934_timestamp":1704906986,"1b7330228fd59158aab6fab82ad0e7cc_type":"article","1b7330228fd59158aab6fab82ad0e7cc_title":"Notes on Instrument Data Systems","1b7330228fd59158aab6fab82ad0e7cc_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems","1b7330228fd59158aab6fab82ad0e7cc_plaintext":"\n\nLII:Notes on Instrument Data SystemsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchTitle: Notes on Instrument Data Systems\nAuthor for citation: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International\nPublication date: May 27, 2020\n\r\n\n\nContents \n\n1 Introduction \n2 An overall model for laboratory processes and instrumentation \n\n2.1 Instruments vs. instrument packages \n\n\n3 Working with more sophisticated instruments \n4 Moving to fully automated, interconnected systems \n5 Setting a direction for laboratory automation development \n6 The bottom line \n7 Abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms \n8 Footnotes \n9 About the author \n10 References \n\n\n\nIntroduction \nThe goal of this brief paper is to examine what it will take to advance laboratory operations in terms of technical content, data quality, and productivity. Advancements in the past have been incremental, and isolated, the result of an individual's or group's work and not part of a broad industry plan. Disjointed, uncoordinated, incremental improvements have to give way to planned, directed methods, such that appropriate standards and products can be developed and mutually beneficial R&amp;D programs instituted. We\u2019ve long since entered a phase where the cost of technology development and implementation is too high to rely on a \u201clet\u2019s try this\u201d approach as the dominant methodology. Making progress in lab technologies is too important to be done without some direction (i.e., deliberate planning). Individual insights, inspiration, and \u201cout of the box\u201d thinking is always valuable; it can inspire a change in direction. But building to a purpose is equally important. This paper revisits past developments in instrument data systems (IDS), looks at issues that need attention as we further venture into the use of integrated informatics systems, and suggests some directions further development can take.\nThere is a second aspect beyond planning that also deserves attention: education. Yes, there are people who really know what they are doing with instrumental systems and data handling. However, that knowledge base isn\u2019t universal across labs. Many industrial labs and schools have people using instrument data systems with no understanding of what is happening to their data. Others such as Hinshaw and Stevenson et al. have commented on this phenomenon in the past:\n\nChromatographers go to great lengths to prepare, inject, and separate their samples, but they sometimes do not pay as much attention to the next step: peak detection and measurement ... Despite a lot of exposure to computerized data handling, however, many practicing chromatographers do not have a good idea of how a stored chromatogram file\u2014a set of data points arrayed in time\u2014gets translated into a set of peaks with quantitative attributes such as area, height, and amount.&#91;1&#93;\nAt this point, I noticed that the discussion tipped from an academic recitation of technical needs and possible solutions to a session driven primarily by frustrations. Even today, the instruments are often more sophisticated than the average user, whether he\/she is a technician, graduate student, scientist, or principal investigator using chromatography as part of the project. Who is responsible for generating good data? Can the designs be improved to increase data integrity?&#91;2&#93;\nWe can expect that the same issue holds true for even more demanding individual or combined techniques. Unless lab personnel are well-educated in both the theory and the practice of their work, no amount of automation\u2014including any IDS components\u2014is going to matter in the development of usable data and information.\nThe IDS entered the laboratory initially as an aid to analysts doing their work. Its primary role was to off-load tedious measurements and calculations, giving analysts more time to inspect and evaluate lab results. The IDS has since morphed from a convenience to a necessity, and then to being a presumed part of an instrument system. That raises two sets of issues that we\u2019ll address here regarding people, technologies, and their intersections:\n1. People: Do the users of an IDS understand what is happening to their data once it leaves the instrument and enters the computer? Do they understand the settings that are available and the effect they have on data processing, as well as the potential for compromising the results of the analytical bench work? Are lab personnel educated so that they are effective and competent users of all the technologies used in the course of their work?\n2. Technologies: Are the systems we are using up to the task that has been assigned to them as we automate laboratory functions?\nWe\u2019ll begin with some basic material and then develop the argument from there.\n\nAn overall model for laboratory processes and instrumentation \nLaboratory work is dependent upon instruments, and the push for higher productivity is driving us toward automation. What may be lost in all this, particularly to those new to lab procedures, is an understanding of how things work, and how computer systems control the final steps in a process. Without that understanding, good bench work can be reduced to bad and misleading results. If you want to guard against that prospect, you have to understand how instrument data systems work, as well as your role in ensuring accurate results.\nLet's begin by looking at a model for lab processes (Figure 1) and define the important elements.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 1. A basic laboratory process model\n\n\n\nMost of the elements of Figure 1 are easy to understand. \"Instrument Input\" could be an injection port, an autosampler, or the pan on a balance. \u201cControl Systems &amp; Communications,\u201d normally part of the same electronics package as \u201cData Acquisition &amp; Processing,\u201d is separated out to provide for hierarchical control configurations that might be found in, e.g., robotics systems. The model is easily expanded to describe hyphenated systems such as gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry (GC-MS) applications, as shown in Figure 2. Mass spectrometers are best used when you have a clean sample (no contaminants), while chromatographs are great at separating mixtures and isolating components in the effluent. The combination of instruments makes an effective tool for separating and identifying the components in mixtures.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 2. A basic laboratory process model applied to a GC-MS combination (the lower model illustration is flipped vertically to simplify the diagram)\n\n\n\nNote that the chromatographic system and its associated components become the \"Sample Preparation\" element from Figure 1 when viewed from the perspective of the mass spectrometer (MS). The flow out of the chromatographic column is split (if needed, depending on the detector used, while controlling the input to the MS) so that the eluted material is directed to the input of the MS. Each eluted component from the chromatograph becomes a sample to the MS.\n\nInstruments vs. instrument packages \nOne important feature of the model shown in Figure 1 is that arrow labeled \u201cAnalog Output\u201d; this emphasizes that the standard output of instruments is an analog \"response\" or voltage. The response can take the form of a needle movement across a scale, a deflection, or some other indication (e.g., a level in a mercury or alcohol thermometer). Voltage output can be read with a meter or strip chart recorder. There are no instruments with digital outputs; they are all analog output devices. \nOn the other hand, instruments that appear to be digital devices are the result of packaging by the manufacturer. That packaging contains the analog signal-generating instrument, with a voltage output that is connected to an analog-to-digital converter. \nTake for example analog pH meters, which are in reality millivolt meters with a pH scale added to the meter face. If you look at Figure 3, the lower switch position has a setting for both MV (millivolt) and pH. When you read the pH on the meter, you are doing an analog-to-digital conversion; the needle's movement is the result of the incoming voltage from the pH electrode. The \u201cpH reading\u201d is performed by you as you project the needle's position onto the scale and note the corresponding numeric value.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 3. The front face of an Orion Research IONALYZER\n\n\n\nA digital pH meter has the following components from our model (Figure 1) incorporated into the instrument package (the light green elements in the model):\n\nThe instrument - One or more electrodes provide the analog signal, which depends on the pH of the solution.\nData acquisition and processing \u2013 An external connection connects the electrodes to an analog-to-digital converter that converts the incoming voltage to a digital value that is in turn used to calculate the pH.\nControl systems and communication \u2013 This manages the digital display, front panel control functions, and, if present, the RS-232\/422\/485 or network communications. If the communications feature is there, this module also interprets and responds to commands from an external computer.\nWorking with more sophisticated instruments \nPrior to the introduction of computers to instruments, the common method of viewing the instruments output was through meters and strip-chart recorders. That meant two things: all the measurements and calculations were done by hand, and you were intimately familiar with your data. Both those points are significant and have ramifications that warrant serious consideration in today\u2019s labs.\nIn order to keep things simple, let's focus on chromatography, although the points raised will have application to spectroscopy, thermal analysis, and other instrumental techniques in chemistry; material science; physics; and other domains. Chromatography has the richest history of automation in laboratory work, it is widely used, and gives us a model for thinking about other techniques. You will not have to be an expert in chromatography to understand what follows.&#91;a&#93; To put it simply, chromatography is a technique for taking complex mixtures and allowing the analyst (with a bit of work) to separate the components of the mixture and determine what those components might be and quantify them. \nOlder chromatographs looked like the instrument in front of the technician in Figure 4:\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 4. USGS, UMESC scientist Joseph Hunn at gas chromatograph, 1965\n\n\n\nThe instruments output was an analog signal, a voltage, that was recorded on a strip-chart recorder using a pen trace on moving chart paper, as shown in Figure 5 (the red line is the recorded signal; the baseline would be on the right).\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 5. Strip chart recorder\n\n\n\nThe output of the instrument is a voltage (the \u201cAnalog Output\u201d element in the model) that is connected to the recorder. The \u201cData Acquisition &amp; Processing\u201d and \u201cControl Systems &amp; Communication\u201d elements are, to put it simply, you and your calculator.\nNow let's look at a typical chromatogram from a modern instrument (Figure 6).\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 6. This chromatogram shows the separation of sugars in a mixture.&#91;3&#93; In an analog chromatogram, the line would be smooth since it would come from a continuous signal that was being recorded in real-time. Images like this will often show stair-stepping on the peaks, a result of a computer sampling the signal periodically (possibly 20 to 50 times\/sec depending on settings), and the resulting image is a connect-the-dots display of the sampled readings. This is a characteristic difference between real-time strip-chart analog recording and digital systems (though not a criticism of this particular chromatogram).\n\n\n\nAs Figure 6 demonstrates, chromatograms are a series of peaks. Those peaks represent the retention time (how long it takes a molecule to elute after injection) and can be used to help determine a molecule's identity (other techniques such as MS may be used to confirm it). The size of the peak is used in quantitative analysis.\nWhen doing quantitative analysis, part of the analyst's work is to determine the size of the peak and to ensure that there are no contaminants that would compromise the sample. This is where life gets interesting. Quantitative analysis requires the analysis of a series of standards used to construct a calibration curve (peak size vs. concentration), followed by the sample's. Their peak sizes are then placed on the calibration curve and their concentrations read (Figure 7).\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 7. Peak area measurement and calibration curve\n\n\n\nPeak size can be measured two ways: by the height of the peak above a baseline and by measuring the area under the peak above that baseline. The latter is more accurate, but in the days before computers, this was difficult to determine because peaks have irregular shapes, often with sloping baselines. As a result, unless there was a concern, peak height was often used as it was faster and easier.\nWhen done manually from strip chart recordings, there were two commonly used methods of measuring peak areas&#91;4&#93;:\n\nPlanimeters \u2013 a mechanical device used to trace the peak outline, which was tedious, exacting, and time-consuming\nCut-and-weigh \u2013 photocopies (usually) were made of the individual chromatograms, the peaks were cut out from the paper, put in a desiccator to normalize moisture content, and weighed. The weights, along with the surface area of the paper, were used to determine peak area, which was also slow, exacting, and time-consuming\nWhile peak height measurements were faster, they were still labor-intensive. There was one benefit to these methodologies: you were intimately familiar with the data. If anything was even a little off\u2014including unexpected peaks, distortion of peak shapes, etc.\u2014it was immediately noticeable and important because that meant that there was something unexpected in the sample, which could mean serious contamination. Part of the analyst\u2019s role was to identify those contaminants, which usually meant multiple injections and cold trapping of the peak components as they left the column. In the past, infrared spectrophotometry was used to scan the trapped material. Today, people use mass spectrometry methods, e.g., liquid chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry (LC-MS).\nAnything that could make those measurements easier and faster was welcomed into the lab (depending on your budget). \u201cAnything\u201d began with electronic integrators built around the Intel 4004 and 8008 chips&#91;5&#93;&#91;6&#93; The integrators, connected to the analog output of the chromatograph, performed the data acquisition and processing to yield a paper strip with the peak number, retention time, peak height, peak area, and an indication if the peak ended on the baseline or formed a valley with a following peak, for all the peaks resulting from an injection. Most integrators had both digital (connecting to a digital I\/O board) and serial (RS-232) input-output (I\/O) ports for communication to a computer.\nWith the change in technologies and methods, some things were gained, others lost. There was certainly an increased speed of measuring peak characteristics, with the final results calculations being left to the analyst. However, any intimacy with the data was largely lost, as was some control over how baselines were measured, and how peak areas for overlapping peaks were partitioned. Additionally, unless a strip chart is connected to the same output as the integrator used, you don't see the chromatograms, making it easy to miss possible contaminants that would otherwise be evident by more obvious extra peaks or distorted peaks.\nAs instrumentation has developed, computers and software have become more accepted as part of lab operations, and the distinction between the instrument and the computational system has almost become lost. For example, strip-chart recorders, once standard, has become an optional accessory. Today, the computer's report has become an accepted summary of analysis, and, if referenced, a screen-sized graphic has become an acceptable representation of the chromatogram output, if captured. If the analyst chooses to do so, the digital chromatogram can be enlarged to see more detail. Additionally, considerable computing resources are available today to analyze peaks and what they might represent through hyphenated techniques. However, those elements are only useful if someone inspects the chromatogram and looks for anomalies that could take the form of unexpected peaks or distorted peak shapes.\nIssues with potential contaminants can be planned for by developing separation methods that properly separate all expected sample components and possible contaminants. The standard printed report will list everything found, including both expected molecules and those that could be there but shouldn\u2019t. There are also the unexpected things that show up either as well-defined peaks or shoulders to other eluted components.\nFigure 8 shows a pair of synthesized peaks (created in Excel) based on a normal distribution. The blue and red lines are the individual peaks, and the green is their combination. While the contribution of the blue peak is significant and distorts the overall peak envelope, it isn\u2019t sufficient to disrupt the continually ascending slope on the leading edge. The end result is that peak detection algorithms would likely lump the two areas together and report them as a single component; the retention time of the second peak was not affected. It may be possible to pick a set of peak detection parameters that would detect this, or an analytical report that would flag the unusual peak width (proportional to a standard\u2019s peak height). This would be something the analyst would have to build in rather than relying on default settings and reports.\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 8. Excel-generated representation of chromatographic peaks\n\n\n\nThe same issues exist in other techniques such as spectroscopy and thermal analysis. In those techniques, there may not be much that can be done in the analytical phase&#91;b&#93; to deal with the problem, and you may have to use software systems to handle the problem. Peak deconvolution represents one possible method.\nThere are examples of performing peak deconvolution with software packages, including from OriginLab&#91;7&#93; and Wolfram Research.&#91;8&#93; One potential problem with deconvolution, however, is that too many peaks may be created to make the curve fitting match.\nIn the end, the success of all these methods depends upon well-educated analysts who are thoroughly familiar with the techniques they are using and the capabilities of the data handling systems used to collect and analyze instrument output.\n\n Moving to fully automated, interconnected systems \nOne of the benefits of a laboratory information management system (LIMS) and electronic laboratory notebook (ELN) is their ability to receive communications from an IDS and automatically parse reports and enter results into their databases. Given the previous commentary, how do we ensure that the results being entered are correct? The IDS has moved from being an aid to the analyst to a replacement, losing the analyst's observation and judgment facilities. That can compromise data quality and integrity, permitting questionable data and information into the system. We need to find an effective substitute for the analyst as we move toward fully automated lab environments.\nWhat needs to be developed on an industry-wide basis (it may exist in individual products or labs) is a system that verifies, certifies, and notifies of analytical results while also addressing the concerns raised above. Given the expanding interest in artificial intelligence (AI) systems, that would seem to be one path, but there are problems there. Most of the AI systems reported in the press are devised around machine learning processes based on the system's examination of test data sets, frequently in the form of images that can be evaluated. As of this writing, there are concerns being raised about the quality of the data sets and the reliability of the resulting systems. Another problem is that the decision-making process of machine-learning based systems is a black box, which wouldn\u2019t work in a regulated environment where validation does and should be a major concern. In short, if you don\u2019t know how it works, how do you develop trust in the results? After all, trust in the data is critical.\nWhat we will need is a deliberately designed system to detect anomalies in analytical and experimental data that allows users to take appropriate follow-up actions. When applied to an IDS, this functionality would act as a \u201cgatekeeper\u201d and prevent questionable information from entering laboratory informatics systems (Figure 9).\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFigure 9. Example of \u201cgatekeeper\u201d evaluation criteria applied to the laboratory process model\n\n\n\nThe concept of a \u201cdata and information gatekeeper\u201d is an interesting point as we move forward into automation and the integration of laboratory informatics systems. We have the ability to connect systems together and transfer data and information from an IDS to a scientific data management system (SDMS), and then to a LIMS or ELN. Once that data and information enters this upper tier of informatics, it is generally considered to be trustworthy and able to be used on a reliable basis for decision making. That trustworthiness needs to be based on more than the ability to put stuff into a database. We need to ensure that the process of developing data and information is reliable, tested, and validated. This is part of the attraction of a laboratory execution system (LES), which has built-in checks to ensure a process\u2019 steps are performed properly. While a LES is primarily built to support human activities, we need a similar mechanism for checks on automated processes\u2014and in particular the final stages of data-to-information processing\u2014in IDSs when throughput is so high that we can\u2019t rely on human inspectors. As we move into increasing productivity through automation (essentially becoming \u201cscientific manufacturing or production\u201d work) we need to adapt production-line inspection concepts to the processes of laboratory work.\n\nSetting a direction for laboratory automation development \nThis paper began with a statement that an industry-wide direction is needed to facilitate the use of automation technologies in lab work. You might first ask \u201cwhich industry?\u201d The answer is \"all of them.\" There has been a tendency over the last several years to focus on the life science and healthcare industries, which is understandable as that\u2019s largely where the money is. More recently, however, there has been a push made for the cannabis industry for the same reason: it makes for a wise investment. That's to say that labeling technologies as suitable for a particular industry misses the key point that laboratory automation and its supporting technology needs are basically the same across all industries. The samples and specifics of the processes differ in what people will use, but the underlying technologies are the same. Tools like microplates and supporting technologies are concentrated in life sciences, but to a large extent that's because they haven\u2019t been tried elsewhere. The same holds true for software systems. Developers may have a more difficult time justifying projects if they are only targeted at one industry, but they may gain broader support if they take a wider view of the marketplace. If methods and standards are viewed as being marketplace-specific, they may be ignored by other potential users. As a result, developers will miss important input and opportunities that could make them more successful. In short, we need to be more inclusive in technology, looking for broader applicability of development rather than a narrowly focused one.\nWhen we construct a framework for developments in laboratory automation and computing, we should address the laboratory marketplace as a whole and then let individual markets adapt and refine that framework as required for their needs. For example, inter-system communications (e.g., bi-directional IDS to LIMS or ELN) has been a need for decades, a need that has been successfully addressed by the clinical chemistry industry. So why not adapt their approach?\nWe could develop a set of models for various lab operations. The one described earlier is one possibility, but it would need to be fleshed out to include administrative and other types of functions. Each element would have different sub-models to account for implementation methods (e.g., manual, semi-automated, fully robotic, etc.) with connection and control mechanisms (hierarchical for robotics, and LES for manual). These models would show us where developments are needed and how they are interconnected, while also offering a guide for people planning lab operations. As such, it would become a more structured or engineered approach to the identification and development of integrated technologies.\nBut there's still another need, and that is proper education. This could be facilitated by the created models, helping people understand what they need to learn to be effective lab managers, technology managers, lab personnel, and laboratory IT (LAB-IT) support personnel.\nTogether, education and technology development offer a natural feedback system. The more you learn, the better your ability to define and utilize laboratory technology, from generation to generation. That interaction leads to more effective education.\n\nThe bottom line \nThe bottom line to all this is pretty simple. Instrument vendors have produced a wide range of instrument systems, supported by instrument data systems, to assist lab personnel in their work. Their role is to develop systems that can be adapted to support instruments, with the user completing the process of analysis and reporting. General purpose reporting can be reconfigured to meet specialized needs; after all, those vendor supplied reports aren\u2019t the end of the process, just a guide to getting there.\nRegardless of how an instrument is packaged (e.g., as integrated packages or separated instrument-computer configurations), the end user has to be well-educated in both sets of components. They have to understand:\n\nwhat the instrument is doing,\nhow it functions, and\nthe characteristics of the analog data it produces.\nThey also have to be familiar with:\n\nwhat digital systems do with that data,\nhow they do it,\nthe limitations of those systems,\nthe interaction between the instrument and computer, and\nthe responsibilities of the analyst.\nDigital systems are not a replacement for the analyst, but rather they are an aid in streamlining workflows. Whatever data and information is produced, you are signing your name to it and are responsible for those results.\n\n Abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms \nAI: Artificial intelligence\nELN: Electronic laboratory notebook\nGC-MS: Gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry\nIDS: Instrument data system\nLC-MS: Liquid chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry\nLES: Laboratory execution system\nLIMS: Laboratory information management system\nMS: Mass spectrometer\nSDMS: Scientific data management system\n\nFootnotes \n\n\n\u2191 If you\u2019d like to familiarize yourself with the technique, however, there are a many sources online, e.g., Khan Academy. \n\n\u2191 In some cases such as the infrared spectroscopic analysis of LDPE side-chain branching, interfering vinylidene peaks can be removed by bromination; see ASTM D3123 - 09(2017). Other techniques may have mechanisms for resolving the overlapping peak issue. \n\n\nAbout the author \nInitially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Hinshaw, J.V.&#32;(2014).&#32;\"Finding a Needle in a Haystack\".&#32;LCGC Europe&#32;27&#32;(11): 584\u201389.&#32;https:\/\/www.chromatographyonline.com\/view\/finding-needle-haystack-0 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Stevenson, R.L.; Lee, M.; Gras, R.&#32;(1 September 2011).&#32;\"The Future of GC Instrumentation From the 35th International Symposium on Capillary Chromatography (ISCC)\".&#32;American Laboratory.&#32;https:\/\/americanlaboratory.com\/913-Technical-Articles\/34439-The-Future-of-GC-Instrumentation-From-the-35th-International-Symposium-on-Capillary-Chromatography-ISCC\/ . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Valliyodan, B.; Shi, H.; Nguyen, H.T.&#32;(2015).&#32;\"A Simple Analytical Method for High-Throughput Screening of Major Sugars from Soybean by Normal-Phase HPLC with Evaporative Light Scattering Detection\".&#32;Chromatography Research International&#32;2015: 757649.&#32;doi:10.1155\/2015\/757649. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Ball, D.L.; Harris, W.E.; Habgood, H.W.&#32;(1967).&#32;\"Errors in Manual Integration Techniques for Chromatographic Peaks\".&#32;Journal of Chromatographic Science&#32;5&#32;(12): 613\u201320.&#32;doi:10.1093\/chromsci\/5.12.613. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Goedert, M.; Wise, S.A.; Juvet Jr., R.S.&#32;(1974).&#32;\"Application of an inexpensive, general-purpose microcomputer in analytical chemistry\".&#32;Chromatographia&#32;7&#32;(9): 539\u201346.&#32;doi:10.1007\/BF02268338. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Betteridge, D.; Goad, T.B.&#32;(1981).&#32;\"The impact of microprocessors on analytical instrumentation. A review\".&#32;Analyst&#32;106&#32;(1260): 257\u201382.&#32;doi:10.1039\/AN9810600257. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Mao, S.&#32;(9 March 2015).&#32;\"How do I Perform Peak \u201cDeconvolution\u201d?\".&#32;Origin Blog.&#32;OriginLab.&#32;http:\/\/blog.originlab.com\/how-do-i-perform-peak-deconvolution . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Binous, H.; Bellagi, A.&#32;(March 2010).&#32;\"Deconvolution of a Chromatogram\".&#32;Wolfram Demonstrations Project.&#32;https:\/\/demonstrations.wolfram.com\/DeconvolutionOfAChromatogram\/ . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems<\/a>\nCategory: LII:Guides, white papers, and other publicationsNavigation menuPage actionsLIIDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsLIIDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 9 February 2022, at 19:41.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,731 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","1b7330228fd59158aab6fab82ad0e7cc_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems rootpage-LII_Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:Notes on Instrument Data Systems<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>Notes on Instrument Data Systems<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Joe Liscouski, with editorial modifications by Shawn Douglas\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: May 27, 2020\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The goal of this brief paper is to examine what it will take to advance <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> operations in terms of technical content, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fe43b05eae4dfa9b5c0547cc8cfcceb\">data quality<\/a>, and productivity. Advancements in the past have been incremental, and isolated, the result of an individual's or group's work and not part of a broad industry plan. Disjointed, uncoordinated, incremental improvements have to give way to planned, directed methods, such that appropriate standards and products can be developed and mutually beneficial R&amp;D programs instituted. We\u2019ve long since entered a phase where the cost of technology development and implementation is too high to rely on a \u201clet\u2019s try this\u201d approach as the dominant methodology. Making progress in lab technologies is too important to be done without some direction (i.e., deliberate planning). Individual insights, inspiration, and \u201cout of the box\u201d thinking is always valuable; it can inspire a change in direction. But building to a purpose is equally important. This paper revisits past developments in instrument data systems (IDS), looks at issues that need attention as we further venture into the use of integrated systems, and suggests some directions further development can take.\n<\/p><p>There is a second aspect beyond planning that also deserves attention: education. Yes, there are people who really know what they are doing with instrumental systems and data handling. However, that knowledge base isn\u2019t universal across labs. Many industrial labs and schools have people using instrument data systems with no understanding of what is happening to their data. Others such as Hinshaw and Stevenson <i>et al.<\/i> have commented on this phenomenon in the past:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Chromatographers go to great lengths to prepare, inject, and separate their samples, but they sometimes do not pay as much attention to the next step: peak detection and measurement ... Despite a lot of exposure to computerized data handling, however, many practicing chromatographers do not have a good idea of how a stored chromatogram file\u2014a set of data points arrayed in time\u2014gets translated into a set of peaks with quantitative attributes such as area, height, and amount.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HinshawFinding14_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HinshawFinding14-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>At this point, I noticed that the discussion tipped from an academic recitation of technical needs and possible solutions to a session driven primarily by frustrations. Even today, the instruments are often more sophisticated than the average user, whether he\/she is a technician, graduate student, scientist, or principal investigator using <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography\" title=\"Chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2615535d1f14c6cffdfad7285999ad9d\">chromatography<\/a> as part of the project. Who is responsible for generating good data? Can the designs be improved to increase data integrity?<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StevensonTheFuture11_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StevensonTheFuture11-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>We can expect that the same issue holds true for even more demanding individual or combined techniques. Unless lab personnel are well-educated in both the theory and the practice of their work, no amount of automation\u2014including any IDS components\u2014is going to matter in the development of usable data and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The IDS entered the laboratory initially as an aid to analysts doing their work. Its primary role was to off-load tedious measurements and calculations, giving analysts more time to inspect and evaluate lab results. The IDS has since morphed from a convenience to a necessity, and then to being a presumed part of an instrument system. That raises two sets of issues that we\u2019ll address here regarding people, technologies, and their intersections:\n<\/p><p>1. People: Do the users of an IDS understand what is happening to their data once it leaves the instrument and enters the computer? Do they understand the settings that are available and the effect they have on data processing, as well as the potential for compromising the results of the analytical bench work? Are lab personnel educated so that they are effective and competent users of all the technologies used in the course of their work?\n<\/p><p>2. Technologies: Are the systems we are using up to the task that has been assigned to them as we automate laboratory functions?\n<\/p><p>We\u2019ll begin with some basic material and then develop the argument from there.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"An_overall_model_for_laboratory_processes_and_instrumentation\">An overall model for laboratory processes and instrumentation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Laboratory work is dependent upon instruments, and the push for higher productivity is driving us toward automation. What may be lost in all this, particularly to those new to lab procedures, is an understanding of how things work, and how computer systems control the final steps in a process. Without that understanding, good bench work can be reduced to bad and misleading results. If you want to guard against that prospect, you have to understand how instrument data systems work, as well as your role in ensuring accurate results.\n<\/p><p>Let's begin by looking at a model for lab processes (Figure 1) and define the important elements.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig1_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"73166cc4ec253bb98abcfe11a1241589\"><img alt=\"Fig1 Liscouski NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/cf\/Fig1_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 1.<\/b> A basic laboratory process model<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Most of the elements of Figure 1 are easy to understand. \"Instrument Input\" could be an injection port, an autosampler, or the pan on a balance. \u201cControl Systems &amp; Communications,\u201d normally part of the same electronics package as \u201cData Acquisition &amp; Processing,\u201d is separated out to provide for hierarchical control configurations that might be found in, e.g., robotics systems. The model is easily expanded to describe hyphenated systems such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Gas_chromatography%E2%80%93mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7fe02050f81fca3ad7a5845b1879ae2\">gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry<\/a> (GC-MS) applications, as shown in Figure 2. Mass spectrometers are best used when you have a clean sample (no contaminants), while chromatographs are great at separating mixtures and isolating components in the effluent. The combination of instruments makes an effective tool for separating and identifying the components in mixtures.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig2_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"c147d7f373f56b442793727e799cc005\"><img alt=\"Fig2 Liscouski NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/12\/Fig2_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 2.<\/b> A basic laboratory process model applied to a GC-MS combination (the lower model illustration is flipped vertically to simplify the diagram)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Note that the chromatographic system and its associated components become the \"Sample Preparation\" element from Figure 1 when viewed from the perspective of the mass spectrometer (MS). The flow out of the chromatographic column is split (if needed, depending on the detector used, while controlling the input to the MS) so that the eluted material is directed to the input of the MS. Each eluted component from the chromatograph becomes a sample to the MS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Instruments_vs._instrument_packages\">Instruments vs. instrument packages<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One important feature of the model shown in Figure 1 is that arrow labeled \u201cAnalog Output\u201d; this emphasizes that the standard output of instruments is an analog \"response\" or voltage. The response can take the form of a needle movement across a scale, a deflection, or some other indication (e.g., a level in a mercury or alcohol thermometer). Voltage output can be read with a meter or strip chart recorder. There are no instruments with digital outputs; they are all analog output devices. \n<\/p><p>On the other hand, instruments that appear to be digital devices are the result of packaging by the manufacturer. That packaging contains the analog signal-generating instrument, with a voltage output that is connected to an analog-to-digital converter. \n<\/p><p>Take for example analog pH meters, which are in reality millivolt meters with a pH scale added to the meter face. If you look at Figure 3, the lower switch position has a setting for both MV (millivolt) and pH. When you read the pH on the meter, you are doing an analog-to-digital conversion; the needle's movement is the result of the incoming voltage from the pH electrode. The \u201cpH reading\u201d is performed by you as you project the needle's position onto the scale and note the corresponding numeric value.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig3_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ddbaa9c410be4bba7a3bf71011e1b104\"><img alt=\"Fig3 Liscouski NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/5\/5a\/Fig3_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 3.<\/b> The front face of an Orion Research IONALYZER<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>A digital pH meter has the following components from our model (Figure 1) incorporated into the instrument package (the light green elements in the model):\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The instrument - One or more electrodes provide the analog signal, which depends on the pH of the solution.<\/li>\n<li>Data acquisition and processing \u2013 An external connection connects the electrodes to an analog-to-digital converter that converts the incoming voltage to a digital value that is in turn used to calculate the pH.<\/li>\n<li>Control systems and communication \u2013 This manages the digital display, front panel control functions, and, if present, the RS-232\/422\/485 or network communications. If the communications feature is there, this module also interprets and responds to commands from an external computer.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Working_with_more_sophisticated_instruments\">Working with more sophisticated instruments<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Prior to the introduction of computers to instruments, the common method of viewing the instruments output was through meters and strip-chart recorders. That meant two things: all the measurements and calculations were done by hand, and you were intimately familiar with your data. Both those points are significant and have ramifications that warrant serious consideration in today\u2019s labs.\n<\/p><p>In order to keep things simple, let's focus on chromatography, although the points raised will have application to spectroscopy, thermal analysis, and other instrumental techniques in chemistry; material science; physics; and other domains. Chromatography has the richest history of automation in laboratory work, it is widely used, and gives us a model for thinking about other techniques. You will not have to be an expert in chromatography to understand what follows.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">&#91;a&#93;<\/a><\/sup> To put it simply, chromatography is a technique for taking complex mixtures and allowing the analyst (with a bit of work) to separate the components of the mixture and determine what those components might be and quantify them. \n<\/p><p>Older chromatographs looked like the instrument in front of the technician in Figure 4:\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig4_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2e187dc5fded5ec913c00993300fc89\"><img alt=\"Fig4 Liscouski NotesOnInstDataSys20.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/5\/5a\/Fig4_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 4.<\/b> USGS, UMESC scientist Joseph Hunn at gas chromatograph, 1965<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The instruments output was an analog signal, a voltage, that was recorded on a strip-chart recorder using a pen trace on moving chart paper, as shown in Figure 5 (the red line is the recorded signal; the baseline would be on the right).\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig5_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfed7fc8f3fb5f5a05a772f1a2cfd544\"><img alt=\"Fig5 Liscouski NotesOnInstDataSys20.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b7\/Fig5_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 5.<\/b> Strip chart recorder<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The output of the instrument is a voltage (the \u201cAnalog Output\u201d element in the model) that is connected to the recorder. The \u201cData Acquisition &amp; Processing\u201d and \u201cControl Systems &amp; Communication\u201d elements are, to put it simply, you and your calculator.\n<\/p><p>Now let's look at a typical chromatogram from a modern instrument (Figure 6).\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig6_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f85a987e762c43fbade699ba2cf6204\"><img alt=\"Fig6 Liscouski NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/2\/21\/Fig6_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 6.<\/b> This chromatogram shows the separation of sugars in a mixture.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ValliyodanASimp15_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ValliyodanASimp15-4\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In an analog chromatogram, the line would be smooth since it would come from a continuous signal that was being recorded in real-time. Images like this will often show stair-stepping on the peaks, a result of a computer sampling the signal periodically (possibly 20 to 50 times\/sec depending on settings), and the resulting image is a connect-the-dots display of the sampled readings. This is a characteristic difference between real-time strip-chart analog recording and digital systems (though not a criticism of this particular chromatogram).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>As Figure 6 demonstrates, chromatograms are a series of peaks. Those peaks represent the retention time (how long it takes a molecule to elute after injection) and can be used to help determine a molecule's identity (other techniques such as MS may be used to confirm it). The size of the peak is used in quantitative analysis.\n<\/p><p>When doing quantitative analysis, part of the analyst's work is to determine the size of the peak and to ensure that there are no contaminants that would compromise the sample. This is where life gets interesting. Quantitative analysis requires the analysis of a series of standards used to construct a calibration curve (peak size vs. concentration), followed by the sample's. Their peak sizes are then placed on the calibration curve and their concentrations read (Figure 7).\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig7_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"83c122430dcdeb1d11577b56b7d4a9a2\"><img alt=\"Fig7 Liscouski NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b2\/Fig7_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 7.<\/b> Peak area measurement and calibration curve<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>Peak size can be measured two ways: by the height of the peak above a baseline and by measuring the area under the peak above that baseline. The latter is more accurate, but in the days before computers, this was difficult to determine because peaks have irregular shapes, often with sloping baselines. As a result, unless there was a concern, peak height was often used as it was faster and easier.\n<\/p><p>When done manually from strip chart recordings, there were two commonly used methods of measuring peak areas<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BallErrors67_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BallErrors67-5\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Planimeters \u2013 a mechanical device used to trace the peak outline, which was tedious, exacting, and time-consuming<\/li>\n<li>Cut-and-weigh \u2013 photocopies (usually) were made of the individual chromatograms, the peaks were cut out from the paper, put in a desiccator to normalize moisture content, and weighed. The weights, along with the surface area of the paper, were used to determine peak area, which was also slow, exacting, and time-consuming<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>While peak height measurements were faster, they were still labor-intensive. There was one benefit to these methodologies: you were intimately familiar with the data. If anything was even a little off\u2014including unexpected peaks, distortion of peak shapes, etc.\u2014it was immediately noticeable and important because that meant that there was something unexpected in the sample, which could mean serious contamination. Part of the analyst\u2019s role was to identify those contaminants, which usually meant multiple injections and cold trapping of the peak components as they left the column. In the past, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Infrared_spectroscopy\" title=\"Infrared spectroscopy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f771154f4545ab501387433b2d1895d\">infrared spectrophotometry<\/a> was used to scan the trapped material. Today, people use mass spectrometry methods, e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Liquid_chromatography%E2%80%93mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Liquid chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d171745b38c8d2ed7d274d2cc13fa1f3\">liquid chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry<\/a> (LC-MS).\n<\/p><p>Anything that could make those measurements easier and faster was welcomed into the lab (depending on your budget). \u201cAnything\u201d began with electronic integrators built around the Intel 4004 and 8008 chips<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GoedertApp74_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GoedertApp74-6\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BetteridgeTheImpact81_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BetteridgeTheImpact81-7\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The integrators, connected to the analog output of the chromatograph, performed the data acquisition and processing to yield a paper strip with the peak number, retention time, peak height, peak area, and an indication if the peak ended on the baseline or formed a valley with a following peak, for all the peaks resulting from an injection. Most integrators had both digital (connecting to a digital I\/O board) and serial (RS-232) input-output (I\/O) ports for communication to a computer.\n<\/p><p>With the change in technologies and methods, some things were gained, others lost. There was certainly an increased speed of measuring peak characteristics, with the final results calculations being left to the analyst. However, any intimacy with the data was largely lost, as was some control over how baselines were measured, and how peak areas for overlapping peaks were partitioned. Additionally, unless a strip chart is connected to the same output as the integrator used, you don't see the chromatograms, making it easy to miss possible contaminants that would otherwise be evident by more obvious extra peaks or distorted peaks.\n<\/p><p>As instrumentation has developed, computers and software have become more accepted as part of lab operations, and the distinction between the instrument and the computational system has almost become lost. For example, strip-chart recorders, once standard, has become an optional accessory. Today, the computer's report has become an accepted summary of analysis, and, if referenced, a screen-sized graphic has become an acceptable representation of the chromatogram output, if captured. If the analyst chooses to do so, the digital chromatogram can be enlarged to see more detail. Additionally, considerable computing resources are available today to analyze peaks and what they might represent through hyphenated techniques. However, those elements are only useful if someone inspects the chromatogram and looks for anomalies that could take the form of unexpected peaks or distorted peak shapes.\n<\/p><p>Issues with potential contaminants can be planned for by developing separation methods that properly separate all expected sample components and possible contaminants. The standard printed report will list everything found, including both expected molecules and those that could be there but shouldn\u2019t. There are also the unexpected things that show up either as well-defined peaks or shoulders to other eluted components.\n<\/p><p>Figure 8 shows a pair of synthesized peaks (created in Excel) based on a normal distribution. The blue and red lines are the individual peaks, and the green is their combination. While the contribution of the blue peak is significant and distorts the overall peak envelope, it isn\u2019t sufficient to disrupt the continually ascending slope on the leading edge. The end result is that peak detection algorithms would likely lump the two areas together and report them as a single component; the retention time of the second peak was not affected. It may be possible to pick a set of peak detection parameters that would detect this, or an analytical report that would flag the unusual peak width (proportional to a standard\u2019s peak height). This would be something the analyst would have to build in rather than relying on default settings and reports.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig8_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"96c61130b31aff4fbf33ffae41166694\"><img alt=\"Fig8 Liscouski NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/9\/96\/Fig8_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 8.<\/b> Excel-generated representation of chromatographic peaks<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The same issues exist in other techniques such as spectroscopy and thermal analysis. In those techniques, there may not be much that can be done in the analytical phase<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">&#91;b&#93;<\/a><\/sup> to deal with the problem, and you may have to use software systems to handle the problem. Peak deconvolution represents one possible method.\n<\/p><p>There are examples of performing peak deconvolution with software packages, including from OriginLab<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MaoHowDoI15_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MaoHowDoI15-9\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and Wolfram Research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BinousDeconv10_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BinousDeconv10-10\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> One potential problem with deconvolution, however, is that too many peaks may be created to make the curve fitting match.\n<\/p><p>In the end, the success of all these methods depends upon well-educated analysts who are thoroughly familiar with the techniques they are using and the capabilities of the data handling systems used to collect and analyze instrument output.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Moving_to_fully_automated,_interconnected_systems\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Moving_to_fully_automated.2C_interconnected_systems\">Moving to fully automated, interconnected systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>One of the benefits of a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN) is their ability to receive communications from an IDS and automatically parse reports and enter results into their databases. Given the previous commentary, how do we ensure that the results being entered are correct? The IDS has moved from being an aid to the analyst to a replacement, losing the analyst's observation and judgment facilities. That can compromise data quality and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167\">integrity<\/a>, permitting questionable data and information into the system. We need to find an effective substitute for the analyst as we move toward fully automated lab environments.\n<\/p><p>What needs to be developed on an industry-wide basis (it may exist in individual products or labs) is a system that verifies, certifies, and notifies of analytical results while also addressing the concerns raised above. Given the expanding interest in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI) systems, that would seem to be one path, but there are problems there. Most of the AI systems reported in the press are devised around <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79aab39cfa124c958cd1dbcab3dde122\">machine learning<\/a> processes based on the system's examination of test data sets, frequently in the form of images that can be evaluated. As of this writing, there are concerns being raised about the quality of the data sets and the reliability of the resulting systems. Another problem is that the decision-making process of machine-learning based systems is a black box, which wouldn\u2019t work in a regulated environment where validation does and should be a major concern. In short, if you don\u2019t know how it works, how do you develop trust in the results? After all, trust in the data is critical.\n<\/p><p>What we will need is a deliberately designed system to detect anomalies in analytical and experimental data that allows users to take appropriate follow-up actions. When applied to an IDS, this functionality would act as a \u201cgatekeeper\u201d and prevent questionable information from entering <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> systems (Figure 9).\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Fig9_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"3dfb1e43f4f025b805c39355ba8246ff\"><img alt=\"Fig9 Liscouski NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" src=\"https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/9\/96\/Fig9_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;\"><blockquote><p><b>Figure 9.<\/b> Example of \u201cgatekeeper\u201d evaluation criteria applied to the laboratory process model<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>The concept of a \u201cdata and information gatekeeper\u201d is an interesting point as we move forward into automation and the integration of laboratory informatics systems. We have the ability to connect systems together and transfer data and information from an IDS to a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">scientific data management system<\/a> (SDMS), and then to a LIMS or ELN. Once that data and information enters this upper tier of informatics, it is generally considered to be trustworthy and able to be used on a reliable basis for decision making. That trustworthiness needs to be based on more than the ability to put stuff into a database. We need to ensure that the process of developing data and information is reliable, tested, and validated. This is part of the attraction of a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\" title=\"Laboratory execution system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a\">laboratory execution system<\/a> (LES), which has built-in checks to ensure a process\u2019 steps are performed properly. While a LES is primarily built to support human activities, we need a similar mechanism for checks on automated processes\u2014and in particular the final stages of data-to-information processing\u2014in IDSs when throughput is so high that we can\u2019t rely on human inspectors. As we move into increasing productivity through automation (essentially becoming \u201cscientific manufacturing or production\u201d work) we need to adapt production-line inspection concepts to the processes of laboratory work.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Setting_a_direction_for_laboratory_automation_development\">Setting a direction for laboratory automation development<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This paper began with a statement that an industry-wide direction is needed to facilitate the use of automation technologies in lab work. You might first ask \u201cwhich industry?\u201d The answer is \"all of them.\" There has been a tendency over the last several years to focus on the life science and healthcare industries, which is understandable as that\u2019s largely where the money is. More recently, however, there has been a push made for the cannabis industry for the same reason: it makes for a wise investment. That's to say that labeling technologies as suitable for a particular industry misses the key point that laboratory automation and its supporting technology needs are basically the same across all industries. The samples and specifics of the processes differ in what people will use, but the underlying technologies are the same. Tools like microplates and supporting technologies are concentrated in life sciences, but to a large extent that's because they haven\u2019t been tried elsewhere. The same holds true for software systems. Developers may have a more difficult time justifying projects if they are only targeted at one industry, but they may gain broader support if they take a wider view of the marketplace. If methods and standards are viewed as being marketplace-specific, they may be ignored by other potential users. As a result, developers will miss important input and opportunities that could make them more successful. In short, we need to be more inclusive in technology, looking for broader applicability of development rather than a narrowly focused one.\n<\/p><p>When we construct a framework for developments in laboratory automation and computing, we should address the laboratory marketplace as a whole and then let individual markets adapt and refine that framework as required for their needs. For example, inter-system communications (e.g., bi-directional IDS to LIMS or ELN) has been a need for decades, a need that has been successfully addressed by the clinical chemistry industry. So why not adapt their approach?\n<\/p><p>We could develop a set of models for various lab operations. The one described earlier is one possibility, but it would need to be fleshed out to include administrative and other types of functions. Each element would have different sub-models to account for implementation methods (e.g., manual, semi-automated, fully robotic, etc.) with connection and control mechanisms (hierarchical for robotics, and LES for manual). These models would show us where developments are needed and how they are interconnected, while also offering a guide for people planning lab operations. As such, it would become a more structured or engineered approach to the identification and development of integrated technologies.\n<\/p><p>But there's still another need, and that is proper education. This could be facilitated by the created models, helping people understand what they need to learn to be effective lab managers, technology managers, lab personnel, and laboratory IT (LAB-IT) support personnel.\n<\/p><p>Together, education and technology development offer a natural feedback system. The more you learn, the better your ability to define and utilize laboratory technology, from generation to generation. That interaction leads to more effective education.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_bottom_line\">The bottom line<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The bottom line to all this is pretty simple. Instrument vendors have produced a wide range of instrument systems, supported by instrument data systems, to assist lab personnel in their work. Their role is to develop systems that can be adapted to support instruments, with the user completing the process of analysis and reporting. General purpose reporting can be reconfigured to meet specialized needs; after all, those vendor supplied reports aren\u2019t the end of the process, just a guide to getting there.\n<\/p><p>Regardless of how an instrument is packaged (e.g., as integrated packages or separated instrument-computer configurations), the end user has to be well-educated in both sets of components. They have to understand:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>what the instrument is doing,<\/li>\n<li>how it functions, and<\/li>\n<li>the characteristics of the analog data it produces.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>They also have to be familiar with:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>what digital systems do with that data,<\/li>\n<li>how they do it,<\/li>\n<li>the limitations of those systems,<\/li>\n<li>the interaction between the instrument and computer, and<\/li>\n<li>the responsibilities of the analyst.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Digital systems are not a replacement for the analyst, but rather they are an aid in streamlining workflows. Whatever data and information is produced, you are signing your name to it and are responsible for those results.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Abbreviations,_acronyms,_and_initialisms\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Abbreviations.2C_acronyms.2C_and_initialisms\">Abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>AI<\/b>: Artificial intelligence\n<\/p><p><b>ELN<\/b>: Electronic laboratory notebook\n<\/p><p><b>GC-MS<\/b>: Gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry\n<\/p><p><b>IDS<\/b>: Instrument data system\n<\/p><p><b>LC-MS<\/b>: Liquid chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry\n<\/p><p><b>LES<\/b>: Laboratory execution system\n<\/p><p><b>LIMS<\/b>: Laboratory information management system\n<\/p><p><b>MS<\/b>: Mass spectrometer\n<\/p><p><b>SDMS<\/b>: Scientific data management system\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Footnotes\">Footnotes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">If you\u2019d like to familiarize yourself with the technique, however, there are a many sources online, e.g., <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/science\/class-11-chemistry-india\/xfbb6cb8fc2bd00c8:in-in-organic-chemistry-some-basic-principles-and-techniques\/xfbb6cb8fc2bd00c8:in-in-methods-of-purification-of-organic-compounds\/a\/principles-of-chromatography\" target=\"_blank\">Khan Academy<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">In some cases such as the infrared spectroscopic analysis of LDPE side-chain branching, interfering vinylidene peaks can be removed by bromination; see <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/D3123.htm\" target=\"_blank\">ASTM D3123 - 09(2017)<\/a>. Other techniques may have mechanisms for resolving the overlapping peak issue.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"About_the_author\">About the author<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Initially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski (joe dot liscouski at gmail dot com) is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years of experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HinshawFinding14-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HinshawFinding14_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Hinshaw, J.V.&#32;(2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.chromatographyonline.com\/view\/finding-needle-haystack-0\" target=\"_blank\">\"Finding a Needle in a Haystack\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>LCGC Europe<\/i>&#32;<b>27<\/b>&#32;(11): 584\u201389<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.chromatographyonline.com\/view\/finding-needle-haystack-0\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.chromatographyonline.com\/view\/finding-needle-haystack-0<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Finding+a+Needle+in+a+Haystack&amp;rft.jtitle=LCGC+Europe&amp;rft.aulast=Hinshaw%2C+J.V.&amp;rft.au=Hinshaw%2C+J.V.&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.volume=27&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=584%E2%80%9389&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chromatographyonline.com%2Fview%2Ffinding-needle-haystack-0&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-StevensonTheFuture11-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-StevensonTheFuture11_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Stevenson, R.L.; Lee, M.; Gras, R.&#32;(1 September 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/americanlaboratory.com\/913-Technical-Articles\/34439-The-Future-of-GC-Instrumentation-From-the-35th-International-Symposium-on-Capillary-Chromatography-ISCC\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Future of GC Instrumentation From the 35th International Symposium on Capillary Chromatography (ISCC)\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>American Laboratory<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/americanlaboratory.com\/913-Technical-Articles\/34439-The-Future-of-GC-Instrumentation-From-the-35th-International-Symposium-on-Capillary-Chromatography-ISCC\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/americanlaboratory.com\/913-Technical-Articles\/34439-The-Future-of-GC-Instrumentation-From-the-35th-International-Symposium-on-Capillary-Chromatography-ISCC\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Future+of+GC+Instrumentation+From+the+35th+International+Symposium+on+Capillary+Chromatography+%28ISCC%29&amp;rft.atitle=American+Laboratory&amp;rft.aulast=Stevenson%2C+R.L.%3B+Lee%2C+M.%3B+Gras%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Stevenson%2C+R.L.%3B+Lee%2C+M.%3B+Gras%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=1+September+2011&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famericanlaboratory.com%2F913-Technical-Articles%2F34439-The-Future-of-GC-Instrumentation-From-the-35th-International-Symposium-on-Capillary-Chromatography-ISCC%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ValliyodanASimp15-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ValliyodanASimp15_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Valliyodan, B.; Shi, H.; Nguyen, H.T.&#32;(2015).&#32;\"A Simple Analytical Method for High-Throughput Screening of Major Sugars from Soybean by Normal-Phase HPLC with Evaporative Light Scattering Detection\".&#32;<i>Chromatography Research International<\/i>&#32;<b>2015<\/b>: 757649.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1155%2F2015%2F757649\" target=\"_blank\">10.1155\/2015\/757649<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=A+Simple+Analytical+Method+for+High-Throughput+Screening+of+Major+Sugars+from+Soybean+by+Normal-Phase+HPLC+with+Evaporative+Light+Scattering+Detection&amp;rft.jtitle=Chromatography+Research+International&amp;rft.aulast=Valliyodan%2C+B.%3B+Shi%2C+H.%3B+Nguyen%2C+H.T.&amp;rft.au=Valliyodan%2C+B.%3B+Shi%2C+H.%3B+Nguyen%2C+H.T.&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.volume=2015&amp;rft.pages=757649&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1155%2F2015%2F757649&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BallErrors67-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BallErrors67_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Ball, D.L.; Harris, W.E.; Habgood, H.W.&#32;(1967).&#32;\"Errors in Manual Integration Techniques for Chromatographic Peaks\".&#32;<i>Journal of Chromatographic Science<\/i>&#32;<b>5<\/b>&#32;(12): 613\u201320.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093%2Fchromsci%2F5.12.613\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/chromsci\/5.12.613<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Errors+in+Manual+Integration+Techniques+for+Chromatographic+Peaks&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chromatographic+Science&amp;rft.aulast=Ball%2C+D.L.%3B+Harris%2C+W.E.%3B+Habgood%2C+H.W.&amp;rft.au=Ball%2C+D.L.%3B+Harris%2C+W.E.%3B+Habgood%2C+H.W.&amp;rft.date=1967&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=12&amp;rft.pages=613%E2%80%9320&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1093%2Fchromsci%2F5.12.613&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GoedertApp74-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GoedertApp74_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Goedert, M.; Wise, S.A.; Juvet Jr., R.S.&#32;(1974).&#32;\"Application of an inexpensive, general-purpose microcomputer in analytical chemistry\".&#32;<i>Chromatographia<\/i>&#32;<b>7<\/b>&#32;(9): 539\u201346.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007%2FBF02268338\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/BF02268338<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Application+of+an+inexpensive%2C+general-purpose+microcomputer+in+analytical+chemistry&amp;rft.jtitle=Chromatographia&amp;rft.aulast=Goedert%2C+M.%3B+Wise%2C+S.A.%3B+Juvet+Jr.%2C+R.S.&amp;rft.au=Goedert%2C+M.%3B+Wise%2C+S.A.%3B+Juvet+Jr.%2C+R.S.&amp;rft.date=1974&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.pages=539%E2%80%9346&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1007%2FBF02268338&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BetteridgeTheImpact81-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BetteridgeTheImpact81_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Betteridge, D.; Goad, T.B.&#32;(1981).&#32;\"The impact of microprocessors on analytical instrumentation. A review\".&#32;<i>Analyst<\/i>&#32;<b>106<\/b>&#32;(1260): 257\u201382.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1039%2FAN9810600257\" target=\"_blank\">10.1039\/AN9810600257<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+impact+of+microprocessors+on+analytical+instrumentation.+A+review&amp;rft.jtitle=Analyst&amp;rft.aulast=Betteridge%2C+D.%3B+Goad%2C+T.B.&amp;rft.au=Betteridge%2C+D.%3B+Goad%2C+T.B.&amp;rft.date=1981&amp;rft.volume=106&amp;rft.issue=1260&amp;rft.pages=257%E2%80%9382&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1039%2FAN9810600257&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MaoHowDoI15-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MaoHowDoI15_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Mao, S.&#32;(9 March 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.originlab.com\/how-do-i-perform-peak-deconvolution\" target=\"_blank\">\"How do I Perform Peak \u201cDeconvolution\u201d?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Origin Blog<\/i>.&#32;OriginLab<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.originlab.com\/how-do-i-perform-peak-deconvolution\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/blog.originlab.com\/how-do-i-perform-peak-deconvolution<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+do+I+Perform+Peak+%E2%80%9CDeconvolution%E2%80%9D%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Origin+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Mao%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Mao%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=9+March+2015&amp;rft.pub=OriginLab&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.originlab.com%2Fhow-do-i-perform-peak-deconvolution&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BinousDeconv10-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BinousDeconv10_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Binous, H.; Bellagi, A.&#32;(March 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/demonstrations.wolfram.com\/DeconvolutionOfAChromatogram\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Deconvolution of a Chromatogram\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Wolfram Demonstrations Project<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/demonstrations.wolfram.com\/DeconvolutionOfAChromatogram\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/demonstrations.wolfram.com\/DeconvolutionOfAChromatogram\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Deconvolution+of+a+Chromatogram&amp;rft.atitle=Wolfram+Demonstrations+Project&amp;rft.aulast=Binous%2C+H.%3B+Bellagi%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Binous%2C+H.%3B+Bellagi%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=March+2010&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdemonstrations.wolfram.com%2FDeconvolutionOfAChromatogram%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171626\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.254 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.312 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5848\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 39053\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 14720\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 13947\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 208.343 1 -total\n 89.29% 186.020 2 Template:Reflist\n 64.14% 133.641 8 Template:Citation\/core\n 48.03% 100.076 5 Template:Cite_journal\n 29.94% 62.383 3 Template:Cite_web\n 12.41% 25.864 3 Template:Date\n 11.29% 23.513 4 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 6.23% 12.989 11 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 4.82% 10.046 2 Template:Efn\n 4.76% 9.922 4 Template:Only_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:12363-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171626 and revision id 46239. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Notes_on_Instrument_Data_Systems<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","1b7330228fd59158aab6fab82ad0e7cc_images":["https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/cf\/Fig1_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/1\/12\/Fig2_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/5\/5a\/Fig3_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/5\/5a\/Fig4_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.jpg","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b7\/Fig5_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.jpg","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/2\/21\/Fig6_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b2\/Fig7_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/9\/96\/Fig8_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png","https:\/\/s3.limswiki.org\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/9\/96\/Fig9_Liscouski_NotesOnInstDataSys20.png"],"1b7330228fd59158aab6fab82ad0e7cc_timestamp":1704906986,"f6037c18511dd9e50dac8d71b8cf42f9_type":"article","f6037c18511dd9e50dac8d71b8cf42f9_title":"Workflow engine","f6037c18511dd9e50dac8d71b8cf42f9_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow_engine","f6037c18511dd9e50dac8d71b8cf42f9_plaintext":"\n\nWorkflow engineFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchA workflow engine is a software application that manages business processes. It is a key component in workflow technology and typically makes use of a database server.\nA workflow engine manages and monitors the state of activities in a workflow, such as the processing and approval of a loan application form, and determines which new activity to transition to according to defined processes (workflows).[1] The actions may be anything from saving an application form in a document management system to sending a reminder e-mail to users or escalating overdue items to management. A workflow engine facilitates the flow of information, tasks, and events. Workflow engines may also be referred to as Workflow Orchestration Engines.[2]\nWorkflow engines mainly have three functions:\n\nVerification of the current process status: Check whether it is valid executing a task, given current status.\nDetermine the authority of users: Check if the current user is permitted to execute the task.\nExecuting condition script: After passing the previous two steps, the workflow engine executes the task, and if the execution successfully completes, it returns the success, if not, it reports the error to trigger and roll back the change.[3]\nA workflow engine is a core technique for task allocation software, such as business process management, in which the workflow engine allocates tasks to different executors while communicating data among participants. A workflow engine can execute any arbitrary sequence of steps, for example, a healthcare data analysis.[4]\n\nSee also \nBusiness rules engine\nBusiness rule management system\nComparison of BPEL engines\nInference engine\nJava Rules Engine API\nRete algorithm\nRipple down rules\nSemantic reasoner\nBusiness Process Execution Language\nProduction system\nWorkflow management system\nJoget Workflow\nConductor (software)\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"Overview of the Workflow Engine (Oracle Workflow API Reference)\". \n\n^ \"IBM Docs\". \n\n^ The Workflow Engine Model. The Workflow Engine Model Accessed 1 Dec. 2010. \n\n^ Huser, V.; Rasmussen, L. V.; Oberg, R.; Starren, J. B. (2011). \"Implementation of workflow engine technology to deliver basic clinical decision support functionality\". BMC Medical Research Methodology. 11: 43. doi:10.1186\/1471-2288-11-43 . PMC&#160;3079703 . PMID&#160;21477364. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow_engine\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow_engine<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementSoftware systemsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 21 September 2022, at 15:44.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 513 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","f6037c18511dd9e50dac8d71b8cf42f9_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Workflow_engine rootpage-Workflow_engine skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Workflow engine<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><p>A <b>workflow engine<\/b> is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_application\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software application\" data-key=\"fb12f33772a2f01db9e7bc4aee1e1818\">software application<\/a> that manages <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">business processes<\/a>. It is a key component in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_technology\" title=\"Workflow technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f608211aae276c145bd22af132cfb246\">workflow technology<\/a> and typically makes use of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_server\" title=\"Database server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"caf14d725e0ee06a75c529c76d8a1b04\">database server<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>A workflow engine manages and monitors the state of activities in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a7b055462a00234621920f7bd77834c\">workflow<\/a>, such as the processing and approval of a loan application form, and determines which new activity to transition to according to defined processes (workflows).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The actions may be anything from saving an application form in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_management_system\" title=\"Document management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8235aea0fbac667128bf4f6c18ad7536\">document management system<\/a> to sending a reminder e-mail to users or escalating overdue items to management. A workflow engine facilitates the flow of information, tasks, and events. Workflow engines may also be referred to as Workflow Orchestration Engines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Workflow engines mainly have three functions:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Verification of the current process status: Check whether it is valid executing a task, given current status.<\/li>\n<li>Determine the authority of users: Check if the current user is permitted to execute the task.<\/li>\n<li>Executing condition script: After passing the previous two steps, the workflow engine executes the task, and if the execution successfully completes, it returns the success, if not, it reports the error to trigger and roll back the change.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>A workflow engine is a core technique for task allocation software, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">business process management<\/a>, in which the workflow engine allocates tasks to different executors while communicating data among participants. A workflow engine can execute any arbitrary sequence of steps, for example, a healthcare data analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hf2010_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hf2010-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_rules_engine\" title=\"Business rules engine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a9cb96d92e6dde1c44ea5e01d7812ad\">Business rules engine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_rule_management_system\" title=\"Business rule management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7db267fa1a8e804255676dbe0b4859e3\">Business rule management system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comparison_of_BPEL_engines\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Comparison of BPEL engines\" data-key=\"2a92b849b7c910140b49a23695cf316f\">Comparison of BPEL engines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inference_engine\" title=\"Inference engine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9b2b016bbabb61097234156e189d313\">Inference engine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rete_algorithm\" title=\"Rete algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23d8b41762f9480d737750dd28abba61\">Rete algorithm<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ripple_down_rules\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ripple down rules\" data-key=\"38a1bf62ebbf61fcff1940f1e77a97ef\">Ripple down rules<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_reasoner\" title=\"Semantic reasoner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"801926234918e1fd56e175d003c16735\">Semantic reasoner<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BPEL\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"BPEL\" data-key=\"1166ab4553fdba0b5e2628dbd79dfcd1\">Business Process Execution Language<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Production_system_(computer_science)\" title=\"Production system (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33565c94287bb403e1350b7da6ef2672\">Production system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_management_system\" title=\"Workflow management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6431e43c8af23358c867106d508ce082\">Workflow management system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joget_Workflow\" title=\"Joget Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0a43fc0d98ee8100af7138893724561\">Joget Workflow<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conductor_(software)\" title=\"Conductor (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"119205b2b8ac2866d11f34c72d34b427\">Conductor (software)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/docs.oracle.com\/cd\/B13789_01\/workflow.101\/b10286\/wfapi.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Overview of the Workflow Engine (Oracle Workflow API Reference)\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Overview+of+the+Workflow+Engine+%28Oracle+Workflow+API+Reference%29&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocs.oracle.com%2Fcd%2FB13789_01%2Fworkflow.101%2Fb10286%2Fwfapi.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow+engine\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pic.dhe.ibm.com\/infocenter\/tivihelp\/v48r1\/index.jsp?topic=%2Fcom.ibm.sco.doc_2.2%2Fenablement%2Fworkfloworchestration.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"IBM Docs\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=IBM+Docs&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpic.dhe.ibm.com%2Finfocenter%2Ftivihelp%2Fv48r1%2Findex.jsp%3Ftopic%3D%252Fcom.ibm.sco.doc_2.2%252Fenablement%252Fworkfloworchestration.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow+engine\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The Workflow Engine Model. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/msdn.microsoft.com\/en-us\/library\/aa188337%28office.10%29.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">The Workflow Engine Model<\/a> Accessed 1 Dec. 2010.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-hf2010-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-hf2010_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHuserRasmussenObergStarren2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Huser, V.; Rasmussen, L. V.; Oberg, R.; Starren, J. B. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3079703\" target=\"_blank\">\"Implementation of workflow engine technology to deliver basic clinical decision support functionality\"<\/a>. <i>BMC Medical Research Methodology<\/i>. <b>11<\/b>: 43. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186%2F1471-2288-11-43\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/1471-2288-11-43<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3079703\" target=\"_blank\">3079703<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/21477364\" target=\"_blank\">21477364<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=BMC+Medical+Research+Methodology&amp;rft.atitle=Implementation+of+workflow+engine+technology+to+deliver+basic+clinical+decision+support+functionality&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.pages=43&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3079703%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21477364&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1471-2288-11-43&amp;rft.aulast=Huser&amp;rft.aufirst=V.&amp;rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+L.+V.&amp;rft.au=Oberg%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Starren%2C+J.+B.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3079703&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow+engine\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1353\nCached time: 20231215190847\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1]\nCPU time usage: 0.114 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.139 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 215\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 5633\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 79\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 8\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 10012\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.068\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 2571407\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 120.631 1 Template:Reflist\n100.00% 120.631 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>74.35% 89.683 2 Template:Cite_web\n 7.24% 8.733 1 Template:Cite_journal\n 1.29% 1.561 1 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:7711975-0!canonical and timestamp 20231215190846 and revision id 1170822952. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_engine\" data-key=\"7c3b45676d701747ace4f17b7e735f19\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110163358\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.089 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.224 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 12178\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 217.537 1 wikipedia:Workflow_engine\n100.00% 217.537 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:13716-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110163358 and revision id 49546. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow_engine\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow_engine<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","f6037c18511dd9e50dac8d71b8cf42f9_images":[],"f6037c18511dd9e50dac8d71b8cf42f9_timestamp":1704906985,"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_type":"article","9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_title":"Scientific data management system","9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system","9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_plaintext":"\n\nScientific data management systemFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search NIST tests standard interfaces for its lab equipment. SDMSs allow labs to integrate equipment data with other types of data.A scientific data management system (SDMS) is software that acts as a document management system (DMS), capturing, cataloging, and archiving data generated by laboratory instruments (HPLC, mass spectrometry) and applications (LIMS, analytical applications, electronic laboratory notebooks) in a compliant, often pre-defined manner best suitable for its intended use, whether it be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured data.&#91;1&#93; The SDMS also acts as a gatekeeper, serving platform-independent data to informatics applications and\/or other consumers.\nAs with many other laboratory informatics tools, the lines between a LIMS, ELN, and an SDMS are at times blurred. However, there are some essential qualities that an SDMS owns that distinguishes it from other informatics systems:\n1. While a LIMS has traditionally been built to handle structured, mostly homogeneous data, a SDMS (and systems like it) is built to handle unstructured, mostly heterogeneous data.&#91;2&#93;\n2. A SDMS typically acts as a seamless \"wrapper\" for other data systems like LIMS and ELN in the laboratory, though sometimes the SDMS software is readily apparent.\n3. A SDMS is designed primarily for data consolidation, knowledge management, and knowledge asset realization.&#91;3&#93;\nAn SDMS can be seen as one potential solution for handling unstructured data, which can make up nearly 75 percent of a research and development unit's data.&#91;4&#93; This includes PDF files, images, instrument data, spreadsheets, and other forms of data rendered in many environments in the laboratory. Traditional SDMSs have focused on acting as a nearly invisible blanket or wrapper that integrate information from corporate offices (standard operating procedures, safety documents, etc.) with data from lab devices and other data management tools, all to be indexed and searchable from a central database. An SDMS also must be focused on increasing research productivity without sacrificing data sharing and collaboration efforts.&#91;4&#93;\nSome of the things a standard SDMS may be asked to do include, but are not limited to&#91;5&#93;&#91;6&#93;:\n\nretrieve worklists from LIMS and convert them to sequence files\ninteract real-time with simple and complex laboratory instruments\nanalyze and create reports on laboratory instrument functions\nperform complex calculations and comparisons of two different sample groups\nmonitor environmental conditions and react when base operating parameters are out of range\nact as an operational database that allows selective importation\/exportation of ELN data\nmanage workflows based on data imported into the SDMS\nvalidate other computer systems and software in the laboratory\nSDMS vendors \nSee the SDMS vendor page for a list of SDMS vendors past and present.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Hayward, S.&#32;(15 May 2017).&#32;\"Experts Explain: The Rise of Laboratory Data Lakes\".&#32;Laboratory Equipment.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 16 May 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170516235859\/http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/article\/2017\/05\/experts-explain-rise-laboratory-data-lakes .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Elliott, M.H.&#32;(31 October 2003).&#32;\"Considerations for Management of Laboratory Data\".&#32;Scientific Computing.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 26 April 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170426150419\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2003\/10\/considerations-management-laboratory-data .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wood, S.&#32;(September 2007).&#32;\"Comprehensive Laboratory Informatics: A Multilayer Approach\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;American Laboratory.&#32;p. 1.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 25 August 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 Deutsch, S.&#32;(31 December 2006).&#32;\"Tomorrow\u2019s Successful Research Organizations Face a Critical Challenge\".&#32;R&amp;D World.&#32;WTWH Media LLC.&#32;http:\/\/www.rdworldonline.com\/tomorrows-successful-research-organizations-face-a-critical-challenge\/ .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Valle, Mario.&#32;\"Scientific Data Management\".&#32;Swiss National Supercomputing Center.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 06 March 2012.&#32;http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120306015034\/http:\/\/personal.cscs.ch\/~mvalle\/sdm\/scientific-data-management.html .&#32;Retrieved 05 March 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Heyward, J.E. II&#32;(5 November 2009).&#32;\"Selection of a Scientific Data Management System (SDMS) Based on User Requirements\".&#32;Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis.&#32;pp. 5.&#32;https:\/\/scholarworks.iupui.edu\/handle\/1805\/2000 .&#32;Retrieved 29 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system<\/a>\nCategories: Laboratory informaticsSoftware systemsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 January 2022, at 20:03.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 56,785 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Scientific_data_management_system rootpage-Scientific_data_management_system skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Scientific data management system<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:NIST_Testing_standard_interfaces.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a30b4a30bd2bdbfd6879e337810c6d2\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/d6\/NIST_Testing_standard_interfaces.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"260\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:NIST_Testing_standard_interfaces.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"1a30b4a30bd2bdbfd6879e337810c6d2\"><\/a><\/div>NIST tests standard interfaces for its lab equipment. SDMSs allow labs to integrate equipment data with other types of data.<\/div><\/div><\/div><p>A <b>scientific data management system<\/b> (SDMS) is software that acts as a document management system (DMS), capturing, cataloging, and archiving data generated by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> instruments (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HPLC\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HPLC\" data-key=\"fedf518b9d4c3c22826ea591344af6d8\">HPLC<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb548eafe2596c35d7ea741849aa83d4\">mass spectrometry<\/a>) and applications (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LIMS\" data-key=\"21b7bfebbba300be00cdbb84cddb338d\">LIMS<\/a>, analytical applications, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a>) in a compliant, often pre-defined manner best suitable for its intended use, whether it be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaywardExperts17_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaywardExperts17-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The SDMS also acts as a gatekeeper, serving platform-independent data to informatics applications and\/or other consumers.\n<\/p><p>As with many other <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> tools, the lines between a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LIMS\" data-key=\"21b7bfebbba300be00cdbb84cddb338d\">LIMS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"ELN\" data-key=\"9c78ec40806154303ac8a5497d4edd52\">ELN<\/a>, and an SDMS are at times blurred. However, there are some essential qualities that an SDMS owns that distinguishes it from other informatics systems:\n<\/p><p>1. While a LIMS has traditionally been built to handle structured, mostly homogeneous data, a SDMS (and systems like it) is built to handle unstructured, mostly heterogeneous data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ElliottConsider03_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ElliottConsider03-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>2. A SDMS typically acts as a seamless \"wrapper\" for other data systems like LIMS and ELN in the laboratory, though sometimes the SDMS software is readily apparent.\n<\/p><p>3. A SDMS is designed primarily for data consolidation, knowledge management, and knowledge asset realization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WoodComp07_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WoodComp07-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An SDMS can be seen as one potential solution for handling unstructured data, which can make up nearly 75 percent of a research and development unit's data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp1_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp1-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This includes PDF files, images, instrument data, spreadsheets, and other forms of data rendered in many environments in the laboratory. Traditional SDMSs have focused on acting as a nearly invisible blanket or wrapper that integrate <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> from corporate offices (standard operating procedures, safety documents, etc.) with data from lab devices and other data management tools, all to be indexed and searchable from a central database. An SDMS also must be focused on increasing research productivity without sacrificing data sharing and collaboration efforts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp1_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp1-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Some of the things a standard SDMS may be asked to do include, but are not limited to<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SDMArch_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SDMArch-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HetwardSelect09_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HetwardSelect09-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>retrieve worklists from LIMS and convert them to sequence files<\/li>\n<li>interact real-time with simple and complex laboratory instruments<\/li>\n<li>analyze and create reports on laboratory instrument functions<\/li>\n<li>perform complex calculations and comparisons of two different sample groups<\/li>\n<li>monitor environmental conditions and react when base operating parameters are out of range<\/li>\n<li>act as an operational database that allows selective importation\/exportation of ELN data<\/li>\n<li>manage workflows based on data imported into the SDMS<\/li>\n<li>validate other computer systems and software in the laboratory<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"SDMS_vendors\">SDMS vendors<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>See the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SDMS_vendor\" title=\"SDMS vendor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a0186dbdc2977792011de050543b054\">SDMS vendor<\/a> page for a list of SDMS vendors past and present.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HaywardExperts17-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HaywardExperts17_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hayward, S.&#32;(15 May 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170516235859\/http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/article\/2017\/05\/experts-explain-rise-laboratory-data-lakes\" target=\"_blank\">\"Experts Explain: The Rise of Laboratory Data Lakes\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Laboratory Equipment<\/i>.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/article\/2017\/05\/experts-explain-rise-laboratory-data-lakes\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 16 May 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170516235859\/http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/article\/2017\/05\/experts-explain-rise-laboratory-data-lakes\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170516235859\/http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/article\/2017\/05\/experts-explain-rise-laboratory-data-lakes<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Experts+Explain%3A+The+Rise+of+Laboratory+Data+Lakes&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+Equipment&amp;rft.aulast=Hayward%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Hayward%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=15+May+2017&amp;rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170516235859%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.laboratoryequipment.com%2Farticle%2F2017%2F05%2Fexperts-explain-rise-laboratory-data-lakes&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Scientific_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ElliottConsider03-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ElliottConsider03_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Elliott, M.H.&#32;(31 October 2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170426150419\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2003\/10\/considerations-management-laboratory-data\" target=\"_blank\">\"Considerations for Management of Laboratory Data\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing<\/i>.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2003\/10\/considerations-management-laboratory-data\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 26 April 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170426150419\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2003\/10\/considerations-management-laboratory-data\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170426150419\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2003\/10\/considerations-management-laboratory-data<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Considerations+for+Management+of+Laboratory+Data&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing&amp;rft.aulast=Elliott%2C+M.H.&amp;rft.au=Elliott%2C+M.H.&amp;rft.date=31+October+2003&amp;rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170426150419%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Farticle%2F2003%2F10%2Fconsiderations-management-laboratory-data&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Scientific_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WoodComp07-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WoodComp07_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wood, S.&#32;(September 2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comprehensive Laboratory Informatics: A Multilayer Approach\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>American Laboratory<\/i>.&#32;p. 1.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 25 August 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Comprehensive+Laboratory+Informatics%3A+A+Multilayer+Approach&amp;rft.atitle=American+Laboratory&amp;rft.aulast=Wood%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Wood%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=September+2007&amp;rft.pages=p.+1&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170825181932%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.it.uu.se%2Fedu%2Fcourse%2Fhomepage%2Flims%2Fvt12%2FComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Scientific_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciComp1-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciComp1_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciComp1_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Deutsch, S.&#32;(31 December 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rdworldonline.com\/tomorrows-successful-research-organizations-face-a-critical-challenge\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tomorrow\u2019s Successful Research Organizations Face a Critical Challenge\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>R&amp;D World<\/i>.&#32;WTWH Media LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rdworldonline.com\/tomorrows-successful-research-organizations-face-a-critical-challenge\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.rdworldonline.com\/tomorrows-successful-research-organizations-face-a-critical-challenge\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Tomorrow%E2%80%99s+Successful+Research+Organizations+Face+a+Critical+Challenge&amp;rft.atitle=R%26D+World&amp;rft.aulast=Deutsch%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Deutsch%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=31+December+2006&amp;rft.pub=WTWH+Media+LLC&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rdworldonline.com%2Ftomorrows-successful-research-organizations-face-a-critical-challenge%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Scientific_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SDMArch-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SDMArch_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Valle, Mario.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120306015034\/http:\/\/personal.cscs.ch\/~mvalle\/sdm\/scientific-data-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Scientific Data Management\"<\/a>.&#32;Swiss National Supercomputing Center.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/personal.cscs.ch\/~mvalle\/sdm\/scientific-data-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 06 March 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120306015034\/http:\/\/personal.cscs.ch\/~mvalle\/sdm\/scientific-data-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120306015034\/http:\/\/personal.cscs.ch\/~mvalle\/sdm\/scientific-data-management.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 March 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Scientific+Data+Management&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Valle%2C+Mario&amp;rft.au=Valle%2C+Mario&amp;rft.pub=Swiss+National+Supercomputing+Center&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120306015034%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fpersonal.cscs.ch%2F%7Emvalle%2Fsdm%2Fscientific-data-management.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Scientific_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HetwardSelect09-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HetwardSelect09_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Heyward, J.E. II&#32;(5 November 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/scholarworks.iupui.edu\/handle\/1805\/2000\" target=\"_blank\">\"Selection of a Scientific Data Management System (SDMS) Based on User Requirements\"<\/a>.&#32;Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis.&#32;pp. 5<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/scholarworks.iupui.edu\/handle\/1805\/2000\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/scholarworks.iupui.edu\/handle\/1805\/2000<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Selection+of+a+Scientific+Data+Management+System+%28SDMS%29+Based+on+User+Requirements&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Heyward%2C+J.E.+II&amp;rft.au=Heyward%2C+J.E.+II&amp;rft.date=5+November+2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.+5&amp;rft.pub=Indiana+University-Purdue+University+Indianapolis&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.iupui.edu%2Fhandle%2F1805%2F2000&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Scientific_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171625\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.721 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.218 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4514\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 36103\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 19805\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 10859\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 180.696 1 -total\n100.00% 180.696 1 Template:Reflist\n 70.54% 127.465 6 Template:Cite_web\n 63.24% 114.278 6 Template:Citation\/core\n 15.34% 27.715 5 Template:Date\n 5.81% 10.494 14 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 3.23% 5.833 1 Template:Column-width\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:98-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171624 and revision id 45632. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/d6\/NIST_Testing_standard_interfaces.jpg"],"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_timestamp":1704906984,"62d0a667f8b27309ea38a46507cfb500_type":"article","62d0a667f8b27309ea38a46507cfb500_title":"Radiology information system","62d0a667f8b27309ea38a46507cfb500_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiology_information_system","62d0a667f8b27309ea38a46507cfb500_plaintext":"\n\nRadiology information systemFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchA radiology information system (RIS) is a data management system commonly used to support both the clinical and administrative portions of an imaging facility or radiology department. It's typically much smaller in scope than a hospital information system (HIS), though the RIS may very well integrate with the HIS. However, like the HIS, the radiology information system is designed to maintain patient demographics, including referrals, scheduling, examination results, and reporting.&#91;1&#93;&#91;2&#93;\nThe RIS is also designed to be interoperable with picture archiving and communication systems (PACS), HIS, and in some cases even an electronic medical record (EMR). This interoperability is vital in a hospital environment especially, increasing the timeliness of patient workflow and report turnaround to the ordering physician.&#91;1&#93;&#91;2&#93;\n\nFunctionality \nThe typical RIS has the following functionality&#91;1&#93;&#91;3&#93;:\n\nprocess patient records, including demographics and check-ins\nprocess patient image folders\nmonitor department resources, including examination and work schedules\ncreate and distribute digitally signed diagnostic reports\nmaintain billing and insurance information\nperform limited amounts of data analysis\nmaintain catalogs of radiological procedure and diagnoses codes\nmanage medical devices\nSee also \nImaging informatics\nDICOM\nPicture archiving and communication system\nMedical imaging software (open source)\nReferences \n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 Huang, H. K.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Chapter 13: Integration of HIS, RIS, PACS, and ePR\".&#32;PACS and Imaging Informatics: Basic Principles and Applications.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;387\u2013407.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780470560518.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Pjjkyae_55oC&amp;pg=PA1 .&#32;Retrieved 09 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 Dowsett, David; Kenny, Patrick A.; Johnston, R. Eugene&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Chapter 11: Computers in Radiology\".&#32;The Physics of Diagnostic Imaging&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;275\u2013311.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780340808917.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Yewc5mchX34C&amp;pg=PA301 .&#32;Retrieved 09 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Winter, Alfred; Haux, Reinhold; Ammenwerth, Elske; Brigl, Birgit; Hellrung, Nils; Jahn, Franziska&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Chapter 6: Architecture of Hospital Information Systems\".&#32;Health Information Systems: Architectures and Strategies.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;75\u2013183.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781849964418.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.de\/books?id=RzvmrgwCWncC&amp;pg=PA124 .&#32;Retrieved 09 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiology_information_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiology_information_system<\/a>\nCategories: Imaging informaticsMedical imagingSoftware systemsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 6 August 2014, at 18:58.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 5,026 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","62d0a667f8b27309ea38a46507cfb500_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Radiology_information_system rootpage-Radiology_information_system skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Radiology information system<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>A <b>radiology information system<\/b> (<b>RIS<\/b>) is a data management system commonly used to support both the clinical and administrative portions of an imaging facility or radiology department. It's typically much smaller in scope than a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital_information_system\" title=\"Hospital information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8385de7b1f39a39d793f8ce349b448d\">hospital information system<\/a> (HIS), though the RIS may very well integrate with the HIS. However, like the HIS, the radiology information system is designed to maintain patient demographics, including referrals, scheduling, examination results, and reporting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HuangPACS-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DowsettPhysics_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DowsettPhysics-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The RIS is also designed to be interoperable with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Picture_archiving_and_communication_system\" title=\"Picture archiving and communication system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"523b73ff51fa83663dc0b1d59e6d0f05\">picture archiving and communication systems<\/a> (PACS), HIS, and in some cases even an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_medical_record\" title=\"Electronic medical record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99a695d2af23397807da0537d29d0be7\">electronic medical record<\/a> (EMR). This interoperability is vital in a hospital environment especially, increasing the timeliness of patient workflow and report turnaround to the ordering physician.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HuangPACS-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DowsettPhysics_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DowsettPhysics-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Functionality\">Functionality<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The typical RIS has the following functionality<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HuangPACS-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WinterHIS_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WinterHIS-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>process patient records, including demographics and check-ins<\/li>\n<li>process patient image folders<\/li>\n<li>monitor department resources, including examination and work schedules<\/li>\n<li>create and distribute digitally signed diagnostic reports<\/li>\n<li>maintain billing and insurance information<\/li>\n<li>perform limited amounts of data analysis<\/li>\n<li>maintain catalogs of radiological procedure and diagnoses codes<\/li>\n<li>manage medical devices<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Imaging_informatics\" title=\"Imaging informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc0ae6a154d8896767defefdb6d14d0e\">Imaging informatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/DICOM\" title=\"DICOM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0c7c747895286ff8785b6ed4dbc7ec0\">DICOM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Picture_archiving_and_communication_system\" title=\"Picture archiving and communication system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"523b73ff51fa83663dc0b1d59e6d0f05\">Picture archiving and communication system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Category:Medical_imaging_software_(open_source)\" title=\"Category:Medical imaging software (open source)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6bcfe3489a4f64086ebf71603b4d82ba\">Medical imaging software (open source)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HuangPACS-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Huang, H. K.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Pjjkyae_55oC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 13: Integration of HIS, RIS, PACS, and ePR\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>PACS and Imaging Informatics: Basic Principles and Applications<\/i>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;387\u2013407.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780470560518<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Pjjkyae_55oC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Pjjkyae_55oC&amp;pg=PA1<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 09 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+13%3A+Integration+of+HIS%2C+RIS%2C+PACS%2C+and+ePR&amp;rft.atitle=PACS+and+Imaging+Informatics%3A+Basic+Principles+and+Applications&amp;rft.aulast=Huang%2C+H.+K.&amp;rft.au=Huang%2C+H.+K.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B387%E2%80%93407&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9780470560518&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPjjkyae_55oC%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Radiology_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DowsettPhysics-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-DowsettPhysics_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-DowsettPhysics_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Dowsett, David; Kenny, Patrick A.; Johnston, R. Eugene&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Yewc5mchX34C&pg=PA301\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 11: Computers in Radiology\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Physics of Diagnostic Imaging<\/i>&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;275\u2013311.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780340808917<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Yewc5mchX34C&pg=PA301\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Yewc5mchX34C&amp;pg=PA301<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 09 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+11%3A+Computers+in+Radiology&amp;rft.atitle=The+Physics+of+Diagnostic+Imaging&amp;rft.aulast=Dowsett%2C+David%3B+Kenny%2C+Patrick+A.%3B+Johnston%2C+R.+Eugene&amp;rft.au=Dowsett%2C+David%3B+Kenny%2C+Patrick+A.%3B+Johnston%2C+R.+Eugene&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B275%E2%80%93311&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9780340808917&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYewc5mchX34C%26pg%3DPA301&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Radiology_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WinterHIS-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WinterHIS_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Winter, Alfred; Haux, Reinhold; Ammenwerth, Elske; Brigl, Birgit; Hellrung, Nils; Jahn, Franziska&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.de\/books?id=RzvmrgwCWncC&pg=PA124\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 6: Architecture of Hospital Information Systems\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health Information Systems: Architectures and Strategies<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;75\u2013183.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781849964418<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.de\/books?id=RzvmrgwCWncC&pg=PA124\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.de\/books?id=RzvmrgwCWncC&amp;pg=PA124<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 09 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+6%3A+Architecture+of+Hospital+Information+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Health+Information+Systems%3A+Architectures+and+Strategies&amp;rft.aulast=Winter%2C+Alfred%3B+Haux%2C+Reinhold%3B+Ammenwerth%2C+Elske%3B+Brigl%2C+Birgit%3B+Hellrung%2C+Nils%3B+Jahn%2C+Franziska&amp;rft.au=Winter%2C+Alfred%3B+Haux%2C+Reinhold%3B+Ammenwerth%2C+Elske%3B+Brigl%2C+Birgit%3B+Hellrung%2C+Nils%3B+Jahn%2C+Franziska&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B75%E2%80%93183&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9781849964418&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.de%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRzvmrgwCWncC%26pg%3DPA124&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Radiology_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171624\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.127 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.164 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 2211\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 18210\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 6792\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 6462\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 106.840 1 -total\n 99.62% 106.432 3 Template:Cite_book\n 80.75% 86.277 3 Template:Citation\/core\n 27.77% 29.668 3 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 12.92% 13.806 6 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 11.55% 12.339 6 Template:Hide_in_print\n 6.97% 7.443 3 Template:Only_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:5125-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171624 and revision id 15257. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiology_information_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiology_information_system<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","62d0a667f8b27309ea38a46507cfb500_images":[],"62d0a667f8b27309ea38a46507cfb500_timestamp":1704906983,"523b73ff51fa83663dc0b1d59e6d0f05_type":"article","523b73ff51fa83663dc0b1d59e6d0f05_title":"Picture archiving and communication system","523b73ff51fa83663dc0b1d59e6d0f05_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Picture_archiving_and_communication_system","523b73ff51fa83663dc0b1d59e6d0f05_plaintext":"\n\nPicture archiving and communication systemFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search This image demonstrates a basic set of interconnections among a PACS, a radiology information system (RIS), the imaging modalities, and other components of the PACS, standardized by DICOM.\nA picture archiving and communication system (PACS) is a digital imaging system composed of a set of components that allow for the digital acquisition, archiving, communication, retrieval, processing, distribution, and display of medical images.&#91;1&#93; The PACS may consist of only a few components or be sufficiently complex to handle a hospital or healthcare enterprise environment. Regardless, it must be durable enough for daily use in a clinical environment, integrate to and from several medical imaging modalities, and have sufficient workstations for technicians utilizing those modalities to perform their work inside and outside the radiology department.&#91;1&#93; PACS benefit healthcare providers by digitally managing medical images, eliminating the need to manually file, retrieve, or transport film jackets. This often saves processing time in both the diagnostics and reporting related to the imagery, especially when integrated with speech recognition technology.&#91;2&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Technology \n3 See also \n4 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nWhile the theoretical concepts surrounding a digital image management system were around as early as the late 1970s, the idea didn't solidify until the January 1982 First International Conference and Workshop on Picture Archiving and Communications Systems in Newport Beach, California.&#91;1&#93; There researcher Carla Marceau defined the PACS as \"a digital system for acquiring, storing, moving and displaying picture or image information.\"&#91;3&#93; This was followed soon after (July 1982) by the The First International Symposium on PACS and PHD (Personal Health Data) in Japan and the EuroPACS annual conference in 1983. Another meeting dedicated to PACS occurred in Evian, France in October 1990, dubbed \"central to the formation of a critical PACS project: the Medical Diagnostic Imaging Support System.\"&#91;1&#93; By late 1997, the disparate PACS groups spread across the United States, Japan, and Europe began working together to form some truly international PACS implementations. This international effort was buoyed by the internationalization of the DICOM standard in 1993, globalization of imaging manufacturers, and sharing of PACS information and experiences among the groups.\n\nTechnology \nA quality PACS design depends on system connectivity and workflow efficiency. It features a standardized, open architecture and is expandable for future growth. Hardware includes imaging device interfaces, storage devices, communication networks, patient data servers, display tools, and imaging modalities \"integrated by a standardized, flexible software system for communication, database management, storage management, job scheduling, interprocessor communication, error handling, and network monitoring.\"&#91;1&#93; Other components that necessarily integrate to the PACS include a radiology information system (RIS) and a hospital information system (HIS), extending its effectiveness even further. All of these components \"talk\" to each other in no small part because of the DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine) standard which ensures a uniform handling, storing, printing, and transmitting of medical imaging data.&#91;1&#93;&#91;4&#93; \nThis interfacing between multiple systems provides more consistent and reliable data by reducing the risk of entering incorrect patient information (through QA and error checking) and by strengthening merged datasets across multiple systems by using a unique, transferable ID like an NHS or Social Security number. Analysis and reporting also becomes more integrated and rapid across the entire provider-patient pipeline.&#91;4&#93;\n\nSee also \nImaging informatics\nDICOM\nRadiology information system\nMedical imaging software (open source)\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Huang, H. K.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Introduction\".&#32;PACS and Imaging Informatics: Basic Principles and Applications.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201330.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780470560518.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Pjjkyae_55oC&amp;pg=PA1 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Fox, Matthew A.; Aschkenasi, Carl J.; Kalyanpur, Arjun&#32;(2013).&#32;\"Voice recognition is here comma like it or not period\".&#32;Indian Journal of Radiology and Imaging&#32;23&#32;(3): 191\u2013194.&#32;doi:10.4103\/0971-3026.120252.&#32;PMID&#160;24347844. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Marceau, Carla&#32;(1982).&#32;\"What Is A Picture Archiving And Communication System (PACS)?\".&#32;Proceedings of SPIE&#32;(1st Intl Conf and Workshop on Picture Archiving and Communication Systems)&#32;0318: 24.&#32;doi:10.1117\/12.967618.&#32;https:\/\/spie.org\/Publications\/Proceedings\/Volume\/0318 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 Ralston, Matthew D.; Coleman, Robert M.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Chapter 3: Introduction to PACS\".&#32;Practical Imaging Informatics: Foundations and Applications for PACS Professionals.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;33\u201348.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781441904850.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Q6Hc0oMyiYYC&amp;pg=PA33 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Picture_archiving_and_communication_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Picture_archiving_and_communication_system<\/a>\nCategories: Imaging informaticsMedical imagingSoftware systemsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 January 2022, at 20:03.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 6,878 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","523b73ff51fa83663dc0b1d59e6d0f05_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Picture_archiving_and_communication_system rootpage-Picture_archiving_and_communication_system skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Picture archiving and communication system<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:442px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:PACS-RIS_Services.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3dc51ca9715a2a000819af0deb2a728\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/3c\/PACS-RIS_Services.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:PACS-RIS_Services.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"e3dc51ca9715a2a000819af0deb2a728\"><\/a><\/div>This image demonstrates a basic set of interconnections among a PACS, a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiology_information_system\" title=\"Radiology information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62d0a667f8b27309ea38a46507cfb500\">radiology information system<\/a> (RIS), the imaging modalities, and other components of the PACS, standardized by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/DICOM\" title=\"DICOM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0c7c747895286ff8785b6ed4dbc7ec0\">DICOM<\/a>.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>A <b>picture archiving and communication system<\/b> (PACS) is a digital imaging system composed of a set of components that allow for the digital acquisition, archiving, communication, retrieval, processing, distribution, and display of medical images.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HuangPACS-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The PACS may consist of only a few components or be sufficiently complex to handle a hospital or healthcare enterprise environment. Regardless, it must be durable enough for daily use in a clinical environment, integrate to and from several <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Imaging_informatics#Diagnostic_imaging_modalities\" title=\"Imaging informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"140c26a981695d9b396d075e2f376299\">medical imaging modalities<\/a>, and have sufficient workstations for technicians utilizing those modalities to perform their work inside and outside the radiology department.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HuangPACS-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> PACS benefit healthcare providers by digitally managing medical images, eliminating the need to manually file, retrieve, or transport film jackets. This often saves processing time in both the diagnostics and reporting related to the imagery, especially when integrated with speech recognition technology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FoxVoice_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FoxVoice-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>While the theoretical concepts surrounding a digital image management system were around as early as the late 1970s, the idea didn't solidify until the January 1982 First International Conference and Workshop on Picture Archiving and Communications Systems in Newport Beach, California.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HuangPACS-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> There researcher Carla Marceau defined the PACS as \"a digital system for acquiring, storing, moving and displaying picture or image information.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1stIntProc_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1stIntProc-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This was followed soon after (July 1982) by the The First International Symposium on PACS and PHD (Personal Health Data) in Japan and the EuroPACS annual conference in 1983. Another meeting dedicated to PACS occurred in Evian, France in October 1990, dubbed \"central to the formation of a critical PACS project: the Medical Diagnostic Imaging Support System.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HuangPACS-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> By late 1997, the disparate PACS groups spread across the United States, Japan, and Europe began working together to form some truly international PACS implementations. This international effort was buoyed by the internationalization of the DICOM standard in 1993, globalization of imaging manufacturers, and sharing of PACS information and experiences among the groups.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technology\">Technology<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A quality PACS design depends on system connectivity and workflow efficiency. It features a standardized, open architecture and is expandable for future growth. Hardware includes imaging device interfaces, storage devices, communication networks, patient data servers, display tools, and imaging modalities \"integrated by a standardized, flexible software system for communication, database management, storage management, job scheduling, interprocessor communication, error handling, and network monitoring.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HuangPACS-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Other components that necessarily integrate to the PACS include a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiology_information_system\" title=\"Radiology information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62d0a667f8b27309ea38a46507cfb500\">radiology information system<\/a> (RIS) and a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital_information_system\" title=\"Hospital information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8385de7b1f39a39d793f8ce349b448d\">hospital information system<\/a> (HIS), extending its effectiveness even further. All of these components \"talk\" to each other in no small part because of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/DICOM\" title=\"DICOM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0c7c747895286ff8785b6ed4dbc7ec0\">DICOM<\/a> (Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine) standard which ensures a uniform handling, storing, printing, and transmitting of medical imaging data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HuangPACS-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BranstetterPractical_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BranstetterPractical-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>This interfacing between multiple systems provides more consistent and reliable data by reducing the risk of entering incorrect patient information (through QA and error checking) and by strengthening merged datasets across multiple systems by using a unique, transferable ID like an NHS or Social Security number. Analysis and reporting also becomes more integrated and rapid across the entire provider-patient pipeline.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BranstetterPractical_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BranstetterPractical-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Imaging_informatics\" title=\"Imaging informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc0ae6a154d8896767defefdb6d14d0e\">Imaging informatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/DICOM\" title=\"DICOM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0c7c747895286ff8785b6ed4dbc7ec0\">DICOM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiology_information_system\" title=\"Radiology information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62d0a667f8b27309ea38a46507cfb500\">Radiology information system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Category:Medical_imaging_software_(open_source)\" title=\"Category:Medical imaging software (open source)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6bcfe3489a4f64086ebf71603b4d82ba\">Medical imaging software (open source)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HuangPACS-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-3\">1.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-4\">1.4<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HuangPACS_1-5\">1.5<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Huang, H. K.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Pjjkyae_55oC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Introduction\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>PACS and Imaging Informatics: Basic Principles and Applications<\/i>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201330.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780470560518<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Pjjkyae_55oC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Pjjkyae_55oC&amp;pg=PA1<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction&amp;rft.atitle=PACS+and+Imaging+Informatics%3A+Basic+Principles+and+Applications&amp;rft.aulast=Huang%2C+H.+K.&amp;rft.au=Huang%2C+H.+K.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%9330&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9780470560518&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPjjkyae_55oC%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Picture_archiving_and_communication_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FoxVoice-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FoxVoice_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Fox, Matthew A.; Aschkenasi, Carl J.; Kalyanpur, Arjun&#32;(2013).&#32;\"Voice recognition is here comma like it or not period\".&#32;<i>Indian Journal of Radiology and Imaging<\/i>&#32;<b>23<\/b>&#32;(3): 191\u2013194.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.4103%2F0971-3026.120252\" target=\"_blank\">10.4103\/0971-3026.120252<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/24347844\" target=\"_blank\">24347844<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Voice+recognition+is+here+comma+like+it+or+not+period&amp;rft.jtitle=Indian+Journal+of+Radiology+and+Imaging&amp;rft.aulast=Fox%2C+Matthew+A.%3B+Aschkenasi%2C+Carl+J.%3B+Kalyanpur%2C+Arjun&amp;rft.au=Fox%2C+Matthew+A.%3B+Aschkenasi%2C+Carl+J.%3B+Kalyanpur%2C+Arjun&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.volume=23&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=191%E2%80%93194&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.4103%2F0971-3026.120252&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/24347844&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Picture_archiving_and_communication_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-1stIntProc-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1stIntProc_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Marceau, Carla&#32;(1982).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/spie.org\/Publications\/Proceedings\/Volume\/0318\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is A Picture Archiving And Communication System (PACS)?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Proceedings of SPIE<\/i>&#32;(1st Intl Conf and Workshop on Picture Archiving and Communication Systems)&#32;<b>0318<\/b>: 24.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1117%2F12.967618\" target=\"_blank\">10.1117\/12.967618<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/spie.org\/Publications\/Proceedings\/Volume\/0318\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/spie.org\/Publications\/Proceedings\/Volume\/0318<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=What+Is+A+Picture+Archiving+And+Communication+System+%28PACS%29%3F&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+SPIE&amp;rft.aulast=Marceau%2C+Carla&amp;rft.au=Marceau%2C+Carla&amp;rft.date=1982&amp;rft.volume=0318&amp;rft.pages=24&amp;rft.place=1st+Intl+Conf+and+Workshop+on+Picture+Archiving+and+Communication+Systems&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1117%2F12.967618&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspie.org%2FPublications%2FProceedings%2FVolume%2F0318&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Picture_archiving_and_communication_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BranstetterPractical-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BranstetterPractical_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BranstetterPractical_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Ralston, Matthew D.; Coleman, Robert M.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Q6Hc0oMyiYYC&pg=PA33\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 3: Introduction to PACS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Practical Imaging Informatics: Foundations and Applications for PACS Professionals<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;33\u201348.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781441904850<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Q6Hc0oMyiYYC&pg=PA33\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Q6Hc0oMyiYYC&amp;pg=PA33<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+3%3A+Introduction+to+PACS&amp;rft.atitle=Practical+Imaging+Informatics%3A+Foundations+and+Applications+for+PACS+Professionals&amp;rft.aulast=Ralston%2C+Matthew+D.%3B+Coleman%2C+Robert+M.&amp;rft.au=Ralston%2C+Matthew+D.%3B+Coleman%2C+Robert+M.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B33%E2%80%9348&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9781441904850&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ6Hc0oMyiYYC%26pg%3DPA33&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Picture_archiving_and_communication_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171623\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.600 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.404 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3021\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 23848\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 8080\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 17\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 8755\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 104.608 1 Template:Reflist\n100.00% 104.608 1 -total\n 58.77% 61.480 4 Template:Citation\/core\n 46.87% 49.031 2 Template:Cite_book\n 30.33% 31.723 2 Template:Cite_journal\n 14.87% 15.551 5 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 5.64% 5.897 6 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 4.50% 4.708 10 Template:Hide_in_print\n 4.08% 4.266 5 Template:Only_in_print\n 3.12% 3.261 1 Template:Column-width\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:5122-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171622 and revision id 45631. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Picture_archiving_and_communication_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Picture_archiving_and_communication_system<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","523b73ff51fa83663dc0b1d59e6d0f05_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/3c\/PACS-RIS_Services.png"],"523b73ff51fa83663dc0b1d59e6d0f05_timestamp":1704906982,"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_type":"article","774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_title":"Laboratory execution system","774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system","774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_plaintext":"\n\nLaboratory execution systemFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchA laboratory execution system or LES is a \"computer system employed in the laboratory at the analyst work level to aid in step enforcement for laboratory test method execution,\" according to the 2007 Annual Book of ASTM Standards.&#91;1&#93; The general purpose of the LES is to direct the user to follow specific steps to ensure the rigidity of the test method and and the process' end results, though alternate workflow routes may be applied in specific circumstances. The LES may encompass this functionality and more, including tasks like enforcing standard operating procedures (SOPs), validating calculations and instrument interfaces, and acquiring or importing procedural data from other systems into one common system.&#91;2&#93;\nFor some, an LES may be considered a sub-branch of an electronic laboratory notebook (ELN) specifically made for laboratories engaging in quality control and quality assurance applications&#91;2&#93;&#91;3&#93;&#91;4&#93;, while others may consider it simply a separate set of functionality which may be found in an ELN or a LIMS.&#91;3&#93;&#91;5&#93; Some in the industry suggest the term \"laboratory execution system\" is a vendor-led morphing of the \"method execution system,\" which was originally designed \"to address the problem of standard operating procedure (SOP) compliance.\"&#91;6&#93;\nIn France, the English word \"Middleware\" is used to define a LES.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 American Society for Testing and Materials&#32;(2007).&#32;Annual Book of ASTM Standards 2007.&#32;ASTM.&#32;p.&#160;296.&#32;ISBN&#160;0803142765.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=znlGAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&amp;dq=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=YKUiUbHrE4O9ywHH_YC4BA&amp;ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 Metrick, G.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"QA\/QC: ELNs Have Come a Long Way\".&#32;Scientific Computing&#32;28&#32;(1): 19.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 25 January 2021.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210125174410\/https:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/QA%2FQC%3A+ELNs+have+come+a+long+way%3A+realizing+the+full+potential+of...-a0272245303 .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 Boogaard, Peter; Pijanowski, Patrick&#32;(Nov-Dec 2011).&#32;\"Electronic Laboratory Notebooks: ELN Means Many Things to Many People\".&#32;G.I.T. Laboratory Journal&#32;2011&#32;(11-12): 14\u201316.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 28 March 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170328012245\/http:\/\/www.industriallabautomation.com\/attachments\/File\/201111ELN-Mans-Many-Things-To-Many-People-GIT-Verlag-GLJ11-1211P.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The Full Life-Cycle Development and Implementation of ELN\/LES Systems\".&#32;LabAnswer.com.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 12 October 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131012115959\/http:\/\/labanswer.com\/electronic-laboratory-notebooks-laboratory-execution-systems.asp .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jones, J.&#32;(January 2013).&#32;\"Is a Lab Execution System just another name for a LIMS?\".&#32;LIMSforum.&#32;https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/forum\/is-a-lab-execution-system-just-another-name-for-a-lims\/ .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Hice, Randy C.&#32;(May 2009).&#32;\"Roadmap to a Clear Definition of ELN\".&#32;Scientific Computing&#32;26&#32;(3): E11.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 14 August 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120814161250\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article-in-Roadmap-to-a-Clear-Definition-of-ELN-051509.aspx .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system<\/a>\nCategories: Laboratory informaticsSoftware systemsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 January 2022, at 20:01.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 29,772 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_execution_system rootpage-Laboratory_execution_system skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory execution system<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>A <b>laboratory execution system<\/b> or <b>LES<\/b> is a \"computer system employed in the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> at the analyst work level to aid in step enforcement for laboratory test method execution,\" according to the 2007 Annual Book of ASTM Standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LES_ASTM_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LES_ASTM-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The general purpose of the LES is to direct the user to follow specific steps to ensure the rigidity of the test method and and the process' end results, though alternate workflow routes may be applied in specific circumstances. The LES may encompass this functionality and more, including tasks like enforcing <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2909f2cc80162cb272d378860b58d2d\">standard operating procedures<\/a> (SOPs), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb1d25abb25a208598dab9c4a54ac20d\">validating<\/a> calculations and instrument interfaces, and acquiring or importing procedural data from other systems into one common system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompQAQC_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompQAQC-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>For some, an LES may be considered a sub-branch of an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN) specifically made for laboratories engaging in quality control and quality assurance applications<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompQAQC_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompQAQC-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GITELNArt_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GITELNArt-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabAnswLES_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabAnswLES-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, while others may consider it simply a separate set of functionality which may be found in an ELN or a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">LIMS<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GITELNArt_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GITELNArt-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LES_LIPost_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LES_LIPost-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Some in the industry suggest the term \"laboratory execution system\" is a vendor-led morphing of the \"method execution system,\" which was originally designed \"to address the problem of standard operating procedure (SOP) compliance.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RoadmapClearELN_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RoadmapClearELN-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In France, the English word \"Middleware\" is used to define a LES.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-LES_ASTM-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LES_ASTM_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">American Society for Testing and Materials&#32;(2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=znlGAAAAYAAJ&q=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&dq=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=YKUiUbHrE4O9ywHH_YC4BA&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Annual Book of ASTM Standards 2007<\/i><\/a>.&#32;ASTM.&#32;p.&#160;296.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0803142765<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=znlGAAAAYAAJ&q=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&dq=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=YKUiUbHrE4O9ywHH_YC4BA&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=znlGAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&amp;dq=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=YKUiUbHrE4O9ywHH_YC4BA&amp;ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Annual+Book+of+ASTM+Standards+2007&amp;rft.aulast=American+Society+for+Testing+and+Materials&amp;rft.au=American+Society+for+Testing+and+Materials&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B296&amp;rft.pub=ASTM&amp;rft.isbn=0803142765&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DznlGAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D%2522laboratory%2Bexecution%2Bsystem%2522%26dq%3D%2522laboratory%2Bexecution%2Bsystem%2522%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3DYKUiUbHrE4O9ywHH_YC4BA%26ved%3D0CDYQ6AEwAA&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_execution_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciCompQAQC-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompQAQC_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompQAQC_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Metrick, G.&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210125174410\/https:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/QA%2FQC%3A+ELNs+have+come+a+long+way%3A+realizing+the+full+potential+of...-a0272245303\" target=\"_blank\">\"QA\/QC: ELNs Have Come a Long Way\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing<\/i>&#32;<b>28<\/b>&#32;(1): 19.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/QA%2FQC%3A+ELNs+have+come+a+long+way%3A+realizing+the+full+potential+of...-a0272245303\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 25 January 2021<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210125174410\/https:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/QA%2FQC%3A+ELNs+have+come+a+long+way%3A+realizing+the+full+potential+of...-a0272245303\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210125174410\/https:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/QA%2FQC%3A+ELNs+have+come+a+long+way%3A+realizing+the+full+potential+of...-a0272245303<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=QA%2FQC%3A+ELNs+Have+Come+a+Long+Way&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+Computing&amp;rft.aulast=Metrick%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Metrick%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.volume=28&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=19&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20210125174410%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreelibrary.com%2FQA%252FQC%253A%2BELNs%2Bhave%2Bcome%2Ba%2Blong%2Bway%253A%2Brealizing%2Bthe%2Bfull%2Bpotential%2Bof...-a0272245303&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_execution_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GITELNArt-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GITELNArt_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GITELNArt_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Boogaard, Peter; Pijanowski, Patrick&#32;(Nov-Dec 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170328012245\/http:\/\/www.industriallabautomation.com\/attachments\/File\/201111ELN-Mans-Many-Things-To-Many-People-GIT-Verlag-GLJ11-1211P.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Laboratory Notebooks: ELN Means Many Things to Many People\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>G.I.T. Laboratory Journal<\/i>&#32;<b>2011<\/b>&#32;(11-12): 14\u201316.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.industriallabautomation.com\/attachments\/File\/201111ELN-Mans-Many-Things-To-Many-People-GIT-Verlag-GLJ11-1211P.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 March 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170328012245\/http:\/\/www.industriallabautomation.com\/attachments\/File\/201111ELN-Mans-Many-Things-To-Many-People-GIT-Verlag-GLJ11-1211P.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170328012245\/http:\/\/www.industriallabautomation.com\/attachments\/File\/201111ELN-Mans-Many-Things-To-Many-People-GIT-Verlag-GLJ11-1211P.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Electronic+Laboratory+Notebooks%3A+ELN+Means+Many+Things+to+Many+People&amp;rft.jtitle=G.I.T.+Laboratory+Journal&amp;rft.aulast=Boogaard%2C+Peter%3B+Pijanowski%2C+Patrick&amp;rft.au=Boogaard%2C+Peter%3B+Pijanowski%2C+Patrick&amp;rft.date=Nov-Dec+2011&amp;rft.volume=2011&amp;rft.issue=11-12&amp;rft.pages=14%E2%80%9316&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170328012245%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.industriallabautomation.com%2Fattachments%2FFile%2F201111ELN-Mans-Many-Things-To-Many-People-GIT-Verlag-GLJ11-1211P.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_execution_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LabAnswLES-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabAnswLES_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131012115959\/http:\/\/labanswer.com\/electronic-laboratory-notebooks-laboratory-execution-systems.asp\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Full Life-Cycle Development and Implementation of ELN\/LES Systems\"<\/a>.&#32;LabAnswer.com.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labanswer.com\/electronic-laboratory-notebooks-laboratory-execution-systems.asp\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 12 October 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131012115959\/http:\/\/labanswer.com\/electronic-laboratory-notebooks-laboratory-execution-systems.asp\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131012115959\/http:\/\/labanswer.com\/electronic-laboratory-notebooks-laboratory-execution-systems.asp<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Full+Life-Cycle+Development+and+Implementation+of+ELN%2FLES+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=LabAnswer.com&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20131012115959%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Flabanswer.com%2Felectronic-laboratory-notebooks-laboratory-execution-systems.asp&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_execution_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LES_LIPost-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LES_LIPost_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jones, J.&#32;(January 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/forum\/is-a-lab-execution-system-just-another-name-for-a-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is a Lab Execution System just another name for a LIMS?\"<\/a>.&#32;LIMSforum<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/forum\/is-a-lab-execution-system-just-another-name-for-a-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/forum\/is-a-lab-execution-system-just-another-name-for-a-lims\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Is+a+Lab+Execution+System+just+another+name+for+a+LIMS%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Jones%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=January+2013&amp;rft.pub=LIMSforum&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.limsforum.com%2Fforum%2Fis-a-lab-execution-system-just-another-name-for-a-lims%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_execution_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RoadmapClearELN-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RoadmapClearELN_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Hice, Randy C.&#32;(May 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120814161250\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article-in-Roadmap-to-a-Clear-Definition-of-ELN-051509.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Roadmap to a Clear Definition of ELN\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing<\/i>&#32;<b>26<\/b>&#32;(3): E11.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article-in-Roadmap-to-a-Clear-Definition-of-ELN-051509.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 14 August 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120814161250\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article-in-Roadmap-to-a-Clear-Definition-of-ELN-051509.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120814161250\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article-in-Roadmap-to-a-Clear-Definition-of-ELN-051509.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Roadmap+to+a+Clear+Definition+of+ELN&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+Computing&amp;rft.aulast=Hice%2C+Randy+C.&amp;rft.au=Hice%2C+Randy+C.&amp;rft.date=May+2009&amp;rft.volume=26&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=E11&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120814161250%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Farticle-in-Roadmap-to-a-Clear-Definition-of-ELN-051509.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_execution_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110063908\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.110 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.143 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4254\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 40295\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 19009\/2097152 bytes\nHighest 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_images":[],"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_timestamp":1704906982,"07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b_type":"article","07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b_title":"Enterprise resource planning system","07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Enterprise_resource_planning","07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b_plaintext":"\n\nEnterprise resource planningFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchCorporate task of optimizing the existing resources in a company\n \n \n\nDiagram showing some typical ERP modules\n\nEnterprise resource planning (ERP) is the integrated management of main business processes, often in real time and mediated by software and technology. ERP is usually referred to as a category of business management software\u2014typically a suite of integrated applications\u2014that an organization can use to collect, store, manage and interpret data from many business activities. ERP systems can be local-based or cloud-based. Cloud-based applications have grown in recent years due to the increased efficiencies arising from information being readily available from any location with Internet access.\nERP provides an integrated and continuously updated view of core business processes using common databases maintained by a database management system. ERP systems track business resources\u2014cash, raw materials, production capacity\u2014and the status of business commitments: orders, purchase orders, and payroll. The applications that make up the system share data across various departments (manufacturing, purchasing, sales, accounting, etc.) that provide the data.[1] ERP facilitates information flow between all business functions and manages connections to outside stakeholders.[2]\nAccording to Gartner, the global ERP market size is estimated at $35 billion in 2021.[3][4] Though early ERP systems focused on large enterprises, smaller enterprises increasingly use ERP systems.[5]\nThe ERP system integrates varied organizational systems and facilitates error-free transactions and production, thereby enhancing the organization's efficiency. However, developing an ERP system differs from traditional system development.[6]\nERP systems run on a variety of computer hardware and network configurations, typically using a database as an information repository.[7]\n\n\n\n\nOrigin \nThe Gartner Group first used the acronym ERP in the 1990s[8][9] to include the capabilities of material requirements planning (MRP), and the later manufacturing resource planning (MRP II),[10][11] as well as computer-integrated manufacturing. Without replacing these terms, ERP came to represent a larger whole that reflected the evolution of application integration beyond manufacturing.[12]\nNot all ERP packages are developed from a manufacturing core; ERP vendors variously began assembling their packages with finance-and-accounting, maintenance, and human-resource components. By the mid-1990s ERP systems addressed all core enterprise functions. Governments and non\u2013profit organizations also began to use ERP systems.[13] An \"ERP system selection methodology\" is a formal process for selecting an enterprise resource planning (ERP) system. Existing methodologies include: Kuiper's funnel method, Dobrin's three-dimensional (3D) web-based decision support tool, and the Clarkston Potomac methodology.[14]\n\nExpansion \nERP systems experienced rapid growth in the 1990s. Because of the year 2000 problem many companies took the opportunity to replace their old systems with ERP.[15]\nERP systems initially focused on automating back office functions that did not directly affect customers and the public. Front office functions, such as customer relationship management (CRM), dealt directly with customers, or e-business systems such as e-commerce and e-government\u2014or supplier relationship management (SRM) became integrated later, when the internet simplified communicating with external parties.[16]\n\"ERP II\" was coined in 2000 in an article by Gartner Publications entitled ERP Is Dead\u2014Long Live ERP II.[17][18] It describes web\u2013based software that provides real\u2013time access to ERP systems to employees and partners (such as suppliers and customers). The ERP II role expands traditional ERP resource optimization and transaction processing. Rather than just manage buying, selling, etc.\u2014ERP II leverages information in the resources under its management to help the enterprise collaborate with other enterprises.[19]\nERP II is more flexible than the first generation ERP. Rather than confine ERP system capabilities within the organization, it goes beyond the corporate walls to interact with other systems. Enterprise application suite is an alternate name for such systems. ERP II systems are typically used to enable collaborative initiatives such as supply chain management (SCM), customer relationship management (CRM) and business intelligence (BI) among business partner organizations through the use of various electronic business technologies.[20][21] The large proportion of companies are pursuing a strong managerial targets in ERP system instead of acquire a ERP company.[22]\n\nDevelopers now make more effort to integrate mobile devices with the ERP system. ERP vendors are extending ERP to these devices, along with other business applications, so that businesses don't have to rely on third-party applications.[23] As an example, the e-commerce platform Shopify was able to make ERP tools from Microsoft and Oracle available on its app in October 2021.[23]\nTechnical stakes of modern ERP concern integration\u2014hardware, applications, networking, supply chains. ERP now covers more functions and roles\u2014including decision making, stakeholders' relationships, standardization, transparency, globalization, etc.[24]\n\nCharacteristics \nERP systems typically include the following characteristics:\n\nAn integrated system\nOperates in (or near) real time\nA common database that supports all the applications\nA consistent look and feel across modules\nInstallation of the system with elaborate application\/data integration by the Information Technology (IT) department, provided the implementation is not done in small steps[25]\nDeployment options include: on-premises, cloud hosted, or SaaS\nFunctional areas \nAn ERP system covers the following common functional areas. In many ERP systems, these are called and grouped together as ERP modules:\n\nFinancial accounting: general ledger, fixed assets, payables including vouchering, matching and payment, receivables and collections, cash management, financial consolidation\nManagement accounting: budgeting, costing, cost management, activity based costing, billing, invoicing (optional)\nHuman resources: recruiting, training, rostering, payroll, benefits, retirement and pension plans, diversity management, retirement, separation\nManufacturing: engineering, bill of materials, work orders, scheduling, capacity, workflow management, quality control, manufacturing process, manufacturing projects, manufacturing flow, product life cycle management\nOrder processing: order to cash, order entry, credit checking, pricing, available to promise, inventory, shipping, sales analysis and reporting, sales commissioning\nSupply chain management: supply chain planning, supplier scheduling, product configurator, order to cash, purchasing, inventory, claim processing, warehousing (receiving, putaway, picking and packing)\nProject management: project planning, resource planning, project costing, work breakdown structure, billing, time and expense, performance units, activity management\nCustomer relationship management (CRM): sales and marketing, commissions, service, customer contact, call center support&#160;\u2013 CRM systems are not always considered part of ERP systems but rather business support systems (BSS)\nSupplier relationship management (SRM): suppliers, orders, payments.\nData services: various \"self\u2013service\" interfaces for customers, suppliers and\/or employees\nManagement of school and educational institutes.\nContract Management: creating, monitoring, and managing contracts, reducing administrative burdens and minimising legal risks. These modules often feature contract templates, electronic signature capabilities, automated alerts for contract milestones, and advanced search functionality.\nGRP - ERP use in government \nGovernment resource planning (GRP) is the equivalent of an ERP for the public sector and an integrated office automation system for government bodies.[26] The software structure, modularization, core algorithms and main interfaces do not differ from other ERPs, and ERP software suppliers manage to adapt their systems to government agencies.[27][28][29]\nBoth system implementations, in private and public organizations, are adopted to improve productivity and overall business performance in organizations, but comparisons (private vs. public) of implementations shows that the main factors influencing ERP implementation success in the public sector are cultural.[30][31][32]\n\nBest practices \nMost ERP systems incorporate best practices. This means the software reflects the vendor's interpretation of the most effective way to perform each business process. Systems vary in how conveniently the customer can modify these practices.[33]\nUse of best practices eases compliance with requirements such as IFRS, Sarbanes-Oxley, or Basel II. They can also help comply with de facto industry standards, such as electronic funds transfer. This is because the procedure can be readily codified within the ERP software and replicated with confidence across multiple businesses that share that business requirement.[34][35]\n\nConnectivity to plant floor information \nERP systems connect to real\u2013time data and transaction data in a variety of ways. These systems are typically configured by systems integrators, who bring unique knowledge on process, equipment, and vendor solutions.\nDirect integration\u2014ERP systems have connectivity (communications to plant floor equipment) as part of their product offering. This requires that the vendors offer specific support for the plant floor equipment their customers operate.\nDatabase integration\u2014ERP systems connect to plant floor data sources through staging tables in a database. Plant floor systems deposit the necessary information into the database. The ERP system reads the information in the table. The benefit of staging is that ERP vendors do not need to master the complexities of equipment integration. Connectivity becomes the responsibility of the systems integrator.\nEnterprise appliance transaction modules (EATM)\u2014These devices communicate directly with plant floor equipment and with the ERP system via methods supported by the ERP system. EATM can employ a staging table, web services, or system\u2013specific program interfaces (APIs). An EATM offers the benefit of being an off\u2013the\u2013shelf solution.\nCustom\u2013integration solutions\u2014Many system integrators offer custom solutions. These systems tend to have the highest level of initial integration cost, and can have a higher long term maintenance and reliability costs. Long term costs can be minimized through careful system testing and thorough documentation. Custom\u2013integrated solutions typically run on workstation or server-class computers.\n\nImplementation \nERP's scope usually implies significant changes to staff work processes and practices.[36] Generally, three types of services are available to help implement such changes: consulting, customization, and support.[36] Implementation time depends on business size, number of modules, customization, the scope of process changes, and the readiness of the customer to take ownership for the project. Modular ERP systems can be implemented in stages. The typical project for a large enterprise takes about 14 months and requires around 150 consultants.[37] Small projects can require months; multinational and other large implementations can take years.[38][39] Customization can substantially increase implementation times.[37]\nBesides that, information processing influences various business functions e.g. some large corporations like Walmart use a just in time inventory system. This reduces inventory storage and increases delivery efficiency, and requires up-to-date data. Before 2014, Walmart used a system called Inforem developed by IBM to manage replenishment.[40]\n\nProcess preparation \nImplementing ERP typically requires changes in existing business processes.[41] Poor understanding of needed process changes prior to starting implementation is a main reason for project failure.[42] The difficulties could be related to the system, business process, infrastructure, training, or lack of motivation.\nIt is therefore crucial that organizations thoroughly analyze processes before they deploy an ERP software. Analysis can identify opportunities for process modernization. It also enables an assessment of the alignment of current processes with those provided by the ERP system. Research indicates that risk of business process mismatch is decreased by:\n\nLinking current processes to the organization's strategy\nAnalyzing the effectiveness of each process\nUnderstanding existing automated solutions[43][44]\nERP implementation is considerably more difficult (and politically charged) in decentralized organizations, because they often have different processes, business rules, data semantics, authorization hierarchies, and decision centers.[45] This may require migrating some business units before others, delaying implementation to work through the necessary changes for each unit, possibly reducing integration (e.g., linking via master data management) or customizing the system to meet specific needs.[46]\nA potential disadvantage is that adopting \"standard\" processes can lead to a loss of competitive advantage. While this has happened, losses in one area are often offset by gains in other areas, increasing overall competitive advantage.[47][48]\n\nConfiguration \nConfiguring an ERP system is largely a matter of balancing the way the organization wants the system to work, and the way the system is designed to work out of the box. ERP systems typically include many configurable settings that in effect modify system operations. For example, in the ServiceNow platform, business rules can be written requiring the signature of a business owner within 2 weeks of a newly completed risk assessment. The tool can be configured to automatically email notifications to the business owner, and transition the risk assessment to various stages in the process depending on the owner's responses or lack thereof.\n\nTwo-tier enterprise resource planning \nTwo-tier ERP software and hardware lets companies run the equivalent of two ERP systems at once: one at the corporate level and one at the division or subsidiary level. For example, a manufacturing company could use an ERP system to manage across the organization using independent global or regional distribution, production or sales centers, and service providers to support the main company's customers. Each independent center (or) subsidiary may have its own business operations cycles, workflows, and business processes.\nGiven the realities of globalization, enterprises continuously evaluate how to optimize their regional, divisional, and product or manufacturing strategies to support strategic goals and reduce time-to-market while increasing profitability and delivering value.[49] With two-tier ERP, the regional distribution, production, or sales centers and service providers continue operating under their own business model\u2014separate from the main company, using their own ERP systems. Since these smaller companies' processes and workflows are not tied to main company's processes and workflows, they can respond to local business requirements in multiple locations.[50]\nFactors that affect enterprises' adoption of two-tier ERP systems include:\n\nManufacturing globalization, the economics of sourcing in emerging economies\nPotential for quicker, less costly ERP implementations at subsidiaries, based on selecting software more suited to smaller companies\nExtra effort, (often involving the use of enterprise application integration) is required where data must pass between two ERP systems[51] Two-tier ERP strategies give enterprises agility in responding to market demands and in aligning IT systems at a corporate level while inevitably resulting in more systems as compared to one ERP system used throughout the organization.[52]\nCustomization \nERP systems are theoretically based on industry best practices, and their makers intend that organizations deploy them \"as is\".[53][54] ERP vendors do offer customers configuration options that let organizations incorporate their own business rules, but gaps in features often remain even after configuration is complete.\nERP customers have several options to reconcile feature gaps, each with their own pros\/cons. Technical solutions include rewriting part of the delivered software, writing a homegrown module to work within the ERP system, or interfacing to an external system. These three options constitute varying degrees of system customization\u2014with the first being the most invasive and costly to maintain.[55] Alternatively, there are non-technical options such as changing business practices or organizational policies to better match the delivered ERP feature set. Key differences between customization and configuration include:\n\nCustomization is always optional, whereas the software must always be configured before use (e.g., setting up cost\/profit center structures, organizational trees, purchase approval rules, etc.).\nThe software is designed to handle various configurations and behaves predictably in any allowed configuration.\nThe effect of configuration changes on system behavior and performance is predictable and is the responsibility of the ERP vendor. The effect of customization is less predictable. It is the customer's responsibility, and increases testing requirements.\nConfiguration changes survive upgrades to new software versions. Some customizations (e.g., code that uses pre\u2013defined \"hooks\" that are called before\/after displaying data screens) survive upgrades, though they require retesting. Other customizations (e.g., those involving changes to fundamental data structures) are overwritten during upgrades and must be re-implemented.[56]\nAdvantages of customization include:\n\nImproving user acceptance[57]\nPotential to obtain competitive advantage vis-\u00e0-vis companies using only standard features.\nCustomization's disadvantages include that it may:\n\nIncrease time and resources required to implement and maintain[55][58]\nHinder seamless interfacing\/integration between suppliers and customers due to the differences between systems[58]\nLimit the company's ability to upgrade the ERP software in the future[58]\nCreate overreliance on customization, undermining the principles of ERP as a standardizing software platform\nExtensions \nERP systems can be extended with third\u2013party software, often via vendor-supplied interfaces.[59][60] Extensions offer features such as:[60]\n\nproduct data management\nproduct life cycle management\ncustomer relations management\ndata mining\ne-procurement\nData migration \nData migration is the process of moving, copying, and restructuring data from an existing system to the ERP system. Migration is critical to implementation success and requires significant planning. Unfortunately, since migration is one of the final activities before the production phase, it often receives insufficient attention. The following steps can structure migration planning:[61]\n\nIdentify the data to be migrated.\nDetermine the migration timing.\nGenerate data migration templates for key data components\nFreeze the toolset.\nDecide on the migration-related setup of key business accounts.\nDefine data archiving policies and procedures.\nOften, data migration is incomplete because some of the data in the existing system is either incompatible or not needed in the new system. As such, the existing system may need to be kept as an archived database to refer back to once the new ERP system is in place.[61]\n\nAdvantages \nThe most fundamental advantage of ERP is that the integration of a myriad of business processes saves time and expense. Management can make decisions faster and with fewer errors. Data becomes visible across the organization. Tasks that benefit from this integration include:[62]\n\nSales forecasting, which allows inventory optimization.\nChronological history of every transaction through relevant data compilation in every area of operation.\nOrder tracking, from acceptance through fulfillment\nRevenue tracking, from invoice through cash receipt\nMatching purchase orders (what was ordered), inventory receipts (what arrived), and costing (what the vendor invoiced)\nERP systems centralize business data, which:\n\nEliminates the need to synchronize changes between multiple systems\u2014consolidation of finance, marketing, sales, human resource, and manufacturing applications[citation needed ]\nBrings legitimacy and transparency to each bit of statistical data\nFacilitates standard product naming\/coding\nProvides a comprehensive enterprise view (no \"islands of information\"), making real\u2013time information available to management anywhere, anytime to make proper decisions\nProtects sensitive data by consolidating multiple security systems into a single structure[63]\nBenefits \nERP creates a more agile company that adapts better to change. It also makes a company more flexible and less rigidly structured so organization components operate more cohesively, enhancing the business\u2014internally and externally.[64]\nERP can improve data security in a closed environment. A common control system, such as the kind offered by ERP systems, allows organizations the ability to more easily ensure key company data is not compromised. This changes, however, with a more open environment, requiring further scrutiny of ERP security features and internal company policies regarding security.[65]\nERP provides increased opportunities for collaboration. Data takes many forms in the modern enterprise, including documents, files, forms, audio and video, and emails. Often, each data medium has its own mechanism for allowing collaboration. ERP provides a collaborative platform that lets employees spend more time collaborating on content rather than mastering the learning curve of communicating in various formats across distributed systems.[60]\nERP offers many benefits such as standardization of common processes, one integrated system, standardized reporting, improved key performance indicators (KPI), and access to common data. One of the key benefits of ERP; the concept of integrated system, is often misinterpreted by the business. ERP is a centralized system that provides tight integration with all major enterprise functions be it HR, planning, procurement, sales, customer relations, finance or analytics, as well to other connected application functions. In that sense ERP could be described as a centralized integrated enterprise system (CIES)[66]\nDisadvantages \nCustomization can be problematic. Compared to the best-of-breed approach, ERP can be seen as meeting an organization's lowest common denominator needs, forcing the organization to find workarounds to meet unique demands.[67]\nRe-engineering business processes to fit the ERP system may damage competitiveness or divert focus from other critical activities.\nERP can cost more than less integrated or less comprehensive solutions.\nHigh ERP switching costs can increase the ERP vendor's negotiating power, which can increase support, maintenance, and upgrade expenses.\nOvercoming resistance to sharing sensitive information between departments can divert management attention.\nIntegration of truly independent businesses can create unnecessary dependencies.\nExtensive training requirements take resources from daily operations.\nHarmonization of ERP systems can be a mammoth task (especially for big companies) and requires a lot of time, planning, and money.[68]\nCritical challenges include disbanding the project team very quickly after implementation, interface issues, lack of proper testing, time zone limitations, stress, offshoring, people's resistance to change, a short hyper-care period, and data cleansing.[69]\nCritical success factors \nCritical success factors are limited number of areas in which results, if satisfactory, will ensure the organization's successful competitive performance. The CSF method has helped organizations specify their own critical information needs. Achieving satisfactory results in the key areas of critical success factors can ensure competitive advantage leading to improved organizational performance and overcome the challenges faced by organizations. Critical success factors theoretical foundation was improved upon, verified, and validated by several researchers, which underscored the importance of CSFs and its application to ERP project implementations.[70]\nThe application of critical success factors can prevent organizations from making costly mistakes, and the effective usage of CSFs can ensure project success and reduce failures during project implementations. Some of the important critical success factors related to ERP projects are: Know your data, longer and more integrated testing, utilization of the right people, longer stabilization period (hyper-care), clear communication, early buy-in from business, have a Lean Agile program, less customization, ERP projects must be business-driven and not IT-driven.[70]\n\nAdoption rates \nResearch published in 2011 based on a survey of 225 manufacturers, retailers and distributors found \"high\" rates of interest and adoption of ERP systems and that very few businesses were \"completely untouched\" by the concept of an ERP system. 27% of the companies survey had a fully operational system, 12% were at that time rolling out a system and 26% had an existing ERP system which they were extending or upgrading.[71]\n\nPostmodern ERP \nThe term \"postmodern ERP\" was coined by Gartner in 2013, when it first appeared in the paper series \"Predicts 2014\".[72] According to Gartner's definition of the postmodern ERP strategy, legacy, monolithic and highly customized ERP suites, in which all parts are heavily reliant on each other, should sooner or later be replaced by a mixture of both cloud-based and on-premises applications, which are more loosely coupled and can be easily exchanged if needed.[72]\nThe basic idea is that there should still be a core ERP solution that would cover most important business functions, while other functions will be covered by specialist software solutions that merely extend the core ERP. This concept is similar to the so-called best-of-breed approach[73] to software execution, but it shouldn't be confused with it. While in both cases, applications that make up the whole are relatively loosely connected and quite easily interchangeable, in the case of the latter there is no ERP solution whatsoever. Instead, every business function is covered by a separate software solution.[74]\nThere is, however, no golden rule as to what business functions should be part of the core ERP, and what should be covered by supplementary solutions. According to Gartner, every company must define their own postmodern ERP strategy, based on company's internal and external needs, operations and processes.[72] For example, a company may define that the core ERP solution should cover those business processes that must stay behind the firewall, and therefore, choose to leave their core ERP on-premises. At the same time, another company may decide to host the core ERP solution in the cloud and move only a few ERP modules as supplementary solutions to on-premises.[citation needed ]\nThe main benefits that companies will gain from implementing postmodern ERP strategy are speed and flexibility when reacting to unexpected changes in business processes or on the organizational level.[75] With the majority of applications having a relatively loose connection, it is fairly easy to replace or upgrade them whenever necessary. In addition to that, following the examples above, companies can select and combine cloud-based and on-premises solutions that are most suited for their ERP needs. 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Shi, \"The design of printing enterprise resources planning (ERP) software,\" 2010 2nd IEEE International Conference on Information Management and Engineering, 2010, pp.&#160;151\u2013154, doi:10.1109\/ICIME.2010.5478168.\nCronan, Timothy Paul, and David E. Douglas. \"Assessing ERP learning (management, business process, and skills) and attitudes.\" Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, April\u2013June 2013, 59+. Gale Academic OneFile (accessed January 26, 2022). Gale&#160;A339733778.\nHayes, David C., James E. Hunton, and Jacqueline L. Reck. \"Market Reaction to ERP Implementation Announcements.\" Journal of Information Systems 15, no. 1 (2001): 3. Gale Academic OneFile (accessed January 26, 2022). Gale&#160;A77711885.\nAlves, Maria do Ceu, and Sergio Ivo Amaral Matos. \"ERP adoption by public and private organizations--a comparative analysis of successful implementations.\" Journal of Business Economics and Management 14, no. 3 (2013): 500. Gale Academic OneFile (accessed January 26, 2022). Gale&#160;A338324526.\nElsayed, N., Ammar, S., and Mardini, G. H., \u201cThe impact of ERP utilisation experience and segmental reporting on corporate performance in the UK context\u201d, Enterprise Information Systems, vol. 15, no. 1, pp.&#160;61\u201386, 2021. doi:10.1080\/17517575.2019.1706192. Bibcode:2021EntIS..15...61E.\nSutduean, J., Singsa, A., Sriyakul, T., and Jermsittiparsert, K., \u201cSupply Chain Integration, Enterprise Resource Planning, and Organizational Performance: The Enterprise Resource Planning Implementation Approach\u201d, Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience, vol. 16, no. 7, pp.&#160;2975\u20132981, 2019. doi:10.1166\/jctn.2019.8204. Bibcode:2019JCTN...16.2975S.\nAlfaris, M. F., Edikuncoro, G. Y., Savitri, A. L., Yogiari, D., and Sulistio, J., \u201cA Literature Review of Sustain Enterprise Resource Planning\u201d, in Materials Science and Engineering Conference Series, 2019, vol. 598, no. 1, p.&#160;012128. doi:10.1088\/1757-899X\/598\/1\/012128. Bibcode:2019MS&amp;E..598a2128A.\nG. Chattopadhyay, \"Development of a learning package for interactive learning in enterprise resources planning (ERP),\" 2004 IEEE International Engineering Management Conference (IEEE Cat. No.04CH37574), 2004, pp.&#160;848\u2013850 Vol.2, doi:10.1109\/IEMC.2004.1407501.\nD. Reuther and G. Chattopadhyay, \"Critical factors for enterprise resources planning system selection and implementation projects within small to medium enterprises,\" 2004 IEEE International Engineering Management Conference (IEEE Cat. No.04CH37574), 2004, pp.&#160;851\u2013855 Vol.2, doi:10.1109\/IEMC.2004.1407502.\nLv, T., Zhang, J., and Chen, Y., \u201cResearch of ERP Platform based on Cloud Computing\u201d, in Materials Science and Engineering Conference Series, 2018, vol. 394, no. 4, p.&#160;042004. doi:10.1088\/1757-899X\/394\/4\/042004. Bibcode:2018MS&amp;E..394d2004L.\nHasan, N., Miah, S. J., Bao, Y., and Hoque, M. R., \u201cFactors affecting post-implementation success of enterprise resource planning systems: a perspective of business process performance\u201d, Enterprise Information Systems, vol. 13, no. 9, pp.&#160;1217\u20131244, 2019. doi:10.1080\/17517575.2019.1612099. Bibcode:\/abstract 2019EntIS..13.1217H .\nXinyu Zhang (2019). \"Drivers affecting cloud ERP deployment decisions: an Australian study\". arXiv:1911.11309 . Bibcode:2019arXiv191111309Z. S2CID&#160;208291311. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) \nLucas Gren and Alexander Wong and Erik Kristoffersson (2019). \"Choosing agile or plan-driven enterprise resource planning (ERP) implementations -- A study on 21 implementations from 20 companies\". arXiv:1906.05220 . Bibcode:2019arXiv190605220G. S2CID&#160;49291109. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) \nEmre Erturk and Jitesh Kumar Arora (2017). \"An Exploratory Study on the Implementation and Adoption of ERP Solutions for Businesses\". arXiv:1701.08329 . Bibcode:2017arXiv170108329E. S2CID&#160;858850. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) \nQuang V Nguyen and Mary Tate and Philip Calvert and Benoit Aubert (2016). \"Leveraging ERP Implementation to Create Intellectual Capital: the Role of Organizational Learning Capability\". arXiv:1606.01431 . Bibcode:2016arXiv160601431N. S2CID&#160;14172135. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) \nSergey V. Zykov (2006). \"Enterprise Resource Planning Systems: the Integrated Approach\". arXiv:cs\/0607129 . Bibcode:2006cs........7129Z. S2CID&#160;1653. {{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) \nSardjono, W., Sudirwan, J., Priatna, W., and Putra, G. R., \u201cApplication of factor analysis method to support the users acceptance model of ERP systems implementation\u201d, in Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2021, vol. 1836, no. 1. doi:10.1088\/1742-6596\/1836\/1\/012032. Bibcode:2021JPhCS1836a2032S.\nMeiryani, Erick Fernando, Setiani Putri Hendratno, Kriswanto, and Septi Wifasari. 2021. Enterprise Resource Planning Systems: The Business Backbone. 2021 The 5th International Conference on E-Commerce, E-Business and E-Government. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 43\u201348. doi:10.1145\/3466029.3466049\nT. Yang, J. Choi, Z. Xi, Y. Sun, C. Ouyang and Y. Huang, \"Research of Enterprise Resource Planning in a Specific Enterprise,\" 2006 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 2006, pp.&#160;418\u2013422, doi:10.1109\/ICSMC.2006.384418.\nKomala, A. R. and Gunanda, I., \u201cDevelopment of Enterprise Resource Planning using Blockchain\u201d, in Materials Science and Engineering Conference Series, 2020, vol. 879, no. 1, p.&#160;012141. doi:10.1088\/1757-899X\/879\/1\/012141. Bibcode:2020MS&amp;E..879a2141K.\nTsai, W.-H., Lee, K.-C., Liu, J.-Y., Lin, S.-J., and Chou, Y.-W., \u201cThe influence of enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems' performance on earnings management\u201d, Enterprise Information Systems, vol. 6, no. 4, pp.&#160;491\u2013517, 2012. doi:10.1080\/17517575.2011.622414. Bibcode:2012EntIS...6..491T.\nKapulin, D. V., Russkikh, P. A., and Moor, I. A., \u201cIntegration capabilities of business process models and ERP-systems\u201d, in Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2019, vol. 1333, no. 7. doi:10.1088\/1742-6596\/1333\/7\/072009. Bibcode:2019JPhCS1333g2009K.\nSebayang, P., Tarigan, Z. J. H., and Panjaitan, T. W. S., \u201cERP compatibility on business performance through the inventory system and internal integration\u201d, in Materials Science and Engineering Conference Series, 2021, vol. 1010, no. 1, p.&#160;012008. doi:10.1088\/1757-899X\/1010\/1\/012008. Bibcode:2021MS&amp;E.1010a2008S.\nAugust-Wilhelm Scheer and Frank Habermann. 2000. Enterprise resource planning: making ERP a success. Communications of the ACM 43, 4 (April 2000), 57\u201361. doi:10.1145\/332051.332073\nKuldeep Kumar and Jos van Hillegersberg. 2000. Enterprise resource planning: introduction. Communications of the ACM 43, 4 (April 2000), 22\u201326. doi:10.1145\/332051.332063\n\nExternal links \n Media related to Enterprise resource planning at Wikimedia Commons\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Enterprise_resource_planning\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Enterprise_resource_planning<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementSoftware systemsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 9 May 2018, at 19:09.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 6,584 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Enterprise_resource_planning rootpage-Enterprise_resource_planning skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Enterprise resource planning<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Corporate task of optimizing the existing resources in a company<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"> \n \n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><figure typeof=\"mw:File\/Thumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:ERP_modules.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0964ed48b012483769fb767fe5a53bb\"><img alt=\"Refer to caption\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/81\/ERP_modules.svg\/300px-ERP_modules.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><figcaption>Diagram showing some typical ERP modules<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><b>Enterprise resource planning<\/b> (<b>ERP<\/b>) is the integrated management of main business processes, often in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Real-time_computing\" title=\"Real-time computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f432153b4a66d196d157160a8c577faa\">real time<\/a> and mediated by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technology\" title=\"Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"826a00bce65740132769609e46bf6515\">technology<\/a>. ERP is usually referred to as a category of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_management_tools\" title=\"Business management tools\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49c82ec696b78d8629954ae8e3944091\">business management software<\/a>\u2014typically a suite of integrated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">applications<\/a>\u2014that an organization can use to collect, store, manage and interpret data from many <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_sector\" title=\"Business sector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc24b8613ec0155db3146e84b205ddc1\">business<\/a> activities. ERP systems can be local-based or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">cloud-based<\/a>. Cloud-based applications have grown in recent years due to the increased efficiencies arising from information being readily available from any location with Internet access.\n<\/p><p>ERP provides an integrated and continuously updated view of core business processes using common <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">databases<\/a> maintained by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Database management system\" data-key=\"824748614afaae7c7e98b483b4aee777\">database management system<\/a>. ERP systems track business resources\u2014cash, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Raw_material\" title=\"Raw material\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7df7f9d167e01c082523960a53c5056\">raw materials<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Production_capacity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Production capacity\" data-key=\"753c99292415e60aabdea1099009bfdd\">production capacity<\/a>\u2014and the status of business commitments: orders, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Purchase_order\" title=\"Purchase order\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"add40dc3803eb587fb2834fe09491f37\">purchase orders<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Payroll\" title=\"Payroll\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c41511b6f1effb399420e52c183f0be\">payroll<\/a>. The applications that make up the system share data across various departments (manufacturing, purchasing, sales, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accounting\" title=\"Accounting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"278b494ba2d43813c4805b41a6a5af36\">accounting<\/a>, etc.) that provide the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> ERP facilitates information flow between all business functions and manages connections to outside <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_(corporate)\" title=\"Stakeholder (corporate)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ca00d64d7f7af3b41dfe409fa5af06e\">stakeholders<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gartner\" title=\"Gartner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f7668963d7e19c93d13754e7e1b8a52\">Gartner<\/a>, the global ERP market size is estimated at $35 billion in 2021.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> Though early ERP systems focused on large enterprises, smaller enterprises increasingly use ERP systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The ERP system integrates varied organizational <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Systems\" data-key=\"f4b149a17f837426306b21d05b12b0a6\">systems<\/a> and facilitates error-free transactions and production, thereby enhancing the organization's efficiency. However, developing an ERP system differs from traditional system development.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>ERP systems run on a variety of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_hardware\" title=\"Computer hardware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3af5473d082dc42736a8f0e670ebb91\">computer hardware<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">network<\/a> configurations, typically using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">database<\/a> as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_repository\" title=\"Information repository\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"983d22d660b1bb04da4b544a8ff35040\">information repository<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The Gartner Group first used the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acronym_and_initialism\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Acronym and initialism\" data-key=\"24e8111cc4409a7ddeeee900ff232f07\">acronym<\/a> ERP in the 1990s<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> to include the capabilities of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Material_requirements_planning\" title=\"Material requirements planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5809e8b0575cd6054ecc05d98f6f437e\">material requirements planning<\/a> (MRP), and the later <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manufacturing_resource_planning\" title=\"Manufacturing resource planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce86347c9f29c4092e893de2e3b42ae2\">manufacturing resource planning<\/a> (MRP II),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> as well as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer-integrated_manufacturing\" title=\"Computer-integrated manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24aed5e9175dd2527e2588f8f2e8976c\">computer-integrated manufacturing<\/a>. Without replacing these terms, ERP came to represent a larger whole that reflected the evolution of application integration beyond manufacturing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Not all ERP packages are developed from a manufacturing core; ERP vendors variously began assembling their packages with finance-and-accounting, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maintenance,_repair_and_operations\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Maintenance, repair and operations\" data-key=\"e62ada85821cc56bbe23797b3939cb12\">maintenance<\/a>, and human-resource components. By the mid-1990s ERP systems addressed all core enterprise functions. Governments and non\u2013profit organizations also began to use ERP systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> An \"ERP system selection methodology\" is a formal process for selecting an enterprise resource planning (ERP) system. Existing methodologies include: Kuiper's funnel method, Dobrin's three-dimensional (3D) web-based decision support tool, and the Clarkston Potomac methodology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Expansion\">Expansion<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ERP systems experienced rapid growth in the 1990s. Because of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Year_2000_problem\" title=\"Year 2000 problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92ec32c9a4bddb100c2cb5c8f0e89edb\">year 2000 problem<\/a> many companies took the opportunity to replace their old systems with ERP.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WagnerMonk2008_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WagnerMonk2008-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>ERP systems initially focused on automating <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Back_office\" title=\"Back office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a49765133be292451e0e22cc36821f7c\">back office<\/a> functions that did not directly affect <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer\" title=\"Customer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a5fbccdabe10a95d7440b655c079d32\">customers<\/a> and the public. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Front_office\" title=\"Front office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"adfc44ced2c1c6272a0e49721de97a48\">Front office<\/a> functions, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_relationship_management\" title=\"Customer relationship management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8203726ea504ac5ce9b5ce91be3a96b7\">customer relationship management<\/a> (CRM), dealt directly with customers, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_business\" title=\"Electronic business\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"434db26912da8a9300608c10d3c8b44c\">e-business<\/a> systems such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-commerce\" title=\"E-commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c03db4987b899365c11ec8496d2c7c99\">e-commerce<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-government\" title=\"E-government\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1794712110e20f03e8c4d0dde93447cd\">e-government<\/a>\u2014or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supplier_relationship_management\" title=\"Supplier relationship management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9bd7a7b3ee74dc2068a9a63bb0ed2f75\">supplier relationship management<\/a> (SRM) became integrated later, when the internet simplified communicating with external parties.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaymanERP00_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaymanERP00-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>\"ERP II\" was coined in 2000 in an article by Gartner Publications entitled <i>ERP Is Dead\u2014Long Live ERP II<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> It describes web\u2013based software that provides real\u2013time access to ERP systems to employees and partners (such as suppliers and customers). The ERP II role expands traditional ERP resource optimization and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transaction_processing\" title=\"Transaction processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc4654ebea47d9f14e7ebe49367c965c\">transaction processing<\/a>. Rather than just manage buying, selling, etc.\u2014ERP II leverages information in the resources under its management to help the enterprise collaborate with other enterprises.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>ERP II is more flexible than the first generation ERP. Rather than confine ERP system capabilities within the organization, it goes beyond the corporate walls to interact with other systems. Enterprise application suite is an alternate name for such systems. ERP II systems are typically used to enable collaborative initiatives such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain_management\" title=\"Supply chain management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9ab29cff9b4cb170ab64c685242c8b0\">supply chain management<\/a> (SCM), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_relationship_management\" title=\"Customer relationship management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8203726ea504ac5ce9b5ce91be3a96b7\">customer relationship management<\/a> (CRM) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">business intelligence<\/a> (BI) among business partner organizations through the use of various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_business\" title=\"Electronic business\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"434db26912da8a9300608c10d3c8b44c\">electronic business<\/a> technologies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> The large proportion of companies are pursuing a strong managerial targets in ERP system instead of acquire a ERP company.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/p><p>Developers now make more effort to integrate mobile devices with the ERP system. ERP vendors are extending ERP to these devices, along with other business applications, so that businesses don't have to rely on third-party applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> As an example, the e-commerce platform <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shopify\" title=\"Shopify\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"80ce8cbbd4a69cac9933afe3f80b9920\">Shopify<\/a> was able to make ERP tools from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_Enterprise_Resource_Planning_Cloud\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Oracle Enterprise Resource Planning Cloud\" data-key=\"1a75a4eb6592974ec2b4a088768eb814\">Oracle<\/a> available on its app in October 2021.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Technical stakes of modern ERP concern integration\u2014hardware, applications, networking, supply chains. ERP now covers more functions and roles\u2014including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision making\" data-key=\"f7ca18573163d657813ebb8dfb5bff55\">decision making<\/a>, stakeholders' relationships, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standardization\" title=\"Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f72bb2449f07a1d189664ba328c819fc\">standardization<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transparency_(behavior)\" title=\"Transparency (behavior)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e19b9c07d39419acd6c1a1533d539df4\">transparency<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Globalization\" title=\"Globalization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d67e483cf72bd59cd7610fc7b4beda69\">globalization<\/a>, etc.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Characteristics\">Characteristics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ERP systems typically include the following characteristics:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>An integrated system<\/li>\n<li>Operates in (or near) real time<\/li>\n<li>A common database that supports all the applications<\/li>\n<li>A consistent look and feel across modules<\/li>\n<li>Installation of the system with elaborate application\/data integration by the Information Technology (IT) department, provided the implementation is not done in small steps<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Deployment options include: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/On-premises\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"On-premises\" data-key=\"7265baafa624fbe90dd871bace43d023\">on-premises<\/a>, cloud hosted, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SaaS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SaaS\" data-key=\"fd3401864caa916e3239653e12baf7a1\">SaaS<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Functional_areas\">Functional areas<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>An ERP system covers the following common functional areas. In many ERP systems, these are called and grouped together as ERP modules:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_accounting\" title=\"Financial accounting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0eb9baa4c9ab3b208e6815db0c99b25c\">Financial accounting<\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_ledger\" title=\"General ledger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1886a552a96368d1309e619f834ec4e7\">general ledger<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fixed_asset\" title=\"Fixed asset\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5b34315f53a1826ae82b51aae4a3b3e\">fixed assets<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accounts_payable\" title=\"Accounts payable\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb3e6c055f023fba6681964a6c4a34eb\">payables<\/a> including vouchering, matching and payment, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accounts_receivable\" title=\"Accounts receivable\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35a4c090ae5c0e4ec9756c60fa8526ea\">receivables<\/a> and collections, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cash_management\" title=\"Cash management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e339b6d8dd28628b98b815c3bd3fde1\">cash management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consolidation_(business)\" title=\"Consolidation (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ffb4cde5bc012b24ddb981608696db50\">financial consolidation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Management_accounting\" title=\"Management accounting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b02d1a758e144919dda3957b61b72dbd\">Management accounting<\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Budgeting\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Budgeting\" data-key=\"d5add60a96ada7afed9c80fd689615f0\">budgeting<\/a>, costing, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cost_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cost management\" data-key=\"06b91d2198273faa6898df2096b59d0d\">cost management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activity_based_costing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Activity based costing\" data-key=\"67bc1ac64b3a86e8fa63ea150f2b0d56\">activity based costing<\/a>, billing, invoicing (optional)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_resources\" title=\"Human resources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efc1600cf27dd94c0c671f2b4c618ab5\">Human resources<\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recruitment\" title=\"Recruitment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebd41b624fe7236d3061987e3a08ea96\">recruiting<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Training\" title=\"Training\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"291469476e445e7810f763b43e8aa978\">training<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Schedule_(workplace)\" title=\"Schedule (workplace)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1099a3e3526f8b14f95405fc868028a4\">rostering<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Payroll\" title=\"Payroll\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c41511b6f1effb399420e52c183f0be\">payroll<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Employee_benefit\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Employee benefit\" data-key=\"9bec6e2144d773ff773aa24c8f6f13db\">benefits<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pension\" title=\"Pension\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9af17640d5afbaf6fd0101e07bbef6f\">retirement and pension plans<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diversity_(business)\" title=\"Diversity (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afea080775f7def85e7934ccd4b7ae5d\">diversity management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retirement\" title=\"Retirement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45bae00f5de24a0dd5c542ce212b2811\">retirement<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Employee_exit_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Employee exit management\" data-key=\"d9c88a954d3d8a1d0f79d285588bad4a\">separation<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Manufacturing: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineering\" title=\"Engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f6f08235e1dd8528fc259dfcf543c3f\">engineering<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bill_of_materials\" title=\"Bill of materials\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d51471feb775b6adc5df1ca3b5167c1\">bill of materials<\/a>, work orders, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scheduling\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Scheduling\" data-key=\"a988d194988b82dda69bfee669bf6f0a\">scheduling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capacity_utilization\" title=\"Capacity utilization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2393c46535848bcc24804af62b590b8\">capacity<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_management_system\" title=\"Workflow management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6431e43c8af23358c867106d508ce082\">workflow management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_control\" title=\"Quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53081160bfedb3363868fc07b231ab5c\">quality control<\/a>, manufacturing process, manufacturing projects, manufacturing flow, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_life_cycle_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Product life cycle management\" data-key=\"344730d7f9f162c9af42d442c2ca2814\">product life cycle management<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Order processing: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Order_to_cash\" title=\"Order to cash\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d94f0b5be0f8b99568001013888870c\">order to cash<\/a>, order entry, credit checking, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pricing\" title=\"Pricing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f9772fa0af8925d1385bda5c0c84f5a\">pricing<\/a>, available to promise, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory\" title=\"Inventory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4cc44a3604b355115efdc69f53b0586\">inventory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shipping\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Shipping\" data-key=\"c999b8e94faef4a3afd490bc992758a5\">shipping<\/a>, sales analysis and reporting, sales commissioning<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain_management\" title=\"Supply chain management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9ab29cff9b4cb170ab64c685242c8b0\">Supply chain management<\/a>: supply chain planning, supplier scheduling, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_configurator\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Product configurator\" data-key=\"218f8c54ba546a9d53d76d8f832923bd\">product configurator<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Order_to_cash\" title=\"Order to cash\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d94f0b5be0f8b99568001013888870c\">order to cash<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Purchasing\" title=\"Purchasing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a8b277088da12c5fa37f4ce2c2bf926\">purchasing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory\" title=\"Inventory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4cc44a3604b355115efdc69f53b0586\">inventory<\/a>, claim processing, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warehousing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Warehousing\" data-key=\"6cb1863a02667e03f0f32382109c8165\">warehousing<\/a> (receiving, putaway, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Order_picking\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Order picking\" data-key=\"06612bed6bcd4d36efad9273b1c8d617\">picking<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Packaging_and_labeling\" title=\"Packaging and labeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9fc2686be8631525e466883978ff1e9a\">packing<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_management\" title=\"Project management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6eafec51967ae43f1d3054bbbbcb85a\">Project management<\/a>: project planning, resource planning, project costing, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Work_breakdown_structure\" title=\"Work breakdown structure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7c55c9c136597ba3428436e987a9bb1\">work breakdown structure<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Invoice\" title=\"Invoice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6242821a662352ab9e8214ddfd4d70c7\">billing<\/a>, time and expense, performance units, activity management<\/li>\n<li>Customer relationship management (CRM): sales and marketing, commissions, service, customer contact, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Call_center\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Call center\" data-key=\"1e691edf2b62c9a092347eb8d117539d\">call center<\/a> support&#160;\u2013 CRM systems are not always considered part of ERP systems but rather <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_support_system\" title=\"Business support system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9378fb73373c7d83231f6c85383ed657\">business support systems<\/a> (BSS)<\/li>\n<li>Supplier relationship management (SRM): suppliers, orders, payments.<\/li>\n<li>Data services: various \"self\u2013service\" interfaces for customers, suppliers and\/or employees<\/li>\n<li>Management of school and educational institutes.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contract_management\" title=\"Contract management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33d555052ac37c69b8aed61231fef837\">Contract Management<\/a>: creating, monitoring, and managing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contract\" title=\"Contract\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"643e0e1b184a88ea39aada3b3044cfb7\">contracts<\/a>, reducing administrative burdens and minimising <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legal_risk\" title=\"Legal risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"063d2de7f80d21147db6e3fca57a6f37\">legal risks<\/a>. These modules often feature contract templates, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_signature\" title=\"Electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d93c89da3c8f28e5d98d92e55b811ebe\">electronic signature<\/a> capabilities, automated alerts for contract milestones, and advanced search functionality.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"GRP_-_ERP_use_in_government\">GRP - ERP use in government<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Government resource planning (GRP) is the equivalent of an ERP for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_sector\" title=\"Public sector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a16b1fbf020611b1e8622b0002d0c24\">public sector<\/a> and an integrated office automation system for government bodies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> The software structure, modularization, core algorithms and main interfaces do not differ from other ERPs, and ERP software suppliers manage to adapt their systems to government agencies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Both system implementations, in private and public organizations, are adopted to improve productivity and overall business performance in organizations, but comparisons (private vs. public) of implementations shows that the main factors influencing ERP implementation success in the public sector are cultural.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Best_practices\">Best practices<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Most ERP systems incorporate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Best_practice\" title=\"Best practice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26cd3a9efcd49472bf5e067ca98372fe\">best practices<\/a>. This means the software reflects the vendor's interpretation of the most effective way to perform each business process. Systems vary in how conveniently the customer can modify these practices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Use of best practices eases compliance with requirements such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IFRS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IFRS\" data-key=\"e0efb562c40c6147cbd0a61dad35e29e\">IFRS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sarbanes-Oxley\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sarbanes-Oxley\" data-key=\"5f6269b5f5f775ed5b40e745b0d8922f\">Sarbanes-Oxley<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basel_II\" title=\"Basel II\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c21d14f9aebf0274f2466d3a983d95b\">Basel II<\/a>. They can also help comply with de facto industry standards, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_funds_transfer\" title=\"Electronic funds transfer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89845709b66adde7c1e43b3945a56e40\">electronic funds transfer<\/a>. This is because the procedure can be readily codified within the ERP software and replicated with confidence across multiple businesses that share that business requirement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IngolfoEstab11_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IngolfoEstab11-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MSITSys_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MSITSys-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Connectivity_to_plant_floor_information\">Connectivity to plant floor information<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ERP systems connect to real\u2013time data and transaction data in a variety of ways. These systems are typically configured by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_integrator\" title=\"Systems integrator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac2f10209319df3b4dfb975d5c79b8b2\">systems integrators<\/a>, who bring unique knowledge on process, equipment, and vendor solutions.\n<\/p><p><b>Direct integration<\/b>\u2014ERP systems have connectivity (communications to plant floor equipment) as part of their product offering. This requires that the vendors offer specific support for the plant floor equipment their customers operate.\n<\/p><p><b>Database integration<\/b>\u2014ERP systems connect to plant floor data sources through staging tables in a database. Plant floor systems deposit the necessary information into the database. The ERP system reads the information in the table. The benefit of staging is that ERP vendors do not need to master the complexities of equipment integration. Connectivity becomes the responsibility of the systems integrator.\n<\/p><p><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_appliance_transaction_module\" title=\"Enterprise appliance transaction module\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10181cf63b9d01c0d52e7e48258fb495\">Enterprise appliance transaction modules<\/a> (EATM)<\/b>\u2014These devices communicate directly with plant floor equipment and with the ERP system via methods supported by the ERP system. EATM can employ a staging table, web services, or system\u2013specific program interfaces (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Api\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Api\" data-key=\"3ece3750f799c4236b67daf45431666a\">APIs<\/a>). An EATM offers the benefit of being an off\u2013the\u2013shelf solution.\n<\/p><p><b>Custom\u2013integration solutions<\/b>\u2014Many system integrators offer custom solutions. These systems tend to have the highest level of initial integration cost, and can have a higher long term maintenance and reliability costs. Long term costs can be minimized through careful system testing and thorough documentation. Custom\u2013integrated solutions typically run on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workstation\" title=\"Workstation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa3b53fc002d1317d062fd8b1f7b0150\">workstation<\/a> or server-class computers.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Implementation\">Implementation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ERP's scope usually implies significant changes to staff work processes and practices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tech-faq.com_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tech-faq.com-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> Generally, three types of services are available to help implement such changes: consulting, customization, and support.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tech-faq.com_36-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tech-faq.com-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> Implementation time depends on business size, number of modules, customization, the scope of process changes, and the readiness of the customer to take ownership for the project. Modular ERP systems can be implemented in stages. The typical project for a large enterprise takes about 14 months and requires around 150 consultants.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-carl.sandiego.edu_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-carl.sandiego.edu-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> Small projects can require months; multinational and other large implementations can take years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SankarImplement06_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SankarImplement06-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PelphreyDirecting15_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PelphreyDirecting15-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_customization\" title=\"Mass customization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfc3265830efcba6e12739bec0bde1f3\">Customization<\/a> can substantially increase implementation times.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-carl.sandiego.edu_37-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-carl.sandiego.edu-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Besides that, information processing influences various business functions e.g. some large corporations like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Walmart\" title=\"Walmart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"546875b8b94f481e4a0dc414e8523fdb\">Walmart<\/a> use a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Just_in_time_(business)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Just in time (business)\" data-key=\"e7f5ddc4d1e8caa80fd1c0cc3e10a768\">just in time<\/a> inventory system. This reduces inventory storage and increases delivery efficiency, and requires up-to-date data. Before 2014, Walmart used a system called Inforem developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a> to manage replenishment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Process_preparation\">Process preparation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Implementing ERP typically requires changes in existing business processes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> Poor understanding of needed process changes prior to starting implementation is a main reason for project failure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> The difficulties could be related to the system, business process, infrastructure, training, or lack of motivation.\n<\/p><p>It is therefore crucial that organizations thoroughly analyze processes before they deploy an ERP software. Analysis can identify opportunities for process modernization. It also enables an assessment of the alignment of current processes with those provided by the ERP system. Research indicates that risk of business process mismatch is decreased by:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Linking current processes to the organization's strategy<\/li>\n<li>Analyzing the effectiveness of each process<\/li>\n<li>Understanding existing automated solutions<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>ERP implementation is considerably more difficult (and politically charged) in decentralized organizations, because they often have different processes, business rules, data semantics, authorization hierarchies, and decision centers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> This may require migrating some business units before others, delaying implementation to work through the necessary changes for each unit, possibly reducing integration (e.g., linking via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master_data_management\" title=\"Master data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbc1f348e81fafbc88842099f72d742c\">master data management<\/a>) or customizing the system to meet specific needs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Thomas_H._Davenport_1998_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Thomas_H._Davenport_1998-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A potential disadvantage is that adopting \"standard\" processes can lead to a loss of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competitive_advantage\" title=\"Competitive advantage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99d28b128df96003b047fdd04394ebbc\">competitive advantage<\/a>. While this has happened, losses in one area are often offset by gains in other areas, increasing overall competitive advantage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Configuration\">Configuration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Configuring an ERP system is largely a matter of balancing the way the organization wants the system to work, and the way the system is designed to work out of the box. ERP systems typically include many configurable settings that in effect modify system operations. For example, in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ServiceNow\" title=\"ServiceNow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9990940f908a2edddc23717188cd6841\">ServiceNow<\/a> platform, business rules can be written requiring the signature of a business owner within 2 weeks of a newly completed risk assessment. The tool can be configured to automatically email notifications to the business owner, and transition the risk assessment to various stages in the process depending on the owner's responses or lack thereof.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Two-tier_enterprise_resource_planning\">Two-tier enterprise resource planning<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Two-tier ERP software and hardware lets companies run the equivalent of two ERP systems at once: one at the corporate level and one at the division or subsidiary level. For example, a manufacturing company could use an ERP system to manage across the organization using independent global or regional distribution, production or sales centers, and service providers to support the main company's customers. Each independent center (or) subsidiary may have its own <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_operations\" title=\"Business operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10b0026fca0fdf11097d747e35692d21\">business operations cycles<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a7b055462a00234621920f7bd77834c\">workflows<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">business processes<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Given the realities of globalization, enterprises continuously evaluate how to optimize their regional, divisional, and product or manufacturing strategies to support strategic goals and reduce time-to-market while increasing profitability and delivering value.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ferdows_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ferdows-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup> With two-tier ERP, the regional distribution, production, or sales centers and service providers continue operating under their own business model\u2014separate from the main company, using their own ERP systems. Since these smaller companies' processes and workflows are not tied to main company's processes and workflows, they can respond to local business requirements in multiple locations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-gill_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-gill-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Factors that affect enterprises' adoption of two-tier ERP systems include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Manufacturing globalization, the economics of sourcing in emerging economies<\/li>\n<li>Potential for quicker, less costly ERP implementations at subsidiaries, based on selecting software more suited to smaller companies<\/li>\n<li>Extra effort, (often involving the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_application_integration\" title=\"Enterprise application integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d697403942408f923065543d60e5bda1\">enterprise application integration<\/a>) is required where data must pass between two ERP systems<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> Two-tier ERP strategies give enterprises agility in responding to market demands and in aligning IT systems at a corporate level while inevitably resulting in more systems as compared to one ERP system used throughout the organization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Customization\">Customization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>ERP systems are theoretically based on industry best practices, and their makers intend that organizations deploy them \"as is\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup> ERP vendors do offer customers configuration options that let organizations incorporate their own business rules, but gaps in features often remain even after configuration is complete.\n<\/p><p>ERP customers have several options to reconcile feature gaps, each with their own pros\/cons. Technical solutions include rewriting part of the delivered software, writing a homegrown module to work within the ERP system, or interfacing to an external system. These three options constitute varying degrees of system customization\u2014with the first being the most invasive and costly to maintain.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fryling_2010_391\u2013421_55-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fryling_2010_391\u2013421-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup> Alternatively, there are non-technical options such as changing business practices or organizational policies to better match the delivered ERP feature set. Key differences between customization and configuration include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Customization is always optional, whereas the software must always be configured before use (e.g., setting up cost\/profit center structures, organizational trees, purchase approval rules, etc.).<\/li>\n<li>The software is designed to handle various configurations and behaves predictably in any allowed configuration.<\/li>\n<li>The effect of configuration changes on system behavior and performance is predictable and is the responsibility of the ERP vendor. The effect of customization is less predictable. It is the customer's responsibility, and increases testing requirements.<\/li>\n<li>Configuration changes survive upgrades to new software versions. Some customizations (e.g., code that uses pre\u2013defined \"hooks\" that are called before\/after displaying data screens) survive upgrades, though they require retesting. Other customizations (e.g., those involving changes to fundamental data structures) are overwritten during upgrades and must be re-implemented.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Advantages of customization include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Improving user acceptance<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Potential to obtain competitive advantage vis-\u00e0-vis companies using only standard features.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Customization's disadvantages include that it may:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Increase time and resources required to implement and maintain<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fryling_2010_391\u2013421_55-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fryling_2010_391\u2013421-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BradfordModern15_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BradfordModern15-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Hinder seamless interfacing\/integration between suppliers and customers due to the differences between systems<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BradfordModern15_58-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BradfordModern15-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Limit the company's ability to upgrade the ERP software in the future<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BradfordModern15_58-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BradfordModern15-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Create overreliance on customization, undermining the principles of ERP as a standardizing software platform<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Extensions\">Extensions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>ERP systems can be extended with third\u2013party software, often via vendor-supplied interfaces.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BendolyStrat05_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BendolyStrat05-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeonERP08_60-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeonERP08-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup> Extensions offer features such as:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeonERP08_60-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeonERP08-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_data_management\" title=\"Product data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"391f1a51b36de98338588155a6a199b1\">product data management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_life_cycle_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Product life cycle management\" data-key=\"344730d7f9f162c9af42d442c2ca2814\">product life cycle management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_relations_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Customer relations management\" data-key=\"942015fdbd081ca1c604d5947559ce9a\">customer relations management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-procurement\" title=\"E-procurement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85ffc2694508b93ec271389ec8ac224c\">e-procurement<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_migration\">Data migration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_migration\" title=\"Data migration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a21ff53cc2ece9b80869cfdffa779af0\">Data migration<\/a> is the process of moving, copying, and restructuring data from an existing system to the ERP system. Migration is critical to implementation success and requires significant planning. Unfortunately, since migration is one of the final activities before the production phase, it often receives insufficient attention. The following steps can structure migration planning:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RamaswamyData07_61-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RamaswamyData07-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Identify the data to be migrated.<\/li>\n<li>Determine the migration timing.<\/li>\n<li>Generate data migration templates for key data components<\/li>\n<li>Freeze the toolset.<\/li>\n<li>Decide on the migration-related setup of key business accounts.<\/li>\n<li>Define <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_archiving\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data archiving\" data-key=\"b72f32202371fe4af0662a3cf4fab4ad\">data archiving<\/a> policies and procedures.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Often, data migration is incomplete because some of the data in the existing system is either incompatible or not needed in the new system. As such, the existing system may need to be kept as an archived database to refer back to once the new ERP system is in place.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RamaswamyData07_61-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RamaswamyData07-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Advantages\">Advantages<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The most fundamental advantage of ERP is that the integration of a myriad of business processes saves time and expense. Management can make decisions faster and with fewer errors. Data becomes visible across the organization. Tasks that benefit from this integration include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MeerBest05_62-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MeerBest05-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Sales forecasting, which allows <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_optimization\" title=\"Inventory optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46ef225e7e40d52d6016f0272514731f\">inventory optimization<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Chronological history of every transaction through relevant data compilation in every area of operation.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Order_tracking\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Order tracking\" data-key=\"e5bfa3ecfadef7a6f87fd411462dfc79\">Order tracking<\/a>, from acceptance through fulfillment<\/li>\n<li>Revenue tracking, from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Invoice\" title=\"Invoice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6242821a662352ab9e8214ddfd4d70c7\">invoice<\/a> through cash receipt<\/li>\n<li>Matching <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Purchase_order\" title=\"Purchase order\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"add40dc3803eb587fb2834fe09491f37\">purchase orders<\/a> (what was ordered), inventory receipts (what arrived), and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cost\" title=\"Cost\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c6685d475b7f004b6c91e1484a9734c3\">costing<\/a> (what the vendor invoiced)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>ERP systems centralize business data, which:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Eliminates the need to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synchronization\" title=\"Synchronization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"347c115375a49f0ad24abb55428d9880\">synchronize<\/a> changes between multiple systems\u2014consolidation of finance, marketing, sales, human resource, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manufacturing\" title=\"Manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6006bee4beb95438f126e392ca7941c7\">manufacturing<\/a> applications<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2020)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Brings legitimacy and transparency to each bit of statistical data<\/li>\n<li>Facilitates standard <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_naming_convention\" title=\"Product naming convention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b1eecd7b46fd471519f2e771e3c9d7b\">product naming\/coding<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Provides a comprehensive enterprise view (no \"islands of information\"), making real\u2013time information available to management anywhere, anytime to make proper decisions<\/li>\n<li>Protects sensitive data by consolidating multiple security systems into a single structure<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Benefits\">Benefits<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>ERP creates a more agile company that adapts better to change. It also makes a company more flexible and less rigidly structured so organization components operate more cohesively, enhancing the business\u2014internally and externally.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ERP can improve data security in a closed environment. A common control system, such as the kind offered by ERP systems, allows organizations the ability to more easily ensure key company data is not compromised. This changes, however, with a more open environment, requiring further scrutiny of ERP security features and internal company policies regarding security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SheSecurity07_65-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SheSecurity07-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ERP provides increased opportunities for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collaboration\" title=\"Collaboration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2a65b2b5b813ba8318884dbfffdb09a\">collaboration<\/a>. Data takes many forms in the modern enterprise, including documents, files, forms, audio and video, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Email\" title=\"Email\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d5abd02ca0ff73bc0596c3ae672ec7e\">emails<\/a>. Often, each data medium has its own mechanism for allowing collaboration. ERP provides a collaborative platform that lets employees spend more time collaborating on content rather than mastering the learning curve of communicating in various formats across distributed systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeonERP08_60-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeonERP08-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ERP offers many benefits such as standardization of common processes, one integrated system, standardized reporting, improved key performance indicators (KPI), and access to common data. One of the key benefits of ERP; the concept of integrated system, is often misinterpreted by the business. ERP is a centralized system that provides tight integration with all major enterprise functions be it HR, planning, procurement, sales, customer relations, finance or analytics, as well to other connected application functions. In that sense ERP could be described as a <i>centralized integrated enterprise system (CIES)<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Disadvantages\">Disadvantages<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Customization can be problematic. Compared to the best-of-breed approach, ERP can be seen as meeting an organization's lowest common denominator needs, forcing the organization to find workarounds to meet unique demands.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_re-engineering\" title=\"Business process re-engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3477a9bef35b8abeeac0c56d503205a4\">Re-engineering business processes<\/a> to fit the ERP system may damage competitiveness or divert focus from other critical activities.<\/li>\n<li>ERP can cost more than less integrated or less comprehensive solutions.<\/li>\n<li>High ERP <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Switching_cost\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Switching cost\" data-key=\"3073714e6658c072cb962eba65486f9e\">switching costs<\/a> can increase the ERP vendor's negotiating power, which can increase support, maintenance, and upgrade expenses.<\/li>\n<li>Overcoming resistance to sharing sensitive information between departments can divert management attention.<\/li>\n<li>Integration of truly independent businesses can create unnecessary dependencies.<\/li>\n<li>Extensive training requirements take resources from daily operations.<\/li>\n<li>Harmonization of ERP systems can be a mammoth task (especially for big companies) and requires a lot of time, planning, and money.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Critical challenges include disbanding the project team very quickly after implementation, interface issues, lack of proper testing, time zone limitations, stress, offshoring, people's resistance to change, a short hyper-care period, and data cleansing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Critical_success_factors\">Critical success factors<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Critical success factors are limited number of areas in which results, if satisfactory, will ensure the organization's successful competitive performance. The CSF method has helped organizations specify their own critical information needs. Achieving satisfactory results in the key areas of critical success factors can ensure competitive advantage leading to improved organizational performance and overcome the challenges faced by organizations. Critical success factors theoretical foundation was improved upon, verified, and validated by several researchers, which underscored the importance of CSFs and its application to ERP project implementations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_70-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The application of critical success factors can prevent organizations from making costly mistakes, and the effective usage of CSFs can ensure project success and reduce failures during project implementations. Some of the important critical success factors related to ERP projects are: Know your data, longer and more integrated testing, utilization of the right people, longer stabilization period (hyper-care), clear communication, early buy-in from business, have a Lean Agile program, less customization, ERP projects must be business-driven and not IT-driven.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_70-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Adoption_rates\">Adoption rates<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Research published in 2011 based on a survey of 225 manufacturers, retailers and distributors found \"high\" rates of interest and adoption of ERP systems and that very few businesses were \"completely untouched\" by the concept of an ERP system. 27% of the companies survey had a fully operational system, 12% were at that time rolling out a system and 26% had an existing ERP system which they were extending or upgrading.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Postmodern_ERP\">Postmodern ERP<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The term \"postmodern ERP\" was coined by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gartner\" title=\"Gartner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f7668963d7e19c93d13754e7e1b8a52\">Gartner<\/a> in 2013, when it first appeared in the paper series \"Predicts 2014\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_72-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup> According to Gartner's definition of the postmodern ERP strategy, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legacy_system\" title=\"Legacy system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d09613e62ea8660d0e11b7dc4401ddc\">legacy<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monolithic_system\" title=\"Monolithic system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7362a371b845a15d517f49b5979b335f\">monolithic<\/a> and highly customized ERP suites, in which all parts are heavily reliant on each other, should sooner or later be replaced by a mixture of both cloud-based and on-premises applications, which are more loosely coupled and can be easily exchanged if needed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_72-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The basic idea is that there should still be a core ERP solution that would cover most important business functions, while other functions will be covered by specialist software solutions that merely extend the core ERP. This concept is similar to the so-called best-of-breed approach<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> to software execution, but it shouldn't be confused with it. While in both cases, applications that make up the whole are relatively loosely connected and quite easily interchangeable, in the case of the latter there is no ERP solution whatsoever. Instead, every business function is covered by a separate software solution.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There is, however, no golden rule as to what business functions should be part of the core ERP, and what should be covered by supplementary solutions. According to Gartner, every company must define their own postmodern ERP strategy, based on company's internal and external needs, operations and processes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_72-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup> For example, a company may define that the core ERP solution should cover those business processes that must stay behind the firewall, and therefore, choose to leave their core ERP <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/On-premises_software\" title=\"On-premises software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49f5efc92184c2f1046d715c26264550\">on-premises<\/a>. At the same time, another company may decide to host the core ERP solution in the cloud and move only a few ERP modules as supplementary solutions to on-premises.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The main benefits that companies will gain from implementing postmodern ERP strategy are speed and flexibility when reacting to unexpected changes in business processes or on the organizational level.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup> With the majority of applications having a relatively loose connection, it is fairly easy to replace or upgrade them whenever necessary. In addition to that, following the examples above, companies can select and combine cloud-based and on-premises solutions that are most suited for their ERP needs. The downside of postmodern ERP is that it will most likely lead to an increased number of software vendors that companies will have to manage, as well as pose additional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_Integration_Architecture\" title=\"Application Integration Architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59aae003064b526fc3db78786678ba5e\">integration<\/a> challenges for the central IT.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-76\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_ERP_software_packages\" title=\"List of ERP software packages\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23dbff719bc97324fc8fee3df6c6bd13\">List of ERP software packages<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">Business process management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comparison_of_project_management_software\" title=\"Comparison of project management software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26691dcfa636345aff02354480631fc4\">Comparison of project management software<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist reflist-columns references-column-width\" style=\"column-width: 30em;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAlmajali2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Almajali, Dmaithan (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/elartu.tntu.edu.ua\/handle\/lib\/31749\" target=\"_blank\">\"Antecedents of ERP systems implementation success: a study on Jordanian healthcare sector\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Enterprise Information Management<\/i>. <b>29<\/b> (4): 549\u2013565. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108%2FJEIM-03-2015-0024\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/JEIM-03-2015-0024<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Enterprise+Information+Management&amp;rft.atitle=Antecedents+of+ERP+systems+implementation+success%3A+a+study+on+Jordanian+healthcare+sector&amp;rft.volume=29&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=549-565&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2FJEIM-03-2015-0024&amp;rft.aulast=Almajali&amp;rft.aufirst=Dmaithan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felartu.tntu.edu.ua%2Fhandle%2Flib%2F31749&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRadovilsky2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Radovilsky, Zinovy (2004). Bidgoli, Hossein (ed.). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ACfBmYiNaTcC&pg=PA707\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Internet Encyclopedia, Volume 1<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc. p.&#160;707. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780471222026<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia%2C+Volume+1&amp;rft.pages=707&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=9780471222026&amp;rft.aulast=Radovilsky&amp;rft.aufirst=Zinovy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DACfBmYiNaTcC%26pg%3DPA707&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWilson2019\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Wilson, Deborah (19 April 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blogs.gartner.com\/debbie_wilson\/2019\/04\/19\/erp-software-market-35-billion-40-years-making-still-growing-nicely-chris-pang\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\"><\/span>\"The ERP Software Market: $35 billion+, 40 years in the making, but still growing nicely!\" by Chris Pang\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 July<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%22The+ERP+Software+Market%3A+%2435+billion%2B%2C+40+years+in+the+making%2C+but+still+growing+nicely%21%22+by+Chris+Pang&amp;rft.pub=Blogs.gartner.com&amp;rft.date=2019-04-19&amp;rft.aulast=Wilson&amp;rft.aufirst=Deborah&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.gartner.com%2Fdebbie_wilson%2F2019%2F04%2F19%2Ferp-software-market-35-billion-40-years-making-still-growing-nicely-chris-pang%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLouis_Columbus\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Louis Columbus. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/louiscolumbus\/2020\/10\/14\/predicting-the-future-of-services-centric-erp\/?sh=683316ee1c43\" target=\"_blank\">\"Predicting The Future Of Services-Centric ERP\"<\/a>. <i>Forbes.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2006). Emerging Trends and Challenges in Information Technology Management. Idea Group, Inc. p. 865.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFInfoWorld2001\" class=\"citation web cs1\">InfoWorld, Heather Harreld (27 August 2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2583660\/e-commerce\/extended-erp-technology-reborn-in-b2b.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Extended ERP technology reborn in B2B\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Chen, Enhong; Faisal Malik Faisal Azeem (2012). \"Enterprise Resource Planning - Real blessing or a Blessing in Disguise&#160;: An Exploration of the Contextual Factors in Public Sector\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1207.2860\" target=\"_blank\">1207.2860<\/a><\/span> [<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/archive\/cs.CY\" target=\"_blank\">cs.CY<\/a>].<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=preprint&amp;rft.jtitle=arXiv&amp;rft.atitle=Enterprise+Resource+Planning+-+Real+blessing+or+a+Blessing+in+Disguise+%3A+An+Exploration+of+the+Contextual+Factors+in+Public+Sector&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1207.2860&amp;rft.au=Shafqat+Ali+Shad&amp;rft.au=Chen%2C+Enhong&amp;rft.au=Faisal+Malik+Faisal+Azeem&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCoelhoMeirelles2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Coelho, Cunha; Meirelles (2015). \"The client-consultant relationship in the implementation of ERP in government: Exploring the dynamic between power and knowledge\". <i>Proceedings of the 16th Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research<\/i>. p.&#160;140. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F2757401.2757405\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/2757401.2757405<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781450336000<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:13941079\" target=\"_blank\">13941079<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+client-consultant+relationship+in+the+implementation+of+ERP+in+government%3A+Exploring+the+dynamic+between+power+and+knowledge&amp;rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+16th+Annual+International+Conference+on+Digital+Government+Research&amp;rft.pages=140&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13941079%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2757401.2757405&amp;rft.isbn=9781450336000&amp;rft.aulast=Coelho&amp;rft.aufirst=Cunha&amp;rft.au=Meirelles&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_book\" title=\"Template:Cite book\">cite book<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> ignored (<a href=\"#periodical_ignored\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Monk, Ellen and Wagner, Brett.\"Concepts in Enterprise Resource Planning\" 3rd ed. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 July<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=ERP+%28Enterprise+Resource+Planning%29&amp;rft.pub=Tech-faq.com&amp;rft.date=2014-03-05&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tech-faq.com%2Ferp.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-carl.sandiego.edu-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-carl.sandiego.edu_37-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-carl.sandiego.edu_37-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130103032912\/http:\/\/carl.sandiego.edu\/gba573\/critical_issues_affecting_an_erp.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Critical Issues Affecting an ERP Implementation\"<\/a>. <i>Information Systems Management<\/i>. Auerbach Publications. 1999. p.&#160;7. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/carl.sandiego.edu\/gba573\/critical_issues_affecting_an_erp.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on January 3, 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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CRC Press. pp.&#160;92\u2013111. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781482248425<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Directing+the+ERP+Implementation%3A+A+Best+Practice+Guide+to+Avoiding+Program+Failure+Traps+While+Tuning+System+Performance&amp;rft.pages=92-111&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9781482248425&amp;rft.au=Pelphrey%2C+M.W.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKJO9BwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA92&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thecitywire.com\/node\/31165\" target=\"_blank\">\"Wal-Mart slow to roll out new replenishment system\"<\/a>. Arkansas: Thecitywire.com. 8 January 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 July<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Wal-Mart+slow+to+roll+out+new+replenishment+system&amp;rft.place=Arkansas&amp;rft.pub=Thecitywire.com&amp;rft.date=2014-01-08&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecitywire.com%2Fnode%2F31165&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Turban et al. (2008). <i>Information Technology for Management, Transforming Organizations in the Digital Economy<\/i>. Massachusetts: John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc., pp. 300\u2013343. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-471-78712-9<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrownVessey2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Brown, C.; Vessey, I. (2003). \"Managing the Next Wave of Enterprise Systems: Leveraging Lessons from ERP\". <i>MIS Quarterly Executive<\/i>. <b>2<\/b> (1).<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=MIS+Quarterly+Executive&amp;rft.atitle=Managing+the+Next+Wave+of+Enterprise+Systems%3A+Leveraging+Lessons+from+ERP&amp;rft.volume=2&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.aulast=Brown&amp;rft.aufirst=C.&amp;rft.au=Vessey%2C+I.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">King. W., \"Ensuring ERP implementation success,\" <i>Information Systems Management<\/i>, Summer 2005.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-44\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Yusuf, Y., A. Gunasekaran, and M. Abthorpe, \"Enterprise Information Systems Project Implementation: A Case Study of ERP in Rolls-Royce,\" <i>International Journal of Production Economics<\/i>, 87(3), February 2004.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDanevaRoel_Wieringa\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Daneva, Maya; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roel_Wieringa\" title=\"Roel Wieringa\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faacb27d49a65c1710923a9d7a31830c\">Roel Wieringa<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100705020710\/http:\/\/www.vital-project.org\/papers\/Daneva-Wieringa-Camera-Ready-RE-Paper.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Requirements Engineering for Cross-organizational ERP Implementation: Undocumented Assumptions and Potential Mismatches\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. University of Twente. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.vital-project.org\/papers\/Daneva-Wieringa-Camera-Ready-RE-Paper.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 5 July 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Requirements+Engineering+for+Cross-organizational+ERP+Implementation%3A+Undocumented+Assumptions+and+Potential+Mismatches&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Twente&amp;rft.aulast=Daneva&amp;rft.aufirst=Maya&amp;rft.au=Roel+Wieringa&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vital-project.org%2Fpapers%2FDaneva-Wieringa-Camera-Ready-RE-Paper.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Thomas_H._Davenport_1998-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Thomas_H._Davenport_1998_46-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Thomas H. Davenport, \"Putting the Enterprise into the Enterprise System\", <i>Harvard Business Review<\/i>, July\u2013August 1998.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Turban et al. (2008). <i>Information Technology for Management, Transforming Organizations in the Digital Economy<\/i>. Massachusetts: John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc., p. 320. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-0-471-78712-9<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bruce_Dehning\" title=\"Bruce Dehning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90a8adc1adb2395474c5de6322003b59\">Dehning, B.<\/a> and T.Stratopoulos, 'Determinants of a Sustainable Competitive Advantage Due to an IT-enabled Strategy,' Journal of Strategic Information Systems, Vol. 12, 2003<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ferdows-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ferdows_49-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFerdows1997\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Ferdows, K (1997). \"Making the most of foreign factories\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harvard_Business_Review\" title=\"Harvard Business Review\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fdc67a24802d913a6175ca7c3f6571f\">Harvard Business Review<\/a><\/i>. <b>75<\/b> (2): 73\u201388.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Harvard+Business+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Making+the+most+of+foreign+factories&amp;rft.volume=75&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=73-88&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.aulast=Ferdows&amp;rft.aufirst=K&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-gill-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-gill_50-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Gill, R. (2011). \"The rise of two-tier ERP.\" <i>Strategic Finance<\/i>, 93(5), 35-40, 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Montgomery, Nigel (2010).<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/id=1412121\" target=\"_blank\">\"Two-Tier ERP Suite Strategy: Considering Your Options.\"<\/a> Gartner Group. July 28, 2010. Retrieved September 20, 2012.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKovacsPaganelli2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kovacs, G. L.; Paganelli, P. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ceit.aut.ac.ir\/~sa_hashemi\/My%20Teachings\/MS-CEIT-Supply%20Chain%20Management\/W-Selected%20Papers%20for%20class%20seminars-last\/scm-pm-A%20planning%20and%20management%20infrastructure%20for%20large%2C%20complex%2Cdistributed%20projects-beyond%20ERP%20and%20SCM.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A planning and management infrastructure for large, complex, distributed projects&#160;\u2014 beyond ERP and SCM\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Computers in Industry<\/i>. <b>51<\/b> (2): 165. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CiteSeerX (identifier)\" data-key=\"d1ea3e5168e7880002688dac1448af19\">CiteSeerX<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.474.6993\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.474.6993<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fs0166-3615%2803%2900034-4\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/s0166-3615(03)00034-4<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Computers+in+Industry&amp;rft.atitle=A+planning+and+management+infrastructure+for+large%2C+complex%2C+distributed+projects+%E2%80%94+beyond+ERP+and+SCM&amp;rft.volume=51&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=165&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.474.6993%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0166-3615%2803%2900034-4&amp;rft.aulast=Kovacs&amp;rft.aufirst=G.+L.&amp;rft.au=Paganelli%2C+P.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fceit.aut.ac.ir%2F~sa_hashemi%2FMy%2520Teachings%2FMS-CEIT-Supply%2520Chain%2520Management%2FW-Selected%2520Papers%2520for%2520class%2520seminars-last%2Fscm-pm-A%2520planning%2520and%2520management%2520infrastructure%2520for%2520large%252C%2520complex%252Cdistributed%2520projects-beyond%2520ERP%2520and%2520SCM.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-53\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKraemmerand2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Kraemmerand, P.; et&#160;al. 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(2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=KZRqCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Modern ERP: Select, Implement, &amp; Use Today's Advanced Business Systems<\/i><\/a>. Lulu.com. pp.&#160;107\u2013108. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781312665989<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GAOHQvgpeNYC&pg=PA95\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Strategic ERP Extension and Use<\/i><\/a>. Stanford University Press. p.&#160;95. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780804750981<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Tata McGraw-Hill Education. pp.&#160;170\u2013171. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780070656642<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=ERP+Demystified&amp;rft.pages=170-171&amp;rft.pub=Tata+McGraw-Hill+Education&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=9780070656642&amp;rft.au=Leon%2C+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D95QiBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA171&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RamaswamyData07-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-RamaswamyData07_61-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RamaswamyData07_61-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRamaswamy,_V.K.2007\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Ramaswamy, V.K. 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Work and Power in the Digital Age<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_University_Press\" title=\"Oxford University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d18ae98bb880a41214eeea3e78f31ffe\">Oxford University Press<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-19-517983-5<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+New+Ruthless+Economy.+Work+and+Power+in+the+Digital+Age&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-517983-5&amp;rft.aulast=Head&amp;rft.aufirst=Simon&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li>Henderson, Ian <i>ERP from the Frontline<\/i> MBE <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-898822-05-9 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mlg.uk.com\/html\/erpfrontline.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Making ERP Work<\/a><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLequeux2008\" class=\"citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source\">Lequeux, Jean-Louis (2008). <i>Manager avec les ERP, Architecture Orient\u00e9e Services (SOA)<\/i> (in French). 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Paris: Dunod. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-2-04-019820-6<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Les+nouvelles+perspectives+de+la+production&amp;rft.place=Paris&amp;rft.pub=Dunod&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.isbn=978-2-04-019820-6&amp;rft.aulast=Waldner&amp;rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWaldner1992\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Waldner, Jean-Baptiste (1992). <i>Principles of Computer Integrated Manufacturing<\/i>. Chichester: John Wiley &amp; Sons Ltd. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-471-93450-9<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Principles+of+Computer+Integrated+Manufacturing&amp;rft.place=Chichester&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons+Ltd&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-471-93450-9&amp;rft.aulast=Waldner&amp;rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFO'Leary2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\">O'Leary, Daniel E (31 July 2000). <i>Enterprise Resource Planning Systems Systems, Life Cycle, Electronic Commerce, and Risk<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cambridge_University_Press\" title=\"Cambridge University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2f08c47b8f3710987767a19a2aab5e5\">Cambridge University Press<\/a>. p.&#160;232. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-52-179152-6<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Enterprise+Resource+Planning+Systems+Systems%2C+Life+Cycle%2C+Electronic+Commerce%2C+and+Risk&amp;rft.pages=232&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2000-07-31&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-52-179152-6&amp;rft.aulast=O%27Leary&amp;rft.aufirst=Daniel+E&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKurbel2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Kurbel, Karl E. (23 August 2013). <i>Enterprise Resource Planning and Supply Chain Management<\/i>. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p.&#160;359. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-64-231573-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Enterprise+Resource+Planning+and+Supply+Chain+Management&amp;rft.pages=359&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&amp;rft.date=2013-08-23&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-64-231573-2&amp;rft.aulast=Kurbel&amp;rft.aufirst=Karl+E.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShanksWillcocks2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Shanks, Graeme; Willcocks, Leslie P. (11 September 2003). <i>Second-Wave Enterprise Resource Planning Systems<\/i>. Cambridge University Press. p.&#160;449. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-521-81902-2<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Second-Wave+Enterprise+Resource+Planning+Systems&amp;rft.pages=449&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2003-09-11&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-81902-2&amp;rft.aulast=Shanks&amp;rft.aufirst=Graeme&amp;rft.au=Willcocks%2C+Leslie+P.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLangenwalter2019\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Langenwalter, Gary A (17 July 2019). <i>Enterprise Resources Planning and Beyond Integrating Your Entire Organization<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taylor_%26_Francis\" title=\"Taylor &amp; Francis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c74047a78001366553228266bfe76053\">Taylor &amp; Francis<\/a>. p.&#160;424. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-42-004906-0<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Enterprise+Resources+Planning+and+Beyond+Integrating+Your+Entire+Organization&amp;rft.pages=424&amp;rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&amp;rft.date=2019-07-17&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-42-004906-0&amp;rft.aulast=Langenwalter&amp;rft.aufirst=Gary+A&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOdellFarrar-FoleyKinkelMoorthy2012\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Odell, Laura A.; Farrar-Foley, Brendan T.; Kinkel, John R.; Moorthy, Rama S. (1 February 2012). \"Beyond Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP):: The Next Generation Enterprise Resource Planning Environment\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Institute_for_Defense_Analyses\" title=\"Institute for Defense Analyses\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6082749bea1955f27b1aecdeca79b1c\">Institute for Defense Analyses<\/a>: 124. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\" data-key=\"5452009cc6ddc0c9ed86584fc7a26cc8\">JSTOR<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/resrep26969\" target=\"_blank\">resrep26969<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Beyond+Enterprise+Resource+Planning+%28ERP%29%3A%3A+The+Next+Generation+Enterprise+Resource+Planning+Environment&amp;rft.pages=124&amp;rft.date=2012-02-01&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fresrep26969%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft.aulast=Odell&amp;rft.aufirst=Laura+A.&amp;rft.au=Farrar-Foley%2C+Brendan+T.&amp;rft.au=Kinkel%2C+John+R.&amp;rft.au=Moorthy%2C+Rama+S.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f198551abcc473873442d1b903b620fc\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFUmbleHaftUmblea2003\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Umble, Elisabeth J; Haft, Ronald R; Umblea, M.Michael (16 April 2003). \"Enterprise resource planning: Implementation procedures and critical success factors\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Journal_of_Operational_Research\" title=\"European Journal of Operational Research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fd71530577a436e42a9ebd5827bcbda\">European Journal of Operational Research<\/a><\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Elsevier\" title=\"Elsevier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6e72ebc20dc2d4a0d7ce3661853d2985\">Elsevier<\/a>. <b>146<\/b> (2): 241\u2013257. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0377-2217%2802%2900547-7\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/S0377-2217(02)00547-7<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Operational+Research&amp;rft.atitle=Enterprise+resource+planning%3A+Implementation+procedures+and+critical+success+factors&amp;rft.volume=146&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=241-257&amp;rft.date=2003-04-16&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0377-2217%2802%2900547-7&amp;rft.aulast=Umble&amp;rft.aufirst=Elisabeth+J&amp;rft.au=Haft%2C+Ronald+R&amp;rft.au=Umblea%2C+M.Michael&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHittWuZhou2014\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Hitt, Lorin M.; Wu, D.J.; Zhou, Xiaoge (23 December 2014). \"Investment in Enterprise Resource Planning: Business Impact and Productivity Measures\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Management_Information_Systems\" title=\"Journal of Management Information Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c10f3036f0f3fbbeba07dab25b30456b\">Journal of Management Information Systems<\/a><\/i>. <b>19<\/b>: 71\u201398. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F07421222.2002.11045716\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/07421222.2002.11045716<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:18977742\" target=\"_blank\">18977742<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Management+Information+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Investment+in+Enterprise+Resource+Planning%3A+Business+Impact+and+Productivity+Measures&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.pages=71-98&amp;rft.date=2014-12-23&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07421222.2002.11045716&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18977742%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Hitt&amp;rft.aufirst=Lorin+M.&amp;rft.au=Wu%2C+D.J.&amp;rft.au=Zhou%2C+Xiaoge&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJacobsWestonJr.b2007\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Jacobs, F.Robert; 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Hawaii, USA: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers\" title=\"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f59f91778922e317c3722d620206111b\">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers<\/a>. pp.&#160;30\u201336. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FHICSS.1999.772762\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/HICSS.1999.772762<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>0-7695-0001-3<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:206700140\" target=\"_blank\">206700140<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Global+enterprise+resource+planning+implementation&amp;rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+32nd+Annual+Hawaii+International+Conference+on+Systems+Sciences.+1999.+HICSS-32.+Abstracts+and+CD-ROM+of+Full+Papers&amp;rft.place=Hawaii%2C+USA&amp;rft.pages=30-36&amp;rft.pub=Institute+of+Electrical+and+Electronics+Engineers&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206700140%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FHICSS.1999.772762&amp;rft.isbn=0-7695-0001-3&amp;rft.aulast=Holland&amp;rft.aufirst=C.P.&amp;rft.au=Light%2C+B.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faisel.aisnet.org%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1569%26context%3Damcis1998&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li>Ram, Jiwat, and David Corkindale. \u201cDeveloping a Framework for the Management of Critical Success Factors in Organisational Innovation Projects: A Case of Enterprise Resource Planning Systems.\u201d Integrating Innovation: South Australian Entrepreneurship Systems and Strategies, edited by G\u00f6ran Roos and Allan O\u2019Connor, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Adelaide_Press\" title=\"University of Adelaide Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14888c727d0306b562ed9542bed596bd\">University of Adelaide Press<\/a>, 2015, pp.&#160;327\u201354, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\" data-key=\"5452009cc6ddc0c9ed86584fc7a26cc8\">JSTOR<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/10.20851\/j.ctt1sq5xd5.16\" target=\"_blank\">10.20851\/j.ctt1sq5xd5.16<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Riposo, Jessie, Guy Weichenberg, Chelsea Kaihoi Duran, Bernard Fox, William Shelton, and Andreas Thorsen. \u201cOrganizational Change Management.\u201d In Improving Air Force Enterprise Resource Planning-Enabled Business Transformation, 23\u201328. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RAND_Corporation\" title=\"RAND Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a83172b06ee1b758661736e3deaa74ee\">RAND Corporation<\/a>, 2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\" data-key=\"5452009cc6ddc0c9ed86584fc7a26cc8\">JSTOR<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/10.7249\/j.ctt5hhvgh.13\" target=\"_blank\">10.7249\/j.ctt5hhvgh.13<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Aronin, B. 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Somers. \u201cSpecial Section: Enterprise Resource Planning.\u201d <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Management_Information_Systems\" title=\"Journal of Management Information Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c10f3036f0f3fbbeba07dab25b30456b\">Journal of Management Information Systems<\/a>, vol. 19, no. 1, Taylor &amp; Francis, Ltd., 2002, pp.&#160;11\u201315, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\" data-key=\"5452009cc6ddc0c9ed86584fc7a26cc8\">JSTOR<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/40398564\" target=\"_blank\">40398564<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>LIEDTKA, JEANNE, ANDREW KING, and KEVIN BENNETT. \u201cRethinking Strategic Planning at SAP.\u201d In Solving Problems with Design Thinking: Ten Stories of What Works, 74\u201391. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Columbia_University_Press\" title=\"Columbia University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5f8d6b8f6a56a6345f163864d20fefe\">Columbia University Press<\/a>, 2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\" data-key=\"5452009cc6ddc0c9ed86584fc7a26cc8\">JSTOR<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/10.7312\/lied16356.9\" target=\"_blank\">10.7312\/lied16356.9<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Morris, Michael G., and Viswanath Venkatesh. \u201cJob Characteristics and Job Satisfaction: Understanding the Role of Enterprise Resource Planning System Implementation.\u201d MIS Quarterly, vol. 34, no. 1, Management Information Systems Research Center, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Minnesota\" title=\"University of Minnesota\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3c307f12975c233dfe8a59fd71dd800\">University of Minnesota<\/a>, 2010, pp.&#160;143\u201361, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307%2F20721418\" target=\"_blank\">10.2307\/20721418<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Tsai, Bi-Huei, and Shin-Bin Chou. \u201cAPPLICATION OF MULTIPLE OUTPUT DATA ENVELOPMENT ANALYSIS IN INTERPRETING EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OF ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING IN INTEGRATED CIRCUIT FIRMS.\u201d The Journal of Developing Areas, vol. 49, no. 1, College of Business, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tennessee_State_University\" title=\"Tennessee State University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9418d4a8f4eee15bebe71720291af411\">Tennessee State University<\/a>, 2015, pp.&#160;285\u2013304, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JSTOR (identifier)\" data-key=\"5452009cc6ddc0c9ed86584fc7a26cc8\">JSTOR<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/24241295\" target=\"_blank\">24241295<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>van Merode GG, Groothuis S, Hasman A. 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Why enterprise resource planning initiatives do succeed in the long run: A case-based causal network. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PLoS_One\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PLoS One\" data-key=\"fb0ee3dca051f12290613b4bdb15eed7\">PLoS One<\/a>. 2021 Dec 16;16(12):e0260798. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0260798\" target=\"_blank\">10.1371\/journal.pone.0260798<\/a>. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/34914739\" target=\"_blank\">34914739<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8675769\/\" target=\"_blank\">8675769<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Lee CW, Kwak NK. 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href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:222006095\" target=\"_blank\">222006095<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Internet+of+Things&amp;rft.atitle=IoT-based+enterprise+resource+planning%3A+Challenges%2C+open+issues%2C+applications%2C+architecture%2C+and+future+research+directions&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.pages=100262&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222006095%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=2542-6605&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.iot.2020.100262&amp;rft.au=Madjid+Tavana+and+Vahid+Hajipour+and+Shahrzad+Oveisi&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS2542660520300962&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite 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class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0019-8501\" target=\"_blank\">0019-8501<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:204496134\" target=\"_blank\">204496134<\/a>.<\/cite><span 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Oxford: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Elsevier\" title=\"Elsevier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6e72ebc20dc2d4a0d7ce3661853d2985\">Elsevier<\/a>. pp.&#160;331\u2013337. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-803581-8.11590-5\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/B978-0-12-803581-8.11590-5<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-0-12-813196-1<\/bdi>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:169934398\" target=\"_blank\">169934398<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Global+Economy+Increasing+by+Enterprise+Resource+Planning&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pages=331-337&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A169934398%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-803581-8.11590-5&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-813196-1&amp;rft.au=Neboj%C5%A1a+Deni%C4%87+and+Dalibor+Petkovi%C4%87+and+Boban+Spasi%C4%87&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FB9780128035818115905&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWu,_Shi_Liang_and_He,_Wu2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Wu, Shi Liang and He, Wu (2012). \"From Enterprise Resource Planning, Industry-Oriented Enterprise Resource Planning to Entire Resource Planning\". 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Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp.&#160;1141\u20131148. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-642-27552-4_147\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-642-27552-4_147<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-642-27552-4<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=From+Enterprise+Resource+Planning%2C+Industry-Oriented+Enterprise+Resource+Planning+to+Entire+Resource+Planning&amp;rft.btitle=Frontiers+in+Computer+Education&amp;rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&amp;rft.series=Advances+in+Intelligent+and+Soft+Computing&amp;rft.pages=1141-1148&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-27552-4_147&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-642-27552-4&amp;rft.au=Wu%2C+Shi+Liang+and+He%2C+Wu&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-27552-4_147&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_book\" title=\"Template:Cite book\">cite book<\/a>}}<\/code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1debe3ec6beda68f84866dbe0567eb4\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOliver_George_Kayas_and_Rachel_McLean_and_Tony_Hines_and_Gillian_H._Wright2008\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Oliver George Kayas and Rachel McLean and Tony Hines and Gillian H. Wright (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0268401208001308\" target=\"_blank\">\"The panoptic gaze: Analysing the interaction between enterprise resource planning technology and organisational culture\"<\/a>. <i>International Journal of Information Management<\/i>. <b>28<\/b> (6): 446\u2013452. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.ijinfomgt.2008.08.005\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.ijinfomgt.2008.08.005<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0268-4012\" target=\"_blank\">0268-4012<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Information+Management&amp;rft.atitle=The+panoptic+gaze%3A+Analysing+the+interaction+between+enterprise+resource+planning+technology+and+organisational+culture&amp;rft.volume=28&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=446-452&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijinfomgt.2008.08.005&amp;rft.issn=0268-4012&amp;rft.au=Oliver+George+Kayas+and+Rachel+McLean+and+Tony+Hines+and+Gillian+H.+Wright&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0268401208001308&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAbdoulmohammad_Gholamzadeh_Chofreh_and_Feybi_Ariani_Goni_and_Ji\u0159\u00ed_Jarom\u00edr_Kleme\u01612018\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Abdoulmohammad Gholamzadeh Chofreh and Feybi Ariani Goni and Ji\u0159\u00ed Jarom\u00edr Kleme\u0161 (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0959652618312150\" target=\"_blank\">\"Evaluation of a framework for sustainable Enterprise Resource Planning systems implementation\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Cleaner_Production\" title=\"Journal of Cleaner Production\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d0afd997f939b818c9601b7434aeb15\">Journal of Cleaner Production<\/a><\/i>. <b>190<\/b>: 778\u2013786. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.jclepro.2018.04.182\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.04.182<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISSN (identifier)\" data-key=\"b87e9e7d2bab99e9f33194511b3bb86d\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0959-6526\" target=\"_blank\">0959-6526<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:158751005\" target=\"_blank\">158751005<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cleaner+Production&amp;rft.atitle=Evaluation+of+a+framework+for+sustainable+Enterprise+Resource+Planning+systems+implementation&amp;rft.volume=190&amp;rft.pages=778-786&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158751005%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.issn=0959-6526&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jclepro.2018.04.182&amp;rft.au=Abdoulmohammad+Gholamzadeh+Chofreh+and+Feybi+Ariani+Goni+and+Ji%C5%99%C3%AD+Jarom%C3%ADr+Kleme%C5%A1&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0959652618312150&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSwamidass,_P._M.2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Swamidass, P. 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Boston, MA: Springer US. p.&#160;197. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F1-4020-0612-8_302\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/1-4020-0612-8_302<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-1-4020-0612-8<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Enterprise+Resource+Planning+%28ERP%29ERP&amp;rft.btitle=ERP+Enterprise+Resource+Planning+%28ERP%29ERP&amp;rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&amp;rft.pages=197&amp;rft.pub=Springer+US&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F1-4020-0612-8_302&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4020-0612-8&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2F1-4020-0612-8_302&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLin,_Kun2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Lin, Kun (2012). Tan, Honghua (ed.). <i>The Implement of Enterprise Resource Planning Based on the Enterprise Information Integration<\/i>. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp.&#160;631\u2013634. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>978-3-642-27711-5<\/bdi>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Implement+of+Enterprise+Resource+Planning+Based+on+the+Enterprise+Information+Integration&amp;rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&amp;rft.pages=631-634&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-642-27711-5&amp;rft.au=Lin%2C+Kun&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBahrami,_Bahram_and_Jordan,_Ernest2013\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Bahrami, Bahram and Jordan, Ernest (2013). 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Chattopadhyay, \"Development of a learning package for interactive learning in enterprise resources planning (ERP),\" 2004 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IEEE\" data-key=\"30289c6e7bc018ea0ccd2e21ff172ff0\">IEEE<\/a> International Engineering Management Conference (IEEE Cat. No.04CH37574), 2004, pp.&#160;848\u2013850 Vol.2, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FIEMC.2004.1407501\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/IEMC.2004.1407501<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>D. Reuther and G. Chattopadhyay, \"Critical factors for enterprise resources planning system selection and implementation projects within small to medium enterprises,\" 2004 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IEEE\" data-key=\"30289c6e7bc018ea0ccd2e21ff172ff0\">IEEE<\/a> International Engineering Management Conference (IEEE Cat. No.04CH37574), 2004, pp.&#160;851\u2013855 Vol.2, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FIEMC.2004.1407502\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/IEMC.2004.1407502<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Lv, T., Zhang, J., and Chen, Y., \u201cResearch of ERP Platform based on Cloud Computing\u201d, in <i>Materials Science and Engineering Conference Series<\/i>, 2018, vol. 394, no. 4, p.&#160;042004. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088%2F1757-899X%2F394%2F4%2F042004\" target=\"_blank\">10.1088\/1757-899X\/394\/4\/042004<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2018MS&E..394d2004L\/abstract\" target=\"_blank\">2018MS&amp;E..394d2004L<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Hasan, N., Miah, S. J., Bao, Y., and Hoque, M. R., \u201cFactors affecting post-implementation success of enterprise resource planning systems: a perspective of business process performance\u201d, <i>Enterprise Information Systems<\/i>, vol. 13, no. 9, pp.&#160;1217\u20131244, 2019. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F17517575.2019.1612099\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/17517575.2019.1612099<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2019EntIS..13.1217H\" target=\"_blank\">\/abstract 2019EntIS..13.1217H <\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFXinyu_Zhang2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Xinyu Zhang (2019). \"Drivers affecting cloud ERP deployment decisions: an Australian study\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1911.11309\" target=\"_blank\">1911.11309<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2019arXiv191111309Z\" target=\"_blank\">2019arXiv191111309Z<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:208291311\" target=\"_blank\">208291311<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Drivers+affecting+cloud+ERP+deployment+decisions%3A+an+Australian+study&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1911.11309&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A208291311%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019arXiv191111309Z&amp;rft.au=Xinyu+Zhang&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f198551abcc473873442d1b903b620fc\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLucas_Gren_and_Alexander_Wong_and_Erik_Kristoffersson2019\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Lucas Gren and Alexander Wong and Erik Kristoffersson (2019). \"Choosing agile or plan-driven enterprise resource planning (ERP) implementations -- A study on 21 implementations from 20 companies\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1906.05220\" target=\"_blank\">1906.05220<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2019arXiv190605220G\" target=\"_blank\">2019arXiv190605220G<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:49291109\" target=\"_blank\">49291109<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Choosing+agile+or+plan-driven+enterprise+resource+planning+%28ERP%29+implementations+--+A+study+on+21+implementations+from+20+companies&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1906.05220&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A49291109%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019arXiv190605220G&amp;rft.au=Lucas+Gren+and+Alexander+Wong+and+Erik+Kristoffersson&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f198551abcc473873442d1b903b620fc\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEmre_Erturk_and_Jitesh_Kumar_Arora2017\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Emre Erturk and Jitesh Kumar Arora (2017). \"An Exploratory Study on the Implementation and Adoption of ERP Solutions for Businesses\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1701.08329\" target=\"_blank\">1701.08329<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2017arXiv170108329E\" target=\"_blank\">2017arXiv170108329E<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:858850\" target=\"_blank\">858850<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=An+Exploratory+Study+on+the+Implementation+and+Adoption+of+ERP+Solutions+for+Businesses&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1701.08329&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A858850%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017arXiv170108329E&amp;rft.au=Emre+Erturk+and+Jitesh+Kumar+Arora&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f198551abcc473873442d1b903b620fc\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFQuang_V_Nguyen_and_Mary_Tate_and_Philip_Calvert_and_Benoit_Aubert2016\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Quang V Nguyen and Mary Tate and Philip Calvert and Benoit Aubert (2016). \"Leveraging ERP Implementation to Create Intellectual Capital: the Role of Organizational Learning Capability\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1606.01431\" target=\"_blank\">1606.01431<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2016arXiv160601431N\" target=\"_blank\">2016arXiv160601431N<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:14172135\" target=\"_blank\">14172135<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Leveraging+ERP+Implementation+to+Create+Intellectual+Capital%3A+the+Role+of+Organizational+Learning+Capability&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1606.01431&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14172135%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016arXiv160601431N&amp;rft.au=Quang+V+Nguyen+and+Mary+Tate+and+Philip+Calvert+and+Benoit+Aubert&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f198551abcc473873442d1b903b620fc\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSergey_V._Zykov2006\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Sergey V. Zykov (2006). \"Enterprise Resource Planning Systems: the Integrated Approach\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ArXiv (identifier)\" data-key=\"cac981fddd16d20fbebac22fd7e4bac7\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/cs\/0607129\" target=\"_blank\">cs\/0607129<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2006cs........7129Z\" target=\"_blank\">2006cs........7129Z<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\" data-key=\"e32fd6f14f5c5de6d2d580bbd691ae40\">S2CID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:1653\" target=\"_blank\">1653<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Enterprise+Resource+Planning+Systems%3A+the+Integrated+Approach&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcs%2F0607129&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1653%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006cs........7129Z&amp;rft.au=Sergey+V.+Zykov&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">{{<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Cite_journal\" title=\"Template:Cite journal\">cite journal<\/a>}}<\/code>: <\/span><span class=\"cs1-visible-error citation-comment\">Cite journal requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|journal=<\/code> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f198551abcc473873442d1b903b620fc\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Sardjono, W., Sudirwan, J., Priatna, W., and Putra, G. R., \u201cApplication of factor analysis method to support the users acceptance model of ERP systems implementation\u201d, in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Physics:_Conference_Series\" title=\"Journal of Physics: Conference Series\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c16ed5e2375d1ec21af18f1618ab414\">Journal of Physics: Conference Series<\/a><\/i>, 2021, vol. 1836, no. 1. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F1836%2F1%2F012032\" target=\"_blank\">10.1088\/1742-6596\/1836\/1\/012032<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2021JPhCS1836a2032S\/abstract\" target=\"_blank\">2021JPhCS1836a2032S<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Meiryani, Erick Fernando, Setiani Putri Hendratno, Kriswanto, and Septi Wifasari. 2021. Enterprise Resource Planning Systems: The Business Backbone. 2021 The 5th International Conference on E-Commerce, E-Business and E-Government. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_for_Computing_Machinery\" title=\"Association for Computing Machinery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d44eae5903ccb21b4fe3765a37220bb0\">Association for Computing Machinery<\/a>, New York, NY, USA, 43\u201348. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F3466029.3466049\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/3466029.3466049<\/a><\/li>\n<li>T. Yang, J. Choi, Z. Xi, Y. Sun, C. Ouyang and Y. Huang, \"Research of Enterprise Resource Planning in a Specific Enterprise,\" 2006 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IEEE\" data-key=\"30289c6e7bc018ea0ccd2e21ff172ff0\">IEEE<\/a> International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 2006, pp.&#160;418\u2013422, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FICSMC.2006.384418\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/ICSMC.2006.384418<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Komala, A. R. and Gunanda, I., \u201cDevelopment of Enterprise Resource Planning using Blockchain\u201d, in <i>Materials Science and Engineering Conference Series<\/i>, 2020, vol. 879, no. 1, p.&#160;012141. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088%2F1757-899X%2F879%2F1%2F012141\" target=\"_blank\">10.1088\/1757-899X\/879\/1\/012141<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2020MS&E..879a2141K\/abstract\" target=\"_blank\">2020MS&amp;E..879a2141K<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Tsai, W.-H., Lee, K.-C., Liu, J.-Y., Lin, S.-J., and Chou, Y.-W., \u201cThe influence of enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems' performance on earnings management\u201d, <i>Enterprise Information Systems<\/i>, vol. 6, no. 4, pp.&#160;491\u2013517, 2012. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F17517575.2011.622414\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/17517575.2011.622414<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2012EntIS...6..491T\/abstract\" target=\"_blank\">2012EntIS...6..491T<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Kapulin, D. V., Russkikh, P. A., and Moor, I. A., \u201cIntegration capabilities of business process models and ERP-systems\u201d, in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Physics:_Conference_Series\" title=\"Journal of Physics: Conference Series\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c16ed5e2375d1ec21af18f1618ab414\">Journal of Physics: Conference Series<\/a><\/i>, 2019, vol. 1333, no. 7. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F1333%2F7%2F072009\" target=\"_blank\">10.1088\/1742-6596\/1333\/7\/072009<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2019JPhCS1333g2009K\/abstract\" target=\"_blank\">2019JPhCS1333g2009K<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Sebayang, P., Tarigan, Z. J. H., and Panjaitan, T. W. S., \u201cERP compatibility on business performance through the inventory system and internal integration\u201d, in <i>Materials Science and Engineering Conference Series<\/i>, 2021, vol. 1010, no. 1, p.&#160;012008. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088%2F1757-899X%2F1010%2F1%2F012008\" target=\"_blank\">10.1088\/1757-899X\/1010\/1\/012008<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2021MS&E.1010a2008S\/abstract\" target=\"_blank\">2021MS&amp;E.1010a2008S<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>August-Wilhelm Scheer and Frank Habermann. 2000. Enterprise resource planning: making ERP a success. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communications_of_the_ACM\" title=\"Communications of the ACM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd914d5636fdc976435825fe9c3999ef\">Communications of the ACM<\/a> 43, 4 (April 2000), 57\u201361. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F332051.332073\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/332051.332073<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Kuldeep Kumar and Jos van Hillegersberg. 2000. Enterprise resource planning: introduction. Communications of the ACM 43, 4 (April 2000), 22\u201326. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F332051.332063\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/332051.332063<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"noviewer\" typeof=\"mw:File\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Commons-logo.svg\" class=\"mw-file-description wiki-link\" data-key=\"56c1eee72d1be207b2a9d9bcedb4ef6f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"mw-file-element\" \/><\/a><\/span> Media related to <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Enterprise_resource_planning\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Enterprise resource planning\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Enterprise resource planning<\/a> at Wikimedia Commons<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw2408\nCached time: 20240102033532\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.856 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.980 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 7452\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 222916\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 5988\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 16\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 5\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 303912\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.515\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 7626245\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 843.976 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>48.01% 405.203 1 Template:Reflist\n27.54% 232.429 38 Template:Cite_journal\n14.10% 118.970 28 Template:Cite_book\n 9.62% 81.225 21 Template:Cite_web\n 6.46% 54.554 1 Template:Short_description\n 6.24% 52.668 41 Template:Catalog_lookup_link\n 4.65% 39.279 21 Template:Doi\n 4.56% 38.456 3 Template:Fix\n 4.50% 37.958 2 Template:Citation_needed\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:9310-0!canonical and timestamp 20240102033531 and revision id 1192458145. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_resource_planning\" data-key=\"850b202e706427b4bdd62fd8c05e7c80\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110045314\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.169 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.448 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 225609\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 387.693 1 wikipedia:Enterprise_resource_planning\n100.00% 387.693 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10564-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110045313 and revision id 33197. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Enterprise_resource_planning\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Enterprise_resource_planning<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b_images":[],"07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b_timestamp":1704906982,"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_type":"article","a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_title":"Electronic laboratory notebook","a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook","a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_plaintext":"\n\nElectronic laboratory notebookFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchThis article is about the general software replacement for laboratory notebooks.&#32;&#32;For other uses of the term \"electronic laboratory notebook,\" \"electronic lab notebook,\" or \"ELN\", see ELN.\r\n\n Alexander Graham Bell's unpublished lab notebook, well before the invention of the ELNAn electronic laboratory notebook (also known as electronic lab notebook or ELN) is a software program or package designed to replace more traditional paper laboratory notebooks. Laboratory notebooks in general are used by scientists and technicians to document, store, retrieve, and share fully electronic laboratory records in ways that meet all legal, regulatory, technical and scientific requirements.&#91;1&#93; A laboratory notebook is often maintained to be a legal document and may be used in a court of law as evidence. Similar to an inventor's notebook, the lab notebook is also often referred to in patent prosecution and intellectual property litigation. Modern electronic lab notebooks have the advantage of being easier to search upon, support collaboration among many users, and can be made more secure than their paper counterparts.\nContents \n\n1 History of the ELN \n2 Regulations and legal aspects \n3 Modern features of an ELN \n4 ELN vendors \n5 Further reading \n6 References \n\n\n\nHistory of the ELN \nWhile some credit Dr. Keith Caserta with the concept of an electronic version of the laboratory notebook&#91;2&#93;, it's likely that others had similar early ideas on how to integrate computing into the process of laboratory note taking.&#91;3&#93; Significant discussion concerning the transition from a pen-and-paper laboratory notebook to an electronic format was already in full swing in the early 1990s. During the 206th National Meeting of the American Chemical Society in August, 1993, an entire day of the conference was dedicated to talking about \"electronic notebooks\" and ELNs.&#91;4&#93; \"A tetherless electronic equivalent of the paper notebook would be welcomed by the working scientist,\" noted Virginia Polytechnic Institute's Dr. Raymond E. Dessy for the conference.&#91;2&#93; Dessy had in the mid-1980s begun postulating on the idea of an electronic notebook, and by 1994 he provided one of the first working examples of an ELN.&#91;5&#93;\nBy 1997, a special interest group called the Collaborative Electronic Notebook Systems Association (CENSA) formed. Supported by 11 major pharmaceutical and chemical companies, the consortium worked with scientific software and hardware vendors to facilitate the creation of an ELN that met the technical and regulatory needs of its members.&#91;6&#93; The consortium at that time envisioned a collaborative ELN that \"teams of scientists worldwide can use to reliably capture, manage, securely share, and permanently archive and retrieve all common data and records generated by research and development and testing labs.\"&#91;7&#93; That same year development of an enterprise-wide ELN at Kodak's research facilities in England was in full swing. The Kodak ELN was \"implemented as a collection of Lotus Notes databases and applications,\" making it arguably one of the first enterprise ELN solutions in use at the time.&#91;8&#93;\nIn 1998 one of the first web-based versions of an ELN was introduced in the form of the University of Oregon's Virtual Notebook Environment (ViNE), \"a platform-independent, web-based interface designed to support a range of scientific activities across distributed, heterogeneous computing platforms.\"&#91;9&#93; This innovation would go on to inspire vendors in the 2000s to develop web-based thin-client ELNs for laboratories everywhere. Yet it likely wasn't until the Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act (ESIGN) in June 2000 that the true legal implications of a fully electronic laboratory notebook would have on the industry. If an ELN were to be responsible for providing validation during the patent processes and be valid for other types of audits, a mechanism for authenticating the origin of the ideas would be necessary. The ESIGN act meant that electronic records could be authenticated and digital signatures made legally binding, lending further relevancy to ELNs. Instead of searching through notebooks and piles of documents, printing material, and submitting thousands of pages for an FDA audit, ELN users could suddenly collate and submit electronic records, saving time and headaches.&#91;1&#93;\nEnthusiasm for ELNs began to pick up again in the early 2000s, with a strong case for further data integration into ELNs being made at the CENSA-supported International Quality &amp; Productivity Center (IQPC) conference in London during September 2004. During that conference the push for stronger data integration was made, with the base premise that \"ELNs would improve corporate strategy by allowing information to be used more intelligently with the help of decision-support software.\"&#91;10&#93; By early 2007, industry-specific ELNs were pushing growth in the market: Scientific Computing World estimated 83 percent of related organizations declaring interest in ELNs, with 43 percent of those organizations seriously considering an evaluation or purchase.&#91;11&#93;\nDespite the beginnings of an economic downturn in the late 2000s, Atrium Research later estimated that the ELN's market potential was around $1.7 billion.&#91;12&#93;&#91;13&#93; During this time scientists and academics\u2014traditionally slow to adopt technological change\u2014were gradually warming up to the benefits of an electronic laboratory notebook. Academics in particular realized the problems the high turnover postdoc rate created in research laboratories. Postdocs would depart from the university, leaving PIs and directors scratching their heads on where the data ended up. ELNs changed that, allowing much more persistent data that can be found and referenced even after a postdoc departs.&#91;14&#93; \nThe movement towards ELN integration into other laboratory functions during the 2000s eventually led to the blurring of what an ELN actually is. In early 2007 Scientific Computing World reported that the definition of an ELN varied among scientists, with 35 percent of them stating they were \"clear about the difference between a LIMS and an ELN.\"&#91;11&#93; Today it's possible to see in some vendors' offerings the formerly distinct entity that was ELN to now be completely integrated into a LIMS.\n\nRegulations and legal aspects \nThe laboratory accreditation criteria found in the ISO 17025 standard needs to be considered for the protection and computer backup of electronic records&#91;citation needed&#93;. These criteria can be found specifically in clause 4.13.1.4 of the standard. \nElectronic lab notebooks used for development or research in regulated industries, such as medical devices or pharmaceuticals, are expected to comply with U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations related to software validation.&#91;15&#93; The purpose of the regulations is to ensure the integrity of the entries in terms of time, authorship, and content. Unlike ELNs for patent protection, the FDA is not concerned with patent interference proceedings, but rather with avoidance of falsification. \nTypical provisions related to software validation are included in the medical device regulations at 21 CFR 820 (et seq.) and 21 CFR 11. Essentially, the requirements are that the software has been designed and implemented to be suitable for its intended purposes. Evidence to show that this is the case is often provided by a software requirements specification (SRS) that lays out the intended uses and needs that the ELN will meet. The SRS typically includes one or more testing protocols that, when followed, demonstrate that the ELN meets the requirements of the specification and that the requirements are satisfied under worst-case conditions. Security, audit trails, prevention of unauthorized changes without substantial collusion of otherwise independent personnel (i.e. those having no interest in the content of the ELN such as independent quality unit personnel) are all fundamental to the ELN. Finally, one or more reports demonstrating the results of the testing in accordance with the predefined protocols are required prior to release of the ELN software for use. If the reports show that the software failed to satisfy any of the SRS requirements, then corrective and preventive action (CAPA) must be undertaken and documented. Such CAPA may extend to minor software revisions, or changes in architecture or major revisions. CAPA activities need to be documented as well.&#91;16&#93;\n\nModern features of an ELN \nELNs are generally divided into two categories&#91;11&#93;:\n\nA \"specific\" ELN contains features designed to work within specific applications, scientific instrumentation, or data types.\nA cross-disciplinary or \"generic\" ELN is designed to support access to all data and information that needs to be recorded in a lab notebook.\nAmong these two general categories are ELNs that capture two particular markets: individual researchers and group research teams. ELNs can be tailored to one or both types of markets, with both groups and individuals benefiting from the ELN's inherent ability to add structure to research records. Groups utilizing an ELN typically require two additional abilities: to share research data and communicate about their research.&#91;17&#93;\nModern features include, but are not limited to&#91;18&#93;&#91;19&#93;&#91;20&#93;&#91;dead link &#93; &#91;21&#93;:\n\nimportation of data which has already been captured elsewhere\ndirect recording of data in various forms like text, images, and tables\nability to search for and reuse documented information\nlending of structure to data and information through the use of preformatted or customizable templates which include a range of field types\ncreation of links between records, including reference managers and other notebooks\nstorage of fully searchable records in a secure database format, with automatic backup\ninclusion of a messaging system for better collaboration\ninclusion of safety data, including flags for dangerous chemicals\nprotection of the integrity of both data and process in a secure yet flexible environment, all while allowing for process changes\ngeneration of secure forms that accept laboratory data input via a computing device and\/or laboratory equipment\naccommodation for networked or wireless communications\naccommodation of a scheduling option for routine procedures such as equipment qualification and study-related timelines\nconfiguration of qualification requirements\nELN vendors \nSee the ELN vendor page for a list of ELN vendors past and present.\n\nFurther reading \nKanza, S.; Willoughby, C.; Gibbins, N. et al.&#32;(2017).&#32;\"Electronic lab notebooks: Can they replace paper?\".&#32;Journal of Cheminformatics&#32;9: 31.&#32;doi:10.1186\/s13321-017-0221-3.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC5443717.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC5443717 . &#160; \n\r\n\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 Zall, M.&#32;(2001).&#32;\"The nascent paperless laboratory\".&#32;Chemical Innovation&#32;31&#32;(2): 14\u201321.&#32;http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/ci\/31\/i02\/html\/02zall.html . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 Matthews, M., ed.&#32;(1993).&#32;\"Meeting Program Division of Chemical Education\".&#32;Chemical Information Bulletin&#32;45&#32;(3): 64.&#32;https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc5647\/m1\/48\/ . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Rumpf, W..&#32;\"My ELN Life\".&#32;Wolfgang Rumpf, Ph.D.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 15 May 2011.&#32;http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110515133816\/http:\/\/web.me.com\/evildrbob\/Site\/My_ELN_Life\/My_ELN_Life.html .&#32;Retrieved 05 March 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Matthews, M., ed.&#32;(1993).&#32;\"Meeting Program Division of Chemical Education\".&#32;Chemical Information Bulletin&#32;45&#32;(3): 46.&#32;https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc5647\/m1\/48\/ . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Borman, S.&#32;(1994).&#32;\"Electronic Laboratory Notebooks May Revolutionize Research Record Keeping\".&#32;Chemical Engineering News&#32;72&#32;(21): 10\u201320.&#32;doi:10.1021\/cen-v072n021.p010. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Lysakowski, R.&#32;(1997).&#32;\"The Collaborative Electronic Notebook Systems Consortium\".&#32;Proceedings of the 19th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society&#32;6: 2659\u20132661.&#32;doi:10.1109\/IEMBS.1997.756879. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Chandler, R.L.&#32;(1997).&#32;Documenting the Biotechnology Industry in the San Francisco Bay Area.&#32;University of California - San Diego Libraries.&#32;p.&#160;40.&#32;https:\/\/escholarship.org\/uc\/item\/1m24k447#page-40 .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 McLaughlin, D.R.&#32;(1999).&#32;\"Chapter 11: The Wired Laboratory\".&#32;Impact of Advances in Computing and Communications Technologies on Chemical Science and Technology: Report of a Workshop.&#32;National Academy Press.&#32;pp.&#160;164.&#32;ISBN&#160;0309065771.&#32;https:\/\/www.nap.edu\/read\/9591\/chapter\/15#164 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Skidmore, J.L.; Sottile, M.J.; Cuny, J.E.; Malony, A.D.&#32;(1998).&#32;\"A Prototype Notebook-Based Environment for Computational Tools Computational Tools\".&#32;Proceedings of the 1998 ACM\/IEEE conference on Supercomputing: 22.&#32;doi:10.1109\/SC.1998.10031. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Rees, P.&#32;(1 November 2004).&#32;\"How to capture data to share\".&#32;Scientific Computing World.&#32;Europa Science.&#32;https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/how-capture-data-share .&#32;Retrieved 29 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 11.0 11.1 11.2 Elliot, M.H.&#32;(1 December 2006).&#32;\"The state of the ELN Market\".&#32;Scientific Computing World.&#32;Europa Science.&#32;https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/state-eln-market .&#32;Retrieved 29 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Atrium Research Announces Fourth Edition of Landmark Report on Electronic Laboratory Notebooks\".&#32;Atrium Research.&#32;2 June 2009.&#32;http:\/\/www.atriumresearch.com\/html\/PR\/pr060109.htm .&#32;Retrieved 04 May 2011 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Atrium Research Announces the Third Edition of Landmark Report on Electronic Laboratory Notebooks\".&#32;LIMSfinder.org.&#32;7 May 2007.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 08 September 2007.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070908031324\/http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=32062_0_3_0_C .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Dance, A.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Digital Upgrade: How to choose your lab's next electronic lab notebook\".&#32;The Scientist&#32;24&#32;(5): 71.&#32;https:\/\/www.the-scientist.com\/uncategorized\/digital-upgrade-43342 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 Part 11\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;1 April 2010.&#32;https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfCFR\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11&amp;showFR=1 .&#32;Retrieved 29 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Corrective and Preventive Actions (CAPA)\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;28 June 2010.&#32;https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/corrective-and-preventive-actions-capa .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Macneil, R.&#32;(11 November 2010).&#32;\"Are electronic lab notebooks for individuals or groups?\".&#32;The electronic lab notebook blog.&#32;ResearchSpace\/Axiope.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 29 September 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170929193010\/http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/electronic-lab-notebook\/blog\/lab\/?tag=record .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Macneil, R.&#32;(6 October 2010).&#32;\"What are electronic lab notebooks for?\".&#32;ResearchSpace\/Axiope.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 29 September 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170929193448\/http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/elnblog\/?paged=4 .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Dutton, G.&#32;(1 December 2006).&#32;\"Lab Notebooks Offer Efficiency Gains\".&#32;Genetic Engineering &amp; Biotechnology News.&#32;Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.genengnews.com\/magazine\/lab-notebooks-offer-efficiency-gains\/ .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Bruce, S.&#32;(9 October 2008).&#32;\"A Look at the State of Electronic Lab Notebook Technology\".&#32;Scientific Computing.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2002\/12\/look-state-electronic-lab-notebook-technology .&#32;Retrieved 27 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Kanza, S.; Willoughby, C.; Gibbins, N. et al.&#32;(2017).&#32;\"Electronic lab notebooks: Can they replace paper?\".&#32;Journal of Cheminformatics&#32;9: 31.&#32;doi:10.1186\/s13321-017-0221-3.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC5443717.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC5443717 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook<\/a>\nCategories: Articles with unsourced statementsAll articles with dead external linksArticles with dead external linksLaboratory informaticsSoftware systemsHidden category: All articles with unsourced statementsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 7 January 2022, at 20:11.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 98,789 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Electronic_laboratory_notebook rootpage-Electronic_laboratory_notebook skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Electronic laboratory notebook<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"dablink\">This article is about the general software replacement for laboratory notebooks.&#32;&#32;For other uses of the term \"electronic laboratory notebook,\" \"electronic lab notebook,\" or \"ELN\", see <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"ELN\" data-key=\"9c78ec40806154303ac8a5497d4edd52\">ELN<\/a>.<\/div><p><br \/>\n<\/p><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:282px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:AGBell_Notebook.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba0c4bed9e7d80a0155a84a8d79159bf\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0c\/AGBell_Notebook.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"280\" height=\"170\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:AGBell_Notebook.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"ba0c4bed9e7d80a0155a84a8d79159bf\"><\/a><\/div>Alexander Graham Bell's unpublished lab notebook, well before the invention of the ELN<\/div><\/div><\/div><p>An <b>electronic laboratory notebook<\/b> (also known as <b>electronic lab notebook<\/b> or <b>ELN<\/b>) is a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ba09b75f2880f9ce6ad44eefc33ef6b\">software<\/a> program or package designed to replace more traditional paper <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be60c7be96aba8e9a84537fd8835fa54\">laboratory notebooks<\/a>. Laboratory notebooks in general are used by scientists and technicians to document, store, retrieve, and share fully electronic <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> records in ways that meet all legal, regulatory, technical and scientific requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ZallTheNasc01_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ZallTheNasc01-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> A laboratory notebook is often maintained to be a legal document and may be used in a court of law as evidence. Similar to an inventor's notebook, the lab notebook is also often referred to in patent prosecution and intellectual property litigation. Modern electronic lab notebooks have the advantage of being easier to search upon, support collaboration among many users, and can be made more secure than their paper counterparts.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_the_ELN\">History of the ELN<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>While some credit Dr. Keith Caserta with the concept of an electronic version of the laboratory notebook<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EarlyELN_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EarlyELN-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, it's likely that others had similar early ideas on how to integrate computing into the process of laboratory note taking.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELNLifeArch_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELNLifeArch-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Significant discussion concerning the transition from a pen-and-paper laboratory notebook to an electronic format was already in full swing in the early 1990s. During the 206th National Meeting of the American Chemical Society in August, 1993, an entire day of the conference was dedicated to talking about \"electronic notebooks\" and ELNs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MMattChemEd_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MMattChemEd-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \"A tetherless electronic equivalent of the paper notebook would be welcomed by the working scientist,\" noted Virginia Polytechnic Institute's Dr. Raymond E. Dessy for the conference.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EarlyELN_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EarlyELN-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Dessy had in the mid-1980s begun postulating on the idea of an electronic notebook, and by 1994 he provided one of the first working examples of an ELN.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BormanELNRev_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BormanELNRev-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By 1997, a special interest group called the Collaborative Electronic Notebook Systems Association (CENSA) formed. Supported by 11 major pharmaceutical and chemical companies, the consortium worked with scientific software and hardware vendors to facilitate the creation of an ELN that met the technical and regulatory needs of its members.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LysakowskiTgeCikkav97_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LysakowskiTgeCikkav97-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The consortium at that time envisioned a collaborative ELN that \"teams of scientists worldwide can use to reliably capture, manage, securely share, and permanently archive and retrieve all common data and records generated by research and development and testing labs.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChandlerDocument97_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChandlerDocument97-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> That same year development of an enterprise-wide ELN at Kodak's research facilities in England was in full swing. The Kodak ELN was \"implemented as a collection of Lotus Notes databases and applications,\" making it arguably one of the first enterprise ELN solutions in use at the time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McLaughlinImpact99_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McLaughlinImpact99-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 1998 one of the first web-based versions of an ELN was introduced in the form of the University of Oregon's Virtual Notebook Environment (ViNE), \"a platform-independent, web-based interface designed to support a range of scientific activities across distributed, heterogeneous computing platforms.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SkidmoreAProto98_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SkidmoreAProto98-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This innovation would go on to inspire vendors in the 2000s to develop web-based thin-client ELNs for laboratories everywhere. Yet it likely wasn't until the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_Signatures_in_Global_and_National_Commerce_Act\" title=\"Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6fadfb0efb222679319e60aa58a6668\">Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act<\/a> (ESIGN) in June 2000 that the true legal implications of a fully electronic laboratory notebook would have on the industry. If an ELN were to be responsible for providing validation during the patent processes and be valid for other types of , a mechanism for authenticating the origin of the ideas would be necessary. The ESIGN act meant that electronic records could be authenticated and digital signatures made legally binding, lending further relevancy to ELNs. Instead of searching through notebooks and piles of documents, printing material, and submitting thousands of pages for an FDA audit, ELN users could suddenly collate and submit electronic records, saving time and headaches.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ZallTheNasc01_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ZallTheNasc01-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Enthusiasm for ELNs began to pick up again in the early 2000s, with a strong case for further data integration into ELNs being made at the CENSA-supported International Quality &amp; Productivity Center (IQPC) conference in London during September 2004. During that conference the push for stronger data integration was made, with the base premise that \"ELNs would improve corporate strategy by allowing information to be used more intelligently with the help of decision-support software.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReesHowTo04_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReesHowTo04-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> By early 2007, industry-specific ELNs were pushing growth in the market: Scientific Computing World estimated 83 percent of related organizations declaring interest in ELNs, with 43 percent of those organizations seriously considering an evaluation or purchase.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWorld1-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Despite the beginnings of an economic downturn in the late 2000s, Atrium Research later estimated that the ELN's market potential was around $1.7 billion.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LFinderAtrium07_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LFinderAtrium07-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup> During this time scientists and academics\u2014traditionally slow to adopt technological change\u2014were gradually warming up to the benefits of an electronic laboratory notebook. Academics in particular realized the problems the high turnover postdoc rate created in research laboratories. Postdocs would depart from the university, leaving <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/PI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PI\" data-key=\"b78906fd98e98667f120fe918d2219fd\">PIs<\/a> and directors scratching their heads on where the data ended up. ELNs changed that, allowing much more persistent data that can be found and referenced even after a postdoc departs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DanceDigital10_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DanceDigital10-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>The movement towards ELN integration into other laboratory functions during the 2000s eventually led to the blurring of what an ELN actually is. In early 2007 Scientific Computing World reported that the definition of an ELN varied among scientists, with 35 percent of them stating they were \"clear about the difference between a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LIMS\" data-key=\"21b7bfebbba300be00cdbb84cddb338d\">LIMS<\/a> and an ELN.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWorld1-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Today it's possible to see in some vendors' offerings the formerly distinct entity that was ELN to now be completely integrated into a LIMS.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regulations_and_legal_aspects\">Regulations and legal aspects<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The laboratory accreditation criteria found in the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_17025\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 17025\" data-key=\"e8525a8d5d35bc9c3c1015749eb8de05\">ISO 17025<\/a> standard needs to be considered for the protection and computer backup of electronic records<sup class=\"Template-Fact\" title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">&#91;<i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Citation_needed\" title=\"LIMSWiki:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a05514560e13447268ca6f577949869e\">citation needed<\/a><\/i>&#93;<\/sup>. These criteria can be found specifically in clause 4.13.1.4 of the standard. \n<\/p><p>Electronic lab notebooks used for development or research in regulated industries, such as medical devices or pharmaceuticals, are expected to comply with U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> (FDA) regulations related to software validation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21CFR11_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21CFR11-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The purpose of the regulations is to ensure the integrity of the entries in terms of time, authorship, and content. Unlike ELNs for patent protection, the FDA is not concerned with patent interference proceedings, but rather with avoidance of falsification. \n<\/p><p>Typical provisions related to software validation are included in the medical device regulations at 21 CFR 820 (et seq.) and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR 11<\/a>. Essentially, the requirements are that the software has been designed and implemented to be suitable for its intended purposes. Evidence to show that this is the case is often provided by a software requirements specification (SRS) that lays out the intended uses and needs that the ELN will meet. The SRS typically includes one or more testing protocols that, when followed, demonstrate that the ELN meets the requirements of the specification and that the requirements are satisfied under worst-case conditions. Security, audit trails, prevention of unauthorized changes without substantial collusion of otherwise independent personnel (i.e. those having no interest in the content of the ELN such as independent quality unit personnel) are all fundamental to the ELN. Finally, one or more reports demonstrating the results of the testing in accordance with the predefined protocols are required prior to release of the ELN software for use. If the reports show that the software failed to satisfy any of the SRS requirements, then <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Corrective_and_preventive_action\" title=\"Corrective and preventive action\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3024b6238f561499d3be833a49de0406\">corrective and preventive action<\/a> (CAPA) must be undertaken and documented. Such CAPA may extend to minor software revisions, or changes in architecture or major revisions. CAPA activities need to be documented as well.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDA_CAPA_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDA_CAPA-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modern_features_of_an_ELN\">Modern features of an ELN<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ELNs are generally divided into two categories<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_11-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWorld1-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>A \"specific\" ELN contains features designed to work within specific applications, scientific instrumentation, or data types.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>A cross-disciplinary or \"generic\" ELN is designed to support access to all data and information that needs to be recorded in a lab notebook.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Among these two general categories are ELNs that capture two particular markets: individual researchers and group research teams. ELNs can be tailored to one or both types of markets, with both groups and individuals benefiting from the ELN's inherent ability to add structure to research records. Groups utilizing an ELN typically require two additional abilities: to share research data and communicate about their research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Modern features include, but are not limited to<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MacneilWhatAre10_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MacneilWhatAre10-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DuttonLabNote06_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DuttonLabNote06-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BruceALook08_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BruceALook08-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">&#91;<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Wikipedia:Link rot\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\"\">dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>&#93;<\/span><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KanzaElectronic17_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KanzaElectronic17-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>importation of data which has already been captured elsewhere<\/li>\n<li>direct recording of data in various forms like text, images, and tables<\/li>\n<li>ability to search for and reuse documented information<\/li>\n<li>lending of structure to data and information through the use of preformatted or customizable templates which include a range of field types<\/li>\n<li>creation of links between records, including reference managers and other notebooks<\/li>\n<li>storage of fully searchable records in a secure database format, with automatic backup<\/li>\n<li>inclusion of a messaging system for better collaboration<\/li>\n<li>inclusion of safety data, including flags for dangerous chemicals<\/li>\n<li>protection of the integrity of both data and process in a secure yet flexible environment, all while allowing for process changes<\/li>\n<li>generation of secure forms that accept laboratory data input via a computing device and\/or laboratory equipment<\/li>\n<li>accommodation for networked or wireless communications<\/li>\n<li>accommodation of a scheduling option for routine procedures such as equipment qualification and study-related timelines<\/li>\n<li>configuration of qualification requirements<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ELN_vendors\">ELN vendors<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>See the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_vendor\" title=\"ELN vendor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e4f89aadcc5f01a12669c4b9ce5b5c5\">ELN vendor<\/a> page for a list of ELN vendors past and present.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kanza, S.; Willoughby, C.; Gibbins, N. et al.&#32;(2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5443717\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic lab notebooks: Can they replace paper?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Journal of Cheminformatics<\/i>&#32;<b>9<\/b>: 31.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186%2Fs13321-017-0221-3\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/s13321-017-0221-3<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5443717\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC5443717<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5443717\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC5443717<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Electronic+lab+notebooks%3A+Can+they+replace+paper%3F&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cheminformatics&amp;rft.aulast=Kanza%2C+S.%3B+Willoughby%2C+C.%3B+Gibbins%2C+N.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Kanza%2C+S.%3B+Willoughby%2C+C.%3B+Gibbins%2C+N.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.pages=31&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1186%2Fs13321-017-0221-3&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC5443717&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3DPMC5443717&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ZallTheNasc01-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ZallTheNasc01_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ZallTheNasc01_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Zall, M.&#32;(2001).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/ci\/31\/i02\/html\/02zall.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The nascent paperless laboratory\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Chemical Innovation<\/i>&#32;<b>31<\/b>&#32;(2): 14\u201321<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/ci\/31\/i02\/html\/02zall.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/ci\/31\/i02\/html\/02zall.html<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+nascent+paperless+laboratory&amp;rft.jtitle=Chemical+Innovation&amp;rft.aulast=Zall%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Zall%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.volume=31&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=14%E2%80%9321&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubsapp.acs.org%2Fsubscribe%2Farchive%2Fci%2F31%2Fi02%2Fhtml%2F02zall.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EarlyELN-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-EarlyELN_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-EarlyELN_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Matthews, M., ed.&#32;(1993).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc5647\/m1\/48\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Meeting Program Division of Chemical Education\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Chemical Information Bulletin<\/i>&#32;<b>45<\/b>&#32;(3): 64<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc5647\/m1\/48\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc5647\/m1\/48\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Meeting+Program+Division+of+Chemical+Education&amp;rft.jtitle=Chemical+Information+Bulletin&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.volume=45&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=64&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc5647%2Fm1%2F48%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ELNLifeArch-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELNLifeArch_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Rumpf, W..&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110515133816\/http:\/\/web.me.com\/evildrbob\/Site\/My_ELN_Life\/My_ELN_Life.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"My ELN Life\"<\/a>.&#32;Wolfgang Rumpf, Ph.D.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.me.com\/evildrbob\/Site\/My_ELN_Life\/My_ELN_Life.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 15 May 2011<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110515133816\/http:\/\/web.me.com\/evildrbob\/Site\/My_ELN_Life\/My_ELN_Life.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110515133816\/http:\/\/web.me.com\/evildrbob\/Site\/My_ELN_Life\/My_ELN_Life.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 March 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=My+ELN+Life&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Rumpf%2C+W.&amp;rft.au=Rumpf%2C+W.&amp;rft.pub=Wolfgang+Rumpf%2C+Ph.D&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20110515133816%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fweb.me.com%2Fevildrbob%2FSite%2FMy_ELN_Life%2FMy_ELN_Life.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MMattChemEd-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MMattChemEd_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Matthews, M., ed.&#32;(1993).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc5647\/m1\/48\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Meeting Program Division of Chemical Education\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Chemical Information Bulletin<\/i>&#32;<b>45<\/b>&#32;(3): 46<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc5647\/m1\/48\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc5647\/m1\/48\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Meeting+Program+Division+of+Chemical+Education&amp;rft.jtitle=Chemical+Information+Bulletin&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.volume=45&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=46&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc5647%2Fm1%2F48%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BormanELNRev-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BormanELNRev_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Borman, S.&#32;(1994).&#32;\"Electronic Laboratory Notebooks May Revolutionize Research Record Keeping\".&#32;<i>Chemical Engineering News<\/i>&#32;<b>72<\/b>&#32;(21): 10\u201320.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1021%2Fcen-v072n021.p010\" target=\"_blank\">10.1021\/cen-v072n021.p010<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Electronic+Laboratory+Notebooks+May+Revolutionize+Research+Record+Keeping&amp;rft.jtitle=Chemical+Engineering+News&amp;rft.aulast=Borman%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Borman%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.volume=72&amp;rft.issue=21&amp;rft.pages=10%E2%80%9320&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1021%2Fcen-v072n021.p010&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LysakowskiTgeCikkav97-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LysakowskiTgeCikkav97_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Lysakowski, R.&#32;(1997).&#32;\"The Collaborative Electronic Notebook Systems Consortium\".&#32;<i>Proceedings of the 19th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society<\/i>&#32;<b>6<\/b>: 2659\u20132661.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1109%2FIEMBS.1997.756879\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/IEMBS.1997.756879<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+Collaborative+Electronic+Notebook+Systems+Consortium&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+19th+Annual+International+Conference+of+the+IEEE+Engineering+in+Medicine+and+Biology+Society&amp;rft.aulast=Lysakowski%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Lysakowski%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.pages=2659%E2%80%932661&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1109%2FIEMBS.1997.756879&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChandlerDocument97-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChandlerDocument97_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Chandler, R.L.&#32;(1997).&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#page-40\"><i>Documenting the Biotechnology Industry in the San Francisco Bay Area<\/i><\/a>.&#32;University of California - San Diego Libraries.&#32;p.&#160;40<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#page-40\">https:\/\/escholarship.org\/uc\/item\/1m24k447#page-40<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Documenting+the+Biotechnology+Industry+in+the+San+Francisco+Bay+Area&amp;rft.aulast=Chandler%2C+R.L.&amp;rft.au=Chandler%2C+R.L.&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B40&amp;rft.pub=University+of+California+-+San+Diego+Libraries&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F1m24k447%23page-40&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McLaughlinImpact99-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-McLaughlinImpact99_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">McLaughlin, D.R.&#32;(1999).&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#164\">\"Chapter 11: The Wired Laboratory\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Impact of Advances in Computing and Communications Technologies on Chemical Science and Technology: Report of a Workshop<\/i>.&#32;National Academy Press.&#32;pp.&#160;164.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0309065771<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#164\">https:\/\/www.nap.edu\/read\/9591\/chapter\/15#164<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+11%3A+The+Wired+Laboratory&amp;rft.atitle=Impact+of+Advances+in+Computing+and+Communications+Technologies+on+Chemical+Science+and+Technology%3A+Report+of+a+Workshop&amp;rft.aulast=McLaughlin%2C+D.R.&amp;rft.au=McLaughlin%2C+D.R.&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B164&amp;rft.pub=National+Academy+Press&amp;rft.isbn=0309065771&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fread%2F9591%2Fchapter%2F15%23164&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SkidmoreAProto98-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SkidmoreAProto98_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Skidmore, J.L.; Sottile, M.J.; Cuny, J.E.; Malony, A.D.&#32;(1998).&#32;\"A Prototype Notebook-Based Environment for Computational Tools Computational Tools\".&#32;<i>Proceedings of the 1998 ACM\/IEEE conference on Supercomputing<\/i>: 22.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1109%2FSC.1998.10031\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/SC.1998.10031<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=A+Prototype+Notebook-Based+Environment+for+Computational+Tools+Computational+Tools&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+1998+ACM%2FIEEE+conference+on+Supercomputing&amp;rft.aulast=Skidmore%2C+J.L.%3B+Sottile%2C+M.J.%3B+Cuny%2C+J.E.%3B+Malony%2C+A.D.&amp;rft.au=Skidmore%2C+J.L.%3B+Sottile%2C+M.J.%3B+Cuny%2C+J.E.%3B+Malony%2C+A.D.&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.pages=22&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1109%2FSC.1998.10031&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ReesHowTo04-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ReesHowTo04_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Rees, P.&#32;(1 November 2004).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/how-capture-data-share\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to capture data to share\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing World<\/i>.&#32;Europa Science<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/how-capture-data-share\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/how-capture-data-share<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+to+capture+data+to+share&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing+World&amp;rft.aulast=Rees%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Rees%2C+P.&amp;rft.date=1+November+2004&amp;rft.pub=Europa+Science&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Ffeature%2Fhow-capture-data-share&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciCompWorld1-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_11-0\">11.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_11-1\">11.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_11-2\">11.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Elliot, M.H.&#32;(1 December 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/state-eln-market\" target=\"_blank\">\"The state of the ELN Market\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing World<\/i>.&#32;Europa Science<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/state-eln-market\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/state-eln-market<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+state+of+the+ELN+Market&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing+World&amp;rft.aulast=Elliot%2C+M.H.&amp;rft.au=Elliot%2C+M.H.&amp;rft.date=1+December+2006&amp;rft.pub=Europa+Science&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Ffeature%2Fstate-eln-market&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.atriumresearch.com\/html\/PR\/pr060109.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Atrium Research Announces Fourth Edition of Landmark Report on Electronic Laboratory Notebooks\"<\/a>.&#32;Atrium Research.&#32;2 June 2009<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.atriumresearch.com\/html\/PR\/pr060109.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.atriumresearch.com\/html\/PR\/pr060109.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 04 May 2011<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Atrium+Research+Announces+Fourth+Edition+of+Landmark+Report+on+Electronic+Laboratory+Notebooks&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2+June+2009&amp;rft.pub=Atrium+Research&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atriumresearch.com%2Fhtml%2FPR%2Fpr060109.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LFinderAtrium07-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LFinderAtrium07_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070908031324\/http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=32062_0_3_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">\"Atrium Research Announces the Third Edition of Landmark Report on Electronic Laboratory Notebooks\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>LIMSfinder.org<\/i>.&#32;7 May 2007.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=32062_0_3_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 08 September 2007<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070908031324\/http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=32062_0_3_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070908031324\/http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=32062_0_3_0_C<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Atrium+Research+Announces+the+Third+Edition+of+Landmark+Report+on+Electronic+Laboratory+Notebooks&amp;rft.atitle=LIMSfinder.org&amp;rft.date=7+May+2007&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20070908031324%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.limsfinder.com%2FBlogDetail.aspx%3Fid%3D32062_0_3_0_C&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DanceDigital10-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DanceDigital10_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Dance, A.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.the-scientist.com\/uncategorized\/digital-upgrade-43342\" target=\"_blank\">\"Digital Upgrade: How to choose your lab's next electronic lab notebook\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Scientist<\/i>&#32;<b>24<\/b>&#32;(5): 71<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.the-scientist.com\/uncategorized\/digital-upgrade-43342\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.the-scientist.com\/uncategorized\/digital-upgrade-43342<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Digital+Upgrade%3A+How+to+choose+your+lab%27s+next+electronic+lab+notebook&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Scientist&amp;rft.aulast=Dance%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Dance%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.volume=24&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=71&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-scientist.com%2Funcategorized%2Fdigital-upgrade-43342&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21CFR11-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-21CFR11_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfCFR\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11&showFR=1\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 Part 11\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;1 April 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfCFR\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11&showFR=1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfCFR\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11&amp;showFR=1<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+Title+21+Part+11&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=1+April+2010&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcdrh%2Fcfdocs%2FcfCFR%2FCFRSearch.cfm%3FCFRPart%3D11%26showFR%3D1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDA_CAPA-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDA_CAPA_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/corrective-and-preventive-actions-capa\" target=\"_blank\">\"Corrective and Preventive Actions (CAPA)\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;28 June 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/corrective-and-preventive-actions-capa\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/corrective-and-preventive-actions-capa<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Corrective+and+Preventive+Actions+%28CAPA%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=28+June+2010&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fcorrective-and-preventive-actions-capa&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Macneil, R.&#32;(11 November 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170929193010\/http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/electronic-lab-notebook\/blog\/lab\/?tag=record\" target=\"_blank\">\"Are electronic lab notebooks for individuals or groups?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The electronic lab notebook blog<\/i>.&#32;ResearchSpace\/Axiope.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/electronic-lab-notebook\/blog\/lab\/?tag=record\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 29 September 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170929193010\/http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/electronic-lab-notebook\/blog\/lab\/?tag=record\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170929193010\/http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/electronic-lab-notebook\/blog\/lab\/?tag=record<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Are+electronic+lab+notebooks+for+individuals+or+groups%3F&amp;rft.atitle=The+electronic+lab+notebook+blog&amp;rft.aulast=Macneil%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Macneil%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=11+November+2010&amp;rft.pub=ResearchSpace%2FAxiope&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170929193010%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchspace.com%2Felectronic-lab-notebook%2Fblog%2Flab%2F%3Ftag%3Drecord&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MacneilWhatAre10-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MacneilWhatAre10_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Macneil, R.&#32;(6 October 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170929193448\/http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/elnblog\/?paged=4\" target=\"_blank\">\"What are electronic lab notebooks for?\"<\/a>.&#32;ResearchSpace\/Axiope.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/elnblog\/?paged=4\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 29 September 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170929193448\/http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/elnblog\/?paged=4\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170929193448\/http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/elnblog\/?paged=4<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+are+electronic+lab+notebooks+for%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Macneil%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Macneil%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=6+October+2010&amp;rft.pub=ResearchSpace%2FAxiope&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170929193448%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchspace.com%2Felnblog%2F%3Fpaged%3D4&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DuttonLabNote06-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DuttonLabNote06_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Dutton, G.&#32;(1 December 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.genengnews.com\/magazine\/lab-notebooks-offer-efficiency-gains\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Lab Notebooks Offer Efficiency Gains\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Genetic Engineering &amp; Biotechnology News<\/i>.&#32;Mary Ann Liebert, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.genengnews.com\/magazine\/lab-notebooks-offer-efficiency-gains\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.genengnews.com\/magazine\/lab-notebooks-offer-efficiency-gains\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Lab+Notebooks+Offer+Efficiency+Gains&amp;rft.atitle=Genetic+Engineering+%26+Biotechnology+News&amp;rft.aulast=Dutton%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Dutton%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=1+December+2006&amp;rft.pub=Mary+Ann+Liebert%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.genengnews.com%2Fmagazine%2Flab-notebooks-offer-efficiency-gains%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BruceALook08-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BruceALook08_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Bruce, S.&#32;(9 October 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2002\/12\/look-state-electronic-lab-notebook-technology\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Look at the State of Electronic Lab Notebook Technology\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing<\/i>.&#32;Advantage Business Media<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2002\/12\/look-state-electronic-lab-notebook-technology\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2002\/12\/look-state-electronic-lab-notebook-technology<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 27 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=A+Look+at+the+State+of+Electronic+Lab+Notebook+Technology&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing&amp;rft.aulast=Bruce%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Bruce%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=9+October+2008&amp;rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Farticle%2F2002%2F12%2Flook-state-electronic-lab-notebook-technology&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KanzaElectronic17-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KanzaElectronic17_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kanza, S.; Willoughby, C.; Gibbins, N. et al.&#32;(2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5443717\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic lab notebooks: Can they replace paper?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Journal of Cheminformatics<\/i>&#32;<b>9<\/b>: 31.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186%2Fs13321-017-0221-3\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/s13321-017-0221-3<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5443717\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC5443717<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5443717\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC5443717<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Electronic+lab+notebooks%3A+Can+they+replace+paper%3F&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cheminformatics&amp;rft.aulast=Kanza%2C+S.%3B+Willoughby%2C+C.%3B+Gibbins%2C+N.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Kanza%2C+S.%3B+Willoughby%2C+C.%3B+Gibbins%2C+N.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.pages=31&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1186%2Fs13321-017-0221-3&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC5443717&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3DPMC5443717&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110085851\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.578 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.013 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 15854\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 111353\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 45375\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 20\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 33945\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.050\/7 seconds\nLua virtual size: 5603328\/52428800 bytes\nLua estimated memory usage: 0 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 382.729 1 -total\n 48.70% 186.376 1 Template:Reflist\n 43.08% 164.898 22 Template:Citation\/core\n 32.48% 124.328 2 Template:Fix\n 30.62% 117.203 1 Template:Citation_needed\n 29.58% 113.208 1 Template:Ifsubst\n 27.02% 103.425 2 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0c\/AGBell_Notebook.jpg"],"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_timestamp":1704906981,"f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255_type":"article","f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255_title":"Electronic health record","f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_health_record","f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255_plaintext":"\n\nElectronic health recordFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search This diagram shows how the logging system of the national electronic health record system in Austria works.\nAn electronic health record (EHR) is an evolving concept, \"defined as a longitudinal collection of electronic health information about individual patients and populations.\"&#91;1&#93; It is a record in digital format that is theoretically capable of being shared across different health care settings. In some cases this sharing can occur by way of network-connected enterprise-wide information systems and other information networks or exchanges. EHRs may include a range of data, including demographics, medical history, medication and allergies, immunization status, laboratory test results, radiology images, vital signs, personal stats like age and weight, and billing information.\n\nContents \n\n1 EMR vs. EHR \n\n1.1 U.S.-centric view \n\n1.1.1 HIMSS \n1.1.2 HHS \n\n\n1.2 Global view \n\n1.2.1 Gartner \n1.2.2 Commonwealth Fund \n\n\n\n\n2 References \n\n\n\nEMR vs. EHR \nU.S.-centric view \nHIMSS \nIn 2006, the Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society (HIMSS) noted in its white paper Electronic Medical Records vs. Electronic Health Records: Yes, There Is a Difference \"electronic medical record\" (EMR) and \"electronic health record\" (EHR) are \"completely different concepts.\" HIMSS made the following distinctions for the two&#91;2&#93;:\n\nelectronic medical record: An application environment composed of the clinical data repository, clinical decision support, controlled medical vocabulary, order entry, computerized provider order entry, pharmacy, and clinical documentation applications. This environment supports the patient's electronic medical record across inpatient and outpatient environments, and is used by healthcare practitioners to document, monitor, and manage health care delivery within a care delivery organization (CDO).\nelectronic health record: A subset of each care delivery organization's EMR ... [that] is owned by the patient and has patient input and access that spans episodes of care across multiple CDOs within a community, region, or state (or in some countries, the entire country).\nHHS \nIn 2011 the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) noted that despite the interchanging of the terms \"EMR\" and \"EHR,\" it considers them two separate entities. The HHS notes early on in the realm of digital record keeping in healthcare, the EMR came first, used primarily by medical clinicians for diagnosis and treatment. However, the concept evolved, and the EHR came into existence as a more holistic, inclusive collection of a patient's health data, \"designed to reach out beyond the health organization that originally collects and compiles the information.\" The HHS notes how the EHR \"moves with the patient \u2014 to the specialist, the hospital, the nursing home, the next state or even across the country,\" while \"information in EMRs doesn't travel easily out of the practice.\"&#91;3&#93;\r\n&#160;\r\n\n\nGlobal view \nGrasping a more global view of the differences between EMR and EHR is a bit more difficult. Definitions may vary somewhat from country to country, and market and scientific researchers may differ in their own distinction between the two. For example, the global management consulting, technology services, and outsourcing company Accenture made little distinction \u2014 with the exception of a footnote \u2014 between \"EMR\" and \"EHR\" in a 2010 study on worldwide healthcare software, focusing heavily on the use of \"EMR;\"&#91;4&#93; whereas the Commonwealth Fund in their 2012 research emphasized the term \"EHR.\"&#91;5&#93;&#91;6&#93;\n\nGartner \nGartner, a global information technology research and advisory company, defines the terms in the following way (substituting \"computer-based patient record\" (CPR) for \"EMR\")&#91;7&#93;:\n\nelectronic medical record or computer-based patient record: a system that contains electronically maintained information about an individual's health status and care. It focuses on tasks directly related to patient care, unlike other healthcare information systems that support providers' and payers' operational processes (which may, however, serve as source or feeder systems for the CPR). The CPR completely replaces the paper medical chart and thus must meet all clinical, legal and administrative requirements.&#91;8&#93;\nelectronic health record: a system [that] contains patient-centric, electronically maintained information about an individual's health status and care, focuses on tasks and events directly related to patient care, and is optimized for use by clinicians. The EHR provides support for all activities and processes involved in the delivery of clinical care. The definition of an EHR system limits its scope to the continuum of care in one [health care delivery organization].&#91;9&#93;\nCommonwealth Fund \nBefore researchers of the Commonwealth Fund and its associated International Program in Health Policy and Innovation could set out to survey doctors around the world about their EHR systems, a set of criteria had to be developed for what constitutes a multi-functional EHR. At least two out of the follow four criteria had to be met&#91;5&#93;&#91;6&#93;:\n\nthe system generated patient information, such as lists of patients' medications\nthe system generated a patient registry and panel information, such as a list of patients due for preventive care\nthe system had order entry management, such as electronic prescribing\nthe system had decision support, such as alerts about potential adverse drug interactions\nThe authors of the 2012 survey also noted \"the ability of doctors to exchange clinical summaries and lab results electronically 'is not yet the norm in any country.'\"&#91;5&#93;\n\nReferences \n\n\u2191 Gunter, T.D.; Terry, N.P.&#32;(Jan\u2013Mar 2005).&#32;\"The Emergence of National Electronic Health Record Architectures in the United States and Australia: Models, Costs, and Questions\".&#32;Journal of Medical Internet Research&#32;7&#32;(1).&#32;doi:10.2196\/jmir.7.1.e3.&#32;http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1550638\/ .&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Garets, Dave; Davis, Mike&#32;(26 January 2006).&#32;\"Electronic Medical Records vs. Electronic Health Records: Yes, There Is a Difference\".&#32;HIMSS Analytics, LLC.&#32;http:\/\/www.himssanalytics.org\/docs\/wp_emr_ehr.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Garrett, Peter; Seidman, Joshua&#32;(4 January 2011).&#32;\"EMR vs EHR \u2013 What is the Difference?\".&#32;Health IT Buzz.&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.&#32;http:\/\/www.healthit.gov\/buzz-blog\/electronic-health-and-medical-records\/emr-vs-ehr-difference\/ .&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 [http:\/\/www.accenture.com\/SiteCollectionDocuments\/PDF\/Accenture_EMR_Markets_Whitepaper_vfinal.pdf \"Overview of International \nEMR\/EHR Markets - Results from a Survey of Leading Health Care Companies\"].&#32;Accenture plc.&#32;August 2010.&#32;http:\/\/www.accenture.com\/SiteCollectionDocuments\/PDF\/Accenture_EMR_Markets_Whitepaper_vfinal.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 5.2 Terry, Ken&#32;(15 November 2012).&#32;\"EHR Adoption: U.S. Remains The Slow Poke\".&#32;Information Week.&#32;http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/healthcare\/electronic-medical-records\/ehr-adoption-us-remains-the-slow-poke\/240142152 .&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 Schoen, Cathy; Osborn, Robin; Squires, David; Doty, Michelle; Rasmussen, Petra; Pierson, Roz; Applebaum, Sandra.&#32;\"A Survey Of Primary Care Doctors In Ten Countries Shows Progress In Use Of Health Information Technology, Less In Other Areas\".&#32;Health Affairs&#32;31&#32;(12): 2805\u201316.&#32;doi:10.1377\/hlthaff.2012.0884.&#32;http:\/\/content.healthaffairs.org\/content\/early\/2012\/11\/13\/hlthaff.2012.0884 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Lazarus, Ian R.; Gabler, James M..&#32;\"Before they can realize their true potential, EMRs must be the carefully defined product of a multidisciplinary effort\".&#32;Creative Healthcare.&#32;http:\/\/www.creative-healthcare.com\/Electronic-Medical-Record .&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"CPR (computer-based patient record)\".&#32;Gartner, Inc.&#32;http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/it-glossary\/cpr-computer-based-patient-record\/ .&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Electronic Health Record (EHR)\".&#32;Gartner, Inc.&#32;http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/it-glossary\/ehr\/ .&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_health_record\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_health_record<\/a>\nCategories: EHealthElectronic health recordsHealth informaticsSoftware systemsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 13 August 2016, at 18:15.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 30,831 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Electronic_health_record rootpage-Electronic_health_record skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Electronic health record<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:442px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:20120217_structure_of_the_Austrian_electronic_health_records_(ELGA).jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c1e3205a47e24bd333cbc446a35588f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b0\/20120217_structure_of_the_Austrian_electronic_health_records_%28ELGA%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:20120217_structure_of_the_Austrian_electronic_health_records_(ELGA).jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"9c1e3205a47e24bd333cbc446a35588f\"><\/a><\/div>This diagram shows how the logging system of the national electronic health record system in Austria works.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>An <b> electronic health record (EHR)<\/b> is an evolving concept, \"defined as a longitudinal collection of electronic health information about individual patients and populations.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GunterTerryEHR_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GunterTerryEHR-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> It is a record in digital format that is theoretically capable of being shared across different health care settings. In some cases this sharing can occur by way of network-connected enterprise-wide information systems and other information networks or exchanges. EHRs may include a range of data, including demographics, medical history, medication and allergies, immunization status, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> test results, radiology images, vital signs, personal stats like age and weight, and billing information.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"EMR_vs._EHR\">EMR vs. EHR<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"U.S.-centric_view\">U.S.-centric view<\/span><\/h3>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"HIMSS\">HIMSS<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In 2006, the Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society (HIMSS) noted in its white paper <i>Electronic Medical Records vs. Electronic Health Records: Yes, There Is a Difference<\/i> \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_medical_record\" title=\"Electronic medical record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99a695d2af23397807da0537d29d0be7\">electronic medical record<\/a>\" (EMR) and \"electronic health record\" (EHR) are \"completely different concepts.\" HIMSS made the following distinctions for the two<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HIMSSemrvsehr_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HIMSSemrvsehr-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>electronic medical record<\/b>: An application environment composed of the clinical data repository, clinical decision support, controlled medical vocabulary, order entry, computerized provider order entry, pharmacy, and clinical documentation applications. This environment supports the patient's electronic medical record across inpatient and outpatient environments, and is used by healthcare practitioners to document, monitor, and manage health care delivery within a care delivery organization (CDO).<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><b>electronic health record<\/b>: A subset of each care delivery organization's EMR ... [that] is owned by the patient and has patient input and access that spans episodes of care across multiple CDOs within a community, region, or state (or in some countries, the entire country).<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"HHS\">HHS<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In 2011 the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services\" title=\"United States Department of Health and Human Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efa106bcbb93039b1a6c3c596daedec3\">U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<\/a> (HHS) noted that despite the interchanging of the terms \"EMR\" and \"EHR,\" it considers them two separate entities. The HHS notes early on in the realm of digital record keeping in healthcare, the EMR came first, used primarily by medical clinicians for diagnosis and treatment. However, the concept evolved, and the EHR came into existence as a more holistic, inclusive collection of a patient's health data, \"designed to reach out beyond the health organization that originally collects and compiles the information.\" The HHS notes how the EHR \"moves with the patient \u2014 to the specialist, the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital\" title=\"Hospital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f070c66d8123fe91063594befebdff\">hospital<\/a>, the nursing home, the next state or even across the country,\" while \"information in EMRs doesn't travel easily out of the practice.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EMRvsEHR_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EMRvsEHR-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><br \/>&#160;<br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Global_view\">Global view<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Grasping a more global view of the differences between EMR and EHR is a bit more difficult. Definitions may vary somewhat from country to country, and market and scientific researchers may differ in their own distinction between the two. For example, the global management consulting, technology services, and outsourcing company Accenture made little distinction \u2014 with the exception of a footnote \u2014 between \"EMR\" and \"EHR\" in a 2010 study on worldwide healthcare software, focusing heavily on the use of \"EMR;\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AccStufyPDF_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AccStufyPDF-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> whereas the Commonwealth Fund in their 2012 research emphasized the term \"EHR.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IWEHRSurv_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IWEHRSurv-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HASurv_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HASurv-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Gartner\">Gartner<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Gartner, a global information technology research and advisory company, defines the terms in the following way (substituting \"computer-based patient record\" (CPR) for \"EMR\")<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CHDef_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CHDef-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>electronic medical record<\/b> or <b>computer-based patient record<\/b>: a system that contains electronically maintained information about an individual's health status and care. It focuses on tasks directly related to patient care, unlike other healthcare information systems that support providers' and payers' operational processes (which may, however, serve as source or feeder systems for the CPR). The CPR completely replaces the paper medical chart and thus must meet all clinical, legal and administrative requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CPRDefGart_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CPRDefGart-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><b>electronic health record<\/b>: a system [that] contains patient-centric, electronically maintained information about an individual's health status and care, focuses on tasks and events directly related to patient care, and is optimized for use by clinicians. The EHR provides support for all activities and processes involved in the delivery of clinical care. The definition of an EHR system limits its scope to the continuum of care in one [health care delivery organization].<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EHRDefGart_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EHRDefGart-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Commonwealth_Fund\">Commonwealth Fund<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Before researchers of the Commonwealth Fund and its associated International Program in Health Policy and Innovation could set out to survey doctors around the world about their EHR systems, a set of criteria had to be developed for what constitutes a multi-functional EHR. At least two out of the follow four criteria had to be met<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IWEHRSurv_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IWEHRSurv-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HASurv_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HASurv-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>the system generated patient information, such as lists of patients' medications<\/li>\n<li>the system generated a patient registry and panel information, such as a list of patients due for preventive care<\/li>\n<li>the system had order entry management, such as electronic prescribing<\/li>\n<li>the system had decision support, such as alerts about potential adverse drug interactions<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The authors of the 2012 survey also noted \"the ability of doctors to exchange clinical summaries and lab results electronically 'is not yet the norm in any country.'\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IWEHRSurv_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IWEHRSurv-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-GunterTerryEHR-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GunterTerryEHR_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Gunter, T.D.; Terry, N.P.&#32;(Jan\u2013Mar 2005).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1550638\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Emergence of National Electronic Health Record Architectures in the United States and Australia: Models, Costs, and Questions\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Journal of Medical Internet Research<\/i>&#32;<b>7<\/b>&#32;(1).&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2196%2Fjmir.7.1.e3\" target=\"_blank\">10.2196\/jmir.7.1.e3<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1550638\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1550638\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+Emergence+of+National+Electronic+Health+Record+Architectures+in+the+United+States+and+Australia%3A+Models%2C+Costs%2C+and+Questions&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Internet+Research&amp;rft.aulast=Gunter%2C+T.D.%3B+Terry%2C+N.P.&amp;rft.au=Gunter%2C+T.D.%3B+Terry%2C+N.P.&amp;rft.date=Jan%E2%80%93Mar+2005&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.2196%2Fjmir.7.1.e3&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1550638%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_health_record\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HIMSSemrvsehr-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HIMSSemrvsehr_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Garets, Dave; Davis, Mike&#32;(26 January 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.himssanalytics.org\/docs\/wp_emr_ehr.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Medical Records vs. Electronic Health Records: Yes, There Is a Difference\"<\/a>.&#32;HIMSS Analytics, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.himssanalytics.org\/docs\/wp_emr_ehr.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.himssanalytics.org\/docs\/wp_emr_ehr.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Electronic+Medical+Records+vs.+Electronic+Health+Records%3A+Yes%2C+There+Is+a+Difference&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Garets%2C+Dave%3B+Davis%2C+Mike&amp;rft.au=Garets%2C+Dave%3B+Davis%2C+Mike&amp;rft.date=26+January+2006&amp;rft.pub=HIMSS+Analytics%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.himssanalytics.org%2Fdocs%2Fwp_emr_ehr.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_health_record\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EMRvsEHR-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EMRvsEHR_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Garrett, Peter; Seidman, Joshua&#32;(4 January 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthit.gov\/buzz-blog\/electronic-health-and-medical-records\/emr-vs-ehr-difference\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"EMR vs EHR \u2013 What is the Difference?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health IT Buzz<\/i>.&#32;U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthit.gov\/buzz-blog\/electronic-health-and-medical-records\/emr-vs-ehr-difference\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.healthit.gov\/buzz-blog\/electronic-health-and-medical-records\/emr-vs-ehr-difference\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=EMR+vs+EHR+%E2%80%93+What+is+the+Difference%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Health+IT+Buzz&amp;rft.aulast=Garrett%2C+Peter%3B+Seidman%2C+Joshua&amp;rft.au=Garrett%2C+Peter%3B+Seidman%2C+Joshua&amp;rft.date=4+January+2011&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthit.gov%2Fbuzz-blog%2Felectronic-health-and-medical-records%2Femr-vs-ehr-difference%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_health_record\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AccStufyPDF-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AccStufyPDF_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">[<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accenture.com\/SiteCollectionDocuments\/PDF\/Accenture_EMR_Markets_Whitepaper_vfinal.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.accenture.com\/SiteCollectionDocuments\/PDF\/Accenture_EMR_Markets_Whitepaper_vfinal.pdf<\/a> \"Overview of International \nEMR\/EHR Markets - Results from a Survey of Leading Health Care Companies\"].&#32;Accenture plc.&#32;August 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accenture.com\/SiteCollectionDocuments\/PDF\/Accenture_EMR_Markets_Whitepaper_vfinal.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.accenture.com\/SiteCollectionDocuments\/PDF\/Accenture_EMR_Markets_Whitepaper_vfinal.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Overview+of+International+%0AEMR%2FEHR+Markets+-+Results+from+a+Survey+of+Leading+Health+Care+Companies&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=August+2010&amp;rft.pub=Accenture+plc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.accenture.com%2FSiteCollectionDocuments%2FPDF%2FAccenture_EMR_Markets_Whitepaper_vfinal.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_health_record\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IWEHRSurv-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-IWEHRSurv_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-IWEHRSurv_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-IWEHRSurv_5-2\">5.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Terry, Ken&#32;(15 November 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/healthcare\/electronic-medical-records\/ehr-adoption-us-remains-the-slow-poke\/240142152\" target=\"_blank\">\"EHR Adoption: U.S. Remains The Slow Poke\"<\/a>.&#32;Information Week<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/healthcare\/electronic-medical-records\/ehr-adoption-us-remains-the-slow-poke\/240142152\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/healthcare\/electronic-medical-records\/ehr-adoption-us-remains-the-slow-poke\/240142152<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=EHR+Adoption%3A+U.S.+Remains+The+Slow+Poke&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Terry%2C+Ken&amp;rft.au=Terry%2C+Ken&amp;rft.date=15+November+2012&amp;rft.pub=Information+Week&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationweek.com%2Fhealthcare%2Felectronic-medical-records%2Fehr-adoption-us-remains-the-slow-poke%2F240142152&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_health_record\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HASurv-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HASurv_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HASurv_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Schoen, Cathy; Osborn, Robin; Squires, David; Doty, Michelle; Rasmussen, Petra; Pierson, Roz; Applebaum, Sandra.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/content.healthaffairs.org\/content\/early\/2012\/11\/13\/hlthaff.2012.0884\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Survey Of Primary Care Doctors In Ten Countries Shows Progress In Use Of Health Information Technology, Less In Other Areas\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health Affairs<\/i>&#32;<b>31<\/b>&#32;(12): 2805\u201316.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1377%2Fhlthaff.2012.0884\" target=\"_blank\">10.1377\/hlthaff.2012.0884<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/content.healthaffairs.org\/content\/early\/2012\/11\/13\/hlthaff.2012.0884\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/content.healthaffairs.org\/content\/early\/2012\/11\/13\/hlthaff.2012.0884<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=A+Survey+Of+Primary+Care+Doctors+In+Ten+Countries+Shows+Progress+In+Use+Of+Health+Information+Technology%2C+Less+In+Other+Areas&amp;rft.jtitle=Health+Affairs&amp;rft.aulast=Schoen%2C+Cathy%3B+Osborn%2C+Robin%3B+Squires%2C+David%3B+Doty%2C+Michelle%3B+Rasmussen%2C+Petra%3B+Pierson%2C+Roz%3B+Applebaum%2C+Sandra&amp;rft.au=Schoen%2C+Cathy%3B+Osborn%2C+Robin%3B+Squires%2C+David%3B+Doty%2C+Michelle%3B+Rasmussen%2C+Petra%3B+Pierson%2C+Roz%3B+Applebaum%2C+Sandra&amp;rft.volume=31&amp;rft.issue=12&amp;rft.pages=2805%E2%80%9316&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1377%2Fhlthaff.2012.0884&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.healthaffairs.org%2Fcontent%2Fearly%2F2012%2F11%2F13%2Fhlthaff.2012.0884&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_health_record\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CHDef-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CHDef_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Lazarus, Ian R.; Gabler, James M..&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.creative-healthcare.com\/Electronic-Medical-Record\" target=\"_blank\">\"Before they can realize their true potential, EMRs must be the carefully defined product of a multidisciplinary effort\"<\/a>.&#32;Creative Healthcare<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.creative-healthcare.com\/Electronic-Medical-Record\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.creative-healthcare.com\/Electronic-Medical-Record<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Before+they+can+realize+their+true+potential%2C+EMRs+must+be+the+carefully+defined+product+of+a+multidisciplinary+effort&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Lazarus%2C+Ian+R.%3B+Gabler%2C+James+M.&amp;rft.au=Lazarus%2C+Ian+R.%3B+Gabler%2C+James+M.&amp;rft.pub=Creative+Healthcare&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.creative-healthcare.com%2FElectronic-Medical-Record&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_health_record\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CPRDefGart-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CPRDefGart_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/it-glossary\/cpr-computer-based-patient-record\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"CPR (computer-based patient record)\"<\/a>.&#32;Gartner, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/it-glossary\/cpr-computer-based-patient-record\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/it-glossary\/cpr-computer-based-patient-record\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CPR+%28computer-based+patient+record%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Gartner%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gartner.com%2Fit-glossary%2Fcpr-computer-based-patient-record%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_health_record\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EHRDefGart-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EHRDefGart_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/it-glossary\/ehr\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Health Record (EHR)\"<\/a>.&#32;Gartner, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/it-glossary\/ehr\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/it-glossary\/ehr\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Electronic+Health+Record+%28EHR%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Gartner%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gartner.com%2Fit-glossary%2Fehr%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_health_record\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110110327\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.497 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.965 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6030\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 43082\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 17538\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 17\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 14826\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 106.467 1 -total\n 83.02% 88.390 9 Template:Citation\/core\n 55.18% 58.749 7 Template:Cite_web\n 43.78% 46.610 2 Template:Cite_journal\n 13.57% 14.447 2 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 12.31% 13.107 4 Template:Date\n 6.51% 6.936 10 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 4.25% 4.520 4 Template:Hide_in_print\n 3.74% 3.981 2 Template:Only_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3697-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110110326 and revision id 26956. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_health_record\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_health_record<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b0\/20120217_structure_of_the_Austrian_electronic_health_records_%28ELGA%29.jpg"],"f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255_timestamp":1704906981,"121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_type":"article","121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_title":"Electronic data capture system","121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_data_capture","121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_plaintext":"\n\nElectronic data captureFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchAn electronic data capture (EDC) system is a computerized system designed for the collection of clinical data in electronic format for use mainly in human clinical trials.[1] EDC replaces the traditional paper-based data collection methodology to streamline data collection and expedite the time to market for drugs and medical devices. EDC solutions are widely adopted by pharmaceutical companies and contract research organizations (CRO).\nTypically, EDC systems provide:\n\na graphical user interface component for data entry\na validation component to check user data\na de-identification component to make data less identifiable\na reporting tool for analysis of the collected data\nEDC systems are used by life sciences organizations, broadly defined as the pharmaceutical, medical device and biotechnology industries in all aspects of clinical research,[2] but are particularly beneficial for late-phase (phase III-IV) studies and pharmacovigilance and post-market safety surveillance.\nEDC can increase data accuracy and decrease the time to collect data for studies of drugs and medical devices.[3] The trade-off that many drug developers encounter with deploying an EDC system to support their drug development is that there is a relatively high start-up process, followed by significant benefits over the duration of the trial. As a result, for an EDC to be economical the saving over the life of the trial must be greater than the set-up costs. This is often aggravated by two conditions:\n\nthat initial design of the study in EDC does not facilitate the decrease in costs over the life of the study due to poor planning or inexperience with EDC deployment; and\ninitial set-up costs are higher than anticipated due to initial design of the study in EDC due to poor planning or experience with EDC deployment.\nThe net effect is to increase both the cost and risk to the study with insignificant benefits. However, with the maturation of today's EDC solutions, much of the earlier burdens for study design and set-up have been alleviated through technologies that allow for point-and-click, and drag-and-drop design modules. With little to no programming required, and reusability from global libraries and standardized forms such as CDISC's CDASH, deploying EDC can now rival the paper processes in terms of study start-up time.[4] As a result, even the earlier phase studies have begun to adopt EDC technology.\n\n\n\nHistory \nEDC is often cited as having its origins in remote data entry (RDE) software, which surfaced in the life sciences market in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[5] However, its origins might be tracked to a contract research organization known then as Institute for Biological Research and Development (IBRD). Drs. Nichol, Pickering, and Bollert offered \"a controlled system for post-marketing surveillance (PMS) of newly approved (NDA) pharmaceutical products,\" with surveillance data being \"entered into an electronic data base on site\" at least as early as 1980.[6]\nClinical research data\u2014patient data collected during the investigation of a new drug or medical device is collected by physicians, nurses, and research study coordinators in medical settings (offices, hospitals, universities) throughout the world. Historically, this information was collected on paper forms which were then sent to the research sponsor (e.g., a pharmaceutical company) for data entry into a database and subsequent statistical analysis environment.[1][7][8] However, this process had a number of shortcomings:[5][8]\n\ndata are copied multiple times, which produces errors\nerrors that are generated are not caught until weeks later\nvisibility into the medical status of patients by sponsors is delayed\nTo address these and other concerns, RDE systems were invented so that physicians, nurses, and study coordinators could enter the data directly at the medical setting. By moving data entry out of the sponsor site and into the clinic or other facility, a number of benefits could be derived:[5]\n\ndata checks could be implemented during data entry (real-time), preventing some errors altogether and immediately prompting for resolution of other errors\ndata could be transmitted nightly to sponsors, thereby improving the sponsor's ability to monitor the progress and status of the research study and its patients\nThese early RDE systems used \"thick client\" software\u2014software installed locally on a laptop computer's hardware\u2014to collect the patient data. The system could then use a modem connection over an analog phone line to periodically transmit the data back to the sponsor, and to collect questions from the sponsor that the medical staff would need to answer.[5]\nThough effective, RDE brought with it several shortcomings as well. The most significant shortcoming was that hardware (e.g., a laptop computer) needed to be deployed, installed, and supported at every investigational (medical) site.[8] This became expensive for sponsors and complicated for medical staff. Usability and space constraints led to a lot of dissatisfaction among medical practitioners. With the rise of the internet in the mid-1990s, the obvious solution to some of these issues was the adoption of web-based software that could be accessed using existing computers at the investigational sites. EDC represents this new class of software.\n\nCurrent landscape \nThe EDC landscape has continued to evolve from its evolution from RDE in the late 1990s. Today, the market consists of a variety of new and established software providers. Many of these providers offer specialized solutions targeting certain customer profiles or study phases. Modern features of EDC now include features like cloud data storage, role-based permissions, and case report form designers,[1] as well as clinical trials analytics, interactive dashboards, and electronic medical record integration.\n\nFuture \nIn 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) introduced its eSource guidance, which suggests methods of capturing clinical trial data electronically from the very beginning and moving it to the cloud, as opposed to EDC's more traditional method of capturing data initially on paper and transcribing it into the EDC system.[9][10] Adoption of eSource was initially slow, with the FDA producing a webinar in July 2015 to further promote the guidance.[9] Efforts like the TransCelerate eSource Initiative (in 2016) have been founded \"to facilitate the understanding of the eSource landscape and the optimal use of electronic data sources in the industry to improve global clinical science and global clinical trial execution for stakeholders.\"[10] A 2017 study by the Tufts Center for the Study of Drug Development suggested that with the following three years a \"majority of [surveyed clinical information] companies\" (growing from 38 percent to 84 percent) planned to incorporate eSource data.[11] With 87 percent of research sites (2017) stating that eSource would be \"helpful\" or \"very helpful\" if integrated with today's EDC,[12] a shift away from EDC (or EDC taking a more complementary role) may be possible.\n\nSee also \nClinical data acquisition\nClinical data management system (CDMS)\nCase report form (CRF)\nRemote data entry (RDE)\nRemote data capture (RDC)\nPatient-reported outcome (PRO)\nElectronic patient-reported outcome (ePRO)\nTitle 21 CFR Part 11\nMobile forms\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c Hamad, F. (2017). \"Chapter 13: Health information systems: Clinical data capture and document architecture\". In Urquhart, C.; Hamad, F.; Tbaishat, D.; Yeoman, A. (eds.). Information Systems: Process and Practice. Facet Publishing. pp.&#160;233\u201353. ISBN&#160;9781783302413. Retrieved 24 May 2018 . \n\n^ David Handelsman. \"Electronic Data Capture: When Will It Replace Paper?\". SAS Institute Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-12-17. Retrieved 2010-09-03 . \n\n^ Thomas Bart. \"Comparison of Electronic Data Capture with Paper Data Collection \u2013 Is There Really an Advantage?\" (PDF) . Business Briefing, Pharmatech. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-03. Retrieved 2013-02-25 . \n\n^ Brigitte Walther; Safayet Hossin; John Townend; Neil Abernethy; David Parker; David Jeffries (2011). \"Comparison of Electronic Data Capture (EDC) with the Standard Data Capture Method for Clinical Trial Data\". PLOS ONE. 6 (9): e25348. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...625348W. doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0025348 . PMC&#160;3179496 . PMID&#160;21966505. \n\n^ a b c d Hyde, A.W. (1998). \"The Changing Face of Electronic Data Capture: From Remote Data Entry to Direct Data Capture\". Therapeutic Innovation &amp; Regulatory Science. 32 (4): 1089\u20131092. doi:10.1177\/009286159803200429. S2CID&#160;70356966. \n\n^ Nichol, F.R.; Pickering, B.I.; Bollert, J.A. (1980). \"Post-marketing surveillance of approved pharmaceuticals in the United States\". Contemporary Clinical Trials. 1 (2): 178. doi:10.1016\/0197-2456(80)90061-6. \n\n^ Walther, B.; Hossin, S.; Townend, J.; et&#160;al. (2011). \"Comparison of Electronic Data Capture (EDC) with the Standard Data Capture Method for Clinical Trial Data\". PLOS ONE. 6 (9): e25348. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...625348W. doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0025348 . PMC&#160;3179496 . PMID&#160;21966505. \n\n^ a b c Waterfield, E. (2000). \"Chapter 4: Data Capture\". In Rondel, R.K.; Varley, S.A.; Webb, C.F. (eds.). Clinical Data Management. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;75\u201388. ISBN&#160;9780471983293. Retrieved 24 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Neuer, A. (November 2015). \"At the Source\" (PDF) . International Clinical Trials. pp.&#160;40\u201344. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 May 2018. Retrieved 24 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Kellar, E.; Bornstein, S.M.; Caban, A.; et&#160;al. (2016). \"Optimizing the Use of Electronic Data Sources in Clinical Trials: The Landscape, Part 1\". Therapeutic Innovation &amp; Regulatory Science. 50 (6): 682\u2013696. doi:10.1177\/2168479016670689 . PMID&#160;30231749. \n\n^ \"Industry Research Shows 97% of Companies to Increase Use of Real-world Patient Data for More Accurate Decision-making\". Business Wire. 7 November 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2018 . \n\n^ Nomlzu, R. (29 September 2017). \"Getting Your Site Ready for eSource\". InSite. CRIO. Archived from the original on 25 May 2018. Retrieved 24 May 2018 . \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_data_capture\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_data_capture<\/a>\nCategories: Clinical researchHealth informaticsSoftware systemsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 2 March 2019, at 22:23.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,978 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Electronic_data_capture rootpage-Electronic_data_capture skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Electronic data capture<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><p>An <b>electronic data capture<\/b> (<b>EDC<\/b>) system is a computerized system designed for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_data_acquisition\" title=\"Clinical data acquisition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b687fc4e6df3e79f0234bd2ecf8ceb\">collection of clinical data<\/a> in electronic format for use mainly in human <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_trials\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Clinical trials\" data-key=\"a3a7dab66e00882eeb59385989f32a5f\">clinical trials<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HamadHealth17_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HamadHealth17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> EDC replaces the traditional paper-based data collection methodology to streamline data collection and expedite the time to market for drugs and medical devices. EDC solutions are widely adopted by pharmaceutical companies and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contract_research_organization\" title=\"Contract research organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88dce79c0cad2e4d52aa1c598ac96b7c\">contract research organizations<\/a> (CRO).\n<\/p><p>Typically, EDC systems provide:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphical_user_interface\" title=\"Graphical user interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d175c82419cd6c13f710e9a4be77e8c\">graphical user interface<\/a> component for data entry<\/li>\n<li>a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_validation\" title=\"Data validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b70acbc05ba8da588936d71fece0b0b6\">validation<\/a> component to check user data<\/li>\n<li>a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pseudonymization\" title=\"Pseudonymization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fab065d6da2f6c18a74299828da8b9b\">de-identification<\/a> component to make data less identifiable<\/li>\n<li>a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Report\" title=\"Report\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6472e781bda332e558eb97c324f0e562\">reporting<\/a> tool for analysis of the collected data<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>EDC systems are used by life sciences organizations, broadly defined as the pharmaceutical, medical device and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biotechnology\" title=\"Biotechnology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e062dcda9efb687c306f3bdff7afa4ae\">biotechnology<\/a> industries in all aspects of clinical research,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> but are particularly beneficial for late-phase (phase III-IV) studies and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pharmacovigilance\" title=\"Pharmacovigilance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09b812260185818e8e7dc0cca8509a69\">pharmacovigilance<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Postmarketing_surveillance\" title=\"Postmarketing surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11ab332ae4668530b10dab576594a22e\">post-market safety surveillance<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>EDC can increase data accuracy and decrease the time to collect data for studies of drugs and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_device\" title=\"Medical device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7e69f7ffce562c468cf167b4e8baa38\">medical devices<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The trade-off that many drug developers encounter with deploying an EDC system to support their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drug_development\" title=\"Drug development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb90f22133db2d6c55281cfc6c1a880\">drug development<\/a> is that there is a relatively high start-up process, followed by significant benefits over the duration of the trial. As a result, for an EDC to be economical the saving over the life of the trial must be greater than the set-up costs. This is often aggravated by two conditions:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>that initial design of the study in EDC does not facilitate the decrease in costs over the life of the study due to poor planning or inexperience with EDC deployment; and<\/li>\n<li>initial set-up costs are higher than anticipated due to initial design of the study in EDC due to poor planning or experience with EDC deployment.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The net effect is to increase both the cost and risk to the study with insignificant benefits. However, with the maturation of today's EDC solutions, much of the earlier burdens for study design and set-up have been alleviated through technologies that allow for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Point-and-click\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Point-and-click\" data-key=\"a19b3f82588273bb18b9520d1777a855\">point-and-click<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drag-and-drop\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Drag-and-drop\" data-key=\"f34be1ed5a6b60c77038ff63e48c3e88\">drag-and-drop<\/a> design modules. With little to no programming required, and reusability from global libraries and standardized forms such as CDISC's CDASH, deploying EDC can now rival the paper processes in terms of study start-up time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> As a result, even the earlier phase studies have begun to adopt EDC technology.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>EDC is often cited as having its origins in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_data_entry\" title=\"Remote data entry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d26351e768a39c9f014ad21dd580131\">remote data entry<\/a> (RDE) software, which surfaced in the life sciences market in the late 1980s and early 1990s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HydeTheChanging98-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> However, its origins might be tracked to a contract research organization known then as Institute for Biological Research and Development (IBRD). Drs. Nichol, Pickering, and Bollert offered \"a controlled system for post-marketing surveillance (PMS) of newly approved (NDA) pharmaceutical products,\" with surveillance data being \"entered into an electronic data base on site\" at least as early as 1980.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NicholPost80_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NicholPost80-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Clinical research data\u2014patient data collected during the investigation of a new drug or medical device is collected by physicians, nurses, and research study coordinators in medical settings (offices, hospitals, universities) throughout the world. Historically, this information was collected on paper forms which were then sent to the research sponsor (e.g., a pharmaceutical company) for data entry into a database and subsequent statistical analysis environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HamadHealth17_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HamadHealth17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WaltherComp11_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WaltherComp11-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WaterfieldData00_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WaterfieldData00-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> However, this process had a number of shortcomings:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HydeTheChanging98-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WaterfieldData00_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WaterfieldData00-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>data are copied multiple times, which produces errors<\/li>\n<li>errors that are generated are not caught until weeks later<\/li>\n<li>visibility into the medical status of patients by sponsors is delayed<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>To address these and other concerns, RDE systems were invented so that physicians, nurses, and study coordinators could enter the data directly at the medical setting. By moving data entry out of the sponsor site and into the clinic or other facility, a number of benefits could be derived:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HydeTheChanging98-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>data checks could be implemented during data entry (real-time), preventing some errors altogether and immediately prompting for resolution of other errors<\/li>\n<li>data could be transmitted nightly to sponsors, thereby improving the sponsor's ability to monitor the progress and status of the research study and its patients<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>These early RDE systems used \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thick_client\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Thick client\" data-key=\"bf8a878f59dba7fadc78dfefc1995698\">thick client<\/a>\" software\u2014software installed locally on a laptop computer's hardware\u2014to collect the patient data. The system could then use a modem connection over an analog phone line to periodically transmit the data back to the sponsor, and to collect questions from the sponsor that the medical staff would need to answer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HydeTheChanging98-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Though effective, RDE brought with it several shortcomings as well. The most significant shortcoming was that hardware (e.g., a laptop computer) needed to be deployed, installed, and supported at every investigational (medical) site.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WaterfieldData00_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WaterfieldData00-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> This became expensive for sponsors and complicated for medical staff. Usability and space constraints led to a lot of dissatisfaction among medical practitioners. With the rise of the internet in the mid-1990s, the obvious solution to some of these issues was the adoption of web-based software that could be accessed using existing computers at the investigational sites. EDC represents this new class of software.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Current_landscape\">Current landscape<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The EDC landscape has continued to evolve from its evolution from RDE in the late 1990s. Today, the market consists of a variety of new and established software providers. Many of these providers offer specialized solutions targeting certain customer profiles or study phases. Modern features of EDC now include features like cloud data storage, role-based permissions, and case report form designers,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HamadHealth17_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HamadHealth17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> as well as clinical trials analytics, interactive dashboards, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_medical_record\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Electronic medical record\" data-key=\"e0408c1680b49ca03cefe55be7f7bcb3\">electronic medical record<\/a> integration.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Future\">Future<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In 2013, the U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> (FDA) introduced its eSource guidance, which suggests methods of capturing clinical trial data electronically from the very beginning and moving it to the cloud, as opposed to EDC's more traditional method of capturing data initially on paper and transcribing it into the EDC system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NeuerAtThe15_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NeuerAtThe15-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KellarOptim16_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KellarOptim16-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Adoption of eSource was initially slow, with the FDA producing a webinar in July 2015 to further promote the guidance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NeuerAtThe15_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NeuerAtThe15-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Efforts like the TransCelerate eSource Initiative (in 2016) have been founded \"to facilitate the understanding of the eSource landscape and the optimal use of electronic data sources in the industry to improve global clinical science and global clinical trial execution for stakeholders.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KellarOptim16_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KellarOptim16-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> A 2017 study by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tufts_Center_for_the_Study_of_Drug_Development\" title=\"Tufts Center for the Study of Drug Development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccba77f7b8c236138a4fe52bdb471eea\">Tufts Center for the Study of Drug Development<\/a> suggested that with the following three years a \"majority of [surveyed clinical information] companies\" (growing from 38 percent to 84 percent) planned to incorporate eSource data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BWIndustry17_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BWIndustry17-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> With 87 percent of research sites (2017) stating that eSource would be \"helpful\" or \"very helpful\" if integrated with today's EDC,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NomlzuGetting17_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NomlzuGetting17-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> a shift away from EDC (or EDC taking a more complementary role) may be possible.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_data_acquisition\" title=\"Clinical data acquisition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b687fc4e6df3e79f0234bd2ecf8ceb\">Clinical data acquisition<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_data_management_system\" title=\"Clinical data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e73f78edc00f3172c5dcce733e38b3d\">Clinical data management system<\/a> (CDMS)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Case_report_form\" title=\"Case report form\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3325562057f688f4f6ba0089fa97ee2\">Case report form<\/a> (CRF)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_data_entry\" title=\"Remote data entry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d26351e768a39c9f014ad21dd580131\">Remote data entry<\/a> (RDE)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_data_capture\" title=\"Remote data capture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3367c2de338bc8d5f4d229c2e3672e3a\">Remote data capture<\/a> (RDC)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Patient-reported_outcome\" title=\"Patient-reported outcome\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d68ad2b4c5ec8c5237ea121d42bb0ca\">Patient-reported outcome<\/a> (PRO)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_patient-reported_outcome\" title=\"Electronic patient-reported outcome\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae4319a4efba4a1cc85c9e6a3683b1aa\">Electronic patient-reported outcome<\/a> (ePRO)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Title_21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"Title 21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"75e0b3ae8dd5e50f99945c77e860706e\">Title 21 CFR Part 11<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_forms\" title=\"Mobile forms\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd5e0c15e3a7f33cf1e36b6af556e5ae\">Mobile forms<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HamadHealth17-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-HamadHealth17_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HamadHealth17_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HamadHealth17_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHamad,_F.2017\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Hamad, F. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=bSBFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA233\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 13: Health information systems: Clinical data capture and document architecture\"<\/a>. In Urquhart, C.; Hamad, F.; Tbaishat, D.; Yeoman, A. (eds.). <i>Information Systems: Process and Practice<\/i>. Facet Publishing. pp.&#160;233\u201353. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781783302413<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+13%3A+Health+information+systems%3A+Clinical+data+capture+and+document+architecture&amp;rft.btitle=Information+Systems%3A+Process+and+Practice&amp;rft.pages=233-53&amp;rft.pub=Facet+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.isbn=9781783302413&amp;rft.au=Hamad%2C+F.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbSBFDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA233&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDavid_Handelsman\" class=\"citation web cs1\">David Handelsman. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091217165516\/http:\/\/www.sas.com\/news\/feature\/hls\/sep05edc.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Data Capture: When Will It Replace Paper?\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAS_Institute_Inc.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SAS Institute Inc.\" data-key=\"e364edf71bef5356d92233c1fd21fe37\">SAS Institute Inc.<\/a> Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sas.com\/news\/feature\/hls\/sep05edc.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2009-12-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2010-09-03<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Electronic+Data+Capture%3A+When+Will+It+Replace+Paper%3F&amp;rft.pub=SAS+Institute+Inc.&amp;rft.au=David+Handelsman&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sas.com%2Fnews%2Ffeature%2Fhls%2Fsep05edc.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFThomas_Bart\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Thomas Bart. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130903072213\/http:\/\/www.dreamslab.it\/dlab\/media\/docs\/eclinica.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comparison of Electronic Data Capture with Paper Data Collection \u2013 Is There Really an Advantage?\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. . Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dreamslab.it\/dlab\/media\/docs\/eclinica.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 2013-09-03<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-02-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Comparison+of+Electronic+Data+Capture+with+Paper+Data+Collection+%E2%80%93+Is+There+Really+an+Advantage%3F&amp;rft.pub=Business+Briefing%2C+Pharmatech&amp;rft.au=Thomas+Bart&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dreamslab.it%2Fdlab%2Fmedia%2Fdocs%2Feclinica.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrigitte_WaltherSafayet_HossinJohn_TownendNeil_Abernethy2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Brigitte Walther; Safayet Hossin; John Townend; Neil Abernethy; David Parker; David Jeffries (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3179496\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comparison of Electronic Data Capture (EDC) with the Standard Data Capture Method for Clinical Trial Data\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PLOS_ONE\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PLOS ONE\" data-key=\"4789417fbab75c699897242182b2f080\">PLOS ONE<\/a><\/i>. <b>6<\/b> (9): e25348. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bibcode (identifier)\" data-key=\"0380504afd56e19dec99722c11f7daea\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2011PLoSO...625348W\" target=\"_blank\">2011PLoSO...625348W<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0025348\" target=\"_blank\">10.1371\/journal.pone.0025348<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMC (identifier)\" data-key=\"819b8670999a4844fe751cb3fa5d95d0\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3179496\" target=\"_blank\">3179496<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/21966505\" target=\"_blank\">21966505<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&amp;rft.atitle=Comparison+of+Electronic+Data+Capture+%28EDC%29+with+the+Standard+Data+Capture+Method+for+Clinical+Trial+Data&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.pages=e25348&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3179496%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21966505&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0025348&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PLoSO...625348W&amp;rft.au=Brigitte+Walther&amp;rft.au=Safayet+Hossin&amp;rft.au=John+Townend&amp;rft.au=Neil+Abernethy&amp;rft.au=David+Parker&amp;rft.au=David+Jeffries&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3179496&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HydeTheChanging98-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHyde,_A.W.1998\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Hyde, A.W. 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(1980). \"Post-marketing surveillance of approved pharmaceuticals in the United States\". <i>Contemporary Clinical Trials<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (2): 178. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2F0197-2456%2880%2990061-6\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/0197-2456(80)90061-6<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Contemporary+Clinical+Trials&amp;rft.atitle=Post-marketing+surveillance+of+approved+pharmaceuticals+in+the+United+States&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=178&amp;rft.date=1980&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0197-2456%2880%2990061-6&amp;rft.au=Nichol%2C+F.R.&amp;rft.au=Pickering%2C+B.I.&amp;rft.au=Bollert%2C+J.A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WaltherComp11-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WaltherComp11_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWalther,_B.Hossin,_S.Townend,_J.2011\" class=\"citation journal cs1\">Walther, B.; Hossin, S.; Townend, J.; et&#160;al. 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(2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F2168479016670689\" target=\"_blank\">\"Optimizing the Use of Electronic Data Sources in Clinical Trials: The Landscape, Part 1\"<\/a>. <i>Therapeutic Innovation &amp; Regulatory Science<\/i>. <b>50<\/b> (6): 682\u2013696. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\" data-key=\"cc44a394405e1605e468536e6ce26c07\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F2168479016670689\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/2168479016670689<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\" data-key=\"07d2f191ed1e02e7059742df9f2708c0\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/30231749\" target=\"_blank\">30231749<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Therapeutic+Innovation+%26+Regulatory+Science&amp;rft.atitle=Optimizing+the+Use+of+Electronic+Data+Sources+in+Clinical+Trials%3A+The+Landscape%2C+Part+1&amp;rft.volume=50&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=682-696&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2168479016670689&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30231749&amp;rft.au=Kellar%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Bornstein%2C+S.M.&amp;rft.au=Caban%2C+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F2168479016670689&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BWIndustry17-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BWIndustry17_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.businesswire.com\/news\/home\/20171107005745\/en\/Industry-Research-Shows-97-Companies-Increase-Real-world\" target=\"_blank\">\"Industry Research Shows 97% of Companies to Increase Use of Real-world Patient Data for More Accurate Decision-making\"<\/a>. <i>Business Wire<\/i>. 7 November 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Business+Wire&amp;rft.atitle=Industry+Research+Shows+97%25+of+Companies+to+Increase+Use+of+Real-world+Patient+Data+for+More+Accurate+Decision-making&amp;rft.date=2017-11-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businesswire.com%2Fnews%2Fhome%2F20171107005745%2Fen%2FIndustry-Research-Shows-97-Companies-Increase-Real-world&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NomlzuGetting17-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NomlzuGetting17_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNomlzu,_R.2017\" class=\"citation web cs1\">Nomlzu, R. (29 September 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180525015931\/https:\/\/www.clinicalresearch.io\/news\/getting-your-site-ready-for-esource\" target=\"_blank\">\"Getting Your Site Ready for eSource\"<\/a>. <i>InSite<\/i>. CRIO. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.clinicalresearch.io\/news\/getting-your-site-ready-for-esource\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 May 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=InSite&amp;rft.atitle=Getting+Your+Site+Ready+for+eSource&amp;rft.date=2017-09-29&amp;rft.au=Nomlzu%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.clinicalresearch.io%2Fnews%2Fgetting-your-site-ready-for-esource&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw\u2010web.eqiad.main\u2010676f7d946\u2010xvkgl\nCached time: 20231215174717\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.172 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.195 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 718\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 27240\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 87\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 8\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 40888\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.100\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4239605\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 164.238 1 Template:Reflist\n100.00% 164.238 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>54.33% 89.226 2 Template:Cite_book\n14.72% 24.180 5 Template:Cite_journal\n12.44% 20.427 5 Template:Cite_web\n 1.06% 1.744 1 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:3960131-0!canonical and timestamp 20231215174717 and revision id 1187150832. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_data_capture\" data-key=\"d9c2afaf32f67ba7a7afe22d36d07251\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171621\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.093 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.270 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 36661\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 258.253 1 wikipedia:Electronic_data_capture\n100.00% 258.253 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:9094-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171621 and revision id 35091. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_data_capture\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_data_capture<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_images":[],"121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_timestamp":1704906981,"b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_type":"article","b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_title":"Document management system","b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Document_management_system","b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_plaintext":"\n\nDocument management systemFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchOrganised collection of documents\n\"Digital archiving\" redirects here. For the long-term archiving of digital media, see Digital preservation.\n\"EDMS\" redirects here. For an airport with ICAO acronym \"EDMS\", see Straubing Wallm\u00fchle Airport.\n\nA document management system (DMS) is usually a computerized system used to store, share, track and manage files or documents. Some systems include history tracking where a log of the various versions created and modified by different users is recorded. The term has some overlap with the concepts of content management systems. It is often viewed as a component of enterprise content management (ECM) systems and related to digital asset management, document imaging, workflow systems and records management systems.\n\n\n\nHistory \nWhile many EDM systems store documents in their native file format (Microsoft Word or Excel, PDF), some web-based document management systems are beginning to store content in the form of HTML. These HTML-based document management systems can act as publishing systems or policy management systems.[1] Content is captured either by using browser based editors or the importing and conversion of not HTML content. Storing documents as HTML enables a simpler full-text workflow as most search engines deal with HTML natively. DMS without an HTML storage format is required to extract the text from the proprietary format making the full text search workflow slightly more complicated.\nSearch capabilities including boolean queries, cluster analysis, and stemming[2] have become critical components of DMS as users have grown used to internet searching and spend less time organizing their content.\n\nComponents \nDocument management systems commonly provide storage, versioning, metadata, security, as well as indexing and retrieval capabilities. Here is a description of these components:\n\n\n\n\nTopic\nDescription\n\n\nMetadata\nMetadata is typically stored for each document. Metadata may, for example, include the date the document will be stored and the identity of the user storing it. The DMS may also extract metadata from the document automatically or prompt the user to add metadata. Some systems also use optical character recognition on scanned images, or perform text extraction on electronic documents. The resulting extracted text can be used to assist users in locating documents by identifying probable keywords or providing for full text search capability, or can be used on its own. Extracted text can also be stored as a component of metadata, stored with the document, or separately from the document as a source for searching document collections.[3]\n\n\nIntegration\nMany document management systems attempt to provide document management functionality directly to other applications, so that users may retrieve existing documents directly from the document management system repository, make changes, and save the changed document back to the repository as a new version, all without leaving the application. Such integration is commonly available for a variety of software tools such as workflow management and content management systems, typically through an application programming interface (API) using open standards such as ODMA, LDAP, WebDAV, and SOAP or RESTful web services.[4][5]\n\n\nCapture\nCapture primarily involves accepting and processing images of paper documents from scanners or multifunction printers. Optical character recognition (OCR) software is often used, whether integrated into the hardware or as stand-alone software, in order to convert digital images into machine readable text. Optical mark recognition (OMR) software is sometimes used to extract values of check-boxes or bubbles. Capture may also involve accepting electronic documents and other computer-based files.[6]\n\n\nData validation\nData validation rules can check for document failures, missing signatures, misspelled names, and other issues, recommending real-time correction options before importing data into the DMS. Additional processing in the form of harmonization and data format changes may also be applied as part of data validation.[7][8]\n\n\nIndexing\nIndexing tracks electronic documents. Indexing may be as simple as keeping track of unique document identifiers; but often it takes a more complex form, providing classification through the documents' metadata or even through word indexes extracted from the documents' contents. Indexing exists mainly to support information query and retrieval. One area of critical importance for rapid retrieval is the creation of an index topology or scheme.[9]\n\n\nStorage\nStore electronic documents. Storage of the documents often includes management of those same documents; where they are stored, for how long, migration of the documents from one storage media to another (hierarchical storage management) and eventual document destruction.\n\n\nRetrieval\nRetrieve the electronic documents from the storage. Although the notion of retrieving a particular document is simple, retrieval in the electronic context can be quite complex and powerful. Simple retrieval of individual documents can be supported by allowing the user to specify the unique document identifier, and having the system use the basic index (or a non-indexed query on its data store) to retrieve the document.[9] More flexible retrieval allows the user to specify partial search terms involving the document identifier and\/or parts of the expected metadata. This would typically return a list of documents which match the user's search terms. Some systems provide the capability to specify a Boolean expression containing multiple keywords or example phrases expected to exist within the documents' contents. The retrieval for this kind of query may be supported by previously built indexes,[9] or may perform more time-consuming searches through the documents' contents to return a list of the potentially relevant documents. See also Document retrieval.\n\n\nDistribution\nA document ready for distribution has to be in a format that cannot be easily altered. An original master copy of the document is usually never used for distribution; rather, an electronic link to the document itself is more common. If a document is to be distributed electronically in a regulatory environment, then additional criteria must be met, including assurances of traceability and versioning, even across other systems.[10] This approach applies to both of the systems by which the document is to be inter-exchanged, if the integrity of the document is imperative.\n\n\nSecurity\nDocument security is vital in many document management applications. Compliance requirements for certain documents can be quite complex depending on the type of documents. For instance, in the United States, standards such as ISO 9001 and ISO 13485, as well as U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulations, dictate how the document control process should be addressed.[11] Document management systems may have a rights management module that allows an administrator to give access to documents based on type to only certain people or groups of people. Document marking at the time of printing or PDF-creation is an essential element to preclude alteration or unintended use.\n\n\nWorkflow\nWorkflow is a complex process, and some document management systems have either a built-in workflow module[12] or can integrate with workflow management tools.[5] There are different types of workflow. Usage depends on the environment to which the electronic document management system (EDMS) is applied. Manual workflow requires a user to view the document and decide whom to send it to. Rules-based workflow allows an administrator to create a rule that dictates the flow of the document through an organization: for instance, an invoice passes through an approval process and then is routed to the accounts-payable department. Dynamic rules allow for branches to be created in a workflow process. A simple example would be to enter an invoice amount and if the amount is lower than a certain set amount, it follows different routes through the organization. Advanced workflow mechanisms can manipulate content or signal external processes while these rules are in effect.\n\n\nCollaboration\nCollaboration should be inherent in an EDMS. In its basic form, collaborative EDMS should allow documents to be retrieved and worked on by an authorized user. Access should be blocked to other users while work is being performed on the document. Other advanced forms of collaboration act in real time, allowing multiple users to view and modify (or markup) documents at the same time. The resulting document is comprehensive, including all users additions. Collaboration within document management systems means that the various markups by each individual user during the collaboration session are recorded, allowing document history to be monitored.[13]\n\n\nVersioning\nVersioning is a process by which documents are checked in or out of the document management system, allowing users to retrieve previous versions and to continue work from a selected point. Versioning is useful for documents that change over time and require updating, but it may be necessary to go back to or reference a previous copy.[13]\n\n\nSearching\nSearching finds documents and folders using template attributes or full text search. Documents can be searched using various attributes and document content.\n\n\nFederated search\nThis refers to the capability to extend search capabilities to draw results from multiple sources, or from multiple DMSes within an enterprise.[14]\n\n\nPublishing\nPublishing a document involves the procedures of proofreading, peer or public reviewing, authorizing, printing and approving etc. Those steps ensure prudence and logical thinking. Any careless handling may result in the inaccuracy of the document and therefore mislead or upset its users and readers. In law regulated industries, some of the procedures have to be completed as evidenced by their corresponding signatures and the date(s) on which the document was signed. Refer to the ISO divisions of ICS 01.140.40 and 35.240.30 for further information.[15][16]\nThe published document should be in a format that is not easily altered without a specific knowledge or tools, and yet it is read-only or portable.[17]\n\n\n\nHard copy reproduction\nDocument\/image reproduction is often necessary within a document management system, and its supported output devices and reproduction capabilities should be considered.[18]\n\nStandardization \nMany industry associations publish their own lists of particular document control standards that are used in their particular field. Following is a list of some of the relevant ISO documents. Divisions ICS 01.140.10 and 01.140.20.[19][20] The ISO has also published a series of standards regarding the technical documentation, covered by the division of 01.110.[21]\n\nISO 2709 Information and documentation \u2013 Format for information exchange\nISO 15836 Information and documentation \u2013 The Dublin Core metadata element set\nISO 15489 Information and documentation \u2013 Records management\nISO 21127 Information and documentation \u2013 A reference ontology for the interchange of cultural heritage information\nISO 23950 Information and documentation \u2013 Information retrieval (Z39.50) \u2013 Application service definition and protocol specification\nISO 10244 Document management \u2013 Business process baselining and analysis\nISO 32000 Document management \u2013 Portable document format\nISO\/IEC 27001 Specification for an information security management system\nDocument control \nGovernment regulations typically require that companies working in certain industries control their documents. A Document Controller is responsible to control these documents strictly. These industries include accounting (for example: 8th EU Directive, Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act), food safety (for example the Food Safety Modernization Act in the US), ISO (mentioned above), medical device manufacturing (FDA), manufacture of blood, human cells, and tissue products (FDA), healthcare (JCAHO), and information technology (ITIL).[22]\nSome industries work under stricter document control requirements due to the type of information they retain for privacy, warranty, or other highly regulated purposes. Examples include protected health information (PHI) as required by HIPAA or construction project documents required for warranty periods. An information systems strategy plan (ISSP) can shape organisational information systems over medium to long-term periods.[23]\nDocuments stored in a document management system\u2014such as procedures, work instructions, and policy statements\u2014provide evidence of documents under control. Failing to comply can cause fines, the loss of business, or damage to a business's reputation.\nDocument control includes:[24]\n\nreviewing and approving documents prior to release\nensuring changes and revisions are clearly identified\nensuring that relevant versions of applicable documents are available at their \"points of use\"\nensuring that documents remain legible and identifiable\nensuring that external documents (such as customer-supplied documents or supplier manuals) are identified and controlled\npreventing \u201cunintended\u201d use of obsolete documents\nThese document control requirements form part of an organisation's compliance costs alongside related functions such as a data protection officer and internal audit.\n\nIntegrated DM \nIntegrated document management comprises the technologies, tools, and methods used to capture, manage, store, preserve, deliver and dispose of 'documents' across an enterprise. In this context 'documents' are any of a myriad of information assets including images, office documents, graphics, and drawings as well as the new electronic objects such as Web pages, email, instant messages, and video.\n\nDocument management software \nPaper documents have long been used in storing information. However, paper can be costly and, if used excessively, wasteful. Document management software is not simply a tool but it lets a user manage access, track and edit information stored. Document management software is an electronic cabinet that can be used to organize all paper and digital files.[25] The software helps the businesses to combine paper to digital files and store it into a single hub after it is scanned and digital formats get imported.[26] One of the most important benefits of digital document management is a \u201cfail-safe\u201d environment for safeguarding all documents and data.[27] In the heavy construction industry specifically, document management software allows team members to securely view and upload documents for projects they are assigned to from anywhere and at any time to help streamline day-to-day operations.[28]\n\nSee also \n\nConstruction collaboration technology\nCustomer communications management\nData proliferation\nDocument automation\nDocumentation\nEnterprise content management\nInformation repository\nInformation science\nKnowledge base\nKnowledge management\nLibrary science\nProduct data management\nRevision control\nSnippet management\nTaxonomy (general)\nTechnical data management system\nTechnical documentation\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ Policy Management System Archived 29 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Stemming: Making searching easier Archived 11 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Parsons, M. (2004). Effective Knowledge Management for Law Firms. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;234. ISBN&#160;9780195169683. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ Shivakumar, S.K. (2016). Enterprise Content and Search Management for Building Digital Platforms. John Wiley &amp; Sons. p.&#160;93. ISBN&#160;9781119206828. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Fletcher, A.N.; Brahm, M.; Pargmann, H. (2003). Workflow Management with SAP WebFlow: A Practical Manual. Springer Science &amp; Business Media. pp.&#160;15\u201316. ISBN&#160;9783540404033. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ Webber, M.; Webber, L. (2016). It Governance: Policies and Procedures. Wolters Kluwer. p.&#160;41-4. ISBN&#160;9781454871323. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ Trinchieri, D. (2003). Evaluation of Integrated Document Management System (IDMS) Options for the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT). Arizona Department of Transportation. p.&#160;158. The data validation rules should be embedded in the form itself, rather than accomplished in a post-processing environment. This provides the use an interactive real-time experience. Often data validation requires a database look-up. The rules should allow this database query, providing the user real-time choices based on query results. \n\n^ Morley, D.; Parker, C.S. (2014). Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow, Comprehensive. Cengage Learning. pp.&#160;558\u2013559. ISBN&#160;9781285767277. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b c Meurant, G. (2012). Introduction to Electronic Document Management Systems. Academic Press. p.&#160;120. ISBN&#160;9780323140621. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ Sommerville, J.; Craig, N. (2006). Implementing IT in Construction. Routledge. p.&#160;130. ISBN&#160;9781134198986. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ Skipper, S.L. (2015). How to Establish a Document Control System for Compliance with ISO 9001:2015, ISO 13485:2016, and FDA Requirements. ASQ Quality Press. p.&#160;156. ISBN&#160;9780873899178. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ Austerberry, D. (2012). Digital Asset Management. CRC Press. pp.&#160;27\u201328. ISBN&#160;9781136033629. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Austerberry, D. (2012). Digital Asset Management. CRC Press. p.&#160;30. ISBN&#160;9781136033629. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ White, M. (2012). Enterprise Search. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;73\u201374. ISBN&#160;9781449330408. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ International Organization for Standardization. \"01.140.40: Publishing\". Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 14 July 2008 . \n\n^ International Organization for Standardization. \"35.240.30: IT applications in information, documentation and publishing\". Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 14 July 2008 . \n\n^ OnSphere Corporation. \"SOP Document Management in a Validated Environments\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 September 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2011 . \n\n^ Meurant, G. (2012). Introduction to Electronic Document Management Systems. Academic Press. p.&#160;16. ISBN&#160;9780323140621. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ International Organization for Standardization. \"01.140.10: Writing and transliteration\". Archived from the original on 7 July 2009. Retrieved 14 July 2008 . \n\n^ International Organization for Standardization. \"01.140.20: Information sciences\". Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 14 July 2008 . \n\n^ International Organization for Standardization. \"01.110: Technical product documentation\". Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 15 July 2008 . \n\n^ \n\"Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, Part 1271\". Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original on 10 October 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2012 . \n\n^ \nWiggins, Bob (2000). Effective Document Management: Unlocking Corporate Knowledge (2&#160;ed.). Gower. p.&#160;25. ISBN&#160;9780566081484. Archived from the original on 13 January 2018. Retrieved 9 April 2016 . At the organisational level an information systems strategy plan (ISSP) is a way to determine in general terms what information systems an organisation should have in place over the medium to long term (typically around three to five years [...]). \n\n^ \"What is Document Control?\". isoTracker. Retrieved 9 November 2023 . \n\n^ \"Document Management Systems - A Buyer's Guide\". Archived from the original on 10 January 2017. Retrieved 10 January 2017 . \n\n^ Chaouni, Mamoun (5 February 2015). \"7 Powerful Advantages of Using a Document Management System\" Archived 10 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ ash-conversions (13 February 2020). \"Benefits of a Document Management System and 9 Things to Look For\". Ash Conversions International. Retrieved 7 May 2020 . \n\n^ \"Document Management Software for Construction\". HCSS. 15 December 2021. Retrieved 7 June 2022 . \n\n\nExternal links \n\n\n \nWikimedia Commons has media related to Document management systems .\n\nSoftware\/Document Management at Curlie\nAuthority control databases: National \nGermany \nIsrael \nUnited States \nCzech Republic \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Document_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Document_management_system<\/a>\nCategories: Business and data managementSoftware systemsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikisNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 19 May 2018, at 20:50.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 3,148 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Document_management_system rootpage-Document_management_system skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Document management system<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Organised collection of documents<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"Digital archiving\" redirects here. For the long-term archiving of digital media, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_preservation\" title=\"Digital preservation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea48f80fdfaa95d7a085e2cde2d342a4\">Digital preservation<\/a>.<\/div>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096\" \/><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"EDMS\" redirects here. For an airport with ICAO acronym \"EDMS\", see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Straubing_Wallm%C3%BChle_Airport\" title=\"Straubing Wallm\u00fchle Airport\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac772915d874175f5d50ee7d0d93ebb5\">Straubing Wallm\u00fchle Airport<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p>\nA <b>document management system<\/b> (<b>DMS<\/b>) is usually a computerized system used to store, share, track and manage files or documents. Some systems include history tracking where a log of the various versions created and modified by different users is recorded. The term has some overlap with the concepts of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_management_system\" title=\"Content management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3eac85f5c05cd41688150c2d211e93cf\">content management systems<\/a>. It is often viewed as a component of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_content_management\" title=\"Enterprise content management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c41c797e73c520a9ca95ccbdf23ca7e\">enterprise content management<\/a> (ECM) systems and related to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_asset_management\" title=\"Digital asset management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67180976fc37adbd3f686b6a21e67f2b\">digital asset management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_imaging\" title=\"Document imaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d01584651c6799bcace84955d063f1b\">document imaging<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a7b055462a00234621920f7bd77834c\">workflow<\/a> systems and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Records_management\" title=\"Records management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"776f0cc59b663e870b7d26c6b5868575\">records management<\/a> systems.\n<\/p>\n<p><meta property=\"mw:PageProp\/toc\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>While many EDM systems store documents in their native file format (Microsoft Word or Excel, PDF), some web-based document management systems are beginning to store content in the form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTML\" title=\"HTML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2129f27a9bbb49d279dab0e89f49c23c\">HTML<\/a>. These HTML-based document management systems can act as publishing systems or policy management systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Content is captured either by using browser based editors or the importing and conversion of not HTML content. Storing documents as HTML enables a simpler full-text workflow as most search engines deal with HTML natively. DMS without an HTML storage format is required to extract the text from the proprietary format making the full text search workflow slightly more complicated.\n<\/p><p>Search capabilities including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Full-text_search#Boolean_queries\" title=\"Full-text search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5111b9b3a667e7c3f3b64392e9340da7\">boolean queries<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">cluster analysis<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stemming\" title=\"Stemming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7842992d104b9c7b0c8a7f1d67a4bfa2\">stemming<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> have become critical components of DMS as users have grown used to internet searching and spend less time organizing their content.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Components\">Components<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Document management systems commonly provide storage, versioning, metadata, security, as well as indexing and retrieval capabilities. Here is a description of these components:\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Topic<\/th>\n<th>Description\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">Metadata<\/a><\/b><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">Metadata<\/a> is typically stored for each document. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">Metadata<\/a> may, for example, include the date the document will be stored and the identity of the user storing it. The DMS may also extract metadata from the document automatically or prompt the user to add metadata. Some systems also use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_character_recognition\" title=\"Optical character recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61174982accbb4d0c9bccbdc56a02144\">optical character recognition<\/a> on scanned images, or perform text extraction on electronic documents. The resulting extracted text can be used to assist users in locating documents by identifying probable keywords or providing for full text search capability, or can be used on its own. Extracted text can also be stored as a component of metadata, stored with the document, or separately from the document as a source for searching document collections.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ParsonsEffective04_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ParsonsEffective04-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Integration<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Many document management systems attempt to provide document management functionality directly to other applications, so that users may retrieve existing documents directly from the document management system repository, make changes, and save the changed document back to the repository as a new version, all without leaving the application. Such integration is commonly available for a variety of software tools such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_management_system\" title=\"Workflow management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6431e43c8af23358c867106d508ce082\">workflow management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_management_system\" title=\"Content management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3eac85f5c05cd41688150c2d211e93cf\">content management systems<\/a>, typically through an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_programming_interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Application programming interface\" data-key=\"c3b6475d989fc4f46d473299c5f0a76b\">application programming interface<\/a> (API) using open standards such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ODMA\" title=\"ODMA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb10aaf5b99bcb38ec6dbbcec5aa9c1b\">ODMA<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lightweight_Directory_Access_Protocol\" title=\"Lightweight Directory Access Protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73614b88ebb944abb2b190b96ec0d478\">LDAP<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WebDAV\" title=\"WebDAV\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af6c2b694eb465654de2abc28fdb0a51\">WebDAV<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SOAP\" title=\"SOAP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"952e7ea001d98d86e8321b60c06caa6d\">SOAP<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Representational_state_transfer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Representational state transfer\" data-key=\"e54b62a1f8ac222520161f4177ee552a\">RESTful<\/a> web services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShivakumarEnter16_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShivakumarEnter16-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FletcherWorkflow03_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FletcherWorkflow03-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Capture<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Capture primarily involves accepting and processing images of paper documents from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Image_scanner\" title=\"Image scanner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eab0d1501c372bd47753accf7378dca7\">scanners<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multifunction_printer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Multifunction printer\" data-key=\"d89480115e600c035ccb7159c2d5baf3\">multifunction printers<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_character_recognition\" title=\"Optical character recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61174982accbb4d0c9bccbdc56a02144\">Optical character recognition<\/a> (OCR) software is often used, whether integrated into the hardware or as stand-alone software, in order to convert digital images into machine readable text. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_mark_recognition\" title=\"Optical mark recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec794ba81d445961540fda3771a2b2d0\">Optical mark recognition<\/a> (OMR) software is sometimes used to extract values of check-boxes or bubbles. Capture may also involve accepting electronic documents and other computer-based files.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WebberITGov16_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WebberITGov16-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Data validation<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Data validation rules can check for document failures, missing signatures, misspelled names, and other issues, recommending real-time correction options before importing data into the DMS. Additional processing in the form of harmonization and data format changes may also be applied as part of data validation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TrinchieriEval03_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TrinchieriEval03-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MorleyUnder14_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MorleyUnder14-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Indexing<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Indexing tracks electronic documents. Indexing may be as simple as keeping track of unique document identifiers; but often it takes a more complex form, providing classification through the documents' metadata or even through word indexes extracted from the documents' contents. Indexing exists mainly to support information query and retrieval. One area of critical importance for rapid retrieval is the creation of an index <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Topology\" title=\"Topology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef1bb60da633b4b23e207e474c03dd0e\">topology<\/a> or scheme.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MeurantInto12-1_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MeurantInto12-1-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Storage<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Store electronic documents. Storage of the documents often includes management of those same documents; where they are stored, for how long, migration of the documents from one storage media to another (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchical_storage_management\" title=\"Hierarchical storage management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af8af779a60755ebffebb7223339a53f\">hierarchical storage management<\/a>) and eventual document destruction.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Retrieval<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Retrieve the electronic documents from the storage. Although the notion of retrieving a particular document is simple, retrieval in the electronic context can be quite complex and powerful. Simple retrieval of individual documents can be supported by allowing the user to specify the unique document identifier, and having the system use the basic index (or a non-indexed query on its data store) to retrieve the document.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MeurantInto12-1_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MeurantInto12-1-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> More flexible retrieval allows the user to specify partial search terms involving the document identifier and\/or parts of the expected metadata. This would typically return a list of documents which match the user's search terms. Some systems provide the capability to specify a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boolean_expression\" title=\"Boolean expression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b68573f9f90d6e7ccd7f37936f11552\">Boolean expression<\/a> containing multiple keywords or example phrases expected to exist within the documents' contents. The retrieval for this kind of query may be supported by previously built indexes,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MeurantInto12-1_9-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MeurantInto12-1-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> or may perform more time-consuming searches through the documents' contents to return a list of the potentially relevant documents. <i>See also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_retrieval\" title=\"Document retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"604c1bc847f9fd32a27c5a3eb1b8904b\">Document retrieval<\/a>.<\/i>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Distribution<\/b><\/td>\n<td>A document ready for distribution has to be in a format that cannot be easily altered. An original master copy of the document is usually never used for distribution; rather, an electronic link to the document itself is more common. If a document is to be distributed electronically in a regulatory environment, then additional criteria must be met, including assurances of traceability and versioning, even across other systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SommervilleImp06_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SommervilleImp06-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> This approach applies to both of the systems by which the document is to be inter-exchanged, if the integrity of the document is imperative.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Security<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Document security is vital in many document management applications. Compliance requirements for certain documents can be quite complex depending on the type of documents. For instance, in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_of_America\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"United States of America\" data-key=\"a022a098bca5dfde0d90fdb5ac1d73af\">United States<\/a>, standards such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_9001\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 9001\" data-key=\"45cf4657ea69b334ee95b95c9187f373\">ISO 9001<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_13485\" title=\"ISO 13485\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8248b26d81c246c0a6cbc320d1670e01\">ISO 13485<\/a>, as well as U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> regulations, dictate how the document control process should be addressed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SkipperHowTo15_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SkipperHowTo15-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Document management systems may have a rights management module that allows an administrator to give access to documents based on type to only certain people or groups of people. Document marking at the time of printing or PDF-creation is an essential element to preclude alteration or unintended use.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a7b055462a00234621920f7bd77834c\">Workflow<\/a><\/b><\/td>\n<td>Workflow is a complex process, and some document management systems have either a built-in workflow module<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AusterberryDigital12-1_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AusterberryDigital12-1-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> or can integrate with workflow management tools.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FletcherWorkflow03_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FletcherWorkflow03-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> There are different types of workflow. Usage depends on the environment to which the electronic document management system (EDMS) is applied. Manual workflow requires a user to view the document and decide whom to send it to. Rules-based workflow allows an administrator to create a rule that dictates the flow of the document through an organization: for instance, an invoice passes through an approval process and then is routed to the accounts-payable department. Dynamic rules allow for branches to be created in a workflow process. A simple example would be to enter an invoice amount and if the amount is lower than a certain set amount, it follows different routes through the organization. Advanced workflow mechanisms can manipulate content or signal external processes while these rules are in effect.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Collaboration<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Collaboration should be inherent in an EDMS. In its basic form, collaborative EDMS should allow documents to be retrieved and worked on by an authorized user. Access should be blocked to other users while work is being performed on the document. Other advanced forms of collaboration act in real time, allowing multiple users to view and modify (or markup) documents at the same time. The resulting document is comprehensive, including all users additions. Collaboration within document management systems means that the various markups by each individual user during the collaboration session are recorded, allowing document history to be monitored.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AusterberryDigital12-2_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AusterberryDigital12-2-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Version_control\" title=\"Version control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e89feabadbf7abca76d5b5d945a458\">Versioning<\/a><\/b><\/td>\n<td>Versioning is a process by which documents are checked in or out of the document management system, allowing users to retrieve previous versions and to continue work from a selected point. Versioning is useful for documents that change over time and require updating, but it may be necessary to go back to or reference a previous copy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AusterberryDigital12-2_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AusterberryDigital12-2-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Searching<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Searching finds documents and folders using template attributes or full text search. Documents can be searched using various attributes and document content.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Federated search<\/b><\/td>\n<td>This refers to the capability to extend search capabilities to draw results from multiple sources, or from multiple DMSes within an enterprise.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WhiteEnterprise12_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WhiteEnterprise12-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Publishing\" title=\"Publishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7482cdd00619a2e36a6a9b776defc758\">Publishing<\/a><\/b><\/td>\n<td>Publishing a document involves the procedures of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proofreading\" title=\"Proofreading\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c90d105e4ab7ecd0687fe2d7d26a29c\">proofreading<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer_review\" title=\"Peer review\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"804a002d7470d3bdb52f8818a8c0fe22\">peer<\/a> or public reviewing, authorizing, printing and approving etc. Those steps ensure <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prudence\" title=\"Prudence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb9e66f343f40ccb8f852e65f9ca8a94\">prudence<\/a> and logical thinking. Any careless handling may result in the inaccuracy of the document and therefore mislead or upset its users and readers. In law regulated industries, some of the procedures have to be completed as evidenced by their corresponding signatures and the date(s) on which the document was signed. Refer to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">ISO<\/a> divisions of ICS 01.140.40 and 35.240.30 for further information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-pub_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pub-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-itpub_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-itpub-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>The published document should be in a format that is not easily altered without a specific knowledge or tools, and yet it is read-only or portable.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-sdmv_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-sdmv-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Hard copy reproduction<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Document\/image reproduction is often necessary within a document management system, and its supported output devices and reproduction capabilities should be considered.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MeurantInto12-2_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MeurantInto12-2-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standardization\">Standardization<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Many industry associations publish their own lists of particular document control standards that are used in their particular field. Following is a list of some of the relevant ISO documents. Divisions ICS 01.140.10 and 01.140.20.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-wt_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-wt-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-is_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-is-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> The ISO has also published a series of standards regarding the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technical_documentation\" title=\"Technical documentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bd9b24505c17507d13718483570f036\">technical documentation<\/a>, covered by the division of 01.110.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tpd_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tpd-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_2709\" title=\"ISO 2709\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"229f54a204e801b4cc06eff792126086\">ISO 2709<\/a> Information and documentation \u2013 Format for information exchange<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=52142\" target=\"_blank\">ISO 15836<\/a> Information and documentation \u2013 The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a> metadata element set<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=31908\" target=\"_blank\">ISO 15489<\/a> Information and documentation \u2013 Records management<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=57832\" target=\"_blank\">ISO 21127<\/a> Information and documentation \u2013 A reference <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(information_science)\" title=\"Ontology (information science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6cd018caae9a0c95e80b08c71758343\">ontology<\/a> for the interchange of cultural heritage information<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_23950\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 23950\" data-key=\"9b9c7d114db2421f2f7065104c148b82\">ISO 23950<\/a> Information and documentation \u2013 Information retrieval (Z39.50) \u2013 Application service definition and protocol specification<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=45935\" target=\"_blank\">ISO 10244<\/a> Document management \u2013 Business process baselining and analysis<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_32000\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 32000\" data-key=\"95042833579f55d9038f40c1555e5701\">ISO 32000<\/a> Document management \u2013 Portable document format<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_27001\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 27001\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd3902db4bbaf0270cab9cb14d0f326e\">ISO\/IEC 27001<\/a> Specification for an information security management system<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Document_control\">Document control<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulatory_economics\" title=\"Regulatory economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c891b3f32157aa933997e79de24a658\">Government regulations<\/a> typically require that companies working in certain industries control their documents. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_Controller\" title=\"Document Controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6e80eccc7530489bcc2251c502698fed\">Document Controller<\/a> is responsible to control these documents strictly. These industries include accounting (for example: 8th <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directive_(European_Union)\" title=\"Directive (European Union)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05c782d4ebddeb1a932f6a901167cb0f\">EU Directive<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sarbanes%E2%80%93Oxley_Act\" title=\"Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bc225a8cadba29f9f88c2930c3a91b9\">Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act<\/a>), food safety (for example the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_Safety_Modernization_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Food Safety Modernization Act\" data-key=\"4955372c56585133c9e43d248589fa0c\">Food Safety Modernization Act<\/a> in the US), ISO (mentioned above), medical device manufacturing (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">FDA<\/a>), manufacture of blood, human cells, and tissue products (FDA), healthcare (<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JCAHO\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JCAHO\" data-key=\"10d6140676151e0edf46d83de2be058e\">JCAHO<\/a><\/i>), and information technology (<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITIL\" title=\"ITIL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ecb066fc21e166ca22e8a9091e3791d\">ITIL<\/a><\/i>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\nSome industries work under stricter document control requirements due to the type of information they retain for privacy, warranty, or other highly regulated purposes. Examples include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protected_health_information\" title=\"Protected health information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59c1da9490395bd2052bd5d163df09e7\">protected health information<\/a> (PHI) as required by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HIPAA\" data-key=\"e5d765dfa9187745e2a5463d1b49a4c9\">HIPAA<\/a> or construction project documents required for warranty periods. An information systems strategy plan (ISSP) can shape organisational information systems over medium to long-term periods.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Documents stored in a document management system\u2014such as procedures, work instructions, and policy statements\u2014provide evidence of documents under control. Failing to comply can cause fines, the loss of business, or damage to a business's reputation.\n<\/p><p>Document control includes:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>reviewing and approving documents prior to release<\/li>\n<li>ensuring changes and revisions are clearly identified<\/li>\n<li>ensuring that relevant versions of applicable documents are available at their \"points of use\"<\/li>\n<li>ensuring that documents remain legible and identifiable<\/li>\n<li>ensuring that external documents (such as customer-supplied documents or supplier manuals) are identified and controlled<\/li>\n<li>preventing \u201cunintended\u201d use of obsolete documents<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>These document control requirements form part of an organisation's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compliance_cost\" title=\"Compliance cost\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86d283bcc467e6a28a9a47a0e5e70218\">compliance costs<\/a> alongside related functions such as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_protection_officer\" title=\"Data protection officer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"312ebbf590f4999cb090c9e81f91ee67\">data protection officer<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internal_audit\" title=\"Internal audit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee893997009e3b79426b7e8fc7bb890f\">internal audit<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Integrated_DM\">Integrated DM<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Integrated document management<\/b> comprises the technologies, tools, and methods used to capture, manage, store, preserve, deliver and dispose of 'documents' across an enterprise. In this context 'documents' are any of a myriad of information assets including images, office documents, graphics, and drawings as well as the new electronic objects such as Web pages, email, instant messages, and video.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Document_management_software\">Document management software<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Paper documents have long been used in storing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a>. However, paper can be costly and, if used excessively, wasteful. Document management software is not simply a tool but it lets a user manage access, track and edit information stored. Document management software is an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronics\" title=\"Electronics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cc4c102223083779a5fa0e7a609cbe0\">electronic<\/a> cabinet that can be used to organize all paper and digital files.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> The software helps the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Businesses\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Businesses\" data-key=\"e6d9945fde342b5624daa88fcf4209cd\">businesses<\/a> to combine paper to digital files and store it into a single hub after it is scanned and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_formats\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital formats\" data-key=\"bb8853a12bf2b6c11738d217146bda0a\">digital formats<\/a> get imported.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> One of the most important benefits of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_document\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital document\" data-key=\"40762313f3151a329f6aa972663187e6\">digital document<\/a> management is a \u201cfail-safe\u201d environment for safeguarding all <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Documents\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Documents\" data-key=\"21847a97868f73234fd67b80c01073c5\">documents<\/a> and data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> In the heavy construction industry specifically, document management software allows team members to securely view and upload documents for projects they are assigned to from anywhere and at any time to help streamline day-to-day operations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HCSS-document-management_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HCSS-document-management-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col\" style=\"column-width: 22em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Construction_collaboration_technology\" title=\"Construction collaboration technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f65ba582a814b108b3df63a396f8b4f\">Construction collaboration technology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_communications_management\" title=\"Customer communications management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1400f0f2e3285dd0bdbcc322ad73f51\">Customer communications management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_proliferation\" title=\"Data proliferation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"385ff440045f7fea4690ac382bed09e8\">Data proliferation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_automation\" title=\"Document automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20ee72738e1b69bef62898c10122f938\">Document automation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Documentation\" title=\"Documentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f1a7be74b80f082ae573ff1d8a6f5e6\">Documentation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_content_management\" title=\"Enterprise content management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c41c797e73c520a9ca95ccbdf23ca7e\">Enterprise content management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_repository\" title=\"Information repository\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"983d22d660b1bb04da4b544a8ff35040\">Information repository<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_science\" title=\"Information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d03d37d20fd3931e86c370316d1a14a\">Information science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_base\" title=\"Knowledge base\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dae3d5f45726413ec5e9e2654dec91e8\">Knowledge base<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_science\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Library science\" data-key=\"d0008364809b9d88fca31ad1d366db7b\">Library science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_data_management\" title=\"Product data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"391f1a51b36de98338588155a6a199b1\">Product data management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Revision_control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Revision control\" data-key=\"f5187cd78a5d0dd95b9723a2743cf831\">Revision control<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Snippet_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Snippet management\" data-key=\"3fb2d40f33e1e0a9612e55f2f49d70b8\">Snippet management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taxonomy_(general)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Taxonomy (general)\" data-key=\"4aaa26205adafdaaad56521acf7bbfb6\">Taxonomy (general)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technical_data_management_system\" title=\"Technical data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba3b7720d81fc98a1d13ea98fdcb269a\">Technical data management system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technical_documentation\" title=\"Technical documentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bd9b24505c17507d13718483570f036\">Technical documentation<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.policystat.com\/health-systems-or-networks\/\" target=\"_blank\">Policy Management System<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111029013250\/http:\/\/www.policystat.com\/health-systems-or-networks\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 29 October 2011 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.policystat.com\/blog\/2011\/11\/08\/making-medical-office-policies-easier-to-find-with-stemming\/\" target=\"_blank\">Stemming: Making searching easier<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120111094547\/http:\/\/www.policystat.com\/blog\/2011\/11\/08\/making-medical-office-policies-easier-to-find-with-stemming\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 11 January 2012 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ParsonsEffective04-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ParsonsEffective04_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFParsons2004\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Parsons, M. (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=R_oRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA234\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Effective Knowledge Management for Law Firms<\/i><\/a>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;234. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780195169683<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Effective+Knowledge+Management+for+Law+Firms&amp;rft.pages=234&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=9780195169683&amp;rft.aulast=Parsons&amp;rft.aufirst=M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR_oRDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA234&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShivakumarEnter16-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ShivakumarEnter16_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShivakumar2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Shivakumar, S.K. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=wFK9DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA93\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Enterprise Content and Search Management for Building Digital Platforms<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. p.&#160;93. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781119206828<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Enterprise+Content+and+Search+Management+for+Building+Digital+Platforms&amp;rft.pages=93&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=9781119206828&amp;rft.aulast=Shivakumar&amp;rft.aufirst=S.K.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwFK9DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA93&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FletcherWorkflow03-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FletcherWorkflow03_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FletcherWorkflow03_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFletcherBrahmPargmann2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Fletcher, A.N.; Brahm, M.; Pargmann, H. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Z0VuXKlaLNcC&pg=PA16\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Workflow Management with SAP WebFlow: A Practical Manual<\/i><\/a>. Springer Science &amp; Business Media. pp.&#160;15\u201316. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9783540404033<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Workflow+Management+with+SAP+WebFlow%3A+A+Practical+Manual&amp;rft.pages=15-16&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=9783540404033&amp;rft.aulast=Fletcher&amp;rft.aufirst=A.N.&amp;rft.au=Brahm%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Pargmann%2C+H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ0VuXKlaLNcC%26pg%3DPA16&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WebberITGov16-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WebberITGov16_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWebberWebber2016\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Webber, M.; Webber, L. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=4OzyDAAAQBAJ&pg=SA41-PA4\" target=\"_blank\"><i>It Governance: Policies and Procedures<\/i><\/a>. Wolters Kluwer. p.&#160;41-4. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781454871323<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=It+Governance%3A+Policies+and+Procedures&amp;rft.pages=41-4&amp;rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=9781454871323&amp;rft.aulast=Webber&amp;rft.aufirst=M.&amp;rft.au=Webber%2C+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4OzyDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DSA41-PA4&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TrinchieriEval03-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TrinchieriEval03_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTrinchieri2003\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Trinchieri, D. (2003). <i>Evaluation of Integrated Document Management System (IDMS) Options for the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT)<\/i>. Arizona Department of Transportation. p.&#160;158. <q>The data validation rules should be embedded in the form itself, rather than accomplished in a post-processing environment. This provides the use an interactive real-time experience. Often data validation requires a database look-up. The rules should allow this database query, providing the user real-time choices based on query results.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Evaluation+of+Integrated+Document+Management+System+%28IDMS%29+Options+for+the+Arizona+Department+of+Transportation+%28ADOT%29&amp;rft.pages=158&amp;rft.pub=Arizona+Department+of+Transportation&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.aulast=Trinchieri&amp;rft.aufirst=D.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MorleyUnder14-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MorleyUnder14_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMorleyParker2014\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Morley, D.; Parker, C.S. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=bDAeCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA558\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow, Comprehensive<\/i><\/a>. Cengage Learning. pp.&#160;558\u2013559. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781285767277<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+Computers%3A+Today+and+Tomorrow%2C+Comprehensive&amp;rft.pages=558-559&amp;rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=9781285767277&amp;rft.aulast=Morley&amp;rft.aufirst=D.&amp;rft.au=Parker%2C+C.S.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbDAeCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA558&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MeurantInto12-1-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-MeurantInto12-1_9-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-MeurantInto12-1_9-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-MeurantInto12-1_9-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMeurant2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Meurant, G. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=lzGGHLDERYIC&pg=PA120\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Electronic Document Management Systems<\/i><\/a>. Academic Press. p.&#160;120. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780323140621<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Electronic+Document+Management+Systems&amp;rft.pages=120&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9780323140621&amp;rft.aulast=Meurant&amp;rft.aufirst=G.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlzGGHLDERYIC%26pg%3DPA120&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SommervilleImp06-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SommervilleImp06_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSommervilleCraig2006\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Sommerville, J.; Craig, N. (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QkUqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA130\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Implementing IT in Construction<\/i><\/a>. Routledge. p.&#160;130. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781134198986<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Implementing+IT+in+Construction&amp;rft.pages=130&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9781134198986&amp;rft.aulast=Sommerville&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rft.au=Craig%2C+N.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQkUqBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA130&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SkipperHowTo15-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SkipperHowTo15_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSkipper2015\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Skipper, S.L. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=HLIDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10\" target=\"_blank\"><i>How to Establish a Document Control System for Compliance with ISO 9001:2015, ISO 13485:2016, and FDA Requirements<\/i><\/a>. ASQ Quality Press. p.&#160;156. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780873899178<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=How+to+Establish+a+Document+Control+System+for+Compliance+with+ISO+9001%3A2015%2C+ISO+13485%3A2016%2C+and+FDA+Requirements&amp;rft.pages=156&amp;rft.pub=ASQ+Quality+Press&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=9780873899178&amp;rft.aulast=Skipper&amp;rft.aufirst=S.L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHLIDCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT10&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AusterberryDigital12-1-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AusterberryDigital12-1_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAusterberry2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Austerberry, D. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=c5ncAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Digital Asset Management<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp.&#160;27\u201328. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781136033629<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Digital+Asset+Management&amp;rft.pages=27-28&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9781136033629&amp;rft.aulast=Austerberry&amp;rft.aufirst=D.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc5ncAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT35&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AusterberryDigital12-2-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-AusterberryDigital12-2_13-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AusterberryDigital12-2_13-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAusterberry2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Austerberry, D. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=c5ncAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT38\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Digital Asset Management<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. p.&#160;30. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781136033629<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Digital+Asset+Management&amp;rft.pages=30&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9781136033629&amp;rft.aulast=Austerberry&amp;rft.aufirst=D.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc5ncAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT38&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WhiteEnterprise12-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WhiteEnterprise12_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWhite2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">White, M. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=4M46PRgJmJYC&pg=PA73\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Enterprise Search<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp.&#160;73\u201374. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9781449330408<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Enterprise+Search&amp;rft.pages=73-74&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9781449330408&amp;rft.aulast=White&amp;rft.aufirst=M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4M46PRgJmJYC%26pg%3DPA73&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pub-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pub_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFInternational_Organization_for_Standardization\" class=\"citation web cs1\">International Organization for Standardization. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=140&ICS3=40&\" target=\"_blank\">\"01.140.40: Publishing\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110606045311\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=140&ICS3=40&\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 June 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=01.140.40%3A+Publishing&amp;rft.au=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fproducts%2Fstandards%2Fcatalogue_ics_browse.htm%3FICS1%3D01%26ICS2%3D140%26ICS3%3D40%26&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-itpub-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-itpub_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFInternational_Organization_for_Standardization\" class=\"citation web cs1\">International Organization for Standardization. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/catalogue_ics_browse?ICS1=35&ICS2=240&ICS3=30&\" target=\"_blank\">\"35.240.30: IT applications in information, documentation and publishing\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110606045331\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/catalogue_ics_browse?ICS1=35&ICS2=240&ICS3=30&\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 June 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=35.240.30%3A+IT+applications+in+information%2C+documentation+and+publishing&amp;rft.au=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fcatalogue_ics_browse%3FICS1%3D35%26ICS2%3D240%26ICS3%3D30%26&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-sdmv-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-sdmv_17-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOnSphere_Corporation\" class=\"citation web cs1\">OnSphere Corporation. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110904190514\/http:\/\/www.avidoffice.com\/docushare\/dsweb\/Get\/Document-9101\/Standard%20Operation%20Procedure%20%28SOP%29%20Document%20Management%20in%20Validated%20Environments.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"SOP Document Management in a Validated Environments\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.avidoffice.com\/docushare\/dsweb\/Get\/Document-9101\/Standard%20Operation%20Procedure%20(SOP)%20Document%20Management%20in%20Validated%20Environments.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 4 September 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 April<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=SOP+Document+Management+in+a+Validated+Environments&amp;rft.au=OnSphere+Corporation&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.avidoffice.com%2Fdocushare%2Fdsweb%2FGet%2FDocument-9101%2FStandard%2520Operation%2520Procedure%2520%28SOP%29%2520Document%2520Management%2520in%2520Validated%2520Environments.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MeurantInto12-2-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MeurantInto12-2_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMeurant2012\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Meurant, G. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=lzGGHLDERYIC&pg=PA16\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Electronic Document Management Systems<\/i><\/a>. Academic Press. p.&#160;16. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780323140621<\/bdi><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Electronic+Document+Management+Systems&amp;rft.pages=16&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=9780323140621&amp;rft.aulast=Meurant&amp;rft.aufirst=G.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlzGGHLDERYIC%26pg%3DPA16&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-wt-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-wt_19-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFInternational_Organization_for_Standardization\" class=\"citation web cs1\">International Organization for Standardization. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=140&ICS3=10&\" target=\"_blank\">\"01.140.10: Writing and transliteration\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090707023803\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=140&ICS3=10&\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 July 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=01.140.10%3A+Writing+and+transliteration&amp;rft.au=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fproducts%2Fstandards%2Fcatalogue_ics_browse.htm%3FICS1%3D01%26ICS2%3D140%26ICS3%3D10%26&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-is-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-is_20-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFInternational_Organization_for_Standardization\" class=\"citation web cs1\">International Organization for Standardization. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=140&ICS3=20&\" target=\"_blank\">\"01.140.20: Information sciences\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081205165925\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=140&ICS3=20&\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 5 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=01.140.20%3A+Information+sciences&amp;rft.au=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fproducts%2Fstandards%2Fcatalogue_ics_browse.htm%3FICS1%3D01%26ICS2%3D140%26ICS3%3D20%26&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-tpd-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-tpd_21-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFInternational_Organization_for_Standardization\" class=\"citation web cs1\">International Organization for Standardization. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=110&\" target=\"_blank\">\"01.110: Technical product documentation\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110606045413\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=110&\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 June 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=01.110%3A+Technical+product+documentation&amp;rft.au=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fproducts%2Fstandards%2Fcatalogue_ics_browse.htm%3FICS1%3D01%26ICS2%3D110%26&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=1271&showFR=1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, Part 1271\"<\/a>. Food and Drug Administration. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111010114628\/http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=1271&showFR=1\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 October 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 January<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Code+of+Federal+Regulations+Title+21%2C+Part+1271&amp;rft.pub=Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcdrh%2Fcfdocs%2Fcfcfr%2FCFRSearch.cfm%3FCFRPart%3D1271%26showFR%3D1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWiggins2000\" class=\"citation book cs1\">Wiggins, Bob (2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JnDwAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Effective Document Management: Unlocking Corporate Knowledge<\/i><\/a> (2&#160;ed.). Gower. p.&#160;25. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN_(identifier)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN (identifier)\" data-key=\"0e3e7dc670c671e03325cc4229134790\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;<bdi>9780566081484<\/bdi>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180113184109\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JnDwAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 January 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 April<\/span> 2016<\/span>. <q>At the organisational level an information systems strategy plan (ISSP) is a way to determine in general terms what information systems an organisation should have in place over the medium to long term (typically around three to five years [...]).<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Effective+Document+Management%3A+Unlocking+Corporate+Knowledge&amp;rft.pages=25&amp;rft.edition=2&amp;rft.pub=Gower&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=9780566081484&amp;rft.aulast=Wiggins&amp;rft.aufirst=Bob&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJnDwAAAAMAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.isotracker.com\/blog\/what-is-document-control\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is Document Control?\"<\/a>. <i>isoTracker<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 November<\/span> 2023<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=isoTracker&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+Document+Control%3F&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.isotracker.com%2Fblog%2Fwhat-is-document-control%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.businessnewsdaily.com\/8026-choosing-a-document-management-system.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Document Management Systems - A Buyer's Guide\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170110162200\/http:\/\/www.businessnewsdaily.com\/8026-choosing-a-document-management-system.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 January 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Document+Management+Systems+-+A+Buyer%27s+Guide&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessnewsdaily.com%2F8026-choosing-a-document-management-system.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Chaouni, Mamoun (5 February 2015). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#QByJYdR4YItDZzq1.97\">\"7 Powerful Advantages of Using a Document Management System\"<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170110162348\/http:\/\/www.business2community.com\/tech-gadgets\/7-powerful-advantages-using-document-management-system-01148648\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 10 January 2017 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFash-conversions2020\" class=\"citation web cs1\">ash-conversions (13 February 2020). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ashconversions.com\/blog\/document-management\/benefits-document-management-system-9-things-look\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Benefits of a Document Management System and 9 Things to Look For\"<\/a>. <i>Ash Conversions International<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 May<\/span> 2020<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Ash+Conversions+International&amp;rft.atitle=Benefits+of+a+Document+Management+System+and+9+Things+to+Look+For&amp;rft.date=2020-02-13&amp;rft.au=ash-conversions&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ashconversions.com%2Fblog%2Fdocument-management%2Fbenefits-document-management-system-9-things-look%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HCSS-document-management-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HCSS-document-management_28-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631\" \/><cite class=\"citation web cs1\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hcss.com\/products\/construction-document-software\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Document Management Software for Construction\"<\/a>. <i>HCSS<\/i>. 15 December 2021<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 June<\/span> 2022<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=HCSS&amp;rft.atitle=Document+Management+Software+for+Construction&amp;rft.date=2021-12-15&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hcss.com%2Fproducts%2Fconstruction-document-software%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/curlie.org\/Computers\/Software\/Document_Management\" target=\"_blank\">Software\/Document Management<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curlie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Curlie\" data-key=\"f2bf78e9dbc70f166d4b3bd9f21cf9f3\">Curlie<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"navbox-styles\"><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319\" \/><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw2313\nCached time: 20240107080137\nCache expiry: 2592000\nReduced expiry: false\nComplications: [vary\u2010revision\u2010sha1, show\u2010toc]\nCPU time usage: 0.389 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.491 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 2190\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 60168\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 2069\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/100\nExpensive parser function count: 9\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 85664\/5000000 bytes\nLua time usage: 0.258\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 7094498\/52428800 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 440.944 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>43.08% 189.947 1 Template:Reflist\n25.01% 110.287 14 Template:Cite_book\n20.99% 92.556 1 Template:Authority_control\n11.12% 49.040 1 Template:Short_description\n 9.84% 43.384 11 Template:Cite_web\n 9.40% 41.427 1 Template:Commons_category\n 8.98% 39.617 1 Template:Sister_project\n 8.63% 38.035 1 Template:Side_box\n 6.59% 29.055 2 Template:Redirects_here\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:71608-0!canonical and timestamp 20240107080136 and revision id 1192372495. Rendering was triggered because: page-view\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n\n<\/p><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_management_system\" data-key=\"8235aea0fbac667128bf4f6c18ad7536\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171621\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.120 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.310 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 78049\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 287.430 1 wikipedia:Document_management_system\n100.00% 287.430 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10594-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171620 and revision id 33268. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Document_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Document_management_system<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_images":[],"b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_timestamp":1704906980,"a424bb889d8507b7e8912f2faf2570c6_type":"article","a424bb889d8507b7e8912f2faf2570c6_title":"Chromatography data system","a424bb889d8507b7e8912f2faf2570c6_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_system","a424bb889d8507b7e8912f2faf2570c6_plaintext":"\n\nChromatography data systemFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search A liquid chromatography linear ion trap instrument as an example of a device that may be interfaced with a CDSSometimes referred to as a chromatography data management system (CDMS), a chromatography data system (CDS) is a set of dedicated data-collection tools that interface and\/or integrate with a laboratory's chromatography equipment. A base CDS will set up a desired methodology to be used by the chromatography equipment, acquire data from it, process the acquired data, store the information in a database, and interface with other laboratory informatics systems to import and export files and data.&#91;1&#93;\nContents \n\n1 History of the CDS \n2 Features of a CDS \n3 CDS vendors \n4 References \n\n\n\nHistory of the CDS \nThe first attempts to automate the analysis of chromatography data through electronics took place in the early 1970s. These analysis tools utilized microprocessor-based integrators, \"dedicated devices for measuring chromatographic peaks and performing user-specified calculations\" which also featured a printer plotter to output the results.&#91;1&#93; Limited memory plagued those early systems, preventing more than one chromatograph from being stored at any one time. This became less of problem for large labs with bigger budgets in the mid-1970s, as expensive centralized data systems were installed, allowing greater data storage and sharing capabilities.&#91;1&#93; \nAs computers shrank in size, the personal computer became a viable reality. In 1980, entrepreneur and Hewlett-Packard prodigy Dave Nelson saw the potential the personal computer could have on the field of analytical chemistry, joining with partner Harmon Brown to create Nelson Analytical Inc. That year they developed the first CDS personal computer software, soon followed by Turbochrom, the first CDS system for MS Windows.&#91;2&#93;&#91;3&#93; This innovation quickly spread from analytical chemistry labs to the fields of environmental, forensic, and pharmaceutical sciences. At the same time chromatography minicomputers like Hewlett-Packard's 3350 LAS Lab Automation System and Perkin-Elmer's LIMS 2000 CLAS chromatography laboratory automation system were seeing increased utilization, featuring the data acquisition and processing of up to 32 or more simultaneous chromatographs.&#91;4&#93;\nIn the 1990s, more affordable higher-performance PCs\u2014combined with tighter networking standards\u2014allowed for networks of CDSs, especially those installed on personal computers. By the late '90s, the CDS commonly featured the ability to set up a methodology and analytical run information, control some instruments, acquire injection data, process the data in different ways, save the data, and transmit it to other systems like a LIMS.&#91;1&#93; At the turn of the century the CDS was becoming increasingly web-enabled&#91;5&#93;, and by 2008, CDS functions were becoming more enhanced, driven by improvements in liquid chromatographs (LC) and gas chromatographs (GC). The new innovation of high-speed LC and GC instruments meant the potential for faster data generation, improved separation, and higher resolutions and sensitivities.&#91;6&#93; While these next-generation machines would bring more processing power to chromatography labs, it also meant that vendors would have to improve CDSs, specifically the analog-to-digital converter sampling rates. Some vendors were estimating at the time that data acquisition sampling rates on the order of 100 to 300 Hz would be needed to keep up with the new wave of speedier chromatography devices. Additional concerns of scalability and remote access were becoming important due to the expansion of pharmaceutical and chemical companies expanding into parts of Latin America, South America, and the Far East.&#91;6&#93;\n\nFeatures of a CDS \nA CDS may be set up for use in three primary ways&#91;7&#93;:\n\nas a standalone system that controls two or more chromatographs\nas a standalone system that controls a single chromatograph, including LC-MS or GC-MS instruments\nas a networked system that controls multiple instruments in one or more labs\nIn operation, a CDS provides multiple features, including (but not limited to)&#91;7&#93;&#91;8&#93;:\n\nsample and blank processing\nintegration of peaks and construction of calibration curves\ndata analysis, visualization, and validation\nthird-party software integration\nthird-party instrument integration\ndata warehousing from multiple instruments\nworkflow management\nprocedure and experiment development and scheduling\nout-of-specification and out-of-tolerance testings\naudit trail and compliance control\nCDS vendors \nSee the CDS vendor page for a list of CDS vendors past and present.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 McDowall, R.D.&#32;(1999).&#32;\"Chromatography Data Systems I: The Fundamentals\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;pp. 7.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 03 December 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151203095517\/http:\/\/www.21cfrpart11.com\/files\/library\/compliance\/cds_1.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 29 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Chemical Heritage Foundation&#32;(January 2002).&#32;\"David Nelson to receive the first annual PITTCON Heritage Award\".&#32;Science Blog.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 29 September 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170929202637\/http:\/\/www3.scienceblog.com\/community\/older\/2002\/G\/20021575.html .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Felton, M.J.&#32;(2002).&#32;\"CDS: Networked and Regulated\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Today's Chemist at Work&#32;11&#32;(9): 20.&#32;http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/11\/i09\/pdf\/902felton.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Ryan, J.F.&#32;(2004).&#32;\"LIMS: From Chromatograms to Computers\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Today's Chemist at Work&#32;13&#32;(4): 36.&#32;http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/13\/i04\/pdf\/404ryan.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Rooney, T.A.&#32;(2001).&#32;\"Chromatography data systems: On track at speed\".&#32;Today's Chemist at Work&#32;10&#32;(9).&#32;http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/10\/i09\/html\/09rooney.html . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 Long, E.C.&#32;(19 August 2008).&#32;\"Trends in Chromatography Data System Software Development\".&#32;R&amp;D World.&#32;WTWH Media LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.rdworldonline.com\/trends-in-chromatography-data-system-software-development\/ .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 McDowall, R.D.; Burgess, C.&#32;(April 2016).&#32;\"The Ideal Chromatography Data System for a Regulated Laboratory\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;UBM.&#32;pp. 34.&#32;http:\/\/files.alfresco.mjh.group\/alfresco_images\/pharma\/\/2017\/04\/04\/931a92d6-8cd8-4156-8399-389082051852\/The%20Ideal%20Chrom%20Data%20Syst.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 DePalma, A.&#32;(12 October 2016).&#32;\"The Evolution of Chromatography Data Systems\".&#32;Lab Manager.&#32;LabX Media Group.&#32;https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/product-focus\/the-evolution-of-chromatography-data-systems-4382 .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_system<\/a>\nCategories: Chromatography data systemsLaboratory informaticsSoftware systemsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 7 January 2022, at 20:03.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 59,409 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","a424bb889d8507b7e8912f2faf2570c6_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Chromatography_data_system rootpage-Chromatography_data_system skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Chromatography data system<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:362px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:LC_and_LTQ.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"c637b73377bf136a207cef0bfe808ccd\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a2\/LC_and_LTQ.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"360\" height=\"208\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:LC_and_LTQ.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"c637b73377bf136a207cef0bfe808ccd\"><\/a><\/div>A liquid chromatography linear ion trap instrument as an example of a device that may be interfaced with a CDS<\/div><\/div><\/div><p>Sometimes referred to as a <b>chromatography data management system<\/b> (CDMS), a <b>chromatography data system<\/b> (CDS) is a set of dedicated data-collection tools that interface and\/or integrate with a laboratory's <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography\" title=\"Chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2615535d1f14c6cffdfad7285999ad9d\">chromatography<\/a> equipment. A base CDS will set up a desired methodology to be used by the chromatography equipment, acquire data from it, process the acquired data, store the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> in a database, and interface with other <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> systems to import and export files and data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDSI_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDSI-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_the_CDS\">History of the CDS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The first attempts to automate the analysis of chromatography data through electronics took place in the early 1970s. These analysis tools utilized microprocessor-based integrators, \"dedicated devices for measuring chromatographic peaks and performing user-specified calculations\" which also featured a printer plotter to output the results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDSI_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDSI-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Limited memory plagued those early systems, preventing more than one chromatograph from being stored at any one time. This became less of problem for large labs with bigger budgets in the mid-1970s, as expensive centralized data systems were installed, allowing greater data storage and sharing capabilities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDSI_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDSI-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>As computers shrank in size, the personal computer became a viable reality. In 1980, entrepreneur and Hewlett-Packard prodigy Dave Nelson saw the potential the personal computer could have on the field of analytical chemistry, joining with partner Harmon Brown to create Nelson Analytical Inc. That year they developed the first CDS personal computer software, soon followed by Turbochrom, the first CDS system for MS Windows.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FeltonCDS02_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FeltonCDS02-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This innovation quickly spread from analytical chemistry labs to the fields of environmental, forensic, and pharmaceutical sciences. At the same time chromatography minicomputers like Hewlett-Packard's 3350 LAS Lab Automation System and Perkin-Elmer's LIMS 2000 CLAS chromatography laboratory automation system were seeing increased utilization, featuring the data acquisition and processing of up to 32 or more simultaneous chromatographs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RyanLIMS04_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RyanLIMS04-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the 1990s, more affordable higher-performance PCs\u2014combined with tighter networking standards\u2014allowed for networks of CDSs, especially those installed on personal computers. By the late '90s, the CDS commonly featured the ability to set up a methodology and analytical run information, control some instruments, acquire injection data, process the data in different ways, save the data, and transmit it to other systems like a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LIMS\" data-key=\"21b7bfebbba300be00cdbb84cddb338d\">LIMS<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDSI_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDSI-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> At the turn of the century the CDS was becoming increasingly web-enabled<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RooneyChroma01_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RooneyChroma01-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, and by 2008, CDS functions were becoming more enhanced, driven by improvements in liquid chromatographs (LC) and gas chromatographs (GC). The new innovation of high-speed LC and GC instruments meant the potential for faster data generation, improved separation, and higher resolutions and sensitivities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp1_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp1-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> While these next-generation machines would bring more processing power to chromatography labs, it also meant that vendors would have to improve CDSs, specifically the analog-to-digital converter sampling rates. Some vendors were estimating at the time that data acquisition sampling rates on the order of 100 to 300 Hz would be needed to keep up with the new wave of speedier chromatography devices. Additional concerns of scalability and remote access were becoming important due to the expansion of pharmaceutical and chemical companies expanding into parts of Latin America, South America, and the Far East.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp1_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp1-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Features_of_a_CDS\">Features of a CDS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A CDS may be set up for use in three primary ways<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McDowallTheIdeal16_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McDowallTheIdeal16-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>as a standalone system that controls two or more chromatographs<\/li>\n<li>as a standalone system that controls a single chromatograph, including LC-MS or GC-MS instruments<\/li>\n<li>as a networked system that controls multiple instruments in one or more labs<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In operation, a CDS provides multiple features, including (but not limited to)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McDowallTheIdeal16_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McDowallTheIdeal16-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DePalmaTheEvo16_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DePalmaTheEvo16-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>sample and blank processing<\/li>\n<li>integration of peaks and construction of calibration curves<\/li>\n<li>data analysis, visualization, and validation<\/li>\n<li>third-party software integration<\/li>\n<li>third-party instrument integration<\/li>\n<li>data warehousing from multiple instruments<\/li>\n<li>workflow management<\/li>\n<li>procedure and experiment development and scheduling<\/li>\n<li>out-of-specification and out-of-tolerance testings<\/li>\n<li>audit trail and compliance control<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"CDS_vendors\">CDS vendors<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>See the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/CDS_vendor\" title=\"CDS vendor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad63b878b0de55f56de448751e525fd6\">CDS vendor<\/a> page for a list of CDS vendors past and present.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDSI-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDSI_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDSI_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDSI_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDSI_1-3\">1.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">McDowall, R.D.&#32;(1999).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151203095517\/http:\/\/www.21cfrpart11.com\/files\/library\/compliance\/cds_1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chromatography Data Systems I: The Fundamentals\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;pp. 7.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.21cfrpart11.com\/files\/library\/compliance\/cds_1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 December 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151203095517\/http:\/\/www.21cfrpart11.com\/files\/library\/compliance\/cds_1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151203095517\/http:\/\/www.21cfrpart11.com\/files\/library\/compliance\/cds_1.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chromatography+Data+Systems+I%3A+The+Fundamentals&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=McDowall%2C+R.D.&amp;rft.au=McDowall%2C+R.D.&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.pages=pp.+7&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20151203095517%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.21cfrpart11.com%2Ffiles%2Flibrary%2Fcompliance%2Fcds_1.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Chemical Heritage Foundation&#32;(January 2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170929202637\/http:\/\/www3.scienceblog.com\/community\/older\/2002\/G\/20021575.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"David Nelson to receive the first annual PITTCON Heritage Award\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Science Blog<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www3.scienceblog.com\/community\/older\/2002\/G\/20021575.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 29 September 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170929202637\/http:\/\/www3.scienceblog.com\/community\/older\/2002\/G\/20021575.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170929202637\/http:\/\/www3.scienceblog.com\/community\/older\/2002\/G\/20021575.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=David+Nelson+to+receive+the+first+annual+PITTCON+Heritage+Award&amp;rft.atitle=Science+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Chemical+Heritage+Foundation&amp;rft.au=Chemical+Heritage+Foundation&amp;rft.date=January+2002&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170929202637%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww3.scienceblog.com%2Fcommunity%2Folder%2F2002%2FG%2F20021575.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FeltonCDS02-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FeltonCDS02_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Felton, M.J.&#32;(2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/11\/i09\/pdf\/902felton.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CDS: Networked and Regulated\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Today's Chemist at Work<\/i>&#32;<b>11<\/b>&#32;(9): 20<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/11\/i09\/pdf\/902felton.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/11\/i09\/pdf\/902felton.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=CDS%3A+Networked+and+Regulated&amp;rft.jtitle=Today%27s+Chemist+at+Work&amp;rft.aulast=Felton%2C+M.J.&amp;rft.au=Felton%2C+M.J.&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.pages=20&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubsapp.acs.org%2Fsubscribe%2Farchive%2Ftcaw%2F11%2Fi09%2Fpdf%2F902felton.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RyanLIMS04-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RyanLIMS04_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Ryan, J.F.&#32;(2004).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/13\/i04\/pdf\/404ryan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS: From Chromatograms to Computers\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Today's Chemist at Work<\/i>&#32;<b>13<\/b>&#32;(4): 36<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/13\/i04\/pdf\/404ryan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/13\/i04\/pdf\/404ryan.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=LIMS%3A+From+Chromatograms+to+Computers&amp;rft.jtitle=Today%27s+Chemist+at+Work&amp;rft.aulast=Ryan%2C+J.F.&amp;rft.au=Ryan%2C+J.F.&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=36&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubsapp.acs.org%2Fsubscribe%2Farchive%2Ftcaw%2F13%2Fi04%2Fpdf%2F404ryan.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RooneyChroma01-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RooneyChroma01_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Rooney, T.A.&#32;(2001).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/10\/i09\/html\/09rooney.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chromatography data systems: On track at speed\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Today's Chemist at Work<\/i>&#32;<b>10<\/b>&#32;(9)<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/10\/i09\/html\/09rooney.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/pubsapp.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/10\/i09\/html\/09rooney.html<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Chromatography+data+systems%3A+On+track+at+speed&amp;rft.jtitle=Today%27s+Chemist+at+Work&amp;rft.aulast=Rooney%2C+T.A.&amp;rft.au=Rooney%2C+T.A.&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubsapp.acs.org%2Fsubscribe%2Farchive%2Ftcaw%2F10%2Fi09%2Fhtml%2F09rooney.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciComp1-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciComp1_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciComp1_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Long, E.C.&#32;(19 August 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.rdworldonline.com\/trends-in-chromatography-data-system-software-development\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Trends in Chromatography Data System Software Development\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>R&amp;D World<\/i>.&#32;WTWH Media LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.rdworldonline.com\/trends-in-chromatography-data-system-software-development\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.rdworldonline.com\/trends-in-chromatography-data-system-software-development\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Trends+in+Chromatography+Data+System+Software+Development&amp;rft.atitle=R%26D+World&amp;rft.aulast=Long%2C+E.C.&amp;rft.au=Long%2C+E.C.&amp;rft.date=19+August+2008&amp;rft.pub=WTWH+Media+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rdworldonline.com%2Ftrends-in-chromatography-data-system-software-development%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McDowallTheIdeal16-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-McDowallTheIdeal16_7-0\">7.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-McDowallTheIdeal16_7-1\">7.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">McDowall, R.D.; Burgess, C.&#32;(April 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/files.alfresco.mjh.group\/alfresco_images\/pharma\/\/2017\/04\/04\/931a92d6-8cd8-4156-8399-389082051852\/The%20Ideal%20Chrom%20Data%20Syst.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Ideal Chromatography Data System for a Regulated Laboratory\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;UBM.&#32;pp. 34<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/files.alfresco.mjh.group\/alfresco_images\/pharma\/\/2017\/04\/04\/931a92d6-8cd8-4156-8399-389082051852\/The%20Ideal%20Chrom%20Data%20Syst.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/files.alfresco.mjh.group\/alfresco_images\/pharma\/\/2017\/04\/04\/931a92d6-8cd8-4156-8399-389082051852\/The%20Ideal%20Chrom%20Data%20Syst.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Ideal+Chromatography+Data+System+for+a+Regulated+Laboratory&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=McDowall%2C+R.D.%3B+Burgess%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=McDowall%2C+R.D.%3B+Burgess%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=April+2016&amp;rft.pages=pp.+34&amp;rft.pub=UBM&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffiles.alfresco.mjh.group%2Falfresco_images%2Fpharma%2F%2F2017%2F04%2F04%2F931a92d6-8cd8-4156-8399-389082051852%2FThe%2520Ideal%2520Chrom%2520Data%2520Syst.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DePalmaTheEvo16-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DePalmaTheEvo16_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">DePalma, A.&#32;(12 October 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/product-focus\/the-evolution-of-chromatography-data-systems-4382\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Evolution of Chromatography Data Systems\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Lab Manager<\/i>.&#32;LabX Media Group<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/product-focus\/the-evolution-of-chromatography-data-systems-4382\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/product-focus\/the-evolution-of-chromatography-data-systems-4382<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Chromatography+Data+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Lab+Manager&amp;rft.aulast=DePalma%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=DePalma%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=12+October+2016&amp;rft.pub=LabX+Media+Group&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labmanager.com%2Fproduct-focus%2Fthe-evolution-of-chromatography-data-systems-4382&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110161511\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.564 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.054 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5809\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 39611\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 17278\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_system<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","a424bb889d8507b7e8912f2faf2570c6_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a2\/LC_and_LTQ.jpg"],"a424bb889d8507b7e8912f2faf2570c6_timestamp":1704906980,"23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_type":"article","23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_title":"LIS feature","23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature","23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_plaintext":"\n\nLIS featureFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search\n\n\n \n You can find a listing of all LIS vendors\u2014and by extension, the features their products offer\u2014on the LIS vendor page. \n\n\n Thousands of hospital laboratories like this one benefit from the use of a laboratory information system.An LIS feature is one or more pieces of functionality that appear within a laboratory information system (LIS).\nThe LIS has traditionally been utilized in clinical, pathology, and medical research laboratories as well as numerous public health institutions.&#91;1&#93; Yet as laboratory demands have changed and technological progress has continued, the functions of an LIS have also changed, with the distinction between an LIS and a laboratory information management system (LIMS) fading as some LIMS vendors have adopted the case-centric information management normally reserved for an LIS.&#91;2&#93;&#91;3&#93;.\nDespite the blurring of distinction between an LIS and a LIMS, the LIS generally continues to feature the following&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93;:\n\npatient management, including admission date, admitting physician, ordering department, specimen type, etc.\nspecimen management and tracking\nconfigurable decision support, including comparisons of lab orders with their respective ICD codes\nquality assurance of ordered tests\nworkload and management reporting\nOf course, there are LIS features that are difficult to categorize or simply contribute to the whole of the LIS rather than add a function. For example, multilingual support allows users to interact with the LIS in more than one language. Some functionality may also overlap several research phases, making it difficult to firmly classify. \nThe features described below come from an analysis of freely available LIS product information on vendor websites. An attempt was made to discover the features most utilized in vendors' LIS products and collect information on those features for each LIS. Not every possible feature is referenced here; some LIS products fill specific niches, utilizing unique functionality to solve a specific problem. \nThat said, keep in mind the categorization of features below is very loose. It may be viable to argue a feature belongs under a different section or multiple sections. For the purposes of organizing this information in an uncomplicated manner, however, some liberty has been taken in the categorizing of features.\n\nContents \n\n1 Experiment, patient, and data management \n\n1.1 Sample login and management \n1.2 Sample tracking \n1.3 Sample and result batching \n1.4 Task and event scheduling \n1.5 Option for manual result entry \n1.6 Multiple data viewing methods \n1.7 Configurable templates and forms \n1.8 Data and trend analysis \n1.9 Data and equipment sharing \n1.10 Data mining \n1.11 Customizable fields and\/or interface \n1.12 Query capability \n1.13 Import data \n1.14 Internal file or data linking \n1.15 External file or data linking \n1.16 ELN support or integration \n1.17 Export to MS Excel \n1.18 Raw data management \n1.19 Data warehouse \n1.20 Project and\/or task management \n1.21 Test, experiment, and\/or trial management \n1.22 Inventory management \n1.23 Document and\/or image management \n1.24 Patient and case management \n1.25 Workflow management \n1.26 Specification management \n1.27 Customer, supplier, and physician management \n1.28 Billing and revenue management \n\n\n2 Quality, security, and compliance \n\n2.1 Regulatory compliance \n2.2 QA\/QC functions \n2.3 Performance evaluation \n2.4 Audit trail \n2.5 Chain of custody \n2.6 Configurable roles and security \n2.7 Data normalization \n2.8 Data validation \n2.9 Data encryption \n2.10 Version control \n2.11 Automatic data backup \n2.12 Environmental monitoring \n\n\n3 Reporting, barcoding, and printing \n\n3.1 Custom reporting \n3.2 Synoptic reporting \n3.3 Report printing \n3.4 Label support \n3.5 Barcode and\/or RFID support \n3.6 Export to PDF \n3.7 Export to MS Word \n3.8 Export to HTML or XML \n3.9 Fax integration \n3.10 Email integration \n\n\n4 Base functionality \n\n4.1 Administrator management \n4.2 Modular \n4.3 Instrument interfacing and management \n4.4 Mobile device integration \n4.5 Third-party software integration \n4.6 Alarms and\/or alerts \n4.7 Work-related time tracking \n4.8 Voice recognition system \n4.9 External monitoring \n4.10 Messaging \n4.11 Commenting \n4.12 Multilingual \n4.13 Network-capable \n4.14 Web client or portal \n4.15 Online or integrated help \n4.16 Software as a service delivery model \n4.17 Usage-based cost \n\n\n5 References \n\n\n\n Experiment, patient, and data management \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n&#160;\nSample login and management \nSample login and management\u2014often referred to as accessioning or specimen management\u2014is an important component of the clinical laboratory, whether it's a molecular pathology lab testing samples for disease indicators or a contract lab running pharmacokinetic and biomarker analysis on samples from a clinical trial.&#91;6&#93;&#91;7&#93; As such, researchers and technicians who work in these types of labs are unable to complete their tasks without an effective method of managing samples. The process of sample management and accessioning includes, but is not limited to&#91;8&#93;&#91;6&#93;:\n\nstoring related sample information, including demographics, dates, and external links\ncreating and documenting viewable sample container schemas with name and status\nassigning sample access rights\nassigning custom sample ID or accessioning numbers based on a specification\napplying additional processing to the sample before storage and\/or analysis\nAdditional functionality that could potentially fall under this feature:\n\nbarcoding or RFID tagging of samples\ndefining sample points and series\ncreating data associations for samples, such as pedigree for sample\/aliquot relationships or relationships based on experiment, etc.\nissuing sample receipts\nSample tracking \n Where's sample 20110512_122GJH? Sample tracking functionality will let you know which lab oven it's in.For most laboratory personnel, knowing that a sample has arrived to the lab isn't good enough; they need to know where it's located and what actions are being performed on it. Enter the sample tracking feature. Without it, many problems arise. In the forensic world, for example, many samples are linked to a criminal investigation. In this case, misidentification, contamination, or duplication can become significant issues: a lost sample is essentially missing evidence, while a duplicated sample can render it useless as evidence.&#91;9&#93;\nAfter sample reception and its initial handling procedures, many LIMS can then track sample location as well as chain of custody. Location tracking usually involves assigning the sample to a particular freezer location, often down to the granular level of shelf, rack, box, row, and column. The process of tracking a sample has become more streamlined with increasing support of barcode and radio frequency ID (RFID) technology.&#91;10&#93; While handwritten labels were the norm, barcode and RFID support in an LIS can \"tie together a vast amount of information, clearly relating each sample to a specific case.\"&#91;9&#93; Other event tracking such as freeze and thaw cycles that a sample undergoes in the laboratory may also be required. As each laboratory's needs for tracking additional data points can vary widely, many modern LIS have implemented extensive configurability to compensate for varying environments.&#91;11&#93;\nThe functionality of sample tracking strongly ties into the audit trail and chain of custody features of an LIS.\n\nSample and result batching \nWhat is batching? The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines a batch as \"a group of samples which behave similarly with respect to the sampling or testing procedures being employed and which are processed as a unit.\"&#91;12&#93; This definition can be applied to many laboratories which handle large quantities of samples for some form of analysis or processing. A LIMS that has the ability to check in, link, and track groups of samples across one or multiple facilities is valuable to such laboratories. Additionally, batching the analysis results of multiple samples or groups of samples gives laboratories more flexibility with how they manage their data. Batching also offers the benefit of mimicking the production groups of samples while also capturing quality control data for the entire group.\n\nTask and event scheduling \nWithin the context of an LIS, the ability to schedule a task or event is a natural extension of how work was done in a laboratory before the advent of data management systems. Sample processing, data analysis, equipment maintenance, and case management follow-ups are assigned to technicians and other personnel. Outpatient scheduling is another aspect of some clinical atmospheres, better handled with computerized scheduling functionality. While these tasks have in the past been performed without the LIS, a modern data management system can now optimize those tasks and provide additional scheduling functionality to streamline the operation of a lab. Some LIS will include, for example, a scheduling calendar for recurring test orders, rules-based orders, and pre-defined selection lists. Additional functionality within this feature group includes the ability to configure automated assignments of experiment requests, establish recurring events, and in most cases, create printable reports.\nExamples of tasks and events that can feasibly be scheduled in an LIS include:\n\nproduction of reports\ncreation and sending of e-mails and alerts\nmaintenance of equipment\nassignment of accessioning tasks to technicians\nscheduling outpatient visits\nOption for manual result entry \nWhile many LIS vendors tout the ability of their product to automate the entry of sample analysis results into an LIS or other database, the need for manual data entry of analysis results still exists. This feature is important to laboratories obtaining analysis results from multiple sources, including non-digital paper-based results and instruments that can't be connected to the LIS. Additional functionality associated with this feature includes a customizable spell-check dictionary and the ability to add comments, notes, and narratives to many of the data items in the LIS.\n\nMultiple data viewing methods \nHospitals, physicians, and clinical research facilities produce reams of data, and the LIS exists to help organize and distribute that data to the necessary entities. Additionally, even before the existence of the LIS, scientists have had a corresponding need for visually representing that data for clearer analysis and hypothesis creation. Today an LIS can not only collect and analyze data, but it also can represent that data in reports, graphs, gradients, and spreadsheets. Depending on the LIS, more than one way to visually represent the data may exist. \nThis category ties in with the custom templates and forms functionality apparent in some LIS, providing both custom and standardized ways to present information across a healthcare or medical research enterprise.\n\nConfigurable templates and forms \nSimilar to an electronic laboratory notebook (ELN), a template in an LIS is a functionality item which allows users to increase the productivity and quality of their work by allowing for the creation of a standardized analysis page, patient page, or reporting process across a healthcare or medical research enterprise. These templates allow researchers to maintain more consistent data representation for similar tasks in the LIS and save time by not needing to manually input common data outputs or recreate experiments. Templates and forms typically utilize a wide field library, and the data that is posted to those template fields can also be normalized to a specific standard. Types of templates that may be created include those for renal and blood pressure analysis, patient demographics, test ordering, and department-level reports.&#91;13&#93;\n\nData and trend analysis \n Some LISs allow users to analyze patient test results or clinical research data with built-in software tools. For public health centers and pharmaceutical research centers alike, data analysis plays an important role in their operations, helping clinicians and researchers make better sense of their collected data and reach valuable conclusions about them. While this important phase of laboratory work has often been done externally from the LIS, today's LIS commonly has basic data analysis tools included. Such tools allow raw data to be imported directly to the LIS, which then can store, process, and display it in a shareable form. Vendors may include data analysis functionality by simply including Microsoft Excel compatibility or providing advanced reporting tools, or they may take a more advanced approach by programming and including their own custom data and trend analysis tools in their informatics software. As data analysis has become increasingly vital, such functionality\u2014which has often come in the form of a separate application or analysis device\u2014continues to end up in software like LIS, LIMS, and other laboratory informatics solutions.&#91;14&#93;\nData and equipment sharing \nAside from data storage and sample registration, a modern LIS's major contribution to the laboratory is aiding in the sharing of test results, reports, and patient data with other entities across the clinical and research enterprise. Rather than pieces of information becoming misplaced or locked away in a physician's office or pathology lab, the LIS makes it easier to test results and increase the efficiency of patient-doctor-lab collaboration in general. However, data is more than just test results; it also can come in the form of charts, reports, policy and procedure, and other documents. Additionally, the need for controlling who has access to those types of data is also an important consideration. As such, this feature is at least partially tied to other features like document management and configurable security.\n\nData mining \nData mining, in the field of computational science, involves \"the process of discovering interesting and useful patterns and relationships in large volumes of data\" and includes three computational steps: model-learning, model evaluation, and model usage.&#91;15&#93; As informatics software allows both research and clinical laboratories to collect and manage increasing quantities of data, a corresponding demand for tools capable of modeling that data is appearing.&#91;16&#93; For example, public health laboratories may wish to utilize data mining for statistical analysis and surveillance of populations for specific diseases. LIS like Livextens and Orchard Harvest are examples of laboratory informatics software which incorporate data mining and reporting tools.&#91;17&#93;&#91;18&#93;\n\n Customizable fields and\/or interface \nAs thorough as some user interface (UI) developers may be in adding relevant fields and interface options for end users, there are at times options that are either omitted or unanticipated. This has traditionally required the end user to contact the vendor and ask if the needed option(s) can be added in the next release. However, many modern LIS vendors have responded instead by adding functionality that gives end users and\/or LIS administrators more control over the user interface. \nAspects of the LIS's user interface that are often customizable by the end user include:\n\nreport interface and display\npatient profile display\nproject and experiment display\nIncreasingly, today's vendors tend to refer to their systems as being \"configurable\" rather than \"customizable.\"&#91;19&#93;&#91;20&#93; For example, vendors such as Autoscribe Informatics include screen editing and other tools that administrators can user to configure the various screens, data fields, nomenclature, etc. of the solution.&#91;19&#93;\nNote in many cases an interface may be customized through the use of templates and forms, and as such, this functionality may be closely tied to the configurable templates and forms functionality.\n\nQuery capability \nAs was the case before the advent of databases and electronic data management solutions, today researchers must search through test results, patient notes, and other types of data to better draw conclusions from experiments, diagnose patient illnesses, and plan pharmaceutical research activities. Whereas this used to mean browsing through laboratory notebooks, Excel spreadsheets, or Access databases, now powerful query tools exists within data management tools like the LIS and ELN. A flexible search algorithm can be implemented to allow users to search a dataset by patient name (full or partial) or by any accessioning number. Or more advanced query tools may be implemented to collate and search across multiple datasets.\nQuery functionality often includes the ability to:\n\nsearch both transactional data and archived data tables\nsearch multiple databases via an application programming interface (API) or open database connectivity (ODBC) connection\nfilter and sort data\ncollate queried data for further analysis and visualization\ncreate ad hoc queries\nImport data \nData can originate from numerous places in the laboratory. The ability to import that data into an LIS can be beneficial, especially when an instrument can't be connected or external clients collaborating on a project need to submit relevant data. Of course instrument interfacing allows for even more importation options. Additional data validation procedures may be applied to the imported data to guarantee information homogeneity. For the LIS, one of the common sources of importing data is a separate electronic medical record (EMR) or electronic health record (EHR) system, for collecting patient data and test orders.&#91;21&#93;\n\nInternal file or data linking \n Many informatics systems allow for internal linking of data; however, entities outside of the system often need to access the data housed within. An LIS is often capable of such external data linking.This feature allows research collaborators using an LIS to link together sample batches, reports, protocols, results, and more, providing greater contextual clarity to projects and datasets. Examples include:\nlinking a sample batch to a test or sample preparation methodology\nlinking a test process to a particular experiment\nlinking a report to a sample batch\nlinking a group of experiment results to a raw data file\nlinking multiple images to a patient record\nlinking all experiment results with the correct reporting test methods\nExternal file or data linking \nThis feature allows research collaborators using an LIS to link together data and files housed in the database with data, files, and customers outside the LIS's domain. Examples include:\n\nlinking to an external practice management or electronic medical record (EMR) system using an an HL7-compliant interface\nlinking one public health data source with others to pool demographic and medical information for better disease modeling\nlinking to separate clinical trial laboratory data files within a report\nELN support or integration \nThe functionality of solutions such as an LIS and LIMS began to blur with that of an ELN in the 2000s, with both types of software incorporating features from the other.&#91;22&#93;&#91;23&#93; More than a decade later, the ELN has become more distinct in purpose and functionality and is typically sold as a stand-alone solution. However, some vendors such as Genohm have decided to integrate ELN functionality into their solution in order to provide greater flexibility to researchers.&#91;24&#93; While it has been more common to see this sort of melding in a LIMS, it has been less common in the LIS. Yet some LIS may include some sort of integration or compatibility with an ELN, and thusly this functionality is at least mentioned.\n\nExport to MS Excel \nWhile Microsoft Excel had long been used within the laboratory setting, a slow shift towards relational databases and LIMS occurred in the late 1990s and early 2000s.&#91;25&#93; Additional concerns with the difficulties of Excel's validation and compliance with FDA 21 CFR Part 11 and other regulations ultimately led many labs to turn to data management solutions that are easier to validate.&#91;26&#93; Several decades later, some laboratories continue to use Excel in some fashion, and thus having an LIS capable of handling Excel data remains useful. In particular, selecting and exporting the LIS' data (from test results to quality control charts) into a format such as Excel may further data visualization, insights, and dissemination for some users.&#91;27&#93;&#91;28&#93;\n\nRaw data management \nWhile not described as a feature on most LIS vendor websites, a few indicate their product is capable of managing (import, export, editing, etc.) data in its raw format for future analysis. This raw data is typically implied to be originating from instruments that interface with the LIS, which in itself is not unusual. That raw data may remain housed in instruments, getting transformed into reportable data in the LIS, but presumably most LIS are also capable of housing the raw instrument data as well.&#91;29&#93; Clinical research labs may also turn to scientific data management systems to better manage their raw data sources.&#91;30&#93;\n\nData warehouse \nan LIS' data warehouse serves the important function of storing, extracting, and managing the data that laboratories produce for the purposes or analysis, reporting, and process management, typically separate from the primary storage database. Data warehouses also offer the benefit of speeding up queries, making queries and data mining more user-friendly, and smoothing out data gaps.&#91;31&#93;\n\n Project and\/or task management \nProject and task management within an LIS typically involves the scheduling of tasks to technicians and organizing associated tasks into a more cohesive unit for better tracking and management. While the functionality of task and event scheduling can also be found in project and task management, many LIS include functionality beyond scheduling that warrants the addition of the project and\/or task management feature. This functionality includes:\n\njob allocation and rescheduling\ninstrument workload tracking\npending workload verification\nproject- and experiment-based workflow management\nsample, batch, and document linking\nwork template sharing\nrecurring event management\nSee also: Patient and case management\n\n Test, experiment, and\/or trial management \nSpecimen or sample test management is a common component of an LIS, while experiment and research trial management functionality is a component of some LIS, often limited to those that are designed to help manage clinical trials. Test, experiment, and trial management can cover a wide variety of tasks, from setting up the design of a clinical trial to specimen task assignments, from ordering tests for patients to planning trial experiments. Note: this may also be referred to as \"order management\" with some vendors.\nIt's worth noting this functionality category may seem broad in scope and include other functionality listed on this page, including workflow management and project and task management. Its inclusion when reviewing software functionality is primarily to indicate when a vendor or project team indicates the existence of specific test, experiment, or trial management tools in their software.\n\nInventory management \nLaboratories use a wide array of inventory and equipment, from reagents and radiopharmaceuticals to glassware and laboratory baths. With that comes the need to know how much\/many and the frequency of use. For this, LIS solutions include some sort of inventory management functionality. \n\nregister origin, demographics of incoming materials\ntrack used and in-use items via barcodes or RFID\ntrack inventory reduction based on usage and shipping out of the lab\ncreate alerts for when items reach a certain stock level\ncalculate inventory cost and fluctuation\nmanage transportation and routing\nmanual incrementing\/decrementing of item counts\ntrack location and usage of laboratory equipment\nassign storage locations\ntrack forensic evidence\n Document and\/or image management \n Standard operating procedures, workflow diagrams, and business models can all be handled effectively with document management functionality.Standard operating procedures (SOPs), specifications, safety manuals and protocols, regulatory files, certificates, reports, graphs, images, and receipts are all collected and used in the average laboratory. With an LIS already designed to manage and store sample and experiment data, it makes sense to include functionality to create, import, export, and manage other sorts of data files. As sample and experimental data can be indexed, queried, and linked, so too can documents. Functionality of a typical document management system includes the ability to:\nupload and index documents of most any file type and size\nenforce version control\nprovide full text search\nconvert and\/or export to PDF or other relevant formats\nadd documents as attachments to other analyses, files, projects, etc. in the system\nPatient and case management \nThe LIS has played an important role in the case management tasks of patient-centric and clinical laboratories. LIS products have included patient or case management tools suitable for the clinical, public health, and veterinary industries, as well as the fields of law enforcement and forensic science. Functionality seen in the patient and case management feature includes:\n\ncase accessioning and assignment\ndisease tracking\ntrend analysis\nclinical history follow-up\nout-of-range result alerts\ndocument and result association\nevidence control\nstudy management\ncollating of patient data across multiple spectrum\nWorkflow management \n Capturing workflow in the lab is becoming more commonplace for laboratory informatics products.Workflow management is common in the laboratory, acting as a graphical representation of planned sequential steps to either fully or partially automate a process within the lab. Separate standards-based workflow management systems (in the form of a software component) have traditionally performed this task.&#91;32&#93; However, in the late 2000s laboratory informatics vendors began incorporating workflow management functionality into their software, reducing the headaches that customization of a solution often brought.&#91;33&#93; \nModern commercial and open-source LIS solutions recognize clinical laboratory workflow often has its own share of requirements, requiring specific workflow management functionality, including&#91;34&#93;:\n\n\nmanaging the request cycle within a laboratory\norganizing and executing diagnostic testing\nmanaging specific chemistry- and biology-related procedures\ndefining activity attributes\nmanaging automation tools to better workflows\nre-routing samples based on changes to a process\ndynamically modifying workflow in case of future changes\nreceiving notification of changes to the workflow\n\nSpecification management \nSpecification (spec) management is vital to not only the manufacturing and research industries but also to a host of other laboratories requiring precise measurements and infallible test methods. Just as ASTM offers standards and specs for LIS&#91;35&#93;, so too do LIS users have standards and specs for their laboratory. \nSpec management has primarily been seen in a manufacturing execution system (MES) or a laboratory information management system (LIMS), but occasionally an LIS may appear which includes such functionality. With spec management in place, laboratories can then:\n\nenforce standard operating procedures and business rules\ncreate specs down to a project or sample level\nvalidate recipes and procedures\naccept or reject sample batches\ndocument internal and external spec history\nNote some of the functionality of spec management may cross over into the realm of quality control and data validation.\n\n Customer, supplier, and physician management \nUnless a laboratory is conducting internalized independent research, in most cases it will do business with external entities such as contract labs, physician offices, equipment providers, and reagent suppliers. In some cases, even internal employees may be considered a customer, necessitating documentation of who is using the system and in what ways. For a veterinary lab, the customer may be the animal and handler. For a forensic lab the customer may be more complex: internal staff, university staff, police departments, and maintainers of nationwide crime databases may all at some point act as customers. In these cases, documenting these various points of contact and linking them to tests, equipment, and patients becomes vital. Managing demographics, complaints, correspondence, and history are all feasible with customer, supplier, and physician management functionality. This process is often made simpler through the use of a more context-neutral entity creation system, which allows for more flexible management of contacts.\nThis feature may also be referred to as contact management, an address book module, or a customer service module.\n\nBilling and revenue management \nWhile the finances of a laboratory are important, they've typically been handled separately as a business process. However, some LIS include additional functionality to make handling financial transactions and documentation of all sorts possible within the LIS. In theory, such functionality brings the possibility of keeping more of a laboratory's data centrally located and queryable. This feature may include&#91;36&#93;&#91;37&#93;:\n\npayment processing\nexpense reporting\nprice quotes\nrevenue cycle management\nworkload tracking of billable hours\nbill of materials\nsales team and client management\nprofitability analysis\nmedical necessity checks\n\n&#160;\n Quality, security, and compliance \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n&#160;\nRegulatory compliance \nThe topic of whether or not an LIS meets regulatory compliance is often a complex one. While Title 21 CFR Part 11 has arguably had the largest influence on an electronic data management system's compliance, other influential standards have shaped the way laboratory informatics systems handle and store data. Other compliance-based codes, standards, and regulations include:\n\nASTM standards\nASCLD\/LAB crime lab accreditation\nFreedom of Information Act\nGALP and GAMP\nHIPAA\nHealth Level 7\nICD\nISO\/IEC 17025\nISO 9000\/9001\nISO\/TS 16949\nODBC\nTNI and NELAP enviromnental lab accreditation\nTitle 40 CFR Part 3\nWith so many codes, standards, and regulations, it can be challenging for potential LIS buyers to fully vet whether a vendor's solution meets regulatory requirements, let alone helps labs meet the regulations and standards that affect them. In truth, most reputable vendors today have regulatory compliance well considered for their LIS solutions, which are often purpose-built. However, it is ultimately up to the potential buyer to confirm that the vendor's solution complies to activities within their industry. Buyers are advised to contact vendors with their user requirements and ask how the vendor's software meets and\/or exceeds those requirements.\n\n QA\/QC functions \nThe quality management functions of an LIS allow users to maintain a level of necessary quality across many of the functions in a laboratory. Some of the activities quality assurance \/ quality control functionality allows for includes&#91;38&#93;&#91;39&#93;&#91;40&#93;:\n\nforce random review of cases by second pathologist before case verification\nreceive and process QC results from laboratory analyzers\ncreate user rules\nset up custom alerts and flags for out-of-range results\nobserve standard deviations in outcome research\nreview and sign off on data electronically\ndelta checking\nPerformance evaluation \nAs prevalent as document management has become in clinical and research laboratories, it makes sense that the LIS should also provide functionality to collate and store all the documentation associated with employee training and certification. Changes to laboratory techniques, scientific understanding, and business practices force researchers to learn, reevaluate, and demonstrate competency in order to maintain quality levels in the laboratory. Evaluations can frequently extend beyond staff members, however. Clinics, visit types, vendors, or test species can also be tracked and evaluated based on custom criteria. The performance evaluation functionality of an LIS makes this possible. \nThat functionality typically includes the ability to maintain training records and history, and also to link that training to a technique or piece of equipment. Afterwards, the staff member, vendor, etc. can be marked as competent or certified in the equipment, knowledge, or process. Periodical assessment of the training and its practical effectiveness can later be performed. Productivity of an entity or process can also be gauged over a certain date range based on tracked time, pre-determined milestones, or some other criteria.\n\nAudit trail \n Whether validating an instrument's data or an entire LIS, maintaining an audit trail is an important part of 21 CFR Part 11 compliance. As laws and regulations like Title 21 CFR Part 11 mandate \"computer systems (including hardware and software), controls, and attendant documentation\" utilize electronic signatures and audit trails&#91;41&#93;, LIS developers must put serious thought into how their software handles audit trail functionality. The audit trail\u2014documentation of the sequence of activities that have affected an action\u2014must be thorough and seamlessly integrated into the software, and it has become a mandatory feature for labs operating in regulated environments.&#91;42&#93;\nInformation recorded in the audit trail typically includes:\n\n\noperator code\ntime stamp\nlocation\ncase number\naccessioning number\ntransaction type\namount and quantity prior to change\nuser notes (e.g., reason for change)\nin some cases, data in temporary memory&#91;43&#93;\n\n\r\n\n\nChain of custody \nThe chain of custody (COC) of an item is of varying importance, depending on the type of laboratory. A highly regulated laboratory that works under Code of Federal Regulation or other guidelines makes tracking COC a vital part of its operations. This is especially true in forensic labs, which depend on continuous accountability of their evidence collection, retention, and disposal procedures.&#91;44&#93; At its core, the COC strives to answer at least these five questions&#91;45&#93;:\n\nWhere is my sample or specimen now?\nWho possess my sample or specimen now?\nWhen did that individual take possession of my sample or specimen?\nWhere has my sample or specimen been?\nWho has been in possession of my sample or specimen?\nAs with an audit trail, a laboratory depends on recorded information like user ID, time stamp, and location ID to maintain a robust and accurate COC. Barcodes, inventory management, and configurable security roles all play an important part in maintaining chain of custody.\n\nConfigurable roles and security \nMany roles exist within the clinical and research setting, each with its own set of responsibilities. And just as the role an individual plays within the laboratory may change, so may the responsibilities associated with each role. This sort of change necessitates a flexible and configurable security system, one that allows for the placement of individual LIS users into standardized security roles which provide role-specific access to certain functionality. Additionally, as responsibilities change within roles, that same flexible configuration is necessary for assigning or restricting access to specific functionality for each existing or newly created role. \nOf course, roles aren't always assigned on an individual level. Often large groups of individuals may need to be assigned to roles, necessitating group assignments for security purposes. For example, a group of hospital laboratory trainees may not be given access to the inventory management functionality of the system through a custom \"Trainees\" group role, while the head of the lab may be given the \"Administrator\" role, which allows that individual to access a much broader spectrum of the LIS's functionality.\n\nData normalization \nFor the purposes of describing LIS functionality, \"data normalization\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring data that moves into the LIS is formatted in a standardized way, matching the format of existing LIMS data.\nHere's an example to better explain this issue. When an LIS is initially configured, in most if not all cases a clear standard can be set for how logged samples and their associated measurements pre- and post-analysis are recorded in the system. Perhaps all temperatures will be recorded in Celsius to two decimal places. If temperature data imported from a spreadsheet or a lab instrument is not in this format, the LIS can normalize the incoming data to match the standard already set for existing LIS temperature data. This ensures consistency within the LIS database and typically leads to better data validation efforts later on.\nNote: Some LIS developers may include data normalization functionality within what they may refer to as \"data validation\" functionality. The line between these two may be blurred or not exist at all.\n\nData validation \n In an LIS, data and data models can be forced through a validation process to remove errors and reconcile that those data and models.For the purposes of describing LIMS functionality, \"data validation\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring existing data in the LIMS\u2014either pre-analysis or post-analysis\u2014sufficiently meets any number of standards or thresholds set for sample login, sample analysis, or any other data management process in the LIMS. This validation process may be completely automatic and system-based, or it may also include additional steps on the part of the user base utilizing additional LIMS functionality, including verification of standard operating procedures (SOPs), QC samples, and QA approval.&#91;46&#93;&#91;47&#93;\nNote: This functionality shouldn't be confused with the process of validating the application itself, which is an entirely different process partially falling under regulatory compliance and involves the process of ensuring \"the software is performing in a manner for which it was designed.\"&#91;48&#93;\n\nData encryption \nThe existence of this functionality in LIS software generally indicates the LIS has the ability to protect the integrity and authenticity of its housed data through the use of a variety of technologies which makes data unreadable except to those users or systems possessing a key\/right\/etc. to unlock\/read the data. This functionality has been important for the web-enabled LIMS, which transfers information over the internet in a client-server relationship, and it has become an increasingly vital part of cloud-based software offerings managing data in transit and at rest.&#91;49&#93; As a wide variety of encryption technologies exist, it's generally a good idea to consult with the developers of an LIS to determine the strengths and weaknesses of their employed encryption methods.\n\nVersion control \nVersion control is a form of safeguard which helps preserve data integrity. This is typically done by creating a modifiable new version of a piece of information rather than allowing the original to be modified. Such versioning may be applied to a wide variety of digital information housed in the LIS, including test methods, training certifications, instrument logs, specifications, and process and procedure (P&amp;P) documentation. Information tracked with such revisions includes attributes like user name, time the edit was made, and what exactly was edited. This also benefits those managing audit trails and chains of custody.\nSome LIS vendors may choose to employ a different form of version control called file locking, which simply puts the affected information into a read-only mode for users while someone else is busy editing it.&#91;50&#93; Another popular strategy is to, rather than locking the file, allow multiple people edit to a piece of information, later merging the various edits. Potential LIS buyers may need to inquire with developers to determine what type of versioning scheme is used in the vendor's software.\n\nAutomatic data backup \nThe functionality of automatic data backup in an LIS usually means information contained in one or more associated databases or data warehouses can be automatically preserved in an additional backup file. The save location for that file as well as the scheduled backup time is configurable, typically through the administrative module of the LIS. As cloud-based LIS have slowly increased in number, scheduled cloud-to-cloud data backups of software data are becoming more practical.&#91;51&#93;\n\nEnvironmental monitoring \nWhile not common, a few LIS may allow users to monitor the environmental conditions of not only sample storage containers but also the entire laboratory itself. Attributes like humidity, air quality, and temperature may be monitored to ensure sample storage units and experiments maintain desired conditions. This monitoring may be done by treating the storage container as a device, which must be interfaced with the LIS. Alarms may be able to be configured to notify staff if a storage container's environmental attributes go beyond a certain threshold.\n\n\n&#160;\n Reporting, barcoding, and printing \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n&#160;\nCustom reporting \nReporting is a vital part of an LIS, as it allows users to gain a clearer picture of collected data and potential trends. At a minimum, a number of pre-configured report styles come standard with a LIS. However, some LIS are more flexible than others, offering the ability to customize reports in numerous ways. The most popular attributes of custom reporting include custom headers, custom information placement (such as branding), charts, pivot tables, and multiple output formats.\nNote: Some LIS vendors will offer custom reporting as an option as an added cost, depending on both the base reporting functionality of the LIS and the level of customization required.\n\nSynoptic reporting \nSynoptic reporting is a specific type of reporting applicable to pathology and other associated laboratories. Synoptic reporting essentially involves a structured, pre-formatted \"checklist\" of clinically and morphologically relevant data elements (ideally passed to a relational database where they are efficiently organized, searched, and retrieved), with the intent of making reporting more efficient, uniform, and relevant to internal and external researchers. This style of reporting has the advantage of obviating the need for transcription services, reducing specimen turnaround time, and prioritizing the presentation of large amounts of diagnostic information. &#91;52&#93; Some LIS, especially those oriented towards pathology, may include this specialized functionality. In some cases, a configurable templates or form may be utilized to structure a report in a synoptic format, providing similar functionality to a separate synoptic reporting module.\n\nReport printing \nToday's LIS software almost universally offers the ability to print reports and other materials, so this feature may seem a bit redundant to list. Nonetheless, printer support is a feature worth confirming when considering a piece of LIMS software.\n\nLabel support \nThe label\u2014typically affixed to a sample or evidence container\u2014is a vital part of the sample tracking process.&#91;53&#93; Identifying information such as sample number, batch number, and barcodes are printed on such labels to ensure optimized sample management and more precise sample data. As such, some LIS allow users to design and print labels directly from the software.\n\n The word \"Wikipedia\" encoded in Code 128 and Code 39\n Barcode and\/or RFID support \nBarcodes offer many advantages to laboratory techs handling samples, including more accurate data input, tighter sample\/instrument associations, tighter sample\/study associations, and more room for human-readable information on a label.&#91;53&#93; As such, LIS developers have integrated barcode support into their laboratory information systems, including support for symbologies like Code 128, Code 39, and Interleaved 2 of 5. Aside from printing options, a LIS may also offer support for a variety of barcode readers.\nRadio-frequency identification (RFID) technology has also made inroads into the laboratory. Like barcode labels, RFID tags can be placed on samples and get read when exposed to active RFID scanning devices. This technology has some advantages over barcodes in that direct line of sight isn't required, the scanning and tracking process is more automated, and more data can be encoded.&#91;54&#93; With these apparent advantages, some LIMS vendors have also added support for RFID-fed sample information.\nBarcode\/RFID support and label support are typically found together in LIS software, but not always, thus their separation into two features of a LIS.\n\nExport to PDF \nAn LIS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Portable Document Format (PDF).\n\nExport to MS Word \nAn LIS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Microsoft Office Word format.\n\nExport to HTML or XML \nAn LIS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and\/or Extensible Markup Language (XML) format.\n\nFax integration \nAn LIS with this feature is able to connect with a fax machine and send information to it via manual input, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals. However, with the declining popularity of the fax machine&#91;55&#93;, this feature is starting to disappear from modern LIS.\n\nEmail integration \nAn LIS with this feature is able to integrate with and use the electronic mail information exchange method to send reports, alerts, and more manually, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals.\n\n\n&#160;\nBase functionality \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n&#160;\nAdministrator management \nThe administrator management tools of a LIMS allow lab technicians and researchers to set up the LIS most optimally for the laboratory. Through the administrator management interface of a LIS, other features may be accessed like setting up user roles and scheduling automatic data backups.\nLike report printing, administrator management is nearly ubiquitous in LIS software, generally considered a mandatory feature. However, for the purposes of being thorough, it's important to point out its existence. \n\nModular \nThis feature indicates that an LIS has an intentional modular design, which separates some functionality into manageable components of the overall system. Generally speaking, a modular design allows for 1. the structured addition of new functionality to an LIS and 2. the limiting of overall effects on the system design as new functionality is added.\n\nInstrument interfacing and management \nLaboratories depend on instruments, and with those instruments comes scientific measurements which produce data. It's therefor natural a lab technician would want to connect those instruments to a laboratory information management system, which is already organizing and storing laboratory data for hospitals and medical research facilities. This sort of interfacing is typically handled with instrument-to-LIS interfaces, which started out as merely a data-transfer mechanism. By the 2000s, that interface mechanism became much more robust as a data management tool, though often at great expense with heavy involvement from third parties.&#91;56&#93; This eventually meant that \"vendors [could] act as single source providers of the entire instrument interfacing solution,\"&#91;57&#93;, providing a cheaper and smoother solution to LIS customers. Today, instrument interfacing is integral to an LIS and is considerably easier to do than prior decades.&#91;58&#93; In the clinical laboratory setting, an LIS vendor may also have additional considerations to make, such as Health Level 7 (HL7) triggers, messages, and segments transported across communication interfaces.&#91;59&#93;\nThe ability to calibrate and schedule maintenance for interfaced instruments may also be included in this category.\n\n In some cases mobile devices like these may access and utilize an LIS, typically through a Web portal or special mobile version of the software.\nMobile device integration \nSome LIS vendors tout support for mobile devices using their laboratory information system. This feature has become increasingly common with the advent of first the web-based LIMS, followed by the cloud-based LIMS. This has given clinicians the ability to collect data in the field, approve results remotely, and manage clinical trial and experiement workflow on the fly.&#91;60&#93;\n\nThird-party software integration \nA few LIS vendors either incorporate third-party software into their product or they provide the means to integrate the LIS with other applications. The most typical integration involves simply communicating with common authoring tools like Microsoft Word, allowing users to work directly from the third-party application and then transferring the information to the LIS. More recently, integrations with other software systems such as an EHR system have become more common, typically using some sort of application programming interface (API).\n\n Alarms and\/or alerts \nAlarms and alerts in an LIS can be automatic or scheduled, and they can come in the form of an e-mail, a pop-up message, or a mobile text message. For example, when a test result goes out-of-range, an automatic warning message can appear on the screen of the lab analyst responsible for the test. Another example: a scheduled alert can be e-mailed to a lab technician every month indicating a piece of laboratory equipment needs routine maintenance. Both scenarios represent a tiny fraction of the possible implementation of alarms and alerts in an LIS, highlighting how powerful (yet easy to take for granted) this feature is.\n\nWork-related time tracking \nThis feature specifically refers to an LIS' ability to track the amount of time an employee spends at work in general (for payroll purposes) or on more specific projects and tasks (as part of an employee work evaluation program). May also be referred to as \"workload tracking\" or \"workload tracking.\"\n\nVoice recognition system \nAn LIS with this feature allows some functions of the software (for example, accessing test results) to be accessed via voice commands.\n\nExternal monitoring \nThis feature allows clients and\/or collaborators outside the laboratory to monitor the status of experiments, test results, and more via an online web portal or, less commonly, as activity alerts sent via e-mail or SMS.\n\n An instant messaging client built into an LIS often makes it easier to collaborate.\nMessaging \nThe messaging feature of an LIS may refer to one of two (or both) things:\n\n\na built-in instant messaging system that allows users to converse with each other through text messages real-time, or\nSMS text messaging integration that allows users or the LIMS itself to send messages or alerts to a user's mobile or smart phone.\n\nCommenting \nClinical data collection and research collaboration require data sharing and communication tools to be most effective. One of the collaborative communication features of some LIS is commenting on test results, patient records, or study protocols.\n\nMultilingual \nIf an LIS is listed as multilingual, its an indication the software interface can be configured to display more than one language depending on the preference a user or administrator chooses. Some LIS interfaces can only be displayed in one of two languages (English or German, for example), while others come configured with support for dozens of languages.\n\nNetwork-capable \nThis feature is perhaps archaic and\/or obvious, but it is mentioned nonetheless. It's generally applied to a non-web-based (on-premises) LIS installed over a local or wide-area computer network, essentially indicating the LIS is not an isolated application, but rather one that can interface with other instances or other networked instruments.\n\nWeb client or portal \nA LIS with a web client or portal is either a web-based LIMS (one that is not installed on every computer, but rather is hosted on a server and accessed via a web browser) or a non-web-based LIS with an included portal to access it via the internet.\n\nOnline or integrated help \nThis indicates an LIS has help infrastructure integrated into the software, support documentation via the vendor's website, or both.\n\nSoftware as a service delivery model \nThis indicates the software can be licensed and utilized via the software as a service (SaaS) delivery model. This typically constitutes a LIS vendor having a \"cloud-based\" offering.\n\nUsage-based cost \nWhile rare, some LIMS vendors allow potential clients to license and utilize the vendor's software under a usage-based cost model. An example of this model in use is Bytewize AB's O3 LimsXpress, which has a cost directly related to the amount of samples processed each month.&#91;61&#93; You may also see this sort of usage-based cost on some cloud-based LIMS.\n\n\n&#160;\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Association of Public Health Laboratories.&#32;May 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/aboutAPHL\/publications\/Documents\/GH-2019May-LIS-Guidebook-web.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Hice, R.&#32;(1 July 2009).&#32;\"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\".&#32;Laboratory Informatics Blog.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 19 January 2010.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100119015222\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"How Do I Find the Right LIMS \u2014 And How Much Will It Cost?\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 26 June 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150626125210\/http:\/\/files.limstitute.com\/share\/lbgprofiles\/findlims.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 ADVANCE Healthcare Network Staff&#32;(30 July 2015).&#32;\"Critical Features of the LIS\".&#32;https:\/\/www.elitecme.com\/resource-center\/laboratory\/critical-features-of-the-lis\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Futrell, K.&#32;(23 January 2017).&#32;\"What's new in today's LIS?\".&#32;Medical Laboratory Observer.&#32;https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/continuing-education\/article\/13009013\/whats-new-in-todays-lis .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 Leonard, Debra G. B.; Bagg, Adam, ed.&#32;(2007).&#32;Molecular Pathology in Clinical Practice&#32;(Illustrated ed.).&#32;Springer.&#32;p.&#160;567.&#32;ISBN&#160;0387332278.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Z2YNhh51SmQC&amp;pg=PA567 .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"PPD - Central Lab Capabilities\".&#32;Pharmaceutical Product Development, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.ppd.com\/our-solutions\/ppd-laboratories\/central-lab\/capabilities\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Esteridge, B.H.; Reynolds, A.P.; Walters, N.J.&#32;(2000).&#32;Basic Medical Laboratory Techniques&#32;(4th, revised ed.).&#32;Cengage Learning.&#32;p.&#160;8.&#32;ISBN&#160;0766812065.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qMgAbOHSlsMC&amp;pg=PA8&amp;lpg=PA8 .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 9.0 9.1 Murthy, T.; Hewson, B.&#32;(1 September 2010).&#32;\"Effective Forensic Sample Tracking and Handling\".&#32;American Laboratory.&#32;https:\/\/www.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/ .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Vaniotis, G.&#32;(19 July 2018).&#32;\"How RFID Labels Can Smarten Up Your Laboratory\".&#32;Labtag Blog.&#32;https:\/\/blog.labtag.com\/rfid-labels-in-the-lab .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Muntean, E.; Munteanb, N.; Mih\u0103iescua, T.; Mih\u0103iescuc, R.&#32;(2008).&#32;\"LIMS use in laboratory data management\".&#32;ProEnvironment\/Promediu&#32;1&#32;(2): 19\u201323.&#32;http:\/\/journals.usamvcluj.ro\/index.php\/promediu\/article\/view\/2835 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Batch Sizes And QC Questions\".&#32;U.S. EPA.&#32;4 April 2016.&#32;https:\/\/archive.epa.gov\/epawaste\/hazard\/web\/html\/faqs_qc.html .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Park, S.L.; Pantanowitz, L.; Sharma, G.; Parwani, A.V.&#32;(March 2012).&#32;\"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\".&#32;Advances in Anatomic Pathology&#32;19&#32;(2): 81\u201396.&#32;doi:10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787.&#32;PMID&#160;22313836. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Macneil, R.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"The benefits of integrated systems for managing both samples and experimental data: An opportunity for labs in universities and government research institutions to lead the way\".&#32;Automated Experimentation&#32;3&#32;(1): 2.&#32;doi:10.1186\/1759-4499-3-2.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC3146905.&#32;PMID&#160;21707999.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC3146905 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"data mining\".&#32;Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica.&#32;Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/data-mining .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sepulveda, J.L.; Young, D.S.&#32;(2013).&#32;\"The Ideal Laboratory Information System\".&#32;Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine&#32;137&#32;(8): 1129\u201340.&#32;doi:10.5858\/arpa.2012-0362-RA.&#32;PMID&#160;23216205. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"TD Analaytics Livextens\".&#32;Technidata SAS.&#32;https:\/\/www.technidata-web.com\/tdanalytics .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Orchard Harvest\".&#32;Orchard Software Corporation.&#32;https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/solutions\/orchard-harvest\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 19.0 19.1 \"LIMS Customization vs Configuration\".&#32;Autoscribe Informatics, Inc.&#32;8 March 2015.&#32;https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/blog\/lims-customization-vs-configuration .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The Benefits of a configurable COTS LIMS\".&#32;Promium, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.promium.com\/resources\/news-articles\/the-benefits-of-a-configurable-off-the-shelf-lims-cots\/ .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Patel, S.&#32;(24 September 2019).&#32;\"How labs can benefit from LIS to EHR connectivity\".&#32;Medical Laboratory Observer.&#32;https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/information-technology\/ehrs\/article\/21106468\/how-labs-can-benefit-from-lis-to-ehr-connectivity .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Elliot, M.H.&#32;(December 2006\u2013January 2007).&#32;\"The state of the ELN Market\".&#32;Scientific Computing World.&#32;https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/state-eln-market?feature_id=50 .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Elliot, Michael H.&#32;(October 2011).&#32;\"Informatics Convergence Presents Opportunities and Challenges\".&#32;Scientific Computing.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 17 April 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160417085757\/https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/articles\/2011\/11\/informatics-convergence-presents-opportunities-and-challenges .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"SLIMS: Manage your lab data in one place\".&#32;Genohm SA.&#32;https:\/\/www.genohm.com\/ .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Williams, R.W.&#32;(2003).&#32;\"Managing Your Lab Data Flux: Getting Beyond Excel\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;The Bioinformatics of Brains: From Genes and Proteins to Behaviors.&#32;Society for Neuroscience.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 16 June 2010.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100616100719\/http:\/\/www.sfn.org\/skins\/main\/pdf\/ShortCourses\/2003\/sc1_9.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Howard, D.A.; Harrison, D.&#32;(2007).&#32;\"A Pragmatic Approach to the Validation of Excel Spreadsheets \u2013 Overview\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Pharma IT&#32;1&#32;(2): 30\u201335.&#32;http:\/\/www.spreadsheetvalidation.com\/pdf\/Excel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Excel Interface\".&#32;Mountain States Consulting, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.msc-lims.com\/demo\/excelinterface.html .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"LIMS Quality Control QA\/QC\".&#32;Online LIMS Canada Limited.&#32;https:\/\/www.onlims.com\/product\/quality-control-qaqc\/ .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"LISA.lims - The Premier LIMS Solution\".&#32;Systat Software, Inc.&#32;http:\/\/www.sigmaplot.co.uk\/products\/lisa\/index.php .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 CSols, Inc&#32;(25 July 2019).&#32;\"The Value of a Scientific Data Management System (SDMS)\".&#32;https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/the-value-of-a-scientific-data-management-system-sdms\/ .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Harris, J.&#32;(20 September 2018).&#32;\"What Is A Data Warehouse? A Tutorial For Beginners\".&#32;Panoply Blog.&#32;Panoply Technologies, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/blog.panoply.io\/what-is-a-data-warehouse-a-tutorial-for-beginners .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Workflow Management Coalition Terminology &amp; Glossary\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Workflow Management Coalition.&#32;February 1999.&#32;pp. 9.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 14 March 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150314125903\/http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/standards\/docs\/TC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Maxwell, G.&#32;(1 November 2003).&#32;\"Using Workflows in LIMS to Reduce Customization\".&#32;Scientific Computing.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 07 August 2009.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090807034051\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/using-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Feist, K.&#32;(22 July 2011).&#32;\"Harnessing Laboratory Information Systems to Support Increased Capacity and Staff Productivity\".&#32;LabCompare.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 21 September 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150921215023\/http:\/\/www.labcompare.com\/10-Featured-Articles\/19389-Harnessing-Laboratory-Information-Systems-to-Support-Increased-Capacity-and-Staff-Productivity\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1578 - 18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Elekta - Laboratory Information System\".&#32;Elekta AB.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 22 April 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120422205830\/http:\/\/www.elekta.com\/healthcare-professionals\/products\/elekta-software\/clinical-laboratory\/laboratory-information-system.html .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Horizon Lab Financials\".&#32;McKesson Corporation.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 21 May 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130521025202\/http:\/\/www.mckesson.com\/en_us\/McKesson.com\/For+Healthcare+Providers\/Hospitals\/Laboratory+Solutions\/Horizon+Lab+Financials.html .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Owens, S.R.; Dhir, R.; Yousem, S.A. et al.&#32;(June 2010).&#32;\"The development and testing of a laboratory information system-driven tool for pre-sign-out quality assurance of random surgical pathology reports\".&#32;American Journal of Clinical Pathology&#32;133&#32;(6): 836\u201341.&#32;doi:10.1309\/AJCPLN9DU9LNXSXA.&#32;PMID&#160;20472840. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Netlims - AutoQuality\".&#32;NeTLIMS NJ, LLC.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 20 December 2011.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111220065137\/http:\/\/www.netlims.com\/lis_software_autoquality.asp .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"CLIN1 Laboratory Quality Control Software\".&#32;Clin1, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/clin1mobile.net\/quality-control .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Title 21: Food and Drugs - Chapter 1: Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, Subchapter A: General - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\".&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration.&#32;https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11 .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 McDowall, R.D.&#32;(June 2016).&#32;\"How Can LIMS Help Ensure Data Integrity?\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;LC-GC Europe.&#32;https:\/\/rx-360.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/How-Can-LIMS-Help-Ensure-Data-Integrity-by-R.D.-McDowall-2016.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 LabVantage Solutions&#32;(14 September 2019).&#32;\"Data Integrity is Here. What Does it Mean for CMOs?\".&#32;LabVantage Blog.&#32;https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/data-integrity-is-here-what-does-it-mean-for-cmos\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jones, A.; Valli, C.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Chapter 1: An Introduction to Digital Forensics\".&#32;Building a Digital Forensic Laboratory: Establishing and Managing a Successful Facility.&#32;Butterworth-Heinemann.&#32;p.&#160;11.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781856175104.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Tomlinson,&#32;J. J.&#59;&#32;Elliott-Smith,&#32;W.&#59;&#32;Radosta,&#32;T.&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Laboratory Information Management System Chain of Custody: Reliability and Security\"&#32;(in en).&#32;Journal of Automated Methods and Management in Chemistry&#32;2006: 1\u20134.&#32;doi:10.1155\/JAMMC\/2006\/74907.&#32;ISSN&#160;1463-9246.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC1903459.&#32;PMID&#160;17671623.&#32;http:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/jamc\/2006\/074907\/abs\/ . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Quality Assurance - Data Management\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Stable Isotope Ratio Facility for Environmental Research (SIRFER) at the University of Utah.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 17 November 2011.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111117174948\/http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Hitchcock, N.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"Chapter 10: Efficient utilization of LIMS data and integration with mining process management systems\".&#32;In&#32;Dessureault, S.D.; Ganguli, R.; Kecojevic, V.; Dwyer, J.G..&#32;Application of Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral Industry.&#32;Taylor &amp; Francis.&#32;pp.&#160;85\u201388.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780415374491. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Turner, E.; Bolton, J.&#32;(2001).&#32;\"Required steps for the validation of a Laboratory Information Management System\".&#32;Quality Assurance&#32;9&#32;(3\u20134): 217\u2013224.&#32;doi:10.1080\/713844028.&#32;PMID&#160;12553085. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Al-Issa, Y.; Ottom, M.A.; Tamrawi, A.&#32;(2019).&#32;\"eHealth Cloud Security Challenges: A Survey\".&#32;Journal of Healthcare Engineering&#32;2019: 7516035.&#32;doi:10.1155\/2019\/7516035.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC6745146.&#32;PMID&#160;31565209.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC6745146 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Monkey, S.&#32;(23 January 2017).&#32;\"The value of a control file when writing data files\".&#32;ShortStories: Tales from software development.&#32;https:\/\/corengen.wordpress.com\/2017\/01\/23\/the-value-of-a-control-file-when-writing-data-files\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Tsyktor, V.&#32;(30 December 2017).&#32;\"How to Build a Data Backup Service for SaaS\".&#32;Apriorit Dev Blog.&#32;https:\/\/www.apriorit.com\/dev-blog\/492-build-data-backup-service-saas .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Amin, W.; Sirintrapun, S.J.; Parwani, A.V.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Utility and applications of synoptic reporting in pathology\".&#32;Open Access Bioinformatics&#32;2010&#32;(2): 105\u201312.&#32;doi:10.2147\/OAB.S12295. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 53.0 53.1 Gilles, C.&#32;(1 July 2008).&#32;\"Bar Code and Sample Tracking: It All Starts with the Label\".&#32;Scientific Computing.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 18 December 2010.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101218190848\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The Hidden Power of Barcodes\".&#32;CSols, Inc.&#32;8 February 2018.&#32;https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/hidden-power-barcodes\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Haigney, S.&#32;(18 November 2018).&#32;\"The Fax Is Not Yet Obsolete\".&#32;The Atlantic.&#32;https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/archive\/2018\/11\/why-people-still-use-fax-machines\/576070\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Pavlis, R.&#32;(May\/June 2004).&#32;\"Trends in instrument-to-LIMS interfacing\".&#32;Scientific Computing World.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 10 September 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910043807\/http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88 .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 DeHeer, L.&#32;(1 October 2009).&#32;\"Instrument Interfacing - The Great Paradox of LIMS?\".&#32;Blaze Systems Corporation.&#32;https:\/\/www.blazesystems.com\/white-papers\/instruments\/ .&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Curtis Jr., D.&#32;(12 December 2019).&#32;\"Benefits and Best Practices for Integrating Laboratory Instruments with LIMS\".&#32;Astrix Lab Informatics Blog.&#32;https:\/\/astrixinc.com\/benefits-and-best-practices-for-integrating-laboratory-instruments-with-lims\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Section 3: Clinical and Administrative Domains - HL7 Version 2.7 Standard: Chapter 13 - Clinical Laboratory Automation\".&#32;HL7.&#32;http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=203 .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Ryan, M.&#32;(28 August 2019).&#32;\"Mobile LIMS Applications in the Laboratory\".&#32;The Connected Lab.&#32;Thermo Fisher Scientific.&#32;https:\/\/www.thermofisher.com\/blog\/connectedlab\/mobile-lims-applications-in-the-laboratory\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"O3 LimsXpress\".&#32;Bytewize AB.&#32;https:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3limsxpress .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature<\/a>\nCategory: Laboratory informaticsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 January 2022, at 18:39.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 191,402 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-LIS_feature rootpage-LIS_feature skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LIS feature<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\">\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Hospital_Laboratory.JPG\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"343175bb6f7198b1c792ec0f3ee9b350\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/00\/Hospital_Laboratory.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Hospital_Laboratory.JPG\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"343175bb6f7198b1c792ec0f3ee9b350\"><\/a><\/div>Thousands of hospital laboratories like this one benefit from the use of a laboratory information system.<\/div><\/div><\/div><p>An <b>LIS feature<\/b> is one or more pieces of functionality that appear within a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information system<\/a> (LIS).\n<\/p><p>The LIS has traditionally been utilized in clinical, pathology, and medical research laboratories as well as numerous public health institutions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APHLandLIS_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APHLandLIS-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Yet as laboratory demands have changed and technological progress has continued, the functions of an LIS have also changed, with the distinction between an LIS and a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) fading as some LIMS vendors have adopted the case-centric information management normally reserved for an LIS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-starlimsBlogLIS_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-starlimsBlogLIS-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HowDoIFindLII_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HowDoIFindLII-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>.\n<\/p><p>Despite the blurring of distinction between an LIS and a LIMS, the LIS generally continues to feature the following<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AStaffCritical15_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AStaffCritical15-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FutrellWhat17_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FutrellWhat17-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>patient management, including admission date, admitting physician, ordering department, specimen type, etc.<\/li>\n<li>specimen management and tracking<\/li>\n<li>configurable decision support, including comparisons of lab orders with their respective <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems\" title=\"International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1de9af67005dfe2895e5d8cf6de57d4a\">ICD<\/a> codes<\/li>\n<li>quality assurance of ordered tests<\/li>\n<li>workload and management reporting<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Of course, there are LIS features that are difficult to categorize or simply contribute to the whole of the LIS rather than add a function. For example, <a href=\"#Multilingual\">multilingual support<\/a> allows users to interact with the LIS in more than one language. Some functionality may also overlap several research phases, making it difficult to firmly classify. \n<\/p><p>The features described below come from an analysis of freely available LIS product information on vendor websites. An attempt was made to discover the features most utilized in vendors' LIS products and collect information on those features for each LIS. Not every possible feature is referenced here; some LIS products fill specific niches, utilizing unique functionality to solve a specific problem. \n<\/p><p>That said, keep in mind the categorization of features below is very loose. It may be viable to argue a feature belongs under a different section or multiple sections. For the purposes of organizing this information in an uncomplicated manner, however, some liberty has been taken in the categorizing of features.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Experiment,_patient,_and_data_management\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Experiment.2C_patient.2C_and_data_management\">Experiment, patient, and data management<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_login_and_management\">Sample login and management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Sample login and management\u2014often referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Accessioning_(medical)\" title=\"Accessioning (medical)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3a1f1a5d35fd9152d82893878bf9aa1\">accessioning<\/a> or specimen management\u2014is an important component of the clinical laboratory, whether it's a molecular pathology lab testing samples for disease indicators or a contract lab running pharmacokinetic and biomarker analysis on samples from a clinical trial.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MolPath_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MolPath-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PPDiClinTrial_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PPDiClinTrial-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As such, researchers and technicians who work in these types of labs are unable to complete their tasks without an effective method of managing samples. The process of sample management and accessioning includes, but is not limited to<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabTechBook_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabTechBook-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MolPath_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MolPath-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>storing related sample information, including demographics, dates, and external links<\/li>\n<li>creating and documenting viewable sample container schemas with name and status<\/li>\n<li>assigning sample <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"472befa27a67279b2d9818a15d649ef0\">access rights<\/a><\/li>\n<li>assigning custom sample ID or accessioning numbers based on a specification<\/li>\n<li>applying additional processing to the sample before storage and\/or analysis<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Additional functionality that could potentially fall under this feature:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18070de9d8004d989632cb309a165182\">barcoding<\/a> or RFID tagging of samples<\/li>\n<li>defining sample points and series<\/li>\n<li>creating data associations for samples, such as pedigree for sample\/aliquot relationships or relationships based on experiment, etc.<\/li>\n<li>issuing sample receipts<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_tracking\">Sample tracking<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Laboratory_oven_for_samples-01.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"d31bc29a848fcb586a58e3aa4f9822bb\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/51\/Laboratory_oven_for_samples-01.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Laboratory_oven_for_samples-01.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"d31bc29a848fcb586a58e3aa4f9822bb\"><\/a><\/div>Where's sample 20110512_122GJH? Sample tracking functionality will let you know which lab oven it's in.<\/div><\/div><\/div>For most laboratory personnel, knowing that a sample has arrived to the lab isn't good enough; they need to know where it's located and what actions are being performed on it. Enter the sample tracking feature. Without it, many problems arise. In the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Forensic_laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Forensic laboratory\" data-key=\"dabef2566b55c1f13b395543b47ae81e\">forensic world<\/a>, for example, many samples are linked to a criminal investigation. In this case, misidentification, contamination, or duplication can become significant issues: a lost sample is essentially missing evidence, while a duplicated sample can render it useless as evidence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForensicSamp_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForensicSamp-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>After sample reception and its initial handling procedures, many LIMS can then track sample location as well as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chain_of_custody\" title=\"Chain of custody\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ba04fe2bb1c8375e133455821aa3894\">chain of custody<\/a>. Location tracking usually involves assigning the sample to a particular freezer location, often down to the granular level of shelf, rack, box, row, and column. The process of tracking a sample has become more streamlined with increasing support of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">barcode<\/a> and radio frequency ID (RFID) technology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VaniotisHow18_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VaniotisHow18-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> While handwritten labels were the norm, barcode and RFID support in an LIS can \"tie together a vast amount of information, clearly relating each sample to a specific case.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForensicSamp_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForensicSamp-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Other event tracking such as freeze and thaw cycles that a sample undergoes in the laboratory may also be required. As each laboratory's needs for tracking additional data points can vary widely, many modern LIS have implemented extensive configurability to compensate for varying environments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PP0102_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PP0102-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The functionality of sample tracking strongly ties into the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4b71f1bc0b254fbb9dba4acb2c453ae\">audit trail<\/a> and chain of custody features of an LIS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_and_result_batching\">Sample and result batching<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>What is batching? The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"877b052e12328aa52f6f7c3f2d56f99a\">United States Environmental Protection Agency<\/a> (EPA) defines a batch as \"a group of samples which behave similarly with respect to the sampling or testing procedures being employed and which are processed as a unit.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPABatch_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPABatch-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This definition can be applied to many laboratories which handle large quantities of samples for some form of analysis or processing. A LIMS that has the ability to check in, link, and track groups of samples across one or multiple facilities is valuable to such laboratories. Additionally, batching the analysis results of multiple samples or groups of samples gives laboratories more flexibility with how they manage their data. Batching also offers the benefit of mimicking the production groups of samples while also capturing quality control data for the entire group.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Task_and_event_scheduling\">Task and event scheduling<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Within the context of an LIS, the ability to schedule a task or event is a natural extension of how work was done in a laboratory before the advent of data management systems. Sample processing, data analysis, equipment maintenance, and case management follow-ups are assigned to technicians and other personnel. Outpatient scheduling is another aspect of some clinical atmospheres, better handled with computerized scheduling functionality. While these tasks have in the past been performed without the LIS, a modern data management system can now optimize those tasks and provide additional scheduling functionality to streamline the operation of a lab. Some LIS will include, for example, a scheduling calendar for recurring test orders, rules-based orders, and pre-defined selection lists. Additional functionality within this feature group includes the ability to configure automated assignments of experiment requests, establish recurring events, and in most cases, create printable reports.\n<\/p><p>Examples of tasks and events that can feasibly be scheduled in an LIS include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>production of reports<\/li>\n<li>creation and sending of e-mails and alerts<\/li>\n<li>maintenance of equipment<\/li>\n<li>assignment of accessioning tasks to technicians<\/li>\n<li>scheduling outpatient visits<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Option_for_manual_result_entry\">Option for manual result entry<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While many LIS vendors tout the ability of their product to automate the entry of sample analysis results into an LIS or other database, the need for manual data entry of analysis results still exists. This feature is important to laboratories obtaining analysis results from multiple sources, including non-digital paper-based results and instruments that can't be connected to the LIS. Additional functionality associated with this feature includes a customizable spell-check dictionary and the ability to add comments, notes, and narratives to many of the data items in the LIS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Multiple_data_viewing_methods\">Multiple data viewing methods<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital\" title=\"Hospital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f070c66d8123fe91063594befebdff\">Hospitals<\/a>, physicians, and clinical research facilities produce reams of data, and the LIS exists to help organize and distribute that data to the necessary entities. Additionally, even before the existence of the LIS, scientists have had a corresponding need for visually representing that data for clearer analysis and hypothesis creation. Today an LIS can not only collect and analyze data, but it also can represent that data in reports, graphs, gradients, and spreadsheets. Depending on the LIS, more than one way to visually represent the data may exist. \n<\/p><p>This category ties in with the <a href=\"#Configurable_templates_and_forms\">custom templates and forms<\/a> functionality apparent in some LIS, providing both custom and standardized ways to present information across a healthcare or medical research enterprise.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Configurable_templates_and_forms\">Configurable templates and forms<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Similar to an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN), a template in an LIS is a functionality item which allows users to increase the productivity and quality of their work by allowing for the creation of a standardized analysis page, patient page, or reporting process across a healthcare or medical research enterprise. These templates allow researchers to maintain more consistent data representation for similar tasks in the LIS and save time by not needing to manually input common data outputs or recreate experiments. Templates and forms typically utilize a wide field library, and the data that is posted to those template fields can also be <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_normalization\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4fc9126c76ada2445b393acd0406bd2\">normalized<\/a> to a specific standard. Types of templates that may be created include those for renal and blood pressure analysis, patient demographics, test ordering, and department-level reports.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AnPathRev_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AnPathRev-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_and_trend_analysis\">Data and trend analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:262px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Analyse_residus.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e109757f723abf3b557ade246e65a88\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/58\/Analyse_residus.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"260\" height=\"94\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Analyse_residus.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"0e109757f723abf3b557ade246e65a88\"><\/a><\/div>Some LISs allow users to analyze patient test results or clinical research data with built-in software tools.<\/div><\/div><\/div> For public health centers and pharmaceutical research centers alike, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1\">data analysis<\/a> plays an important role in their operations, helping clinicians and researchers make better sense of their collected data and reach valuable conclusions about them. While this important phase of laboratory work has often been done externally from the LIS, today's LIS commonly has basic data analysis tools included. Such tools allow raw data to be imported directly to the LIS, which then can store, process, and display it in a shareable form. Vendors may include data analysis functionality by simply including Microsoft Excel compatibility or providing advanced reporting tools, or they may take a more advanced approach by programming and including their own custom data and trend analysis tools in their informatics software. As data analysis has become increasingly vital, such functionality\u2014which has often come in the form of a separate application or analysis device\u2014continues to end up in software like LIS, LIMS, and other <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> solutions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AE0302_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AE0302-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_and_equipment_sharing\">Data and equipment sharing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Aside from data storage and sample registration, a modern LIS's major contribution to the laboratory is aiding in the sharing of test results, reports, and patient data with other entities across the clinical and research enterprise. Rather than pieces of information becoming misplaced or locked away in a physician's office or pathology lab, the LIS makes it easier to test results and increase the efficiency of patient-doctor-lab collaboration in general. However, data is more than just test results; it also can come in the form of charts, reports, policy and procedure, and other documents. Additionally, the need for controlling who has access to those types of data is also an important consideration. As such, this feature is at least partially tied to other features like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b1d04112bbc7ff839617189de2a11ea\">document management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"472befa27a67279b2d9818a15d649ef0\">configurable security<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_mining\">Data mining<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data mining, in the field of computational science, involves \"the process of discovering interesting and useful patterns and relationships in large volumes of data\" and includes three computational steps: model-learning, model evaluation, and model usage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DataMEnBrit_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DataMEnBrit-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As informatics software allows both research and clinical laboratories to collect and manage increasing quantities of data, a corresponding demand for tools capable of modeling that data is appearing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IdealLIS_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IdealLIS-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup> For example, public health laboratories may wish to utilize data mining for statistical analysis and surveillance of populations for specific diseases. LIS like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Technidata_SAS\" title=\"Technidata SAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f4e7f8814b4ba7fab1311a70ae0f4be\">Livextens<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Orchard_Software_Corporation#Orchard_Harvest\" title=\"Orchard Software Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"282d8bd34a579b527714e64d0e6ffecc\">Orchard Harvest<\/a> are examples of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> software which incorporate data mining and reporting tools.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TDS_Anal_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TDS_Anal-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OSDM_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OSDM-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Customizable_fields_and\/or_interface\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\">Customizable fields and\/or interface<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As thorough as some user interface (UI) developers may be in adding relevant fields and interface options for end users, there are at times options that are either omitted or unanticipated. This has traditionally required the end user to contact the vendor and ask if the needed option(s) can be added in the next release. However, many modern LIS vendors have responded instead by adding functionality that gives end users and\/or LIS administrators more control over the user interface. \n<\/p><p>Aspects of the LIS's user interface that are often customizable by the end user include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>report interface and display<\/li>\n<li>patient profile display<\/li>\n<li>project and experiment display<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Increasingly, today's vendors tend to refer to their systems as being \"configurable\" rather than \"customizable.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASLIMSCustom_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASLIMSCustom-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PromiumTheBeni_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PromiumTheBeni-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup> For example, vendors such as Autoscribe Informatics include screen editing and other tools that administrators can user to configure the various screens, data fields, nomenclature, etc. of the solution.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASLIMSCustom_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASLIMSCustom-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Note in many cases an interface may be customized through the use of templates and forms, and as such, this functionality may be closely tied to the <a href=\"#Configurable_templates_and_forms\">configurable templates and forms<\/a> functionality.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Query_capability\">Query capability<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As was the case before the advent of databases and electronic data management solutions, today researchers must search through test results, patient notes, and other types of data to better draw conclusions from experiments, diagnose patient illnesses, and plan pharmaceutical research activities. Whereas this used to mean browsing through laboratory notebooks, Excel spreadsheets, or Access databases, now powerful query tools exists within data management tools like the LIS and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">ELN<\/a>. A flexible search algorithm can be implemented to allow users to search a dataset by patient name (full or partial) or by any accessioning number. Or more advanced query tools may be implemented to collate and search across multiple datasets.\n<\/p><p>Query functionality often includes the ability to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>search both transactional data and archived data tables<\/li>\n<li>search multiple databases via an application programming interface (API) or open database connectivity (ODBC) connection<\/li>\n<li>filter and sort data<\/li>\n<li>collate queried data for further <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_and_trend_analysis\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b53cd61b96525d390e8e857f55feaf59\">analysis<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Multiple_data_viewing_methods\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3157377edc9fb475bb6fff589f77f16\">visualization<\/a><\/li>\n<li>create <i>ad hoc<\/i> queries<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Import_data\">Import data<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data can originate from numerous places in the laboratory. The ability to import that data into an LIS can be beneficial, especially when an instrument can't be connected or external clients collaborating on a project need to submit relevant data. Of course <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f2d7a1f94d82fdd1d60f467fb261e9e\">instrument interfacing<\/a> allows for even more importation options. Additional <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3fc44e00d7686bffee4879207d83579\">data validation<\/a> procedures may be applied to the imported data to guarantee information homogeneity. For the LIS, one of the common sources of importing data is a separate <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_medical_record\" title=\"Electronic medical record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99a695d2af23397807da0537d29d0be7\">electronic medical record<\/a> (EMR) or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_health_record\" title=\"Electronic health record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255\">electronic health record<\/a> (EHR) system, for collecting patient data and test orders.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PatelHowLabs19_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PatelHowLabs19-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Internal_file_or_data_linking\">Internal file or data linking<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Linking-Open-Data-diagram_2007-09.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e331ad282405cb5c1a330e17d7c28294\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/89\/Linking-Open-Data-diagram_2007-09.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"237\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Linking-Open-Data-diagram_2007-09.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"e331ad282405cb5c1a330e17d7c28294\"><\/a><\/div>Many informatics systems allow for internal linking of data; however, entities outside of the system often need to access the data housed within. An LIS is often capable of such external data linking.<\/div><\/div><\/div>This feature allows research collaborators using an LIS to link together sample batches, reports, protocols, results, and more, providing greater contextual clarity to projects and datasets. Examples include:\n<ul><li>linking a sample batch to a test or sample preparation methodology<\/li>\n<li>linking a test process to a particular experiment<\/li>\n<li>linking a report to a sample batch<\/li>\n<li>linking a group of experiment results to a raw data file<\/li>\n<li>linking multiple images to a patient record<\/li>\n<li>linking all experiment results with the correct reporting test methods<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_file_or_data_linking\">External file or data linking<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature allows research collaborators using an LIS to link together data and files housed in the database with data, files, and customers outside the LIS's domain. Examples include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>linking to an external practice management or electronic medical record (EMR) system using an an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">HL7<\/a>-compliant interface<\/li>\n<li>linking one public health data source with others to pool demographic and medical information for better disease modeling<\/li>\n<li>linking to separate clinical trial laboratory data files within a report<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ELN_support_or_integration\">ELN support or integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The functionality of solutions such as an LIS and LIMS began to blur with that of an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">ELN<\/a> in the 2000s, with both types of software incorporating features from the other.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWorld1-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompELN_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompELN-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup> More than a decade later, the ELN has become more distinct in purpose and functionality and is typically sold as a stand-alone solution. However, some vendors such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Genohm_SA\" title=\"Genohm SA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"426b7038bf902fd270a107745d2b6087\">Genohm<\/a> have decided to integrate ELN functionality into their solution in order to provide greater flexibility to researchers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GenohmHome_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GenohmHome-24\">&#91;24&#93;<\/a><\/sup> While it has been more common to see this sort of melding in a LIMS, it has been less common in the LIS. Yet some LIS may include some sort of integration or compatibility with an ELN, and thusly this functionality is at least mentioned.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_MS_Excel\">Export to MS Excel<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While Microsoft Excel had long been used within the laboratory setting, a slow shift towards relational databases and LIMS occurred in the late 1990s and early 2000s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilliamsExcel_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilliamsExcel-25\">&#91;25&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Additional concerns with the difficulties of Excel's validation and compliance with FDA <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> and other regulations ultimately led many labs to turn to data management solutions that are easier to validate.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PragmaticExcelIntro_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PragmaticExcelIntro-26\">&#91;26&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Several decades later, some laboratories continue to use Excel in some fashion, and thus having an LIS capable of handling Excel data remains useful. In particular, selecting and exporting the LIS' data (from test results to quality control charts) into a format such as Excel may further data visualization, insights, and dissemination for some users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MSCExcel_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MSCExcel-27\">&#91;27&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OLCL_LIMSQual_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OLCL_LIMSQual-28\">&#91;28&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Raw_data_management\">Raw data management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While not described as a feature on most LIS vendor websites, a few indicate their product is capable of managing (import, export, editing, etc.) data in its raw format for future analysis. This raw data is typically implied to be originating from instruments that interface with the LIS, which in itself is not unusual. That raw data may remain housed in instruments, getting transformed into reportable data in the LIS, but presumably most LIS are also capable of housing the raw instrument data as well.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SSLisa_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SSLisa-29\">&#91;29&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Clinical research labs may also turn to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">scientific data management systems<\/a> to better manage their raw data sources.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CSolsTheVal19_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CSolsTheVal19-30\">&#91;30&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_warehouse\">Data warehouse<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>an LIS' <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca506499cdf544371c0a0d549ff0e9ee\">data warehouse<\/a> serves the important function of storing, extracting, and managing the data that laboratories produce for the purposes or analysis, reporting, and process management, typically separate from the primary storage database. Data warehouses also offer the benefit of speeding up queries, making queries and data mining more user-friendly, and smoothing out data gaps.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HarrisWhatIs18_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HarrisWhatIs18-31\">&#91;31&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Project_and\/or_task_management\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Project_and.2For_task_management\">Project and\/or task management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Project and task management within an LIS typically involves the scheduling of tasks to technicians and organizing associated tasks into a more cohesive unit for better tracking and management. While the functionality of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c25ec5bd3625a184d1f2accde264bef\">task and event scheduling<\/a> can also be found in project and task management, many LIS include functionality beyond scheduling that warrants the addition of the project and\/or task management feature. This functionality includes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>job allocation and rescheduling<\/li>\n<li>instrument workload tracking<\/li>\n<li>pending workload verification<\/li>\n<li>project- and experiment-based <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e5a749677e03c808d551148f8a56ca8\">workflow management<\/a><\/li>\n<li>sample, batch, and document <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Internal_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c689e34a1ba032aeb13d1af1cdd1df5\">linking<\/a><\/li>\n<li>work template sharing<\/li>\n<li>recurring event management<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Patient_and_case_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f42818d5e7b03ceb7b8662bd6b136dca\">Patient and case management<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Test,_experiment,_and\/or_trial_management\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Test.2C_experiment.2C_and.2For_trial_management\">Test, experiment, and\/or trial management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Specimen or sample test management is a common component of an LIS, while experiment and research trial management functionality is a component of some LIS, often limited to those that are designed to help manage clinical trials. Test, experiment, and trial management can cover a wide variety of tasks, from setting up the design of a clinical trial to specimen task assignments, from ordering tests for patients to planning trial experiments. <b>Note<\/b>: this may also be referred to as \"order management\" with some vendors.\n<\/p><p>It's worth noting this functionality category may seem broad in scope and include other functionality listed on this page, including <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e5a749677e03c808d551148f8a56ca8\">workflow management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Project_and_task_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ab10d8804cc7760a8dbb976681e0ced\">project and task management<\/a>. Its inclusion when reviewing software functionality is primarily to indicate when a vendor or project team indicates the existence of specific test, experiment, or trial management tools in their software.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Inventory_management\">Inventory management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Laboratories use a wide array of inventory and equipment, from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Reagent\" title=\"Reagent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"39ef926218accd8f01f4c68c5a82f9dc\">reagents<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiopharmacology\" title=\"Radiopharmacology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c05f4c40cbd311d197b3e45faaed0146\">radiopharmaceuticals<\/a> to glassware and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_bath\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Laboratory bath\" data-key=\"ef20b7240457dba2d8433e9dca6047f7\">laboratory baths<\/a>. With that comes the need to know how much\/many and the frequency of use. For this, LIS solutions include some sort of inventory management functionality. \n<\/p>\n<ul><li>register origin, demographics of incoming materials<\/li>\n<li>track used and in-use items via barcodes or RFID<\/li>\n<li>track inventory reduction based on usage and shipping out of the lab<\/li>\n<li>create alerts for when items reach a certain stock level<\/li>\n<li>calculate inventory cost and fluctuation<\/li>\n<li>manage transportation and routing<\/li>\n<li>manual incrementing\/decrementing of item counts<\/li>\n<li>track location and usage of laboratory equipment<\/li>\n<li>assign storage locations<\/li>\n<li>track forensic evidence<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Document_and\/or_image_management\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Document_and.2For_image_management\">Document and\/or image management<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:322px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Process_and_data_modeling.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b1691d96fc9879bacbb744b20201ffd\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/01\/Process_and_data_modeling.svg\/320px-Process_and_data_modeling.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"320\" height=\"254\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Process_and_data_modeling.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"1b1691d96fc9879bacbb744b20201ffd\"><\/a><\/div>Standard operating procedures, workflow diagrams, and business models can all be handled effectively with document management functionality.<\/div><\/div><\/div>Standard operating procedures (SOPs), specifications, safety manuals and protocols, regulatory files, certificates, reports, graphs, images, and receipts are all collected and used in the average laboratory. With an LIS already designed to manage and store sample and experiment data, it makes sense to include functionality to create, import, export, and manage other sorts of data files. As sample and experimental data can be indexed, queried, and linked, so too can documents. Functionality of a typical document management system includes the ability to:\n<ul><li>upload and index documents of most any file type and size<\/li>\n<li>enforce <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Version_control\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3b24e66cee2120d37f65974e08f901a\">version control<\/a><\/li>\n<li>provide full text search<\/li>\n<li>convert and\/or export to PDF or other relevant formats<\/li>\n<li>add documents as attachments to other analyses, files, projects, etc. in the system<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Patient_and_case_management\">Patient and case management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The LIS has played an important role in the case management tasks of patient-centric and clinical laboratories. LIS products have included patient or case management tools suitable for the clinical, public health, and veterinary industries, as well as the fields of law enforcement and forensic science. Functionality seen in the patient and case management feature includes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>case accessioning and assignment<\/li>\n<li>disease tracking<\/li>\n<li>trend analysis<\/li>\n<li>clinical history follow-up<\/li>\n<li>out-of-range result <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7e85e4aa70013668fcee5950de3afbbb\">alerts<\/a><\/li>\n<li>document and result association<\/li>\n<li>evidence control<\/li>\n<li>study management<\/li>\n<li>collating of patient data across multiple spectrum<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workflow_management\">Workflow management<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Workflow_IA.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"00653041ded02667b937fcc40d1624d4\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2e\/Workflow_IA.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"240\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Workflow_IA.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"00653041ded02667b937fcc40d1624d4\"><\/a><\/div>Capturing workflow in the lab is becoming more commonplace for laboratory informatics products.<\/div><\/div><\/div><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">Workflow<\/a> management is common in the laboratory, acting as a graphical representation of planned sequential steps to either fully or partially automate a process within the lab. Separate standards-based workflow management systems (in the form of a software component) have traditionally performed this task.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WfMC1_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WfMC1-32\">&#91;32&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, in the late 2000s <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> vendors began incorporating workflow management functionality into their software, reducing the headaches that customization of a solution often brought.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWF_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWF-33\">&#91;33&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<p>Modern commercial and open-source LIS solutions recognize clinical laboratory workflow often has its own share of requirements, requiring specific workflow management functionality, including<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WFLIS_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WFLIS-34\">&#91;34&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"flowlist\">\n<ul><li>managing the request cycle within a laboratory<\/li>\n<li>organizing and executing diagnostic testing<\/li>\n<li>managing specific chemistry- and biology-related procedures<\/li>\n<li>defining activity attributes<\/li>\n<li>managing automation tools to better workflows<\/li>\n<li>re-routing samples based on changes to a process<\/li>\n<li>dynamically modifying workflow in case of future changes<\/li>\n<li>receiving notification of changes to the workflow<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Specification_management\">Specification management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Specification_(technical_standard)\" title=\"Specification (technical standard)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc2050725de4ea7ca520800e4f969b20\">Specification<\/a> (spec) management is vital to not only the manufacturing and research industries but also to a host of other laboratories requiring precise measurements and infallible test methods. Just as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM<\/a> offers standards and specs for LIS<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTM_LIMS_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTM_LIMS-35\">&#91;35&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, so too do LIS users have standards and specs for their laboratory. \n<\/p><p>Spec management has primarily been seen in a manufacturing execution system (MES) or a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS), but occasionally an LIS may appear which includes such functionality. With spec management in place, laboratories can then:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>enforce standard operating procedures and business rules<\/li>\n<li>create specs down to a project or sample level<\/li>\n<li>validate recipes and procedures<\/li>\n<li>accept or reject sample batches<\/li>\n<li>document internal and external spec history<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Note some of the functionality of spec management may cross over into the realm of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47bc2def1727b39e330a321323ca99d0\">quality control<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3fc44e00d7686bffee4879207d83579\">data validation<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Customer,_supplier,_and_physician_management\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Customer.2C_supplier.2C_and_physician_management\">Customer, supplier, and physician management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Unless a laboratory is conducting internalized independent research, in most cases it will do business with external entities such as contract labs, physician offices, equipment providers, and reagent suppliers. In some cases, even internal employees may be considered a customer, necessitating documentation of who is using the system and in what ways. For a veterinary lab, the customer may be the animal and handler. For a forensic lab the customer may be more complex: internal staff, university staff, police departments, and maintainers of nationwide crime databases may all at some point act as customers. In these cases, documenting these various points of contact and linking them to tests, equipment, and patients becomes vital. Managing demographics, complaints, correspondence, and history are all feasible with customer, supplier, and physician management functionality. This process is often made simpler through the use of a more context-neutral entity creation system, which allows for more flexible management of contacts.\n<\/p><p>This feature may also be referred to as contact management, an address book module, or a customer service module.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Billing_and_revenue_management\">Billing and revenue management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While the finances of a laboratory are important, they've typically been handled separately as a business process. However, some LIS include additional functionality to make handling financial transactions and documentation of all sorts possible within the LIS. In theory, such functionality brings the possibility of keeping more of a laboratory's data centrally located and queryable. This feature may include<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ILAbout_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ILAbout-36\">&#91;36&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McKessHori_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McKessHori-37\">&#91;37&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>payment processing<\/li>\n<li>expense reporting<\/li>\n<li>price quotes<\/li>\n<li>revenue cycle management<\/li>\n<li>workload tracking of billable hours<\/li>\n<li>bill of materials<\/li>\n<li>sales team and client management<\/li>\n<li>profitability analysis<\/li>\n<li>medical necessity checks<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Quality,_security,_and_compliance\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality.2C_security.2C_and_compliance\">Quality, security, and compliance<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regulatory_compliance\">Regulatory compliance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The topic of whether or not an LIS meets regulatory compliance is often a complex one. While Title <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> has arguably had the largest influence on an electronic data management system's compliance, other influential standards have shaped the way laboratory informatics systems handle and store data. Other compliance-based codes, standards, and regulations include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM<\/a> standards<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\" title=\"The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f364a7d9dca831de0caaaba41cf0b7ea\">ASCLD\/LAB<\/a> crime lab accreditation<\/li>\n<li>Freedom of Information Act<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\" title=\"Good Automated Laboratory Practices\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6\">GALP<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\" title=\"Good Automated Manufacturing Practice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb\">GAMP<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153\">HIPAA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems\" title=\"International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1de9af67005dfe2895e5d8cf6de57d4a\">ICD<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000\/9001<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/TS_16949\" title=\"ISO\/TS 16949\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98e43baa168925d15899a66e9c9f0b8f\">ISO\/TS 16949<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ODBC\" title=\"ODBC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58229ca4974143c9d42736a040160be\">ODBC<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\" title=\"The NELAC Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991\">TNI<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute#National_Environmental_Laboratory_Accreditation_Program\" title=\"The NELAC Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4413d2879e883354b99ce8cb3f57240d\">NELAP<\/a> enviromnental lab accreditation<\/li>\n<li>Title <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3\" title=\"40 CFR Part 3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef\">40 CFR Part 3<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>With so many codes, standards, and regulations, it can be challenging for potential LIS buyers to fully vet whether a vendor's solution meets regulatory requirements, let alone helps labs meet the regulations and standards that affect them. In truth, most reputable vendors today have regulatory compliance well considered for their LIS solutions, which are often purpose-built. However, it is ultimately up to the potential buyer to confirm that the vendor's solution complies to activities within their industry. Buyers are advised to contact vendors with their user requirements and ask how the vendor's software meets and\/or exceeds those requirements.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-QA\/QC_functions\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"QA.2FQC_functions\">QA\/QC functions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The quality management functions of an LIS allow users to maintain a level of necessary quality across many of the functions in a laboratory. Some of the activities quality assurance \/ quality control functionality allows for includes<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RandomQAPaper_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RandomQAPaper-38\">&#91;38&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NLQC_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NLQC-39\">&#91;39&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Clin1_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Clin1-40\">&#91;40&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>force random review of cases by second pathologist before case verification<\/li>\n<li>receive and process QC results from laboratory analyzers<\/li>\n<li>create user rules<\/li>\n<li>set up custom alerts and flags for out-of-range results<\/li>\n<li>observe standard deviations in outcome research<\/li>\n<li>review and sign off on data electronically<\/li>\n<li>delta checking<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Performance_evaluation\">Performance evaluation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As prevalent as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9e325ecd80a3deb3b4aa2159bc0eda\">document management<\/a> has become in clinical and research laboratories, it makes sense that the LIS should also provide functionality to collate and store all the documentation associated with employee training and certification. Changes to laboratory techniques, scientific understanding, and business practices force researchers to learn, reevaluate, and demonstrate competency in order to maintain quality levels in the laboratory. Evaluations can frequently extend beyond staff members, however. Clinics, visit types, vendors, or test species can also be tracked and evaluated based on custom criteria. The performance evaluation functionality of an LIS makes this possible. \n<\/p><p>That functionality typically includes the ability to maintain training records and history, and also to link that training to a technique or piece of equipment. Afterwards, the staff member, vendor, etc. can be marked as competent or certified in the equipment, knowledge, or process. Periodical assessment of the training and its practical effectiveness can later be performed. Productivity of an entity or process can also be gauged over a certain date range based on <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Work-related_time_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a1c775a9fc866d0f19372667539beb9\">tracked time<\/a>, pre-determined milestones, or some other criteria.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Audit_trail\">Audit trail<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:282px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Syvalidate_screen.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b19e0089cab173f0bf3d99af53437ab\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/25\/Syvalidate_screen.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"280\" height=\"202\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Syvalidate_screen.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"5b19e0089cab173f0bf3d99af53437ab\"><\/a><\/div>Whether validating an instrument's data or an entire LIS, maintaining an audit trail is an important part of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> compliance.<\/div><\/div><\/div> As laws and regulations like Title <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> mandate \"computer systems (including hardware and software), controls, and attendant documentation\" utilize electronic signatures and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0\">audit trails<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDA21CFR11_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDA21CFR11-41\">&#91;41&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, LIS developers must put serious thought into how their software handles audit trail functionality. The audit trail\u2014documentation of the sequence of activities that have affected an action\u2014must be thorough and seamlessly integrated into the software, and it has become a mandatory feature for labs operating in regulated environments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McDowallHowCan16_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McDowallHowCan16-42\">&#91;42&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>Information recorded in the audit trail typically includes:\n<\/p>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r43802\"\/><div class=\"flowlist\">\n<ul><li>operator code<\/li>\n<li>time stamp<\/li>\n<li>location<\/li>\n<li>case number<\/li>\n<li>accessioning number<\/li>\n<li>transaction type<\/li>\n<li>amount and quantity prior to change<\/li>\n<li>user notes (e.g., reason for change)<\/li>\n<li>in some cases, data in temporary memory<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LVData19_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LVData19-43\">&#91;43&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Chain_of_custody\">Chain of custody<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chain_of_custody\" title=\"Chain of custody\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ba04fe2bb1c8375e133455821aa3894\">chain of custody<\/a> (COC) of an item is of varying importance, depending on the type of laboratory. A highly regulated laboratory that works under Code of Federal Regulation or other guidelines makes tracking COC a vital part of its operations. This is especially true in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Forensic_laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Forensic laboratory\" data-key=\"dabef2566b55c1f13b395543b47ae81e\">forensic labs<\/a>, which depend on continuous accountability of their evidence collection, retention, and disposal procedures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JonesBuild09_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JonesBuild09-44\">&#91;44&#93;<\/a><\/sup> At its core, the COC strives to answer at least these five questions<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">&#91;45&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Where is my sample or specimen now?<\/li>\n<li>Who possess my sample or specimen now?<\/li>\n<li>When did that individual take possession of my sample or specimen?<\/li>\n<li>Where has my sample or specimen been?<\/li>\n<li>Who has been in possession of my sample or specimen?<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>As with an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0\">audit trail<\/a>, a laboratory depends on recorded information like user ID, time stamp, and location ID to maintain a robust and accurate COC. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18070de9d8004d989632cb309a165182\">Barcodes<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e788179e056c8553e0070eff323cb5\">inventory management<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"472befa27a67279b2d9818a15d649ef0\">configurable security roles<\/a> all play an important part in maintaining chain of custody.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Configurable_roles_and_security\">Configurable roles and security<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Many roles exist within the clinical and research setting, each with its own set of responsibilities. And just as the role an individual plays within the laboratory may change, so may the responsibilities associated with each role. This sort of change necessitates a flexible and configurable security system, one that allows for the placement of individual LIS users into standardized security roles which provide role-specific access to certain functionality. Additionally, as responsibilities change within roles, that same flexible configuration is necessary for assigning or restricting access to specific functionality for each existing or newly created role. \n<\/p><p>Of course, roles aren't always assigned on an individual level. Often large groups of individuals may need to be assigned to roles, necessitating group assignments for security purposes. For example, a group of hospital laboratory trainees may not be given access to the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e788179e056c8553e0070eff323cb5\">inventory management<\/a> functionality of the system through a custom \"Trainees\" group role, while the head of the lab may be given the \"Administrator\" role, which allows that individual to access a much broader spectrum of the LIS's functionality.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_normalization\">Data normalization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>For the purposes of describing LIS functionality, \"data normalization\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring data that moves into the LIS is formatted in a standardized way, matching the format of existing LIMS data.\n<\/p><p>Here's an example to better explain this issue. When an LIS is initially configured, in most if not all cases a clear standard can be set for how logged samples and their associated measurements pre- and post-analysis are recorded in the system. Perhaps all temperatures will be recorded in Celsius to two decimal places. If temperature data imported from a spreadsheet or a lab instrument is not in this format, the LIS can normalize the incoming data to match the standard already set for existing LIS temperature data. This ensures consistency within the LIS database and typically leads to better data validation efforts later on.\n<\/p><p><i>Note<\/i>: Some LIS developers may include data normalization functionality within what they may refer to as \"data validation\" functionality. The line between these two may be blurred or not exist at all.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_validation\">Data validation<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Scheme_reconciliation.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ee24bca4f268fa5e308fec9d3fbb761\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/44\/Scheme_reconciliation.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Scheme_reconciliation.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"0ee24bca4f268fa5e308fec9d3fbb761\"><\/a><\/div>In an LIS, data and data models can be forced through a validation process to remove errors and reconcile that those data and models.<\/div><\/div><\/div>For the purposes of describing LIMS functionality, \"data validation\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring existing data in the LIMS\u2014either pre-analysis or post-analysis\u2014sufficiently meets any number of standards or thresholds set for sample login, sample analysis, or any other data management process in the LIMS. This validation process may be completely automatic and system-based, or it may also include additional steps on the part of the user base utilizing additional LIMS functionality, including verification of standard operating procedures (SOPs), QC samples, and QA approval.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SIRFERQual_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SIRFERQual-46\">&#91;46&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HitchcockEffic05_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HitchcockEffic05-47\">&#91;47&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<p><i>Note<\/i>: This functionality shouldn't be confused with the process of validating the application itself, which is an entirely different process partially falling under <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"637370746c4cbf4112f108bda0601950\">regulatory compliance<\/a> and involves the process of ensuring \"the software is performing in a manner for which it was designed.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TurnerReq01_48-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TurnerReq01-48\">&#91;48&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_encryption\">Data encryption<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The existence of this functionality in LIS software generally indicates the LIS has the ability to protect the integrity and authenticity of its housed data through the use of a variety of technologies which makes data unreadable except to those users or systems possessing a key\/right\/etc. to unlock\/read the data. This functionality has been important for the web-enabled LIMS, which transfers information over the internet in a client-server relationship, and it has become an increasingly vital part of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f\">cloud-based<\/a> software offerings managing data in transit and at rest.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Al-IssaEhealth19_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Al-IssaEhealth19-49\">&#91;49&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As a wide variety of encryption technologies exist, it's generally a good idea to consult with the developers of an LIS to determine the strengths and weaknesses of their employed encryption methods.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Version_control\">Version control<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Version control is a form of safeguard which helps preserve data integrity. This is typically done by creating a modifiable new version of a piece of information rather than allowing the original to be modified. Such versioning may be applied to a wide variety of digital information housed in the LIS, including test methods, training certifications, instrument logs, specifications, and process and procedure (P&amp;P) documentation. Information tracked with such revisions includes attributes like user name, time the edit was made, and what exactly was edited. This also benefits those managing <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4b71f1bc0b254fbb9dba4acb2c453ae\">audit trails<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f949e83daf78d8368f040cea9a8ca188\">chains of custody<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Some LIS vendors may choose to employ a different form of version control called file locking, which simply puts the affected information into a read-only mode for users while someone else is busy editing it.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MonkeyTheVal17_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MonkeyTheVal17-50\">&#91;50&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Another popular strategy is to, rather than locking the file, allow multiple people edit to a piece of information, later merging the various edits. Potential LIS buyers may need to inquire with developers to determine what type of versioning scheme is used in the vendor's software.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Automatic_data_backup\">Automatic data backup<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The functionality of automatic data backup in an LIS usually means information contained in one or more associated databases or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_warehouse\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd87679a8bb1ef4b395e8150dfa4001b\">data warehouses<\/a> can be automatically preserved in an additional backup file. The save location for that file as well as the scheduled backup time is configurable, typically through the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Administrator_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b4b4d8fa11691f07c422b85add85bd6\">administrative module<\/a> of the LIS. As cloud-based LIS have slowly increased in number, scheduled cloud-to-cloud data backups of software data are becoming more practical.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TsyktorHowTo17_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TsyktorHowTo17-51\">&#91;51&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environmental_monitoring\">Environmental monitoring<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While not common, a few LIS may allow users to monitor the environmental conditions of not only sample storage containers but also the entire laboratory itself. Attributes like humidity, air quality, and temperature may be monitored to ensure sample storage units and experiments maintain desired conditions. This monitoring may be done by treating the storage container as a device, which must be interfaced with the LIS. Alarms may be able to be configured to notify staff if a storage container's environmental attributes go beyond a certain threshold.\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Reporting,_barcoding,_and_printing\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reporting.2C_barcoding.2C_and_printing\">Reporting, barcoding, and printing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Custom_reporting\">Custom reporting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Reporting is a vital part of an LIS, as it allows users to gain a clearer picture of collected data and potential trends. At a minimum, a number of pre-configured report styles come standard with a LIS. However, some LIS are more flexible than others, offering the ability to customize reports in numerous ways. The most popular attributes of custom reporting include custom headers, custom information placement (such as branding), charts, pivot tables, and multiple output formats.\n<\/p><p>Note: Some LIS vendors will offer custom reporting as an option as an added cost, depending on both the base reporting functionality of the LIS and the level of customization required.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Synoptic_reporting\">Synoptic reporting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Synoptic reporting is a specific type of reporting applicable to pathology and other associated laboratories. Synoptic reporting essentially involves a structured, pre-formatted \"checklist\" of clinically and morphologically relevant data elements (ideally passed to a relational database where they are efficiently organized, searched, and retrieved), with the intent of making reporting more efficient, uniform, and relevant to internal and external researchers. This style of reporting has the advantage of obviating the need for transcription services, reducing specimen turnaround time, and prioritizing the presentation of large amounts of diagnostic information. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SynRepoPaper_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SynRepoPaper-52\">&#91;52&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Some LIS, especially those oriented towards pathology, may include this specialized functionality. In some cases, a <a href=\"#Configurable_templates_and_forms\">configurable templates or form<\/a> may be utilized to structure a report in a synoptic format, providing similar functionality to a separate synoptic reporting module.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Report_printing\">Report printing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Today's LIS software almost universally offers the ability to print reports and other materials, so this feature may seem a bit redundant to list. Nonetheless, printer support is a feature worth confirming when considering a piece of LIMS software.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Label_support\">Label support<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The label\u2014typically affixed to a sample or evidence container\u2014is a vital part of the sample tracking process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SCLabel_53-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SCLabel-53\">&#91;53&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Identifying information such as sample number, batch number, and barcodes are printed on such labels to ensure optimized sample management and more precise sample data. As such, some LIS allow users to design and print labels directly from the software.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Code_barres.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"23481b6010df77bcb0ef723e7bef48fd\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/ba\/Code_barres.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"282\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Code_barres.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"23481b6010df77bcb0ef723e7bef48fd\"><\/a><\/div>The word \"Wikipedia\" encoded in Code 128 and Code 39<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Barcode_and\/or_RFID_support\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Barcode_and.2For_RFID_support\">Barcode and\/or RFID support<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Barcodes offer many advantages to laboratory techs handling samples, including more accurate data input, tighter sample\/instrument associations, tighter sample\/study associations, and more room for human-readable information on a label.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SCLabel_53-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SCLabel-53\">&#91;53&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As such, LIS developers have integrated barcode support into their laboratory information systems, including support for symbologies like Code 128, Code 39, and Interleaved 2 of 5. Aside from printing options, a LIS may also offer support for a variety of barcode readers.\n<\/p><p>Radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology has also made inroads into the laboratory. Like barcode labels, RFID tags can be placed on samples and get read when exposed to active RFID scanning devices. This technology has some advantages over barcodes in that direct line of sight isn't required, the scanning and tracking process is more automated, and more data can be encoded.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CSolsTheHidden18_54-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CSolsTheHidden18-54\">&#91;54&#93;<\/a><\/sup> With these apparent advantages, some LIMS vendors have also added support for RFID-fed sample information.\n<\/p><p>Barcode\/RFID support and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Label_support\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84abbfec738e043e233ba70f9867e75\">label support<\/a> are typically found together in LIS software, but not always, thus their separation into two features of a LIS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_PDF\">Export to PDF<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An LIS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Portable Document Format (PDF).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_MS_Word\">Export to MS Word<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An LIS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Microsoft Office Word format.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_HTML_or_XML\">Export to HTML or XML<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An LIS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and\/or Extensible Markup Language (XML) format.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fax_integration\">Fax integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An LIS with this feature is able to connect with a fax machine and send information to it via manual input, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals. However, with the declining popularity of the fax machine<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaigneyTheFax18_55-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaigneyTheFax18-55\">&#91;55&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, this feature is starting to disappear from modern LIS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Email_integration\">Email integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An LIS with this feature is able to integrate with and use the electronic mail information exchange method to send reports, alerts, and more manually, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals.\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Base_functionality\">Base functionality<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Administrator_management\">Administrator management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The administrator management tools of a LIMS allow lab technicians and researchers to set up the LIS most optimally for the laboratory. Through the administrator management interface of a LIS, other features may be accessed like setting up <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"472befa27a67279b2d9818a15d649ef0\">user roles<\/a> and scheduling <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Automatic_data_backup\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be1c63e511a98314049c8c1840a19f63\">automatic data backups<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Report_printing\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0f5f619daf147205f94caf0ee824bb2\">report printing<\/a>, administrator management is nearly ubiquitous in LIS software, generally considered a mandatory feature. However, for the purposes of being thorough, it's important to point out its existence. \n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modular\">Modular<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature indicates that an LIS has an intentional modular design, which separates some functionality into manageable components of the overall system. Generally speaking, a modular design allows for 1. the structured addition of new functionality to an LIS and 2. the limiting of overall effects on the system design as new functionality is added.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Instrument_interfacing_and_management\">Instrument interfacing and management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Laboratories depend on instruments, and with those instruments comes scientific measurements which produce data. It's therefor natural a lab technician would want to connect those instruments to a laboratory information management system, which is already organizing and storing laboratory data for hospitals and medical research facilities. This sort of interfacing is typically handled with instrument-to-LIS interfaces, which started out as merely a data-transfer mechanism. By the 2000s, that interface mechanism became much more robust as a data management tool, though often at great expense with heavy involvement from third parties.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PavlisTrends04_56-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PavlisTrends04-56\">&#91;56&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This eventually meant that \"vendors [could] act as single source providers of the entire instrument interfacing solution,\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeHeerInstrument09_57-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeHeerInstrument09-57\">&#91;57&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, providing a cheaper and smoother solution to LIS customers. Today, instrument interfacing is integral to an LIS and is considerably easier to do than prior decades.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CurtisBeni19_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CurtisBeni19-58\">&#91;58&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In the clinical laboratory setting, an LIS vendor may also have additional considerations to make, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a> (HL7) triggers, messages, and segments transported across communication interfaces.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Auto_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Auto-59\">&#91;59&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The ability to calibrate and schedule maintenance for interfaced instruments may also be included in this category.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Mobile_device_on_display_at_the_Media_Markt_Sontplein,_Groningen_(2019)_13.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"73ce3cb64d7238f2332e43e9dde7ebe2\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/ab\/Mobile_device_on_display_at_the_Media_Markt_Sontplein%2C_Groningen_%282019%29_13.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Mobile_device_on_display_at_the_Media_Markt_Sontplein,_Groningen_(2019)_13.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"73ce3cb64d7238f2332e43e9dde7ebe2\"><\/a><\/div>In some cases mobile devices like these may access and utilize an LIS, typically through a Web portal or special mobile version of the software.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Mobile_device_integration\">Mobile device integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Some LIS vendors tout support for mobile devices using their laboratory information system. This feature has become increasingly common with the advent of first the web-based LIMS, followed by the cloud-based LIMS. This has given clinicians the ability to collect data in the field, approve results remotely, and manage clinical trial and experiement workflow on the fly.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RyanMobile19_60-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RyanMobile19-60\">&#91;60&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Third-party_software_integration\">Third-party software integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A few LIS vendors either incorporate third-party software into their product or they provide the means to integrate the LIS with other applications. The most typical integration involves simply communicating with common authoring tools like Microsoft Word, allowing users to work directly from the third-party application and then transferring the information to the LIS. More recently, integrations with other software systems such as an EHR system have become more common, typically using some sort of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Application_programming_interface\" title=\"Application programming interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934\">application programming interface<\/a> (API).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Alarms_and\/or_alerts\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Alarms_and.2For_alerts\">Alarms and\/or alerts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Alarms and alerts in an LIS can be automatic or scheduled, and they can come in the form of an e-mail, a pop-up message, or a mobile text message. For example, when a test result goes out-of-range, an automatic warning message can appear on the screen of the lab analyst responsible for the test. Another example: a scheduled alert can be e-mailed to a lab technician every month indicating a piece of laboratory equipment needs routine maintenance. Both scenarios represent a tiny fraction of the possible implementation of alarms and alerts in an LIS, highlighting how powerful (yet easy to take for granted) this feature is.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Work-related_time_tracking\">Work-related time tracking<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature specifically refers to an LIS' ability to track the amount of time an employee spends at work in general (for payroll purposes) or on more specific projects and tasks (as part of an employee work evaluation program). May also be referred to as \"workload tracking\" or \"workload tracking.\"\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Voice_recognition_system\">Voice recognition system<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An LIS with this feature allows some functions of the software (for example, accessing test results) to be accessed via voice commands.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_monitoring\">External monitoring<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature allows clients and\/or collaborators outside the laboratory to monitor the status of experiments, test results, and more via an online web portal or, less commonly, as activity alerts sent via e-mail or SMS.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:217px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ae3b5e41e0c11ff4ca1baf0b7d4352f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b6\/Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"215\" height=\"243\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"4ae3b5e41e0c11ff4ca1baf0b7d4352f\"><\/a><\/div>An instant messaging client built into an LIS often makes it easier to collaborate.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Messaging\">Messaging<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The messaging feature of an LIS may refer to one of two (or both) things:\n<\/p>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r43802\"\/><div class=\"flowlist\">\n<ul><li>a built-in instant messaging system that allows users to converse with each other through text messages real-time, or<\/li>\n<li>SMS text messaging integration that allows users or the LIMS itself to send messages or alerts to a user's mobile or smart phone.<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Commenting\">Commenting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Clinical data collection and research collaboration require data sharing and communication tools to be most effective. One of the collaborative communication features of some LIS is commenting on test results, patient records, or study protocols.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Multilingual\">Multilingual<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>If an LIS is listed as multilingual, its an indication the software interface can be configured to display more than one language depending on the preference a user or administrator chooses. Some LIS interfaces can only be displayed in one of two languages (English or German, for example), while others come configured with support for dozens of languages.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Network-capable\">Network-capable<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature is perhaps archaic and\/or obvious, but it is mentioned nonetheless. It's generally applied to a non-web-based (on-premises) LIS installed over a local or wide-area computer network, essentially indicating the LIS is not an isolated application, but rather one that can interface with other instances or other networked instruments.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Web_client_or_portal\">Web client or portal<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIS with a web client or portal is either a web-based LIMS (one that is not installed on every computer, but rather is hosted on a server and accessed via a web browser) or a non-web-based LIS with an included portal to access it via the internet.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Online_or_integrated_help\">Online or integrated help<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This indicates an LIS has help infrastructure integrated into the software, support documentation via the vendor's website, or both.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Software_as_a_service_delivery_model\">Software as a service delivery model<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This indicates the software can be licensed and utilized via the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> (SaaS) delivery model. This typically constitutes a LIS vendor having a \"cloud-based\" offering.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Usage-based_cost\">Usage-based cost<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While rare, some LIMS vendors allow potential clients to license and utilize the vendor's software under a usage-based cost model. An example of this model in use is Bytewize AB's <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bytewize_AB#O3_Lims_and_O3_LimsXpress\" title=\"Bytewize AB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65bc566848b41a14e430d1bedd8eb6ac\">O3 LimsXpress<\/a>, which has a cost directly related to the amount of samples processed each month.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BWO3X_61-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BWO3X-61\">&#91;61&#93;<\/a><\/sup> You may also see this sort of usage-based cost on some cloud-based LIMS.\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-count references-column-count-3\" style=\"-moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-APHLandLIS-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-APHLandLIS_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/aboutAPHL\/publications\/Documents\/GH-2019May-LIS-Guidebook-web.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Association of Public Health Laboratories.&#32;May 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/aboutAPHL\/publications\/Documents\/GH-2019May-LIS-Guidebook-web.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/aboutAPHL\/publications\/Documents\/GH-2019May-LIS-Guidebook-web.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Laboratory+Information+Systems+Project+Management%3A+A+Guidebook+for+International+Implementations&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=May+2019&amp;rft.pub=Association+of+Public+Health+Laboratories&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aphl.org%2FaboutAPHL%2Fpublications%2FDocuments%2FGH-2019May-LIS-Guidebook-web.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-starlimsBlogLIS-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-starlimsBlogLIS_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hice, R.&#32;(1 July 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100119015222\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Laboratory Informatics Blog<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 19 January 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100119015222\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100119015222\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Swimming+in+the+Clinical+Pool%3A+Why+LIMS+are+supplanting+old-school+clinical+LIS+applications&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+Informatics+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Hice%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Hice%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=1+July+2009&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20100119015222%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fblog.starlims.com%2F2009%2F07%2F01%2Fswimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HowDoIFindLII-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HowDoIFindLII_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150626125210\/http:\/\/files.limstitute.com\/share\/lbgprofiles\/findlims.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Do I Find the Right LIMS \u2014 And How Much Will It Cost?\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/files.limstitute.com\/share\/lbgprofiles\/findlims.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 26 June 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150626125210\/http:\/\/files.limstitute.com\/share\/lbgprofiles\/findlims.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150626125210\/http:\/\/files.limstitute.com\/share\/lbgprofiles\/findlims.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+Do+I+Find+the+Right+LIMS+%E2%80%94+And+How+Much+Will+It+Cost%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Laboratory+Informatics+Institute%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150626125210%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Ffiles.limstitute.com%2Fshare%2Flbgprofiles%2Ffindlims.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AStaffCritical15-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AStaffCritical15_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">ADVANCE Healthcare Network Staff&#32;(30 July 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.elitecme.com\/resource-center\/laboratory\/critical-features-of-the-lis\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Critical Features of the LIS\"<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.elitecme.com\/resource-center\/laboratory\/critical-features-of-the-lis\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.elitecme.com\/resource-center\/laboratory\/critical-features-of-the-lis\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Critical+Features+of+the+LIS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=ADVANCE+Healthcare+Network+Staff&amp;rft.au=ADVANCE+Healthcare+Network+Staff&amp;rft.date=30+July+2015&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.elitecme.com%2Fresource-center%2Flaboratory%2Fcritical-features-of-the-lis%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FutrellWhat17-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FutrellWhat17_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Futrell, K.&#32;(23 January 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/continuing-education\/article\/13009013\/whats-new-in-todays-lis\" target=\"_blank\">\"What's new in today's LIS?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Medical Laboratory Observer<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/continuing-education\/article\/13009013\/whats-new-in-todays-lis\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/continuing-education\/article\/13009013\/whats-new-in-todays-lis<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What%27s+new+in+today%27s+LIS%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Medical+Laboratory+Observer&amp;rft.aulast=Futrell%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Futrell%2C+K.&amp;rft.date=23+January+2017&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mlo-online.com%2Fcontinuing-education%2Farticle%2F13009013%2Fwhats-new-in-todays-lis&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MolPath-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MolPath_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MolPath_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Leonard, Debra G. B.; Bagg, Adam, ed.&#32;(2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Z2YNhh51SmQC&pg=PA567\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Molecular Pathology in Clinical Practice<\/i><\/a>&#32;(Illustrated ed.).&#32;Springer.&#32;p.&#160;567.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0387332278<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Z2YNhh51SmQC&pg=PA567\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Z2YNhh51SmQC&amp;pg=PA567<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Molecular+Pathology+in+Clinical+Practice&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B567&amp;rft.edition=Illustrated&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=0387332278&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2YNhh51SmQC%26pg%3DPA567&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PPDiClinTrial-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PPDiClinTrial_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ppd.com\/our-solutions\/ppd-laboratories\/central-lab\/capabilities\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"PPD - Central Lab Capabilities\"<\/a>.&#32;Pharmaceutical Product Development, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ppd.com\/our-solutions\/ppd-laboratories\/central-lab\/capabilities\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ppd.com\/our-solutions\/ppd-laboratories\/central-lab\/capabilities\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=PPD+-+Central+Lab+Capabilities&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Pharmaceutical+Product+Development%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ppd.com%2Four-solutions%2Fppd-laboratories%2Fcentral-lab%2Fcapabilities%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LabTechBook-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabTechBook_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Esteridge, B.H.; Reynolds, A.P.; Walters, N.J.&#32;(2000).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qMgAbOHSlsMC&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Basic Medical Laboratory Techniques<\/i><\/a>&#32;(4th, revised ed.).&#32;Cengage Learning.&#32;p.&#160;8.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0766812065<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qMgAbOHSlsMC&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qMgAbOHSlsMC&amp;pg=PA8&amp;lpg=PA8<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Basic+Medical+Laboratory+Techniques&amp;rft.aulast=Esteridge%2C+B.H.%3B+Reynolds%2C+A.P.%3B+Walters%2C+N.J.&amp;rft.au=Esteridge%2C+B.H.%3B+Reynolds%2C+A.P.%3B+Walters%2C+N.J.&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B8&amp;rft.edition=4th%2C+revised&amp;rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&amp;rft.isbn=0766812065&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqMgAbOHSlsMC%26pg%3DPA8%26lpg%3DPA8&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForensicSamp-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForensicSamp_9-0\">9.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForensicSamp_9-1\">9.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Murthy, T.; Hewson, B.&#32;(1 September 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Effective Forensic Sample Tracking and Handling\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>American Laboratory<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Effective+Forensic+Sample+Tracking+and+Handling&amp;rft.atitle=American+Laboratory&amp;rft.aulast=Murthy%2C+T.%3B+Hewson%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Murthy%2C+T.%3B+Hewson%2C+B.&amp;rft.date=1+September+2010&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanlaboratory.com%2F914-Application-Notes%2F506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VaniotisHow18-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-VaniotisHow18_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Vaniotis, G.&#32;(19 July 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.labtag.com\/rfid-labels-in-the-lab\" target=\"_blank\">\"How RFID Labels Can Smarten Up Your Laboratory\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Labtag Blog<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.labtag.com\/rfid-labels-in-the-lab\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/blog.labtag.com\/rfid-labels-in-the-lab<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+RFID+Labels+Can+Smarten+Up+Your+Laboratory&amp;rft.atitle=Labtag+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Vaniotis%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Vaniotis%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=19+July+2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.labtag.com%2Frfid-labels-in-the-lab&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PP0102-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PP0102_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Muntean, E.; Munteanb, N.; Mih\u0103iescua, T.; Mih\u0103iescuc, R.&#32;(2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.usamvcluj.ro\/index.php\/promediu\/article\/view\/2835\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS use in laboratory data management\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ProEnvironment\/Promediu<\/i>&#32;<b>1<\/b>&#32;(2): 19\u201323<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.usamvcluj.ro\/index.php\/promediu\/article\/view\/2835\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/journals.usamvcluj.ro\/index.php\/promediu\/article\/view\/2835<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=LIMS+use+in+laboratory+data+management&amp;rft.jtitle=ProEnvironment%2FPromediu&amp;rft.aulast=Muntean%2C+E.%3B+Munteanb%2C+N.%3B+Mih%C4%83iescua%2C+T.%3B+Mih%C4%83iescuc%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Muntean%2C+E.%3B+Munteanb%2C+N.%3B+Mih%C4%83iescua%2C+T.%3B+Mih%C4%83iescuc%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=19%E2%80%9323&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.usamvcluj.ro%2Findex.php%2Fpromediu%2Farticle%2Fview%2F2835&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPABatch-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EPABatch_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.epa.gov\/epawaste\/hazard\/web\/html\/faqs_qc.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Batch Sizes And QC Questions\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. EPA.&#32;4 April 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.epa.gov\/epawaste\/hazard\/web\/html\/faqs_qc.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/archive.epa.gov\/epawaste\/hazard\/web\/html\/faqs_qc.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Batch+Sizes+And+QC+Questions&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=4+April+2016&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+EPA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.epa.gov%2Fepawaste%2Fhazard%2Fweb%2Fhtml%2Ffaqs_qc.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AnPathRev-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AnPathRev_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Park, S.L.; Pantanowitz, L.; Sharma, G.; Parwani, A.V.&#32;(March 2012).&#32;\"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\".&#32;<i>Advances in Anatomic Pathology<\/i>&#32;<b>19<\/b>&#32;(2): 81\u201396.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787\" target=\"_blank\">10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/22313836\" target=\"_blank\">22313836<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Anatomic+Pathology+Laboratory+Information+Systems%3A+A+Review&amp;rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Anatomic+Pathology&amp;rft.aulast=Park%2C+S.L.%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Sharma%2C+G.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&amp;rft.au=Park%2C+S.L.%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Sharma%2C+G.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&amp;rft.date=March+2012&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=81%E2%80%9396&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/22313836&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AE0302-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AE0302_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Macneil, R.&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC3146905\" target=\"_blank\">\"The benefits of integrated systems for managing both samples and experimental data: An opportunity for labs in universities and government research institutions to lead the way\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Automated Experimentation<\/i>&#32;<b>3<\/b>&#32;(1): 2.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186%2F1759-4499-3-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/1759-4499-3-2<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3146905\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC3146905<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/21707999\" target=\"_blank\">21707999<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC3146905\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC3146905<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+benefits+of+integrated+systems+for+managing+both+samples+and+experimental+data%3A+An+opportunity+for+labs+in+universities+and+government+research+institutions+to+lead+the+way&amp;rft.jtitle=Automated+Experimentation&amp;rft.aulast=Macneil%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Macneil%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=2&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1186%2F1759-4499-3-2&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC3146905&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/21707999&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3DPMC3146905&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DataMEnBrit-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DataMEnBrit_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/data-mining\" target=\"_blank\">\"data mining\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica<\/i>.&#32;Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/data-mining\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/data-mining<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=data+mining&amp;rft.atitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&amp;rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftechnology%2Fdata-mining&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IdealLIS-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-IdealLIS_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Sepulveda, J.L.; Young, D.S.&#32;(2013).&#32;\"The Ideal Laboratory Information System\".&#32;<i>Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine<\/i>&#32;<b>137<\/b>&#32;(8): 1129\u201340.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.5858%2Farpa.2012-0362-RA\" target=\"_blank\">10.5858\/arpa.2012-0362-RA<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/23216205\" target=\"_blank\">23216205<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+Ideal+Laboratory+Information+System&amp;rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Pathology+and+Laboratory+Medicine&amp;rft.aulast=Sepulveda%2C+J.L.%3B+Young%2C+D.S.&amp;rft.au=Sepulveda%2C+J.L.%3B+Young%2C+D.S.&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.volume=137&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=1129%E2%80%9340&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.5858%2Farpa.2012-0362-RA&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/23216205&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TDS_Anal-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TDS_Anal_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technidata-web.com\/tdanalytics\" target=\"_blank\">\"TD Analaytics Livextens\"<\/a>.&#32;Technidata SAS<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technidata-web.com\/tdanalytics\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.technidata-web.com\/tdanalytics<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=TD+Analaytics+Livextens&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Technidata+SAS&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.technidata-web.com%2Ftdanalytics&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OSDM-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OSDM_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/solutions\/orchard-harvest\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Orchard Harvest\"<\/a>.&#32;Orchard Software Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/solutions\/orchard-harvest\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/solutions\/orchard-harvest\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Orchard+Harvest&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Orchard+Software+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.orchardsoft.com%2Fsolutions%2Forchard-harvest%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASLIMSCustom-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASLIMSCustom_19-0\">19.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASLIMSCustom_19-1\">19.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/blog\/lims-customization-vs-configuration\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS Customization vs Configuration\"<\/a>.&#32;Autoscribe Informatics, Inc.&#32;8 March 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/blog\/lims-customization-vs-configuration\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/blog\/lims-customization-vs-configuration<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIMS+Customization+vs+Configuration&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=8+March+2015&amp;rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Fresources%2Fblog%2Flims-customization-vs-configuration&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PromiumTheBeni-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PromiumTheBeni_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.promium.com\/resources\/news-articles\/the-benefits-of-a-configurable-off-the-shelf-lims-cots\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Benefits of a configurable COTS LIMS\"<\/a>.&#32;Promium, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.promium.com\/resources\/news-articles\/the-benefits-of-a-configurable-off-the-shelf-lims-cots\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.promium.com\/resources\/news-articles\/the-benefits-of-a-configurable-off-the-shelf-lims-cots\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Benefits+of+a+configurable+COTS+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Promium%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.promium.com%2Fresources%2Fnews-articles%2Fthe-benefits-of-a-configurable-off-the-shelf-lims-cots%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PatelHowLabs19-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PatelHowLabs19_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Patel, S.&#32;(24 September 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/information-technology\/ehrs\/article\/21106468\/how-labs-can-benefit-from-lis-to-ehr-connectivity\" target=\"_blank\">\"How labs can benefit from LIS to EHR connectivity\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Medical Laboratory Observer<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/information-technology\/ehrs\/article\/21106468\/how-labs-can-benefit-from-lis-to-ehr-connectivity\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/information-technology\/ehrs\/article\/21106468\/how-labs-can-benefit-from-lis-to-ehr-connectivity<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+labs+can+benefit+from+LIS+to+EHR+connectivity&amp;rft.atitle=Medical+Laboratory+Observer&amp;rft.aulast=Patel%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Patel%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=24+September+2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mlo-online.com%2Finformation-technology%2Fehrs%2Farticle%2F21106468%2Fhow-labs-can-benefit-from-lis-to-ehr-connectivity&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciCompWorld1-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Elliot, M.H.&#32;(December 2006\u2013January 2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/state-eln-market?feature_id=50\" target=\"_blank\">\"The state of the ELN Market\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing World<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/state-eln-market?feature_id=50\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/state-eln-market?feature_id=50<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+state+of+the+ELN+Market&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing+World&amp;rft.aulast=Elliot%2C+M.H.&amp;rft.au=Elliot%2C+M.H.&amp;rft.date=December+2006%E2%80%93January+2007&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Ffeature%2Fstate-eln-market%3Ffeature_id%3D50&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciCompELN-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompELN_23-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Elliot, Michael H.&#32;(October 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160417085757\/https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/articles\/2011\/11\/informatics-convergence-presents-opportunities-and-challenges\" target=\"_blank\">\"Informatics Convergence Presents Opportunities and Challenges\"<\/a>.&#32;Scientific Computing.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/articles-IN-Informatics-Convergence-Presents-Opportunities-and-Challenges-111111.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 17 April 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160417085757\/https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/articles\/2011\/11\/informatics-convergence-presents-opportunities-and-challenges\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160417085757\/https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/articles\/2011\/11\/informatics-convergence-presents-opportunities-and-challenges<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Informatics+Convergence+Presents+Opportunities+and+Challenges&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Elliot%2C+Michael+H.&amp;rft.au=Elliot%2C+Michael+H.&amp;rft.date=October+2011&amp;rft.pub=Scientific+Computing&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160417085757%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Farticles%2F2011%2F11%2Finformatics-convergence-presents-opportunities-and-challenges&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GenohmHome-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GenohmHome_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.genohm.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"SLIMS: Manage your lab data in one place\"<\/a>.&#32;Genohm SA<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.genohm.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.genohm.com\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=SLIMS%3A+Manage+your+lab+data+in+one+place&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Genohm+SA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.genohm.com%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WilliamsExcel-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WilliamsExcel_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Williams, R.W.&#32;(2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100616100719\/http:\/\/www.sfn.org\/skins\/main\/pdf\/ShortCourses\/2003\/sc1_9.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Managing Your Lab Data Flux: Getting Beyond Excel\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>The Bioinformatics of Brains: From Genes and Proteins to Behaviors<\/i>.&#32;Society for Neuroscience.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sfn.org\/skins\/main\/pdf\/ShortCourses\/2003\/sc1_9.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 16 June 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100616100719\/http:\/\/www.sfn.org\/skins\/main\/pdf\/ShortCourses\/2003\/sc1_9.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100616100719\/http:\/\/www.sfn.org\/skins\/main\/pdf\/ShortCourses\/2003\/sc1_9.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Managing+Your+Lab+Data+Flux%3A+Getting+Beyond+Excel&amp;rft.atitle=The+Bioinformatics+of+Brains%3A+From+Genes+and+Proteins+to+Behaviors&amp;rft.aulast=Williams%2C+R.W.&amp;rft.au=Williams%2C+R.W.&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.pub=Society+for+Neuroscience&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20100616100719%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfn.org%2Fskins%2Fmain%2Fpdf%2FShortCourses%2F2003%2Fsc1_9.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PragmaticExcelIntro-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PragmaticExcelIntro_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Howard, D.A.; Harrison, D.&#32;(2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.spreadsheetvalidation.com\/pdf\/Excel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Pragmatic Approach to the Validation of Excel Spreadsheets \u2013 Overview\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Pharma IT<\/i>&#32;<b>1<\/b>&#32;(2): 30\u201335<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.spreadsheetvalidation.com\/pdf\/Excel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.spreadsheetvalidation.com\/pdf\/Excel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=A+Pragmatic+Approach+to+the+Validation+of+Excel+Spreadsheets+%E2%80%93+Overview&amp;rft.jtitle=Pharma+IT&amp;rft.aulast=Howard%2C+D.A.%3B+Harrison%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Howard%2C+D.A.%3B+Harrison%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=30%E2%80%9335&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spreadsheetvalidation.com%2Fpdf%2FExcel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MSCExcel-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MSCExcel_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.msc-lims.com\/demo\/excelinterface.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Excel Interface\"<\/a>.&#32;Mountain States Consulting, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.msc-lims.com\/demo\/excelinterface.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.msc-lims.com\/demo\/excelinterface.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Excel+Interface&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Mountain+States+Consulting%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msc-lims.com%2Fdemo%2Fexcelinterface.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OLCL_LIMSQual-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OLCL_LIMSQual_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlims.com\/product\/quality-control-qaqc\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS Quality Control QA\/QC\"<\/a>.&#32;Online LIMS Canada Limited<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlims.com\/product\/quality-control-qaqc\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.onlims.com\/product\/quality-control-qaqc\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIMS+Quality+Control+QA%2FQC&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Online+LIMS+Canada+Limited&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.onlims.com%2Fproduct%2Fquality-control-qaqc%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SSLisa-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SSLisa_29-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sigmaplot.co.uk\/products\/lisa\/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"LISA.lims - The Premier LIMS Solution\"<\/a>.&#32;Systat Software, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sigmaplot.co.uk\/products\/lisa\/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.sigmaplot.co.uk\/products\/lisa\/index.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LISA.lims+-+The+Premier+LIMS+Solution&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Systat+Software%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sigmaplot.co.uk%2Fproducts%2Flisa%2Findex.php&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CSolsTheVal19-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CSolsTheVal19_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">CSols, Inc&#32;(25 July 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/the-value-of-a-scientific-data-management-system-sdms\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Value of a Scientific Data Management System (SDMS)\"<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/the-value-of-a-scientific-data-management-system-sdms\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/the-value-of-a-scientific-data-management-system-sdms\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Value+of+a+Scientific+Data+Management+System+%28SDMS%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=CSols%2C+Inc&amp;rft.au=CSols%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=25+July+2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csolsinc.com%2Fblog%2Fthe-value-of-a-scientific-data-management-system-sdms%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HarrisWhatIs18-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HarrisWhatIs18_31-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Harris, J.&#32;(20 September 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.panoply.io\/what-is-a-data-warehouse-a-tutorial-for-beginners\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is A Data Warehouse? A Tutorial For Beginners\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Panoply Blog<\/i>.&#32;Panoply Technologies, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.panoply.io\/what-is-a-data-warehouse-a-tutorial-for-beginners\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/blog.panoply.io\/what-is-a-data-warehouse-a-tutorial-for-beginners<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+Is+A+Data+Warehouse%3F+A+Tutorial+For+Beginners&amp;rft.atitle=Panoply+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Harris%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Harris%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=20+September+2018&amp;rft.pub=Panoply+Technologies%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.panoply.io%2Fwhat-is-a-data-warehouse-a-tutorial-for-beginners&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WfMC1-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WfMC1_32-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150314125903\/http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/standards\/docs\/TC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Workflow Management Coalition Terminology &amp; Glossary\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Workflow Management Coalition.&#32;February 1999.&#32;pp. 9.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/standards\/docs\/TC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 14 March 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150314125903\/http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/standards\/docs\/TC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150314125903\/http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/standards\/docs\/TC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Workflow+Management+Coalition+Terminology+%26+Glossary&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=February+1999&amp;rft.pages=pp.+9&amp;rft.pub=Workflow+Management+Coalition&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150314125903%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wfmc.org%2Fstandards%2Fdocs%2FTC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciCompWF-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompWF_33-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Maxwell, G.&#32;(1 November 2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090807034051\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/using-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Using Workflows in LIMS to Reduce Customization\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/using-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 07 August 2009<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090807034051\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/using-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090807034051\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/using-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Using+Workflows+in+LIMS+to+Reduce+Customization&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing&amp;rft.aulast=Maxwell%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Maxwell%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=1+November+2003&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20090807034051%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Fusing-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WFLIS-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WFLIS_34-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Feist, K.&#32;(22 July 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150921215023\/http:\/\/www.labcompare.com\/10-Featured-Articles\/19389-Harnessing-Laboratory-Information-Systems-to-Support-Increased-Capacity-and-Staff-Productivity\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Harnessing Laboratory Information Systems to Support Increased Capacity and Staff Productivity\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>LabCompare<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labcompare.com\/10-Featured-Articles\/19389-Harnessing-Laboratory-Information-Systems-to-Support-Increased-Capacity-and-Staff-Productivity\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 21 September 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150921215023\/http:\/\/www.labcompare.com\/10-Featured-Articles\/19389-Harnessing-Laboratory-Information-Systems-to-Support-Increased-Capacity-and-Staff-Productivity\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150921215023\/http:\/\/www.labcompare.com\/10-Featured-Articles\/19389-Harnessing-Laboratory-Information-Systems-to-Support-Increased-Capacity-and-Staff-Productivity\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Harnessing+Laboratory+Information+Systems+to+Support+Increased+Capacity+and+Staff+Productivity&amp;rft.atitle=LabCompare&amp;rft.aulast=Feist%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Feist%2C+K.&amp;rft.date=22+July+2011&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150921215023%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.labcompare.com%2F10-Featured-Articles%2F19389-Harnessing-Laboratory-Information-Systems-to-Support-Increased-Capacity-and-Staff-Productivity%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTM_LIMS-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTM_LIMS_35-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1578 - 18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578+-+18+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FE1578.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ILAbout-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ILAbout_36-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120422205830\/http:\/\/www.elekta.com\/healthcare-professionals\/products\/elekta-software\/clinical-laboratory\/laboratory-information-system.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Elekta - Laboratory Information System\"<\/a>.&#32;Elekta AB.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.elekta.com\/healthcare-professionals\/products\/elekta-software\/clinical-laboratory\/laboratory-information-system.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 22 April 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120422205830\/http:\/\/www.elekta.com\/healthcare-professionals\/products\/elekta-software\/clinical-laboratory\/laboratory-information-system.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120422205830\/http:\/\/www.elekta.com\/healthcare-professionals\/products\/elekta-software\/clinical-laboratory\/laboratory-information-system.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Elekta+-+Laboratory+Information+System&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Elekta+AB&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120422205830%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.elekta.com%2Fhealthcare-professionals%2Fproducts%2Felekta-software%2Fclinical-laboratory%2Flaboratory-information-system.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McKessHori-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-McKessHori_37-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130521025202\/http:\/\/www.mckesson.com\/en_us\/McKesson.com\/For+Healthcare+Providers\/Hospitals\/Laboratory+Solutions\/Horizon+Lab+Financials.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Horizon Lab Financials\"<\/a>.&#32;McKesson Corporation.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mckesson.com\/en_us\/McKesson.com\/For%2BHealthcare%2BProviders\/Hospitals\/Laboratory%2BSolutions\/Horizon%2BLab%2BFinancials.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 21 May 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130521025202\/http:\/\/www.mckesson.com\/en_us\/McKesson.com\/For+Healthcare+Providers\/Hospitals\/Laboratory+Solutions\/Horizon+Lab+Financials.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130521025202\/http:\/\/www.mckesson.com\/en_us\/McKesson.com\/For+Healthcare+Providers\/Hospitals\/Laboratory+Solutions\/Horizon+Lab+Financials.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Horizon+Lab+Financials&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=McKesson+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130521025202%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.mckesson.com%2Fen_us%2FMcKesson.com%2FFor%2BHealthcare%2BProviders%2FHospitals%2FLaboratory%2BSolutions%2FHorizon%2BLab%2BFinancials.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RandomQAPaper-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RandomQAPaper_38-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Owens, S.R.; Dhir, R.; Yousem, S.A. et al.&#32;(June 2010).&#32;\"The development and testing of a laboratory information system-driven tool for pre-sign-out quality assurance of random surgical pathology reports\".&#32;<i>American Journal of Clinical Pathology<\/i>&#32;<b>133<\/b>&#32;(6): 836\u201341.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1309%2FAJCPLN9DU9LNXSXA\" target=\"_blank\">10.1309\/AJCPLN9DU9LNXSXA<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/20472840\" target=\"_blank\">20472840<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+development+and+testing+of+a+laboratory+information+system-driven+tool+for+pre-sign-out+quality+assurance+of+random+surgical+pathology+reports&amp;rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Clinical+Pathology&amp;rft.aulast=Owens%2C+S.R.%3B+Dhir%2C+R.%3B+Yousem%2C+S.A.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Owens%2C+S.R.%3B+Dhir%2C+R.%3B+Yousem%2C+S.A.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=June+2010&amp;rft.volume=133&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=836%E2%80%9341&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1309%2FAJCPLN9DU9LNXSXA&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/20472840&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NLQC-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NLQC_39-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111220065137\/http:\/\/www.netlims.com\/lis_software_autoquality.asp\" target=\"_blank\">\"Netlims - AutoQuality\"<\/a>.&#32;NeTLIMS NJ, LLC.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.netlims.com\/lis_software_autoquality.asp\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 20 December 2011<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111220065137\/http:\/\/www.netlims.com\/lis_software_autoquality.asp\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111220065137\/http:\/\/www.netlims.com\/lis_software_autoquality.asp<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Netlims+-+AutoQuality&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=NeTLIMS+NJ%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20111220065137%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.netlims.com%2Flis_software_autoquality.asp&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Clin1-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Clin1_40-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/clin1mobile.net\/quality-control\" target=\"_blank\">\"CLIN1 Laboratory Quality Control Software\"<\/a>.&#32;Clin1, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/clin1mobile.net\/quality-control\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/clin1mobile.net\/quality-control<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CLIN1+Laboratory+Quality+Control+Software&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Clin1%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclin1mobile.net%2Fquality-control&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDA21CFR11-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDA21CFR11_41-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11\" target=\"_blank\">\"Title 21: Food and Drugs - Chapter 1: Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, Subchapter A: General - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Title+21%3A+Food+and+Drugs+-+Chapter+1%3A+Food+and+Drug+Administration%2C+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services%2C+Subchapter+A%3A+General+-+Part+11%3A+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcdrh%2Fcfdocs%2Fcfcfr%2FCFRSearch.cfm%3FCFRPart%3D11&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McDowallHowCan16-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-McDowallHowCan16_42-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">McDowall, R.D.&#32;(June 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/rx-360.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/How-Can-LIMS-Help-Ensure-Data-Integrity-by-R.D.-McDowall-2016.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Can LIMS Help Ensure Data Integrity?\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>LC-GC Europe<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/rx-360.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/How-Can-LIMS-Help-Ensure-Data-Integrity-by-R.D.-McDowall-2016.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/rx-360.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/How-Can-LIMS-Help-Ensure-Data-Integrity-by-R.D.-McDowall-2016.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+Can+LIMS+Help+Ensure+Data+Integrity%3F&amp;rft.atitle=LC-GC+Europe&amp;rft.aulast=McDowall%2C+R.D.&amp;rft.au=McDowall%2C+R.D.&amp;rft.date=June+2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frx-360.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F08%2FHow-Can-LIMS-Help-Ensure-Data-Integrity-by-R.D.-McDowall-2016.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LVData19-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LVData19_43-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">LabVantage Solutions&#32;(14 September 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/data-integrity-is-here-what-does-it-mean-for-cmos\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Integrity is Here. What Does it Mean for CMOs?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>LabVantage Blog<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/data-integrity-is-here-what-does-it-mean-for-cmos\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/data-integrity-is-here-what-does-it-mean-for-cmos\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Integrity+is+Here.+What+Does+it+Mean+for+CMOs%3F&amp;rft.atitle=LabVantage+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=LabVantage+Solutions&amp;rft.au=LabVantage+Solutions&amp;rft.date=14+September+2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labvantage.com%2Fdata-integrity-is-here-what-does-it-mean-for-cmos%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JonesBuild09-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-JonesBuild09_44-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Jones, A.; Valli, C.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: An Introduction to Digital Forensics\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Building a Digital Forensic Laboratory: Establishing and Managing a Successful Facility<\/i>.&#32;Butterworth-Heinemann.&#32;p.&#160;11.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781856175104<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+An+Introduction+to+Digital+Forensics&amp;rft.atitle=Building+a+Digital+Forensic+Laboratory%3A+Establishing+and+Managing+a+Successful+Facility&amp;rft.aulast=Jones%2C+A.%3B+Valli%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+A.%3B+Valli%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B11&amp;rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&amp;rft.isbn=9781856175104&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF5IU7XXKwCQC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Tomlinson,&#32;J. J.&#59;&#32;Elliott-Smith,&#32;W.&#59;&#32;Radosta,&#32;T.&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/jamc\/2006\/074907\/abs\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Information Management System Chain of Custody: Reliability and Security\"<\/a>&#32;(in en).&#32;<i>Journal of Automated Methods and Management in Chemistry<\/i>&#32;<b>2006<\/b>: 1\u20134.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1155%2FJAMMC%2F2006%2F74907\" target=\"_blank\">10.1155\/JAMMC\/2006\/74907<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" data-key=\"a5dec3e4d005e654c29ad167ab53f53a\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1463-9246\" target=\"_blank\">1463-9246<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1903459\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC1903459<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/17671623\" target=\"_blank\">17671623<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/jamc\/2006\/074907\/abs\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/jamc\/2006\/074907\/abs\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+Information+Management+System+Chain+of+Custody%3A+Reliability+and+Security&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Automated+Methods+and+Management+in+Chemistry&amp;rft.aulast=Tomlinson&amp;rft.aufirst=J.+J.&amp;rft.au=Tomlinson%2C%26%2332%3BJ.+J.&amp;rft.au=Elliott-Smith%2C%26%2332%3BW.&amp;rft.au=Radosta%2C%26%2332%3BT.&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.volume=2006&amp;rft.pages=1%E2%80%934&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1155%2FJAMMC%2F2006%2F74907&amp;rft.issn=1463-9246&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC1903459&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/17671623&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindawi.com%2Fjournals%2Fjamc%2F2006%2F074907%2Fabs%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SIRFERQual-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SIRFERQual_46-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111117174948\/http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quality Assurance - Data Management\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Stable Isotope Ratio Facility for Environmental Research (SIRFER) at the University of Utah.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 17 November 2011<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111117174948\/http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111117174948\/http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Quality+Assurance+-+Data+Management&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Stable+Isotope+Ratio+Facility+for+Environmental+Research+%28SIRFER%29+at+the+University+of+Utah&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20111117174948%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fsirfer.utah.edu%2Fqaqc.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HitchcockEffic05-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HitchcockEffic05_47-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Hitchcock, N.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"Chapter 10: Efficient utilization of LIMS data and integration with mining process management systems\".&#32;In&#32;Dessureault, S.D.; Ganguli, R.; Kecojevic, V.; Dwyer, J.G..&#32;<i>Application of Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral Industry<\/i>.&#32;Taylor &amp; Francis.&#32;pp.&#160;85\u201388.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780415374491.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+10%3A+Efficient+utilization+of+LIMS+data+and+integration+with+mining+process+management+systems&amp;rft.atitle=Application+of+Computers+and+Operations+Research+in+the+Mineral+Industry&amp;rft.aulast=Hitchcock%2C+N.&amp;rft.au=Hitchcock%2C+N.&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B85%E2%80%9388&amp;rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&amp;rft.isbn=9780415374491&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TurnerReq01-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TurnerReq01_48-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Turner, E.; Bolton, J.&#32;(2001).&#32;\"Required steps for the validation of a Laboratory Information Management System\".&#32;<i>Quality Assurance<\/i>&#32;<b>9<\/b>&#32;(3\u20134): 217\u2013224.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1080%2F713844028\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/713844028<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12553085\" target=\"_blank\">12553085<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Required+steps+for+the+validation+of+a+Laboratory+Information+Management+System&amp;rft.jtitle=Quality+Assurance&amp;rft.aulast=Turner%2C+E.%3B+Bolton%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Turner%2C+E.%3B+Bolton%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&amp;rft.pages=217%E2%80%93224&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1080%2F713844028&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/12553085&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Al-IssaEhealth19-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Al-IssaEhealth19_49-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Al-Issa, Y.; Ottom, M.A.; Tamrawi, A.&#32;(2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC6745146\" target=\"_blank\">\"eHealth Cloud Security Challenges: A Survey\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Journal of Healthcare Engineering<\/i>&#32;<b>2019<\/b>: 7516035.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1155%2F2019%2F7516035\" target=\"_blank\">10.1155\/2019\/7516035<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6745146\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC6745146<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/31565209\" target=\"_blank\">31565209<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC6745146\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC6745146<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=eHealth+Cloud+Security+Challenges%3A+A+Survey&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Healthcare+Engineering&amp;rft.aulast=Al-Issa%2C+Y.%3B+Ottom%2C+M.A.%3B+Tamrawi%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Al-Issa%2C+Y.%3B+Ottom%2C+M.A.%3B+Tamrawi%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.volume=2019&amp;rft.pages=7516035&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1155%2F2019%2F7516035&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC6745146&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/31565209&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3DPMC6745146&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MonkeyTheVal17-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MonkeyTheVal17_50-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Monkey, S.&#32;(23 January 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/corengen.wordpress.com\/2017\/01\/23\/the-value-of-a-control-file-when-writing-data-files\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The value of a control file when writing data files\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ShortStories: Tales from software development<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/corengen.wordpress.com\/2017\/01\/23\/the-value-of-a-control-file-when-writing-data-files\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/corengen.wordpress.com\/2017\/01\/23\/the-value-of-a-control-file-when-writing-data-files\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+value+of+a+control+file+when+writing+data+files&amp;rft.atitle=ShortStories%3A+Tales+from+software+development&amp;rft.aulast=Monkey%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Monkey%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=23+January+2017&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcorengen.wordpress.com%2F2017%2F01%2F23%2Fthe-value-of-a-control-file-when-writing-data-files%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TsyktorHowTo17-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TsyktorHowTo17_51-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Tsyktor, V.&#32;(30 December 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.apriorit.com\/dev-blog\/492-build-data-backup-service-saas\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to Build a Data Backup Service for SaaS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Apriorit Dev Blog<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.apriorit.com\/dev-blog\/492-build-data-backup-service-saas\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.apriorit.com\/dev-blog\/492-build-data-backup-service-saas<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+to+Build+a+Data+Backup+Service+for+SaaS&amp;rft.atitle=Apriorit+Dev+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Tsyktor%2C+V.&amp;rft.au=Tsyktor%2C+V.&amp;rft.date=30+December+2017&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.apriorit.com%2Fdev-blog%2F492-build-data-backup-service-saas&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SynRepoPaper-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SynRepoPaper_52-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Amin, W.; Sirintrapun, S.J.; Parwani, A.V.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Utility and applications of synoptic reporting in pathology\".&#32;<i>Open Access Bioinformatics<\/i>&#32;<b>2010<\/b>&#32;(2): 105\u201312.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2147%2FOAB.S12295\" target=\"_blank\">10.2147\/OAB.S12295<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Utility+and+applications+of+synoptic+reporting+in+pathology&amp;rft.jtitle=Open+Access+Bioinformatics&amp;rft.aulast=Amin%2C+W.%3B+Sirintrapun%2C+S.J.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&amp;rft.au=Amin%2C+W.%3B+Sirintrapun%2C+S.J.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.volume=2010&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=105%E2%80%9312&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.2147%2FOAB.S12295&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SCLabel-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SCLabel_53-0\">53.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SCLabel_53-1\">53.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Gilles, C.&#32;(1 July 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101218190848\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bar Code and Sample Tracking: It All Starts with the Label\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 18 December 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101218190848\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101218190848\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Bar+Code+and+Sample+Tracking%3A+It+All+Starts+with+the+Label&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing&amp;rft.aulast=Gilles%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Gilles%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=1+July+2008&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20101218190848%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Fbar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CSolsTheHidden18-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CSolsTheHidden18_54-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/hidden-power-barcodes\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Hidden Power of Barcodes\"<\/a>.&#32;CSols, Inc.&#32;8 February 2018<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/hidden-power-barcodes\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/hidden-power-barcodes\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Hidden+Power+of+Barcodes&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=8+February+2018&amp;rft.pub=CSols%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csolsinc.com%2Fblog%2Fhidden-power-barcodes%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HaigneyTheFax18-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HaigneyTheFax18_55-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Haigney, S.&#32;(18 November 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/archive\/2018\/11\/why-people-still-use-fax-machines\/576070\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Fax Is Not Yet Obsolete\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Atlantic<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/archive\/2018\/11\/why-people-still-use-fax-machines\/576070\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/archive\/2018\/11\/why-people-still-use-fax-machines\/576070\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Fax+Is+Not+Yet+Obsolete&amp;rft.atitle=The+Atlantic&amp;rft.aulast=Haigney%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Haigney%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=18+November+2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Ftechnology%2Farchive%2F2018%2F11%2Fwhy-people-still-use-fax-machines%2F576070%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PavlisTrends04-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PavlisTrends04_56-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Pavlis, R.&#32;(May\/June 2004).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910043807\/http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88\" target=\"_blank\">\"Trends in instrument-to-LIMS interfacing\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing World<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 10 September 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910043807\/http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910043807\/http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Trends+in+instrument-to-LIMS+interfacing&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing+World&amp;rft.aulast=Pavlis%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Pavlis%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=May%2FJune+2004&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150910043807%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Ffeatures%2Ffeature.php%3Ffeature_id%3D88&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DeHeerInstrument09-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DeHeerInstrument09_57-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">DeHeer, L.&#32;(1 October 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.blazesystems.com\/white-papers\/instruments\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Instrument Interfacing - The Great Paradox of LIMS?\"<\/a>.&#32;Blaze Systems Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.blazesystems.com\/white-papers\/instruments\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.blazesystems.com\/white-papers\/instruments\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Instrument+Interfacing+-+The+Great+Paradox+of+LIMS%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=DeHeer%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=DeHeer%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=1+October+2009&amp;rft.pub=Blaze+Systems+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.blazesystems.com%2Fwhite-papers%2Finstruments%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CurtisBeni19-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CurtisBeni19_58-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Curtis Jr., D.&#32;(12 December 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/astrixinc.com\/benefits-and-best-practices-for-integrating-laboratory-instruments-with-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Benefits and Best Practices for Integrating Laboratory Instruments with LIMS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Astrix Lab Informatics Blog<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/astrixinc.com\/benefits-and-best-practices-for-integrating-laboratory-instruments-with-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/astrixinc.com\/benefits-and-best-practices-for-integrating-laboratory-instruments-with-lims\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Benefits+and+Best+Practices+for+Integrating+Laboratory+Instruments+with+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=Astrix+Lab+Informatics+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Curtis+Jr.%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Curtis+Jr.%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=12+December+2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fastrixinc.com%2Fbenefits-and-best-practices-for-integrating-laboratory-instruments-with-lims%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7Auto-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Auto_59-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=203\" target=\"_blank\">\"Section 3: Clinical and Administrative Domains - HL7 Version 2.7 Standard: Chapter 13 - Clinical Laboratory Automation\"<\/a>.&#32;HL7<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=203\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=203<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Section+3%3A+Clinical+and+Administrative+Domains+-+HL7+Version+2.7+Standard%3A+Chapter+13+-+Clinical+Laboratory+Automation&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=HL7&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fimplement%2Fstandards%2Fproduct_brief.cfm%3Fproduct_id%3D203&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RyanMobile19-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RyanMobile19_60-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Ryan, M.&#32;(28 August 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.thermofisher.com\/blog\/connectedlab\/mobile-lims-applications-in-the-laboratory\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Mobile LIMS Applications in the Laboratory\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Connected Lab<\/i>.&#32;Thermo Fisher Scientific<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.thermofisher.com\/blog\/connectedlab\/mobile-lims-applications-in-the-laboratory\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.thermofisher.com\/blog\/connectedlab\/mobile-lims-applications-in-the-laboratory\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Mobile+LIMS+Applications+in+the+Laboratory&amp;rft.atitle=The+Connected+Lab&amp;rft.aulast=Ryan%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Ryan%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=28+August+2019&amp;rft.pub=Thermo+Fisher+Scientific&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thermofisher.com%2Fblog%2Fconnectedlab%2Fmobile-lims-applications-in-the-laboratory%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BWO3X-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BWO3X_61-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3limsxpress\" target=\"_blank\">\"O3 LimsXpress\"<\/a>.&#32;Bytewize AB<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3limsxpress\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3limsxpress<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=O3+LimsXpress&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Bytewize+AB&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bytewize.com%2Fo3limsxpress&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240109190358\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 1.461 seconds\nReal time usage: 2.061 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 42354\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 298546\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 131843\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 20\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/00\/Hospital_Laboratory.JPG","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/51\/Laboratory_oven_for_samples-01.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/58\/Analyse_residus.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/89\/Linking-Open-Data-diagram_2007-09.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/01\/Process_and_data_modeling.svg\/640px-Process_and_data_modeling.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2e\/Workflow_IA.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/25\/Syvalidate_screen.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/44\/Scheme_reconciliation.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/ba\/Code_barres.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/ab\/Mobile_device_on_display_at_the_Media_Markt_Sontplein%2C_Groningen_%282019%29_13.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b6\/Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png"],"23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_timestamp":1704906980,"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_type":"article","37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_title":"Laboratory information system","37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system","37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_plaintext":"\n\nLaboratory information systemFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search Hospitals and labs around the world depend on a laboratory information system to manage and report patient data and test results.\nA laboratory information system (LIS) is a software system that records, manages, and stores data for clinical laboratories. An LIS has traditionally been most adept at sending laboratory test orders to lab instruments, tracking those orders, and then recording the results, typically to a searchable database.&#91;1&#93; The standard LIS has supported the operations of public health institutions (like hospitals and clinics) and their associated labs by managing and reporting critical data concerning \"the status of infection, immunology, and care and treatment status of patients.\"&#91;2&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History of the LIS \n2 Common LIS functions \n\n2.1 Clinical vs. anatomic pathology LIS \n\n\n3 Differences between an LIS and a LIMS \n4 LIS vendors \n5 See also \n6 Further reading \n7 References \n\n\n\nHistory of the LIS \nAdvances in computational technology in the early 1960s led some to experiment with time and data management functions in the healthcare setting. Company Bolt Beranek Newman and the Massachusetts General Hospital worked together to create a system that \"included time-sharing and multiuser techniques that would later be essential to the implementation of the modern LIS.\"&#91;3&#93; At around the same time General Electric announced plans to program a hospital information system (HIS), though those plans eventually fell through.&#91;4&#93; \nAside from the Massachusetts General Hospital experiment, the idea of a software system capable of managing time and data management functions wasn't heavily explored until the late 1960s, primarily because of the lack of proper technology and of communication between providers and end-users. The development of the Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System (MUMPS) in the mid-'60s certainly helped as it suddenly allowed for a multi-user interface and a hierarchical system for persistent storage of data.&#91;3&#93; Yet due to its advanced nature, fragmented use across multiple entities, and inherent difficulty in extracting and analyzing data from the database, development of healthcare and laboratory systems on MUMPS was sporadic at best.&#91;4&#93; By the 1980s, however, the advent of Structured Query Language (SQL), relational database management systems (RDBMS), and Health Level 7 (HL7) allowed software developers to expand the functionality and interoperability of the LIS, including the application of business analytics and business intelligence techniques to clinical data.&#91;5&#93; \nIn the early 2010s, web-based and database-centric internet applications of laboratory informatics software changed the way researchers and technicians interacted with data, with web-driven data formatting technologies like Extensible Markup Language (XML) making LIS and electronic medical record (EMR) interoperability a much-needed reality.&#91;6&#93; SaaS and cloud computing technologies have since further changed how the LIS is implemented, while at the same time raising new questions about security and stability.&#91;3&#93; \nThe modern LIS has evolved to take on new functionalities not previously seen, including configurable clinical decision support rules, system integration, laboratory outreach tools, and support for point-of-care testing (POCT) data. LIS modules have also begun to show up in EMR and EHR products, giving some laboratories the option to have an enterprise-wide solution that can cover multiple aspects of the lab.&#91;7&#93; Additionally, the distinction between an LIS and a laboratory information management system (LIMS) has blurred somewhat, with some vendors choosing to use the \"LIMS\" acronym to market their clinical laboratory data management system. \n\nCommon LIS functions \nFunctions that an LIS has historically performed include, but are not limited to&#91;1&#93;&#91;7&#93;&#91;8&#93;&#91;9&#93;:\n\npatient management, including admission date, admitting physician, ordering department, specimen type, etc.\npatient data tracking\ndecision support, including comparisons of lab orders with their respective ICD-9 codes\nstandard test ordering and specimen tracking\ntest ordering for point-of-care, molecular, and genetic testing\nquality assurance\nworkload and management reporting\nanalytical reporting\nworkflow management\nbilling\nthird-party software integration\nClinical vs. anatomic pathology LIS \nThe laboratory information system has been primarily segmented into two broad categories (though other variations exist): the clinical pathology and anatomic pathology LIS.&#91;8&#93;&#91;9&#93;&#91;10&#93;\nIn clinical pathology the chemical, hormonal, and biochemical components of body fluids are analyzed and interpreted to determine if a disease is present, while anatomic pathology tends to focus on the analysis and interpretation of a wide variety of tissue structures, from small slivers via biopsy to complete organs from a surgery or autopsy.&#91;11&#93; These differences may appear to be small, but the differentiation in laboratory workflow of these two medical specialties has led to the creation of different functionalities within LISs. Specimen collection, receipt, and tracking; work distribution; and report generation may vary\u2014sometimes significantly\u2014between the two types of labs, requiring targeted functionality in the LIS.&#91;10&#93;&#91;12&#93; Other differences include&#91;3&#93;:\n\nSpecific dictionary-driven tests are found in clinical pathology environments but not so much in anatomic pathology environments.\nOrdered anatomic pathology tests typically require more information than clinical pathology tests.\nA single anatomic pathology order may be comprised of several tissues from several organs; clinical pathology orders usually do not.\nAnatomic pathology specimen collection may be a very procedural, multi-step processes, while clinical pathology specimen collection is routinely more simple.\nDifferences between an LIS and a LIMS \nThere is often confusion regarding the difference between an LIS and a LIMS. While the two laboratory informatics components are related, their purposes diverged early in their existences. Up until recently, the LIS and LIMS have exhibited a few key differences&#91;13&#93;:\n1. An LIS has been designed primarily for processing and reporting data related to individual patients in a clinical setting. A LIMS has traditionally been designed to process and report data related to batches of samples from drug trials, water treatment facilities, and other entities that handle complex batches of data.&#91;14&#93;&#91;15&#93;\n2. An LIS must satisfy the reporting and auditing needs of hospital accreditation agencies, HIPAA, and other clinical medical practitioners. A LIMS, however, needs to satisfy good manufacturing practice (GMP) and meet the reporting and audit needs of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and research scientists in many different industries.&#91;14&#93;\n3. An LIS is usually most competitive in patient-centric settings (dealing with \"subjects\" and \"specimens\") and clinical labs, whereas a LIMS is most competitive in group-centric settings (dealing with \"batches\" and \"samples\") that often deal with mostly anonymous research-specific laboratory data.&#91;15&#93;&#91;16&#93;&#91;17&#93;\nHowever, these distinctions began to fade somewhat in the early 2010s as some LIMS vendors began to adopt the case-centric information management normally reserved for an LIS, blurring the lines between the two components further.&#91;17&#93; Thermo Scientific's Clinical LIMS was an example of this merger of the LIS with LIMS, with Dave Champagne, informatics vice president and general manager, stating: \"Routine molecular diagnostics requires a convergence of the up-to-now separate systems that have managed work in the lab (the LIMS) and the clinic (the LIS). The industry is asking for, and the science is requiring, a single lab-centric solution that delivers patient-centric results.\"&#91;18&#93; Abbott Informatics Corporation's STARLIMS product was another example of this LIS\/LIMS merger.&#91;13&#93; With the distinction between the two entities becoming less clear, discussions within the laboratory informatics community began to includes the question of whether or not the two entities should be considered the same.&#91;19&#93;&#91;20&#93; As of 2017&#91;update&#93;, vendors continue to recognize the historical differences between the two products while also continuing to acknowledge that some developed LIMS are taking on more of the clinical aspects usually reserved for an LIS.&#91;21&#93;&#91;22&#93;&#91;23&#93;\n\nLIS vendors \nSee the LIS vendor page for a list of LIS vendors past and present.\n\nSee also \nLaboratory informatics\nCommon LIS features\nFurther reading \nHenricks, W.H.&#32;(9 October 2012).&#32;\"LIS Basics: CP and AP LIS Design and Operations\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Pathology Informatics 2012.&#32;University of Pittsburgh.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 10 September 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910050825\/http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf . &#160; \nPark, S.L.; Pantanowitz, L.; Sharma, G.; Parwani, A.V.&#32;(2012).&#32;\"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\".&#32;Advances in Anatomic Pathology&#32;19&#32;(2): 81\u201396.&#32;doi:10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787. &#160; \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 \"Laboratory Information Systems\".&#32;Biohealthmatics.com.&#32;Biomedical Informatics Ltd.&#32;10 August 2006.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 06 January 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180106000403\/http:\/\/www.biohealthmatics.com\/technologies\/his\/lis.aspx .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Quick Start Guide to Laboratory Information System (LIS) Implementation\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Association of Public Health Laboratories.&#32;October 2005.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 19 September 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170919184029\/https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/MRC\/Documents\/GH_2005Oct_LIS-Quick-Start-Guide.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Park, S.L.; Pantanowitz, L.; Sharma, G.; Parwani, A.V.&#32;(2012).&#32;\"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\".&#32;Advances in Anatomic Pathology&#32;19&#32;(2): 81\u201396.&#32;doi:10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 Blum, B.I.; Duncan, K.A.&#32;(1990).&#32;A History of Medical Informatics.&#32;ACM Press.&#32;pp.&#160;141\u201353.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780201501287.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/A_History_of_medical_informatics.html?id=AR5rAAAAMAAJ . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sinard, J.H.&#32;(2006).&#32;Practical Pathology Informatics: Demstifying Informatics for the Practicing Anatomic Pathologist.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;393.&#32;ISBN&#160;0387280588.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=WerUyK618fcC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Kumar, S.; Aldrich, K.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Overcoming barriers to electronic medical record (EMR) implementation in the US healthcare system: A comparative study\".&#32;Health Informatics Journal&#32;16&#32;(4).&#32;doi:10.1177\/1460458210380523. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 Futrell, K.&#32;(23 January 2017).&#32;\"What's new in today's LIS?\".&#32;Medical Laboratory Observer.&#32;NP Communications, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/continuing-education\/article\/13009013\/whats-new-in-todays-lis .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 Pantanowitz, L.; Henricks, W.H.; Beckwith, B.A.&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Medical Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;Clinics in Laboratory Medicine&#32;27&#32;(4): 823\u201343.&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.cll.2007.07.011. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 9.0 9.1 \"Medical laboratory informatics\".&#32;ClinfoWiki.&#32;19 November 2011.&#32;http:\/\/clinfowiki.org\/wiki\/index.php\/Medical_laboratory_informatics .&#32;Retrieved 03 June 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 10.0 10.1 Henricks, W.H.&#32;(9 October 2012).&#32;\"LIS Basics: CP and AP LIS Design and Operations\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Pathology Informatics 2012.&#32;University of Pittsburgh.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 10 September 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910050825\/http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Adelman, H.C.&#32;(2009).&#32;Forensic Medicine.&#32;Infobase Publishing.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u20134.&#32;ISBN&#160;1438103816.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=x5FftcZOv1UC&amp;pg=PA3 .&#32;Retrieved 03 June 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Clifford, L.-J.&#32;(1 August 2011).&#32;\"The evolving LIS needs to be \"everything\" for today's laboratories\".&#32;Medical Laboratory Observer.&#32;NP Communications, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/home\/article\/13004085\/the-evolving-lis-needs-to-be-everything-for-todays-laboratories .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 13.0 13.1 \"Adding \"Management\" to Your LIS\".&#32;STARLIMS Corporation.&#32;2012.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 28 April 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/ .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 14.0 14.1 Friedman, B.&#32;(4 November 2008).&#32;\"LIS vs. LIMS: It's Time to Blend the Two Types of Lab Information Systems\".&#32;Lab Soft News.&#32;http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html .&#32;Retrieved 07 November 2012 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 15.0 15.1 \"LIMS\/LIS Market and POCT Supplement\".&#32;analytica-world.com.&#32;20 February 2004.&#32;https:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Friedman, B.&#32;(19 November 2008).&#32;\"LIS vs. LIMS: Some New Insights\".&#32;Lab Soft News.&#32;http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html .&#32;Retrieved 07 November 2012 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 17.0 17.1 Hice, R.&#32;(1 July 2009).&#32;\"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\".&#32;STARLIMS Corporation.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 13 March 2011.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/ .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Tufel, G.&#32;(1 February 2012).&#32;\"Convergence of LIMS and LIS\".&#32;Clinical Lab Products.&#32;MEDQOR.&#32;https:\/\/clpmag.com\/lab-essentials\/information-technology\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jones, J.&#32;(March 2012).&#32;\"What is the difference between an LIS and a LIMS?\".&#32;LinkedIn.&#32;https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/feed\/update\/urn:li:groupPost:2069898-98494737\/ .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jones, John&#32;(September 2012).&#32;\"Are LIMS and LIS the same thing?\".&#32;LinkedIn.&#32;http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083 .&#32;Retrieved 07 November 2012 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"FAQ: What is the difference between a LIMS and a medical laboratory quality system?\".&#32;AgiLab SAS.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 25 March 2019.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190325075813\/http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/ .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Difference Between LIS and LIMS\".&#32;CloudLIMS.com, LLC.&#32;1 October 2016.&#32;https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Reisenwitz, C.&#32;(11 May 2017).&#32;\"What Is a Laboratory Information Management System?\".&#32;Capterra Medical Software Blog.&#32;Capterra, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system<\/a>\nCategories: Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2017All articles containing potentially dated statementsLaboratory informaticsSoftware systemsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 6 January 2022, at 23:20.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 149,479 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_information_system rootpage-Laboratory_information_system skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory information system<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:252px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Nurse_ict_uganda.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8418397f19714ba4f68ec98fd183293\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f5\/Nurse_ict_uganda.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"333\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Nurse_ict_uganda.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"a8418397f19714ba4f68ec98fd183293\"><\/a><\/div>Hospitals and labs around the world depend on a laboratory information system to manage and report patient data and test results.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>A <b>laboratory information system<\/b> (LIS) is a software system that records, manages, and stores data for clinical <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratories<\/a>. An LIS has traditionally been most adept at sending laboratory test orders to lab instruments, tracking those orders, and then recording the results, typically to a searchable database.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-biohealth_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-biohealth-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The standard LIS has supported the operations of public health institutions (like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital\" title=\"Hospital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f070c66d8123fe91063594befebdff\">hospitals<\/a> and clinics) and their associated labs by managing and reporting critical data concerning \"the status of infection, immunology, and care and treatment status of patients.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APHLLIS_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APHLLIS-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_the_LIS\">History of the LIS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Advances in computational technology in the early 1960s led some to experiment with time and data management functions in the healthcare setting. Company Bolt Beranek Newman and the Massachusetts General Hospital worked together to create a system that \"included time-sharing and multiuser techniques that would later be essential to the implementation of the modern LIS.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APLISReview_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APLISReview-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> At around the same time General Electric announced plans to program a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital_information_system\" title=\"Hospital information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8385de7b1f39a39d793f8ce349b448d\">hospital information system<\/a> (HIS), though those plans eventually fell through.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HistMedInfo_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HistMedInfo-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Aside from the Massachusetts General Hospital experiment, the idea of a software system capable of managing time and data management functions wasn't heavily explored until the late 1960s, primarily because of the lack of proper technology and of communication between providers and end-users. The development of the Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System (MUMPS) in the mid-'60s certainly helped as it suddenly allowed for a multi-user interface and a hierarchical system for persistent storage of data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APLISReview_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APLISReview-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Yet due to its advanced nature, fragmented use across multiple entities, and inherent difficulty in extracting and analyzing data from the database, development of healthcare and laboratory systems on MUMPS was sporadic at best.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HistMedInfo_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HistMedInfo-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> By the 1980s, however, the advent of Structured Query Language (SQL), relational database management systems (RDBMS), and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a> (HL7) allowed software developers to expand the functionality and interoperability of the LIS, including the application of business analytics and business intelligence techniques to clinical data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PractPathInfo_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PractPathInfo-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>In the early 2010s, web-based and database-centric internet applications of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> software changed the way researchers and technicians interacted with data, with web-driven data formatting technologies like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Extensible_Markup_Language\" title=\"Extensible Markup Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7c17028e7fb39d8b39c6d31504411a8\">Extensible Markup Language<\/a> (XML) making LIS and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_medical_record\" title=\"Electronic medical record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99a695d2af23397807da0537d29d0be7\">electronic medical record<\/a> (EMR) interoperability a much-needed reality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OverBarEMR_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OverBarEMR-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">SaaS<\/a> and cloud computing technologies have since further changed how the LIS is implemented, while at the same time raising new questions about security and stability.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APLISReview_3-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APLISReview-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>The modern LIS has evolved to take on new functionalities not previously seen, including configurable <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_decision_support_system\" title=\"Clinical decision support system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"095141425468d057aa977016869ca37d\">clinical decision support<\/a> rules, system integration, laboratory outreach tools, and support for point-of-care testing (POCT) data. LIS modules have also begun to show up in EMR and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_health_record\" title=\"Electronic health record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255\">EHR<\/a> products, giving some laboratories the option to have an enterprise-wide solution that can cover multiple aspects of the lab.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FutrellWhatsNew17_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FutrellWhatsNew17-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, the distinction between an LIS and a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) has blurred somewhat, with some vendors choosing to use the \"LIMS\" acronym to market their clinical laboratory data management system. \n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Common_LIS_functions\">Common LIS functions<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Functions that an LIS has historically performed include, but are not limited to<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-biohealth_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-biohealth-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FutrellWhatsNew17_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FutrellWhatsNew17-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MedLabInfoPaper_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MedLabInfoPaper-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MedLabInfoDesc_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MedLabInfoDesc-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>patient management, including admission date, admitting physician, ordering department, specimen type, etc.<\/li>\n<li>patient data tracking<\/li>\n<li>decision support, including comparisons of lab orders with their respective <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ICD-9\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ICD-9\" data-key=\"4c97d7b65be8dc20134c311ac80a2ce1\">ICD-9<\/a> codes<\/li>\n<li>standard test ordering and specimen tracking<\/li>\n<li>test ordering for point-of-care, molecular, and genetic testing<\/li>\n<li>quality assurance<\/li>\n<li>workload and management reporting<\/li>\n<li>analytical reporting<\/li>\n<li>workflow management<\/li>\n<li>billing<\/li>\n<li>third-party software integration<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Clinical_vs._anatomic_pathology_LIS\">Clinical vs. anatomic pathology LIS<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The laboratory information system has been primarily segmented into two broad categories (though other variations exist): the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_pathology\" title=\"Clinical pathology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b0b91aa13ae0209e073db6f30493daf\">clinical pathology<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Anatomical_pathology\" title=\"Anatomical pathology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5668db6faf37e8c1432a1d7953f30cb7\">anatomic pathology<\/a> LIS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MedLabInfoPaper_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MedLabInfoPaper-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MedLabInfoDesc_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MedLabInfoDesc-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CPAPLISDiffs_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CPAPLISDiffs-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In clinical pathology the chemical, hormonal, and biochemical components of body fluids are analyzed and interpreted to determine if a disease is present, while anatomic pathology tends to focus on the analysis and interpretation of a wide variety of tissue structures, from small slivers via biopsy to complete organs from a surgery or autopsy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForensicMedBook_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForensicMedBook-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> These differences may appear to be small, but the differentiation in laboratory workflow of these two medical specialties has led to the creation of different functionalities within LISs. Specimen collection, receipt, and tracking; work distribution; and report generation may vary\u2014sometimes significantly\u2014between the two types of labs, requiring targeted functionality in the LIS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CPAPLISDiffs_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CPAPLISDiffs-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EvolvingLIS_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EvolvingLIS-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Other differences include<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APLISReview_3-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APLISReview-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Specific dictionary-driven tests are found in clinical pathology environments but not so much in anatomic pathology environments.<\/li>\n<li>Ordered anatomic pathology tests typically require more <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> than clinical pathology tests.<\/li>\n<li>A single anatomic pathology order may be comprised of several tissues from several organs; clinical pathology orders usually do not.<\/li>\n<li>Anatomic pathology specimen collection may be a very procedural, multi-step processes, while clinical pathology specimen collection is routinely more simple.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Differences_between_an_LIS_and_a_LIMS\">Differences between an LIS and a LIMS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There is often confusion regarding the difference between an LIS and a LIMS. While the two laboratory informatics components are related, their purposes diverged early in their existences. Up until recently, the LIS and LIMS have exhibited a few key differences<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StarlimsLimsLis-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p>1. An LIS has been designed primarily for processing and reporting data related to individual patients in a clinical setting. A LIMS has traditionally been designed to process and report data related to batches of samples from drug trials, water treatment facilities, and other entities that handle complex batches of data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lislims1_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lislims1-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-analytica_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-analytica-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>2. An LIS must satisfy the reporting and auditing needs of hospital accreditation agencies, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HIPAA\" data-key=\"70050974d1eda9ff8cf9ecf7e4fcd015\">HIPAA<\/a>, and other clinical medical practitioners. A LIMS, however, needs to satisfy <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_manufacturing_practice\" title=\"Good manufacturing practice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b520c825b1702be310362c66e0343f\">good manufacturing practice<\/a> (GMP) and meet the reporting and audit needs of the U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> and research scientists in many different industries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lislims1_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lislims1-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>3. An LIS is usually most competitive in patient-centric settings (dealing with \"subjects\" and \"specimens\") and clinical labs, whereas a LIMS is most competitive in group-centric settings (dealing with \"batches\" and \"samples\") that often deal with mostly anonymous research-specific laboratory data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-analytica_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-analytica-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lislims2_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lislims2-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-starlims_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-starlims-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, these distinctions began to fade somewhat in the early 2010s as some LIMS vendors began to adopt the case-centric information management normally reserved for an LIS, blurring the lines between the two components further.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-starlims_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-starlims-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Thermo_Scientific\" title=\"Thermo Scientific\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e914753f99d483d4577b35fed71b3c94\">Thermo Scientific<\/a>'s Clinical LIMS was an example of this merger of the LIS with LIMS, with Dave Champagne, informatics vice president and general manager, stating: \"Routine molecular diagnostics requires a convergence of the up-to-now separate systems that have managed work in the lab (the LIMS) and the clinic (the LIS). The industry is asking for, and the science is requiring, a single lab-centric solution that delivers patient-centric results.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ConvergeLimsLis_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ConvergeLimsLis-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\" title=\"Abbott Informatics Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90479bab12020c96864541696a62156f\">Abbott Informatics Corporation<\/a>'s STARLIMS product was another example of this LIS\/LIMS merger.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StarlimsLimsLis-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup> With the distinction between the two entities becoming less clear, discussions within the laboratory informatics community began to includes the question of whether or not the two entities should be considered the same.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LinkedInDifLisLims_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LinkedInDifLisLims-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LinkedInLisLimsSame_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LinkedInLisLimsSame-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As of 2017<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, vendors continue to recognize the historical differences between the two products while also continuing to acknowledge that some developed LIMS are taking on more of the clinical aspects usually reserved for an LIS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AgilabFAQ_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AgilabFAQ-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudLISDifference16_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudLISDifference16-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReisenwitzWhatIs17_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReisenwitzWhatIs17-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIS_vendors\">LIS vendors<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>See the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_vendor\" title=\"LIS vendor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"28459eb218e1163e19c62c819c9c4b34\">LIS vendor<\/a> page for a list of LIS vendors past and present.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">Laboratory informatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1\">Common LIS features<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">Henricks, W.H.&#32;(9 October 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910050825\/http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIS Basics: CP and AP LIS Design and Operations\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Pathology Informatics 2012<\/i>.&#32;University of Pittsburgh.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 10 September 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910050825\/http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910050825\/http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIS+Basics%3A+CP+and+AP+LIS+Design+and+Operations&amp;rft.atitle=Pathology+Informatics+2012&amp;rft.aulast=Henricks%2C+W.H.&amp;rft.au=Henricks%2C+W.H.&amp;rft.date=9+October+2012&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150910050825%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.pathinformatics.pitt.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2012Powerpoints%2F01HenricksTues.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation Journal\">Park, S.L.; Pantanowitz, L.; Sharma, G.; Parwani, A.V.&#32;(2012).&#32;\"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\".&#32;<i>Advances in Anatomic Pathology<\/i>&#32;<b>19<\/b>&#32;(2): 81\u201396.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787\" target=\"_blank\">10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Anatomic+Pathology+Laboratory+Information+Systems%3A+A+Review&amp;rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Anatomic+Pathology&amp;rft.aulast=Park%2C+S.L.%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Sharma%2C+G.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&amp;rft.au=Park%2C+S.L.%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Sharma%2C+G.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=81%E2%80%9396&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-biohealth-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-biohealth_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-biohealth_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180106000403\/http:\/\/www.biohealthmatics.com\/technologies\/his\/lis.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Information Systems\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Biohealthmatics.com<\/i>.&#32;Biomedical Informatics Ltd.&#32;10 August 2006.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.biohealthmatics.com\/technologies\/his\/lis.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 06 January 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180106000403\/http:\/\/www.biohealthmatics.com\/technologies\/his\/lis.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180106000403\/http:\/\/www.biohealthmatics.com\/technologies\/his\/lis.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Laboratory+Information+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Biohealthmatics.com&amp;rft.date=10+August+2006&amp;rft.pub=Biomedical+Informatics+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20180106000403%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.biohealthmatics.com%2Ftechnologies%2Fhis%2Flis.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-APHLLIS-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-APHLLIS_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170919184029\/https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/MRC\/Documents\/GH_2005Oct_LIS-Quick-Start-Guide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quick Start Guide to Laboratory Information System (LIS) Implementation\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Association of Public Health Laboratories.&#32;October 2005.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/MRC\/Documents\/GH_2005Oct_LIS-Quick-Start-Guide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 19 September 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170919184029\/https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/MRC\/Documents\/GH_2005Oct_LIS-Quick-Start-Guide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170919184029\/https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/MRC\/Documents\/GH_2005Oct_LIS-Quick-Start-Guide.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Quick+Start+Guide+to+Laboratory+Information+System+%28LIS%29+Implementation&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=October+2005&amp;rft.pub=Association+of+Public+Health+Laboratories&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170919184029%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.aphl.org%2FMRC%2FDocuments%2FGH_2005Oct_LIS-Quick-Start-Guide.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-APLISReview-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-APLISReview_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-APLISReview_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-APLISReview_3-2\">3.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-APLISReview_3-3\">3.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Park, S.L.; Pantanowitz, L.; Sharma, G.; Parwani, A.V.&#32;(2012).&#32;\"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\".&#32;<i>Advances in Anatomic Pathology<\/i>&#32;<b>19<\/b>&#32;(2): 81\u201396.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787\" target=\"_blank\">10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Anatomic+Pathology+Laboratory+Information+Systems%3A+A+Review&amp;rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Anatomic+Pathology&amp;rft.aulast=Park%2C+S.L.%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Sharma%2C+G.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&amp;rft.au=Park%2C+S.L.%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Sharma%2C+G.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=81%E2%80%9396&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HistMedInfo-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HistMedInfo_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HistMedInfo_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Blum, B.I.; Duncan, K.A.&#32;(1990).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/A_History_of_medical_informatics.html?id=AR5rAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A History of Medical Informatics<\/i><\/a>.&#32;ACM Press.&#32;pp.&#160;141\u201353.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780201501287<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/A_History_of_medical_informatics.html?id=AR5rAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/A_History_of_medical_informatics.html?id=AR5rAAAAMAAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+History+of+Medical+Informatics&amp;rft.aulast=Blum%2C+B.I.%3B+Duncan%2C+K.A.&amp;rft.au=Blum%2C+B.I.%3B+Duncan%2C+K.A.&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B141%E2%80%9353&amp;rft.pub=ACM+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9780201501287&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FA_History_of_medical_informatics.html%3Fid%3DAR5rAAAAMAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PractPathInfo-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PractPathInfo_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Sinard, J.H.&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=WerUyK618fcC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Practical Pathology Informatics: Demstifying Informatics for the Practicing Anatomic Pathologist<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;393.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0387280588<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=WerUyK618fcC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=WerUyK618fcC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Practical+Pathology+Informatics%3A+Demstifying+Informatics+for+the+Practicing+Anatomic+Pathologist&amp;rft.aulast=Sinard%2C+J.H.&amp;rft.au=Sinard%2C+J.H.&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B393&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=0387280588&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWerUyK618fcC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OverBarEMR-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OverBarEMR_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kumar, S.; Aldrich, K.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Overcoming barriers to electronic medical record (EMR) implementation in the US healthcare system: A comparative study\".&#32;<i>Health Informatics Journal<\/i>&#32;<b>16<\/b>&#32;(4).&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1177%2F1460458210380523\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/1460458210380523<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Overcoming+barriers+to+electronic+medical+record+%28EMR%29+implementation+in+the+US+healthcare+system%3A+A+comparative+study&amp;rft.jtitle=Health+Informatics+Journal&amp;rft.aulast=Kumar%2C+S.%3B+Aldrich%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Kumar%2C+S.%3B+Aldrich%2C+K.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1177%2F1460458210380523&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FutrellWhatsNew17-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FutrellWhatsNew17_7-0\">7.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FutrellWhatsNew17_7-1\">7.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Futrell, K.&#32;(23 January 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/continuing-education\/article\/13009013\/whats-new-in-todays-lis\" target=\"_blank\">\"What's new in today's LIS?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Medical Laboratory Observer<\/i>.&#32;NP Communications, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/continuing-education\/article\/13009013\/whats-new-in-todays-lis\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/continuing-education\/article\/13009013\/whats-new-in-todays-lis<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What%27s+new+in+today%27s+LIS%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Medical+Laboratory+Observer&amp;rft.aulast=Futrell%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Futrell%2C+K.&amp;rft.date=23+January+2017&amp;rft.pub=NP+Communications%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mlo-online.com%2Fcontinuing-education%2Farticle%2F13009013%2Fwhats-new-in-todays-lis&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MedLabInfoPaper-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MedLabInfoPaper_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MedLabInfoPaper_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Pantanowitz, L.; Henricks, W.H.; Beckwith, B.A.&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Medical Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;<i>Clinics in Laboratory Medicine<\/i>&#32;<b>27<\/b>&#32;(4): 823\u201343.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.cll.2007.07.011\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.cll.2007.07.011<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Medical+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.jtitle=Clinics+in+Laboratory+Medicine&amp;rft.aulast=Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Henricks%2C+W.H.%3B+Beckwith%2C+B.A.&amp;rft.au=Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Henricks%2C+W.H.%3B+Beckwith%2C+B.A.&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.volume=27&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=823%E2%80%9343&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.cll.2007.07.011&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MedLabInfoDesc-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MedLabInfoDesc_9-0\">9.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MedLabInfoDesc_9-1\">9.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/clinfowiki.org\/wiki\/index.php\/Medical_laboratory_informatics\" target=\"_blank\">\"Medical laboratory informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ClinfoWiki<\/i>.&#32;19 November 2011<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/clinfowiki.org\/wiki\/index.php\/Medical_laboratory_informatics\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/clinfowiki.org\/wiki\/index.php\/Medical_laboratory_informatics<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 03 June 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Medical+laboratory+informatics&amp;rft.atitle=ClinfoWiki&amp;rft.date=19+November+2011&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclinfowiki.org%2Fwiki%2Findex.php%2FMedical_laboratory_informatics&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CPAPLISDiffs-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CPAPLISDiffs_10-0\">10.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CPAPLISDiffs_10-1\">10.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Henricks, W.H.&#32;(9 October 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910050825\/http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIS Basics: CP and AP LIS Design and Operations\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Pathology Informatics 2012<\/i>.&#32;University of Pittsburgh.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 10 September 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910050825\/http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910050825\/http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIS+Basics%3A+CP+and+AP+LIS+Design+and+Operations&amp;rft.atitle=Pathology+Informatics+2012&amp;rft.aulast=Henricks%2C+W.H.&amp;rft.au=Henricks%2C+W.H.&amp;rft.date=9+October+2012&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150910050825%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.pathinformatics.pitt.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2012Powerpoints%2F01HenricksTues.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForensicMedBook-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForensicMedBook_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Adelman, H.C.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=x5FftcZOv1UC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Forensic Medicine<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Infobase Publishing.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u20134.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1438103816<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=x5FftcZOv1UC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=x5FftcZOv1UC&amp;pg=PA3<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 03 June 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Forensic+Medicine&amp;rft.aulast=Adelman%2C+H.C.&amp;rft.au=Adelman%2C+H.C.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B3%E2%80%934&amp;rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&amp;rft.isbn=1438103816&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx5FftcZOv1UC%26pg%3DPA3&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EvolvingLIS-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EvolvingLIS_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Clifford, L.-J.&#32;(1 August 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/home\/article\/13004085\/the-evolving-lis-needs-to-be-everything-for-todays-laboratories\" target=\"_blank\">\"The evolving LIS needs to be \"everything\" for today's laboratories\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Medical Laboratory Observer<\/i>.&#32;NP Communications, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/home\/article\/13004085\/the-evolving-lis-needs-to-be-everything-for-todays-laboratories\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/home\/article\/13004085\/the-evolving-lis-needs-to-be-everything-for-todays-laboratories<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+evolving+LIS+needs+to+be+%22everything%22+for+today%27s+laboratories&amp;rft.atitle=Medical+Laboratory+Observer&amp;rft.aulast=Clifford%2C+L.-J.&amp;rft.au=Clifford%2C+L.-J.&amp;rft.date=1+August+2011&amp;rft.pub=NP+Communications%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mlo-online.com%2Fhome%2Farticle%2F13004085%2Fthe-evolving-lis-needs-to-be-everything-for-todays-laboratories&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-StarlimsLimsLis-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_13-0\">13.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_13-1\">13.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Adding \"Management\" to Your LIS\"<\/a>.&#32;STARLIMS Corporation.&#32;2012.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/services-and-resources\/resources\/lis-vs-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 April 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Adding+%22Management%22+to+Your+LIS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.pub=STARLIMS+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140428060811%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.starlims.com%2Fen-us%2Fresources%2Fwhite-papers%2Flis-vs-lims%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-lislims1-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-lislims1_14-0\">14.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-lislims1_14-1\">14.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Friedman, B.&#32;(4 November 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIS vs. LIMS: It's Time to Blend the Two Types of Lab Information Systems\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Lab Soft News<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIS+vs.+LIMS%3A+It%27s+Time+to+Blend+the+Two+Types+of+Lab+Information+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Lab+Soft+News&amp;rft.aulast=Friedman%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Friedman%2C+B.&amp;rft.date=4+November+2008&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flabsoftnews.typepad.com%2Flab_soft_news%2F2008%2F11%2Fliss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-analytica-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-analytica_15-0\">15.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-analytica_15-1\">15.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS\/LIS Market and POCT Supplement\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>analytica-world.com<\/i>.&#32;20 February 2004<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIMS%2FLIS+Market+and+POCT+Supplement&amp;rft.atitle=analytica-world.com&amp;rft.date=20+February+2004&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.analytica-world.com%2Fen%2Fnews%2F35566%2Flims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-lislims2-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-lislims2_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Friedman, B.&#32;(19 November 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIS vs. LIMS: Some New Insights\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Lab Soft News<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIS+vs.+LIMS%3A+Some+New+Insights&amp;rft.atitle=Lab+Soft+News&amp;rft.aulast=Friedman%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Friedman%2C+B.&amp;rft.date=19+November+2008&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flabsoftnews.typepad.com%2Flab_soft_news%2F2008%2F11%2Flis-vs-lims.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-starlims-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-starlims_17-0\">17.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-starlims_17-1\">17.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hice, R.&#32;(1 July 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\"<\/a>.&#32;STARLIMS Corporation.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 13 March 2011<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Swimming+in+the+Clinical+Pool%3A+Why+LIMS+are+supplanting+old-school+clinical+LIS+applications&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Hice%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Hice%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=1+July+2009&amp;rft.pub=STARLIMS+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20110313145726%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fblog.starlims.com%2F2009%2F07%2F01%2Fswimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ConvergeLimsLis-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ConvergeLimsLis_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Tufel, G.&#32;(1 February 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/clpmag.com\/lab-essentials\/information-technology\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Convergence of LIMS and LIS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Clinical Lab Products<\/i>.&#32;MEDQOR<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/clpmag.com\/lab-essentials\/information-technology\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/clpmag.com\/lab-essentials\/information-technology\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Convergence+of+LIMS+and+LIS&amp;rft.atitle=Clinical+Lab+Products&amp;rft.aulast=Tufel%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Tufel%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=1+February+2012&amp;rft.pub=MEDQOR&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclpmag.com%2Flab-essentials%2Finformation-technology%2Fconvergence-of-lims-and-lis%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LinkedInDifLisLims-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LinkedInDifLisLims_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jones, J.&#32;(March 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/feed\/update\/urn:li:groupPost:2069898-98494737\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is the difference between an LIS and a LIMS?\"<\/a>.&#32;LinkedIn<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/feed\/update\/urn:li:groupPost:2069898-98494737\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/feed\/update\/urn:li:groupPost:2069898-98494737\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+the+difference+between+an+LIS+and+a+LIMS%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Jones%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=March+2012&amp;rft.pub=LinkedIn&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linkedin.com%2Ffeed%2Fupdate%2Furn%3Ali%3AgroupPost%3A2069898-98494737%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LinkedInLisLimsSame-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LinkedInLisLimsSame_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jones, John&#32;(September 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083\" target=\"_blank\">\"Are LIMS and LIS the same thing?\"<\/a>.&#32;LinkedIn<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Are+LIMS+and+LIS+the+same+thing%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Jones%2C+John&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+John&amp;rft.date=September+2012&amp;rft.pub=LinkedIn&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.linkedin.com%2Fgroups%2FAre-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AgilabFAQ-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AgilabFAQ_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190325075813\/http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"FAQ: What is the difference between a LIMS and a medical laboratory quality system?\"<\/a>.&#32;AgiLab SAS.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 25 March 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190325075813\/http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190325075813\/http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FAQ%3A+What+is+the+difference+between+a+LIMS+and+a+medical+laboratory+quality+system%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=AgiLab+SAS&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20190325075813%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fagilab.com%2Ffaq%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CloudLISDifference16-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudLISDifference16_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Difference Between LIS and LIMS\"<\/a>.&#32;CloudLIMS.com, LLC.&#32;1 October 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Difference+Between+LIS+and+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=1+October+2016&amp;rft.pub=CloudLIMS.com%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcloudlims.com%2Flims%2Flims-vs-lis.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ReisenwitzWhatIs17-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ReisenwitzWhatIs17_23-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Reisenwitz, C.&#32;(11 May 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is a Laboratory Information Management System?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Capterra Medical Software Blog<\/i>.&#32;Capterra, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+Is+a+Laboratory+Information+Management+System%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Capterra+Medical+Software+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Reisenwitz%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Reisenwitz%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=11+May+2017&amp;rft.pub=Capterra%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.capterra.com%2Fwhat-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 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and revision id 45435. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f5\/Nurse_ict_uganda.jpg"],"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_timestamp":1704906980,"ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_type":"article","ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_title":"LIMS feature","ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature","ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_plaintext":"\n\nLIMS featureFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search\n\n\n \n You can find a listing of all LIMS vendors\u2014and by extension, the features their products offer\u2014on the LIMS vendor page. \n\n\nA LIMS feature is one or more pieces of functionality that appear within a laboratory information management system (LIMS).\nThe LIMS is an evolving concept, with new features and abilities being introduced every year. As laboratory demands change and technological progress continues, the functions of a LIMS will also change. Yet like the automobile, the LIMS tends to have a base set of functionality that defines it. That functionality can roughly be divided into five laboratory processing phases, with numerous software functions falling under each&#91;1&#93;: \n\nthe reception and log in of a sample and its associated customer data\nthe assignment, scheduling, and tracking of the sample and the associated analytical workload\nthe processing and quality control associated with the sample and the utilized equipment and inventory\nthe storage of data associated with the sample analysis\nthe inspection, approval, and compilation of the sample data for reporting and\/or further analysis\nOf course, there are LIMS features that are difficult to categorize under any of these phases. Such features often contribute to the entire LIMS and how it's utilized. For example, multilingual support appears in LIMS like Assaynet's Assaynet LIMS and SLCLAB Inform\u00e1tica's ALFA21, allowing users to interact with the LIMS in more than one language. Some functionality may also overlap several laboratory phases, making it difficult to firmly classify. \nThe features described below come from an analysis of freely available LIMS product information on vendor websites. An attempt was made to discover the features most utilized in vendors' LIMS products and collect information on those features for each LIMS. Not every possible feature is referenced here; some LIMS products fill specific niches, utilizing unique functionality to solve a specific problem. \nThat said, keep in mind the categorization of features below is very loose. It may be viable to argue a feature belongs under a different section or multiple sections. For the purposes of organizing this information in an uncomplicated manner, however, some liberty has been taken in the categorizing of features.\n\nContents \n\n1 Sample, inventory, and data management \n\n1.1 Sample login and management \n1.2 Sample tracking \n1.3 Sample and result batching \n1.4 Task and event scheduling \n1.5 Option for manual result entry \n1.6 Multiple data viewing methods \n1.7 Data and trend analysis \n1.8 Data and equipment sharing \n1.9 Customizable fields and\/or interface \n1.10 Query capability \n1.11 Import data \n1.12 Internal file or data linking \n1.13 External file or data linking \n1.14 ELN support or integration \n1.15 Export to MS Excel \n1.16 Raw data management \n1.17 Data warehouse \n1.18 Deadline control \n1.19 Production control \n1.20 Project and\/or task management \n1.21 Inventory management \n1.22 Document creation and management \n1.23 Case management \n1.24 Workflow management \n1.25 Specification management \n1.26 Customer and supplier management \n1.27 Billing management \n\n\n2 Quality, security, and compliance \n\n2.1 Regulatory compliance \n2.2 QA\/QC functions \n2.3 Performance evaluation \n2.4 Audit trail \n2.5 Chain of custody \n2.6 Configurable roles and security \n2.7 Data normalization \n2.8 Data validation \n2.9 Data encryption \n2.10 Version control \n2.11 Automatic data backup \n2.12 Environmental monitoring \n\n\n3 Reporting, barcoding, and printing \n\n3.1 Custom reporting \n3.2 Report printing \n3.3 Label support \n3.4 Barcode support \n3.5 Export to PDF \n3.6 Export to MS Word \n3.7 Export to HTML or XML \n3.8 Fax integration \n3.9 Email integration \n\n\n4 Base functionality \n\n4.1 Administrator management \n4.2 Modular \n4.3 Instrument interfacing and management \n4.4 Mobile device integration \n4.5 Alarms and\/or alerts \n4.6 Work-related time tracking \n4.7 Voice recognition system \n4.8 External monitoring \n4.9 Messaging \n4.10 Multilingual \n4.11 Network-capable \n4.12 Web client or portal \n4.13 Online or integrated help \n4.14 Software as a service delivery model \n4.15 Usage-based cost \n\n\n5 References \n\n\n\n Sample, inventory, and data management \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n&#160;\nSample login and management \nSample accessioning and management is one of the core functions a modern LIMS is tasked with, whether it's in a manufacturing, water treatment, or pharmaceutical laboratory.&#91;2&#93; As such, researchers who work in these types of labs are unable to complete their experiment-based goals without an effective method of managing samples. The process of sample management for experiments includes, but is not limited to&#91;2&#93;:\n\nstoring related sample information, including aliquot numbers, dates, and external links\nsetting user alerts for sample status\ncreating and documenting viewable sample container schemas with name and status\nassigning sample access rights\nassigning custom sample ID numbers based on a specification\nAdditional functionality that could potentially fall under this feature:\n\nutilizing a unique ID system\nbarcoding of samples\ndefining sample points and series\ncreating data associations for samples, such as pedigree for sample\/aliquot relationships or relationships based on experiment, etc.\nissuing sample receipts\nSample tracking \n Where's sample 20110512_122GJH? Sample tracking functionality will let you know which lab oven it's in.For most laboratory personnel, knowing that a sample has arrived to the lab isn't good enough; they need to know where it's located and what actions are being performed on it. Enter the sample tracking feature. Without it, many problems arise. In the forensic world, for example, many samples are linked to a criminal investigation. In this case, misidentification, contamination, or duplication can become significant issues: a lost sample is essentially missing evidence, while a duplicated sample can render it useless as evidence.&#91;3&#93;\nAfter sample reception and its initial handling procedures, many LIMS can then track sample location as well as chain of custody. Location tracking usually involves assigning the sample to a particular freezer location, often down to the granular level of shelf, rack, box, row, and column. The process of tracking a sample has become more streamlined with increasing support of barcode and radio frequency ID (RFID) technology.&#91;4&#93; While handwritten labels were the norm, barcode and RFID support in a LIMS can \"tie together a vast amount of information, clearly relating each sample to a specific case.\"&#91;3&#93; Other event tracking such as freeze and thaw cycles that a sample undergoes in the laboratory may also be required. As each laboratory's needs for tracking additional data points can vary widely, many modern LIMS have implemented extensive configurability to compensate for varying environments.&#91;5&#93;\nThe functionality of sample tracking strongly ties into the audit trail and chain of custody features of a LIMS.\n\nSample and result batching \nWhat is batching? The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines a batch as \"a group of samples which behave similarly with respect to the sampling or testing procedures being employed and which are processed as a unit.\"&#91;6&#93; This definition can be applied to many laboratories which handle large quantities of samples for some form of analysis or processing. A LIMS that has the ability to check in, link, and track groups of samples across one or multiple facilities is valuable to such laboratories. Additionally, batching the analysis results of multiple samples or groups of samples gives laboratories more flexibility with how they manage their data. Batching also offers the benefit of mimicking the production groups of samples while also capturing quality control data for the entire group.\n\nTask and event scheduling \nWithin the context of a LIMS, the ability to schedule a task or event is a natural extension of how work was done in a laboratory before the advent of data management systems. Workloads are assigned to technicians, maintenance schedules are created and followed, and research deadlines must be observed. While these tasks have in the past been performed without LIMS, a modern data information management system can now optimize those tasks and provide additional scheduling functionality to streamline the operation of a lab. Autoscribe Ltd., for example, offers a scheduling module for its LIMS that allows users to automatically schedule multiple jobs, data backups, alarms, and reports.&#91;7&#93; Some LIMS like LabWare, Inc.'s LabWare LIMS offer multiple types of schedulers that match to the particular functions of a research laboratory.&#91;8&#93; Additional functionality within this feature includes the ability to configure automated assignments of analysis requests, establish recurring events, and in most cases, create printable schedules.\nExamples of tasks and events that can feasibly be scheduled in a LIMS include:\n\nregistration of received samples into the system\nproduction of reports\ncreation and sending of e-mails and alerts\nmaintenance of equipment\nassignment of workloads to personnel\nOption for manual result entry \nWhile many LIMS vendors tout the ability of their product to automate the entry of results into the LIMS database, the need for manual data entry of analysis results still exists. This feature is important to laboratories obtaining analysis results from multiple sources, including non-digital paper-based results and instruments that can't be connected to the LIMS. Additional functionality associated with this feature includes a customizable spell check dictionary and the ability to add comments, notes, and narratives to most anything in the LIMS.\n\nMultiple data viewing methods \nLaboratories produce data, and LIMS exist to help manage that data. Additionally, even before the existence of LIMS, scientists have had a corresponding need for visually representing data. Today, a LIMS can not only collect and analyze data from samples, but it also can represent that data in reports, graphs, gradients, and spreadsheets. Depending on the LIMS, more than one way to visually represent the data may exist.\nSome laboratory information management systems take a specialized approach to data views. For example, Biomatters Ltd.'s Geneious offers multiple methods of viewing complicated sequence analysis data, including 3-D structuring and representations of plasmid vectors, as well as other next-generation sequencing (NGS) activities.&#91;9&#93;\n\nData and trend analysis \n Some LIMS allow users to analyze sample data directly from the software. Sample experimentation and analysis play an important part of laboratory informatics, helping laboratories make better sense of their experiments and reach valuable conclusions about them. While this important phase of laboratory work has often been done externally from the LIMS, it's now common to see data analysis tools being included. Such tools allow raw instrument data as well as other imported and internal LIMS data to be analyzed, which then can be stored, processed, and reported on. Additionally, built-in calculations and functions used in the analysis are usually definable and editable for further flexibility, and custom calculations and functions are often able to be made by the end user.\nAs with the feature \"multiple data viewing methods,\" data and trend analysis is also increasingly important in laboratories that have specialized data management needs. When even in 2009 genetic scientists in large- and medium-sized sequencing and core centers were voicing concerns about \"a lack of adequate vendor-supported software and laboratory information management systems (LIMS)\" that had the necessary analytical features&#91;10&#93;, today's data management options, like the previously mentioned Geneious&#91;9&#93;, readily offer data analysis tools for a diverse array of laboratory types.\n\r\n\n\nData and equipment sharing \nAside from data storage and sample registration, a modern LIMS' major contribution to the laboratory is aiding in the sharing of experiment results, reports, and other data types with those who need it most. Rather than pieces of information becoming misplaced or forgotten in laboratory notebooks, the LIMS makes it easier to share sample test results and increase the efficiency of collaboration inside and outside the laboratory. Yet data is more than just sample test results; it also comes in the form of charts, reports, policy and procedure documents, and other document types. Additionally, the need for controlling who has access to these and other types of data is also an important consideration. As such, this feature is at least partially tied to other features like document management and configurable security.\n\n Customizable fields and\/or interface \nAs thorough as some user interface (UI) developers may be in adding relevant fields and interface options for LIMS end users, there are at times options that are either omitted or unanticipated. This has traditionally required the end user to contact the vendor and ask if the needed option(s) can be added in the next release. However, modern LIMS vendors have responded instead by adding functionality that gives end users and\/or LIMS administrators more control over the user interface, including the addition and customization of user fields and inputs.\nAspects of the LIMS' user interface that are becoming more customizable by the end user include:\n\nsystem nomenclature\nequations used in calculations\ndata and universal fields\ndata tables\nappearance of the interface and\/or menus\nprimary system language\nthe LIMS source code, especially if in a non-proprietary format\nIncreasingly, today's vendors tend to refer to their systems as being \"configurable\" rather than \"customizable.\"&#91;11&#93;&#91;12&#93; Vendors such as Autoscribe Informatics will include screen editing and other tools that administrators can user to configure the various screens, data fields, nomenclature, etc. of the LIMS.&#91;11&#93;\n\nQuery capability \n Advanced query tools allow researchers to better complete project objectives.As was the case before the advent of databases and electronic data management solutions, today researchers must search through sample results, experiment notes, and other types of data to better draw conclusions about their research. Whereas this used to mean browsing through laboratory notebooks, Excel spreadsheets, or Access databases, now powerful query tools exists within data management tools like a LIMS. Not only can data be searched for based on name, number, or vendor, LIMSs like Abbott's STARLIMS and Mountain States Consulting's MSC-LIMS allow for queries of attached metadata like user ID, project number, task number, sample type, location, and collection date.&#91;13&#93;&#91;14&#93; Finally, as LIMS continue to include both sample management and experimental data management functionality, queries become more powerful in general as now sample and experiment can be matched together in one database.&#91;2&#93;\nQuery functionality often includes the ability to:\n\nsearch both transactional data and archived data tables\nsearch multiple databases via an application programming interface (API) or open database connectivity (ODBC) connection\nfilter and sort data\ncreate ad hoc queries\nImport data \nData can originate from numerous places in the laboratory. The ability to import that data into a LIMS can be beneficial, especially when an instrument can't be connected or an external client provides a data feed independent of the LIMS. Some LIMS may even allow users to cross-reference laboratory nomenclature from received data sources with the recipient's. And of course instrument interfacing allows for even more importation options. Additional data validation procedures may be applied to the imported data to guarantee information homogeneity. Some LIMS may also allow for the import of non-normalized legacy data tables and integration with LIMS data tables to form a single unified database. \nHowever, potential buyers should ensure the LIMS vendor is clear in how their system manages data imports. For example, products such as AgileBio's LabCollector may limit imports to a particular format such as CSV files.&#91;15&#93; In particular, data migrations require extra vigilance from the potential buyer, who should confirm the LIMS vendor's ability to cleanly, completely, and reliably import your data into a new system.&#91;16&#93;\n\nInternal file or data linking \nThis feature allows LIMS users to link together reports, protocols, sample results, and more, providing greater contextual clarity to projects. Examples include:\n\nlinking a sample batch to a test or sample preparation methodology\nlinking a test process to a particular customer\nlinking a report to a sample batch\nlinking a group of test results to a raw data file\nlinking an image to a work order\nlinking all lab results with the correct reporting test method\nlinking data forms created offline (remote data collection) to the submitted data in the system\nExternal file or data linking \nThis feature allows LIMS users to link together data and files in the LIMS with data, files, and customers outside the domain of the LIMS. Examples include:\n\nlinking external file attachments\u2014such as images and documents\u2014to a LIMS record&#91;17&#93;\nlinking data files from chromatography equipment to synthesis data&#91;18&#93;\nlinking external standard operating procedure documents with an internal test specification&#91;8&#93;\nELN support or integration \nAs a software replacement for more traditional paper laboratory notebooks, the electronic laboratory notebook (ELN) has been important to laboratory functions. Yet the lines between ELN and LIMS began to blur in the 2000s, with both types of software incorporating features from the other.&#91;19&#93;&#91;20&#93; More than a decade later, the ELN has become more distinct in purpose and functionality and is typically sold as a stand-alone solution. Despite this, some vendors such as Agilent have integrated ELN functionality into their LIMS in order to provide greater flexibility to researchers.&#91;21&#93; Other vendors such as Core Informatics (part of Thermo Fisher Scientific) choose to keep the ELN as a separately managed solution but one that can easily integrate with a LIMS solution.&#91;22&#93;\n\nExport to MS Excel \nWhile Microsoft Excel had long been used within the laboratory setting, a slow shift towards relational databases and LIMS occurred in the late 1990s and early 2000s.&#91;23&#93; Additional concerns with the difficulties of Excel's validation and compliance with FDA 21 CFR Part 11 and other regulations ultimately led many labs to turn to data management solutions that are easier to validate.&#91;24&#93; Several decades later, some laboratories continue to use Excel in some fashion, and thus having a LIMS capable of handling Excel data remains useful. In particular, selecting and exporting the LIMS' data (from test results to quality control charts) into a format such as Excel may further data visualization, insights, and dissemination for some users.&#91;25&#93;&#91;26&#93;\n\nRaw data management \nWhile not described as a feature on most LIMS vendor websites, a few indicate that their LIMS is capable of managing (import, export, editing, etc.) data in its raw format for future analysis. This raw data is typically implied to be originating from instruments that interface with the LIMS, which in itself is not unusual. That raw data may remain housed in instruments, getting transformed into reportable data in the LIMS, but presumably most LIMS are also capable of housing the raw instrument data as well.&#91;27&#93; Labs may also turn to scientific data management systems to better manage their raw data sources.&#91;28&#93;\n\nData warehouse \nA LIMS' data warehouse serves the important function of storing, extracting, and managing the data that laboratories produce for the purposes or analysis, reporting, and process management, typically separate from the primary storage database. Data warehouses also offer the benefit of speeding up queries, making queries and data mining more user-friendly, and smoothing out data gaps.&#91;29&#93;\n\nDeadline control \nDeadline control is functionality within a LIMS that allows users to manage and be notified of events that occur within the laboratory. With this functionality users can also be notified of upcoming deadlines on anything from sample analysis to license renewal. \nNote that this functionality may also feasibly fall under the task and event scheduling or alarms features. As deadline control seems to be advertised as a notable feature by only a few vendors, it seems even more likely that this functionality is practically considered part of scheduling or alarms.\n\nProduction control \nThere are many types of businesses that produce goods, and in most cases there is a research and development (R&amp;D) laboratory involved at some point in the process. This is especially true in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries, where production measurements such as yield, volume, activity, and impurity are vital. As LIMSs have already recorded such information during tests and analysis, the addition of production control functionality seems natural. Some LIMS take a very active approach to this. For example, the former 2nd Sight Solutions' OhNo! featured production control as major functionality for the synthesis of radiopharmaceuticals.&#91;30&#93; Other LIMS may have less pronounced production functionality, while still offering the ability to track the production process in and out of the lab. And yet other LIMSs like dialog's diaLIMS offer robust production-based functionality but as a module or add-on to the base LIMS software.&#91;31&#93;\nThe types of functionality that may fall under this feature include:\n\nrecipe management\nconsumable tracking\nbatch traceability\nproduction planning\nenterprise resource planning\nFinally, in production environments the LIMS is often referenced in conjunction with a manufacturing execution system (MES). The MES is used for tracking and documenting how raw materials are transformed into finished products, as well as optimizing the various workflows in the production processes. The MES may either interface with a LIMS for quality testing, management, and statistical analysis, or the MES may actually contain a LIMS module.&#91;32&#93;&#91;33&#93;\n\n Project and\/or task management \nProject and task management within a LIMS typically involves the scheduling of tasks to workers and organizing associated tasks into a more cohesive unit for better tracking and management. While the functionality of task and event scheduling can also be found in project and task management, many LIMS include functionality beyond scheduling that warrants the addition of the project and\/or task management feature. This functionality includes:\n\njob allocation and rescheduling\ninstrument workload tracking\ntime tracking\npending workload verification\npriority setting\nproject-based workflow management\nsample, batch, and document linking\nwork list sharing\nrecurring event management\nInventory management \n LIMS can help laboratories keep track of their stock of reagents and even streamline reordering of them.Laboratories use a wide array of inventory and equipment, from reagents and radiopharmaceuticals to glassware and laboratory baths. With that comes the need to know how much\/many and the frequency of use. For this, LIMS solutions include some sort of inventory management functionality. \nregister origin, demographics of incoming materials\ntrack used and in-use items via barcodes or RFID\ntrack inventory reduction based on usage and shipping out of the lab\ncreate alerts for when items reach a certain stock level\ncalculate inventory cost and fluctuation\nmanage transportation and routing\nmanual incrementing\/decrementing of item counts\ntrack location and usage of laboratory equipment\nassign storage locations\ntrack forensic evidence\nDocument creation and management \nStandard operating procedures (SOPs), specifications, safety manuals and protocols, regulatory files, certificates, reports, graphs, images, and receipts are all collected and used in the average laboratory. With a LIMS already designed to manage and store sample and experiment data, it makes sense to include functionality to create, import, export, and manage other sorts of data files. As sample and experimental data can be indexed, queried, and linked, so too can documents. Functionality of a typical document management system includes the ability to:\n\nupload and index documents of most any file type and size\nenforce version control\nprovide full text search\nconvert and\/or export to PDF or other relevant formats\nadd documents as attachments to other analyses, files, projects, etc. in the system\nCase management \nThe laboratory information system (LIS) has played an important role in the clinical case management tasks of patient-centric and clinical laboratories. However, LIMS begun taking on clinical functionality such as case management around the late 2000s, which began to effectively blur the lines between an LIS and a LIMS.&#91;34&#93;. Since then, many more self-proclaimed LIMS products have emerged in the clinical, public health, and veterinary industries, areas that have historically been served by LIS software. This has resulted in numerous LIMS options that offer clinical functionality such as case management. When also taking into consideration the fields of law enforcement and forensic science, case management plays an important role in some LIMS. Functionality seen in the case management feature includes:\n\ncase accessioning and assignment\ndisease tracking\ntrend analysis\nclinical history follow-up\noutreach services\nout-of-range result alerts\ndocument and result association\nevidence control\nstudy management\nWorkflow management \nWorkflow management is common in the laboratory, acting as a graphical representation of planned sequential steps to either fully or partially automate a process within the lab. Separate standards-based workflow management systems (in the form of a software component) have traditionally performed this task.&#91;35&#93; However, in the late 2000s LIMS vendors began incorporating workflow management functionality into their LIMS software, reducing the headaches that customization of a LIMS often brought.&#91;36&#93; \nToday's commercial and open-source LIMS solutions frequently feature workflow management functionality, including&#91;37&#93;&#91;38&#93;&#91;36&#93;:\n\n\nattribute definition of activities\ndefinition of inputs and outputs of activities\nassignment of documentation to activities\nsetting of quality control limits\ndynamically modify workflow in case of future changes\nreceive notification of changes to the workflow\nsending user-defined messages during the process\n\n\r\n\n\nSpecification management \nSpecification (spec) management is vital to not only the manufacturing and research industries but also to a host of other laboratories requiring precise measurements and infallible test methods. Just as ASTM offers standards and specs for LIMS&#91;39&#93;, so too do LIMS users have standards and specs for their laboratory. With spec management in place within the LIMS, laboratories can then:\n\nenforce standard operating procedures and business rules\ncreate specs down to a project or sample level\nvalidate recipes and procedures\naccept or reject sample batches\ndocument internal and external spec history\nNote that some of the functionality of spec management may cross over into the realm of quality control and data validation.\n\nCustomer and supplier management \nUnless a laboratory is conducting internalized independent research, in most cases it will do business with external entities such as contract labs, sample providers, equipment providers, and reagent suppliers. In some cases, even internal employees may be considered a customer, necessitating documentation of who is using the system and in what ways. For a veterinary lab, the customer may be the animal and handler. For a forensic lab the customer may be more complex: internal staff, university staff, police departments, and maintainers of nationwide crime databases may all at some point act as customers. In these cases, documenting these various points of contact and linking them to samples, equipment, and tests becomes vital. Managing demographics, complaints, correspondence, and history are all feasible with customer management functionality. This process is often made simpler through the use of a more context-neutral entity creation system, which allows for more flexible management of contacts.\nThis feature may also be referred to as contact management, an address book module, or a customer service module.\n\nBilling management \nWhile the finances of a laboratory are important, they've typically been handled separately as a business process. However, some LIMS include additional functionality to make handling financial transactions and documentation of all sorts possible within the LIMS. In theory, such functionality brings the possibility of keeping more of a laboratory's data centrally located and queryable. This feature may include:\n\npayment processing\nexpense reporting\nprice quotes\nrevenue cycle management\nworkload tracking of billable hours\nbill of materials\ngrant management\n\n&#160;\n Quality, security, and compliance \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n&#160;\nRegulatory compliance \nThe topic of whether or not a LIMS meets regulatory compliance is often a complex one. While Title 21 CFR Part 11 has arguably had the largest influence on an electronic data management system's compliance, other influential standards have shaped the way LIMS and other systems handle and store data. Other compliance-based codes, standards, and regulations include:\n\nASTM standards\nASCLD\/LAB crime lab accreditation\nFreedom of Information Act\nGALP and GAMP\nHIPAA\nHealth Level 7\nICD\nISO\/IEC 17025\nISO 9000\/9001\nISO\/TS 16949\nODBC\nTNI and NELAP enviromnental lab accreditation\nTitle 40 CFR Part 3\nWith so many codes, standards, and regulations, it can be challenging for potential LIMS buyers to fully vet whether a vendor's solution meets regulatory requirements, let alone helps labs meet the regulations and standards that affect them. In truth, most reputable vendors today have regulatory compliance well considered for their LIMS solutions, which are often purpose-built. However, it is ultimately up to the potential buyer to confirm that the vendor's solution complies to activities within their industry. Buyers are advised to contact vendors with their user requirements and ask how the vendor's software meets and\/or exceeds those requirements.\n\n QA\/QC functions \nThe quality management functions of a LIMS allow users to maintain a level of necessary quality across many of the activites in a laboratory. From running quality assurance tests to ensuring employed researchers are proficient at certain tasks, the QA\/QC functionality of a LIMS is largely responsible for the output of consistent data and manufactured products in and out of the lab.\nCommon functionality includes&#91;40&#93;&#91;41&#93;:\n\nsingle or batch QA\/QC tests\nquality control charts and reports\nproficiency testing\ndocument management\ninstrument maintenance\ndata acceptance\/rejection\ncertificates of analysis (COA)\ndata types defined by QC analysis\nPerformance evaluation \nAs prevalent as document management has become in LIMS, it makes sense to that the LIMS should also provide functionality to collate and store all the documentation associated with employee training and certification. Changes to laboratory techniques, scientific understanding, and business practices force researchers to learn, reevaluate, and demonstrate competency in order to maintain quality levels in the laboratory. Evaluations can frequently extend beyond staff members, however. Clinics, visit types, vendors, or test species can also be tracked and evaluated based on custom criteria. The performance evaluation functionality of a LIMS makes this possible. \nThat functionality typically includes the ability to maintain training records and history, and also to link that training to a technique or piece of equipment. Afterwards, the staff member, vendor, etc. can be marked as competent or certified in the equipment, knowledge, or process. Periodical assessment of the training and its practical effectiveness can later be performed. Productivity of an entity or process can also be gauged over a certain date range based on tracked time, pre-determined milestones, or some other criteria.\n\nAudit trail \n Whether validating sample data or an entire LIMS, maintaining an audit trail is an important part of 21 CFR Part 11 compliance. As laws and regulations like Title 21 CFR Part 11 mandate \"computer systems (including hardware and software), controls, and attendant documentation\" utilize electronic signatures and audit trails&#91;42&#93;, LIMS developers must put serious thought into how their software handles audit trail functionality. The audit trail\u2014documentation of the sequence of activities that have affected an action\u2014must be thorough and seamlessly integrated into the software, and it has become a mandatory feature for labs operating in regulated environments.&#91;43&#93;\nInformation recorded in the audit trail typically includes:\n\n\noperator code\ntime stamp\nlocation\ncase number\ntransaction type\namount and quantity prior to change\nuser notes (e.g., reason for change)\nin some cases, data in temporary memory&#91;44&#93;\n\n\r\n\n\nChain of custody \nThe chain of custody (COC) of an item is of varying importance, depending on the type of laboratory. A highly regulated laboratory that works under Code of Federal Regulation or other guidelines makes tracking COC a vital part of its operations. This is especially true in forensic labs, which depend on continuous accountability of their evidence collection, retention, and disposal procedures.&#91;45&#93; At its core, the COC strives to answer at least these five questions&#91;46&#93;:\n\nWhere is my sample or specimen now?\nWho possess my sample or specimen now?\nWhen did that individual take possession of my sample or specimen?\nWhere has my sample or specimen been?\nWho has been in possession of my sample or specimen?\nAs with an audit trail, a laboratory depends on recorded information like user ID, time stamp, and location ID to maintain a robust and accurate COC. Barcodes, inventory management, and configurable security roles all play an important part in maintaining chain of custody.\n\nConfigurable roles and security \nMany roles exist within the laboratory setting, each with its own set of responsibilities. And just as the role an individual plays within the laboratory may change, so may the responsibilities associated with each role. This sort of change necessitates a flexible and configurable security system, one that allows for the placement of individual LIMS users into defined security roles which provide role-specific access to certain LIMS functionality. Additionally, as responsibilities change within roles, that same flexible configuration is necessary for assigning or restricting access to certain LIMS functionality for each existing or newly created role.\nOf course, roles aren't always assigned on an individual level. Often large groups of individuals may need to be assigned to roles, necessitating group assignments for security purposes. For example, a group of laboratory trainees may only be given read-only access to the sample login and sample tracking functionality of the system through a custom \"Trainees\" group role, while the head researcher of the lab may be given the \"Administrator\" role, which allows that individual to access most if not all of the LIMS' functionality.\n\nData normalization \nFor the purposes of describing LIMS functionality, \"data normalization\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring data that moves into the LIMS is formatted in a standardized way, matching the format of existing LIMS data.\nHere's an example to better explain this issue. When a LIMS is initially configured, in most if not all cases a clear standard can be set for how logged samples and their associated measurements pre- and post-analysis are recorded in the system. Perhaps all temperatures will be recorded in Celsius to two decimal places. If temperature data imported from a spreadsheet or a lab instrument is not in this format, the LIMS can normalize the incoming data to match the standard already set for existing LIMS temperature data. This ensures consistency within the LIMS database and typically leads to better data validation efforts later on.\nNote: Some LIMS developers may include data normalization functionality within what they may refer to as \"data validation\" functionality. The line between these two may be blurred or not exist at all.\n\nData validation \nFor the purposes of describing LIMS functionality, \"data validation\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring existing data in the LIMS\u2014either pre-analysis or post-analysis\u2014sufficiently meets any number of standards or thresholds set for sample login, sample analysis, or any other data management process in the LIMS. This validation process may be completely automatic and system-based, or it may also include additional steps on the part of the user base utilizing additional LIMS functionality, including verification of standard operating procedures (SOPs), QC samples, and QA approval.&#91;47&#93;&#91;48&#93;\nNote: This functionality shouldn't be confused with the process of validating the LIMS itself, which is an entirely different process partially falling under regulatory compliance and involves the process of ensuring \"the software is performing in a manner for which it was designed.\"&#91;49&#93;\n\nData encryption \nThe existence of this functionality in LIMS software generally indicates the LIMS has the ability to protect the integrity and authenticity of its housed data through the use of a variety of technologies which makes data unreadable except to those users or systems possessing a key\/right\/etc. to unlock\/read the data. This functionality has been important for the web-enabled LIMS, which transfers information over the internet in a client-server relationship, and it has become an increasingly vital part of cloud-based software offerings managing data in transit and at rest.&#91;50&#93; As a wide variety of encryption technologies exist, it's generally a good idea to consult with the developers of a LIMS to determine the strengths and weaknesses of their employed encryption methods.\n\nVersion control \nVersion control is a form of safeguard which helps preserve data integrity. This is typically done by creating a modifiable new version of a piece of information rather than allowing the original to be modified. Such versioning may be applied to a wide variety of digital information housed in the LIMS, including test methods, training certifications, instrument logs, specifications, and process and procedure (P&amp;P) documentation. In LIMS like LabWare LIMS, reference data can also be versioned while also retaining the original relationship between samples and test results, including the version of reference data current at the time lab testing is performed.&#91;51&#93; Information tracked with such revisions includes attributes like user name, time the edit was made, and what exactly was edited. This also benefits those managing audit trails and chains of custody.\n\n The temperature of an open cryopreservation container may be monitored on a computer via a connection to a LIMS with environmental monitoring functionality. Some LIMS vendors may choose to employ a different form of version control called file locking, which simply puts the affected information into a read-only mode for users while someone else is busy editing it.&#91;52&#93; Another popular strategy is to, rather than locking the file, allow multiple people edit to a piece of information, later merging the various edits. Potential LIMS buyers may need to inquire with developers to determine what type of versioning scheme is used in the vendor's software.\nAutomatic data backup \nThe functionality of automatic data backup in a LIMS usually means information contained in one or more associated databases or data warehouses can be automatically preserved in an additional backup file. The save location for that file as well as the scheduled backup time is configurable, typically through the administrative module of the LIMS. As cloud-based LIMS have taken hold, scheduled cloud-to-cloud data backups of software data are becoming more practical.&#91;53&#93;\n\nEnvironmental monitoring \nSome LIMS like Core LIMS and Matrix Gemini allow users to monitor the environmental conditions of not only sample storage containers but also the entire laboratory itself.&#91;54&#93;&#91;55&#93; Attributes like humidity, air quality, and temperature may be monitored to ensure sample storage units and experiments maintain desired conditions. Alarms may be able to be configured to notify staff if a storage container's environmental attributes go beyond a certain threshold. Manufacturers utilizing a LIMS like NOVA-LIMS may also be able to employ more advanced environmental tracking features in the plant to guarantee a more consistent, higher quality product is created.&#91;56&#93;\n\n\n&#160;\n Reporting, barcoding, and printing \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n&#160;\nCustom reporting \nReporting is a vital part of a LIMS, as it allows users to gain a clearer picture of collected data and potential trends. At a minimum, a number of pre-configured report styles come standard with a LIMS. However, some LIMS are more flexible than others, offering the ability to customize reports in numerous ways. The most popular attributes of custom reporting include custom headers, custom information placement (such as branding), charts, pivot tables, and multiple output formats.\nNote: Some LIMS vendors will offer custom reporting as an option as an added cost, depending on both the base reporting functionality of the LIMS and the level of customization required.\n\nReport printing \nToday's LIMS software almost universally offers the ability to print reports and other materials, so this feature may seem a bit redundant to list. Nonetheless, printer support is a feature worth confirming when considering a piece of LIMS software.\n\nLabel support \nThe label\u2014typically affixed to a sample or evidence container\u2014is a vital part of the sample tracking process.&#91;57&#93; Identifying information such as sample number, batch number, and barcodes are printed on such labels to ensure optimized sample management and more precise sample data. As such, some LIMS allow users to design and print labels directly from the software.\n\n The word \"Wikipedia\" encoded in Code 128 and Code 39\nBarcode support \nBarcodes offer many advantages to laboratory techs handling samples, including more accurate data input, tighter sample\/instrument associations, tighter sample\/study associations, and more room for human-readable information on a label.&#91;57&#93; As such, LIMS developers have integrated barcode support into their laboratory information management systems, including support for symbologies like Code 128, Code 39, and Interleaved 2 of 5. Aside from printing options, a LIMS may also offer support for a variety of barcode readers.\nRadio-frequency identification (RFID) technology has also made inroads into the laboratory. Like barcode labels, RFID tags can be placed on samples and get read when exposed to active RFID scanning devices. This technology has some advantages over barcodes in that direct line of sight isn't required, the scanning and tracking process is more automated, and more data can be encoded.&#91;58&#93; With these apparent advantages, some LIMS vendors have also added support for RFID-fed sample information.\nBarcode\/RFID support and label support are typically found together in LIMS software, but not always, thus their separation into two features of a LIMS.\n\nExport to PDF \nA LIMS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Portable Document Format (PDF).\n\nExport to MS Word \nA LIMS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Microsoft Office Word format.\n\nExport to HTML or XML \nA LIMS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and\/or Extensible Markup Language (XML) format.\n\nFax integration \nA LIMS with this feature is able to connect with a fax machine and send information to it via manual input, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals. However, with the declining popularity of the fax machine&#91;59&#93;, this feature is starting to disappear from modern LIMS.\n\nEmail integration \nA LIMS with this feature is able to integrate with and use the electronic mail information exchange method to send reports, alerts, and more via manual input, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals.\n\n\n&#160;\nBase functionality \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n&#160;\nAdministrator management \nThe administrator management tools of a LIMS allow lab technicians to set up the LIMS most optimally for the laboratory. Through the administrator management interface of a LIMS, other features may be accessed like setting up user roles and scheduling automatic data backups.\nLike report printing, administrator management is nearly ubiquitous in LIMS software, generally considered a mandatory feature. However, for the purposes of being thorough, it's important to point out its existence. \n\nModular \nThis feature indicates that a LIMS has an intentional modular design, which separates some functionality into manageable components of the overall system. Generally speaking, a modular design allows for 1. the structured addition of new functionality to a LIMS and 2. the limiting of overall effects on the system design as new functionality is added.\n\nInstrument interfacing and management \n An entire room of gas chromatography instruments could potentially be connected to a LIMS via instrument interfacing.Laboratories depend on instruments, and with those instruments comes scientific measurements which produce data. It's therefor natural a lab technician would want to connect those instruments to a laboratory information management system, which is already organizing and storing laboratory data. This sort of interfacing is typically handled with instrument-to-LIMS interfaces, which started out as merely a data-transfer mechanism. By the 2000s, that interface mechanism became much more robust as a data management tool, though often at great expense with heavy involvement from third parties.&#91;60&#93; This eventually meant that \"many LIMS vendors [could] act as single source providers of the entire instrument interfacing solution,\"&#91;61&#93;, providing a cheaper and smoother solution to LIMS customers. Today, instrument interfacing is integral to LIMS and is considerably easier to do than prior decades.&#91;62&#93;\nThe ability to calibrate and schedule maintenance for interfaced instruments may also be included in this category.\n\nMobile device integration \nSome LIMS vendors tout support for mobile devices using their laboratory information management system. This feature has become increasingly common with the advent of first the web-based LIMS, followed by the cloud-based LIMS. This has given technicians the ability to collect data in the field, approve results remotely, and manage experiment workflow on the fly.&#91;63&#93;\n\n Alarms and\/or alerts \nAlarms and alerts are an integral part of a LIMS. They can be automatic or scheduled, and they can come in the form of an e-mail, a pop-up message, or a mobile text message. When the results for a sample analysis go out out of range, an automatic warning message can appear on the screen of the technician responsible for the analysis. A scheduled alert can be e-mailed to a lab technician every month indicating a piece of laboratory equipment needs routine maintenance. If the LIMS is equipped with environmental monitoring, an alert can be sent in the form of an SMS text message to the head researcher if the temperature inside a freezer unexpectedly rises. All of these scenarios represent a tiny fraction of the possible implementation of alarms and alerts in a LIMS, highlighting how powerful (yet easy to take for granted) this feature is.\n\nWork-related time tracking \nThis feature specifically refers to a LIMS' ability to track the amount of time an employee spends at work in general (for payroll purposes) or on more specific projects and tasks (as part of an employee work evaluation program).\n\nVoice recognition system \nA LIMS with this feature allows some functions of the LIMS (for example, accessing sample analysis results) to be accessed via voice commands.\n\nExternal monitoring \nThis feature allows clients outside the laboratory to monitor the status of sample batches, test results, and more via an online web portal or, less commonly, as activity alerts sent via e-mail, fax, or SMS.\n\nMessaging \n Instant messaging clients built into a LIMS often make it easier to collaborate.The messaging feature of a LIMS may refer to one (or both) of two things:\na built-in instant messaging system that allows users to converse with each other through text messages real-time, or\nSMS text messaging integration that allows users or the LIMS itself to send messages or alerts to a user's mobile or smart phone.\nMultilingual \nIf a LIMS is listed as multilingual, its an indication the LIMS interface can be configured to display more than one language depending on the preference a user or administrator chooses. Some LIMS interfaces can only be displayed in one of two languages (English or German, for example), while others come configured with support for dozens of languages.\n\nNetwork-capable \nThis feature is perhaps archaic and\/or obvious, but it is mentioned nonetheless. It's generally applied to a non-web-based (on-premises) LIMS installed over a local or wide-area computer network, essentially indicating the LIMS is not an isolated application, but rather one that can interface with other instances of the LIMS or other networked instruments.\n\nWeb client or portal \nA LIMS with a web client or portal is either a web-based LIMS (one that is not installed on every computer, but rather is hosted on a server and accessed via a web browser) or a non-web-based LIMS with an included portal to access it via the internet.\n\nOnline or integrated help \nThis indicates a LIMS has help infrastructure integrated into the software, support documentation via the LIMS vendor's website, or both.\n\nSoftware as a service delivery model \nThis indicates the software can be licensed and utilized via the software as a service (SaaS) delivery model. This typically constitutes a LIMS vendor having a \"cloud-based\" offering.\n\nUsage-based cost \nWhile rare, some LIMS vendors allow potential clients to license and utilize the vendor's software under a usage-based cost model. An example of this model in use is Bytewize AB's O3 LimsXpress, which has a cost directly related to the amount of samples processed each month.&#91;64&#93; You may also see this sort of usage-based cost on some cloud-based LIMS.\n\n\n&#160;\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Skobelev, D.O.; T.M. Zaytseva; A.D. Kozlov; V.L. Perepelitsa; A.S. Makarova&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Laboratory information management systems in the work of the analytic laboratory\".&#32;Measurement Techniques&#32;53&#32;(10): 1182\u20131189.&#32;doi:10.1007\/s11018-011-9638-7. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 Macneil, R.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"The benefits of integrated systems for managing both samples and experimental data: An opportunity for labs in universities and government research institutions to lead the way\".&#32;Automated Experimentation&#32;3&#32;(2): 2.&#32;doi:10.1186\/1759-4499-3-2.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC3146905.&#32;PMID&#160;21707999.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC3146905 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 Murthy, T.; Hewson, B.&#32;(1 September 2010).&#32;\"Effective Forensic Sample Tracking and Handling\".&#32;American Laboratory.&#32;https:\/\/www.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/ .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Vaniotis, G.&#32;(19 July 2018).&#32;\"How RFID Labels Can Smarten Up Your Laboratory\".&#32;Labtag Blog.&#32;https:\/\/blog.labtag.com\/rfid-labels-in-the-lab .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Muntean, E.; Munteanb, N.; Mih\u0103iescua, T.; Mih\u0103iescuc, R.&#32;(2008).&#32;\"LIMS use in laboratory data management\".&#32;ProEnvironment\/Promediu&#32;1&#32;(2): 19\u201323.&#32;http:\/\/journals.usamvcluj.ro\/index.php\/promediu\/article\/view\/2835 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Batch Sizes And QC Questions\".&#32;U.S. EPA.&#32;4 April 2016.&#32;https:\/\/archive.epa.gov\/epawaste\/hazard\/web\/html\/faqs_qc.html .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Easy scheduling of LIMS activities\".&#32;Autoscribe Ltd.&#32;https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/press-releases\/easy-scheduling-of-lims-activities .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 \"Summary of Core Product Features\".&#32;LabWare, Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 12 May 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200512174255\/https:\/\/www.labware.com\/en\/p\/Products\/Summary-of-Core-Product-Features .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 9.0 9.1 \"NGS Visualization and Downstream Analysis\".&#32;Biomatters Ltd.&#32;https:\/\/www.geneious.com\/features\/ngs-visualization-downstream-analysis\/ .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Richter, B.G.; Sexton, D.P.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Managing and Analyzing Next-Generation Sequence Data\".&#32;PLoS Computational Biology&#32;5&#32;(6): e1000369.&#32;doi:10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1000369.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC2667638.&#32;PMID&#160;19557125.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC2667638 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 11.0 11.1 \"LIMS Customization vs Configuration\".&#32;Autoscribe Informatics, Inc.&#32;8 March 2015.&#32;https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/blog\/lims-customization-vs-configuration .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The Benefits of a configurable COTS LIMS\".&#32;Promium, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.promium.com\/resources\/news-articles\/the-benefits-of-a-configurable-off-the-shelf-lims-cots\/ .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"STARLIMS Biorepository Industry LIMS Specification Document\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Abbott Informatics Corporation.&#32;18 September 2017.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 10 August 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170810191058\/https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/biorepository-lims-spec-document.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"MSC-LIMS Product Summary\".&#32;Mountain States Consulting, LLC.&#32;http:\/\/www.msc-lims.com\/lims\/msc-lims.html .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"LabCollector: Importing, Exporting, &amp; Reporting\".&#32;AgileBio.&#32;https:\/\/www.labcollector.com\/labcollector-lims\/features\/reporting\/ .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Rooksby, G.&#32;(28 January 2020).&#32;\"Not All LIMS Data Migration Services Are Created Equal\".&#32;Interactive Software Blog.&#32;https:\/\/www.interactivesoftware.co.uk\/2020\/01\/28\/lims-data-migration\/ .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"OasisLIMS 4.0 Enterprise\".&#32;Oasis Infotech Pvt. Ltd.&#32;https:\/\/www.oasislims.com\/lims.php .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Get OhNo! for Radiopharmaceutical Control\".&#32;2nd Sight Solutions.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 23 January 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160123085133\/http:\/\/www.2sslab.com\/Features.html .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Elliot, M.H.&#32;(December 2006\u2013January 2007).&#32;\"The state of the ELN Market\".&#32;Scientific Computing World.&#32;https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/state-eln-market?feature_id=50 .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Elliot, Michael H.&#32;(October 2011).&#32;\"Informatics Convergence Presents Opportunities and Challenges\".&#32;Scientific Computing.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 17 April 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160417085757\/https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/articles\/2011\/11\/informatics-convergence-presents-opportunities-and-challenges .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Agilent SLIMS: Lab Workflow Management Software\".&#32;Agilent Technologies, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/explore.agilent.com\/AgilentSlims .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Core ELN Integration\".&#32;Core Informatics, LLC.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 14 August 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160814211539\/http:\/\/www.coreinformatics.com\/products\/core-eln\/core-eln-features\/integration\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Williams, R.W.&#32;(2003).&#32;\"Managing Your Lab Data Flux: Getting Beyond Excel\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;The Bioinformatics of Brains: From Genes and Proteins to Behaviors.&#32;Society for Neuroscience.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 16 June 2010.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100616100719\/http:\/\/www.sfn.org\/skins\/main\/pdf\/ShortCourses\/2003\/sc1_9.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Howard, D.A.; Harrison, D.&#32;(2007).&#32;\"A Pragmatic Approach to the Validation of Excel Spreadsheets \u2013 Overview\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Pharma IT&#32;1&#32;(2): 30\u201335.&#32;http:\/\/www.spreadsheetvalidation.com\/pdf\/Excel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Excel Interface\".&#32;Mountain States Consulting, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.msc-lims.com\/demo\/excelinterface.html .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"LIMS Quality Control QA\/QC\".&#32;Online LIMS Canada Limited.&#32;https:\/\/www.onlims.com\/product\/quality-control-qaqc\/ .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"LISA.lims - The Premier LIMS Solution\".&#32;Systat Software, Inc.&#32;http:\/\/www.sigmaplot.co.uk\/products\/lisa\/index.php .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 CSols, Inc&#32;(25 July 2019).&#32;\"The Value of a Scientific Data Management System (SDMS)\".&#32;https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/the-value-of-a-scientific-data-management-system-sdms\/ .&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Harris, J.&#32;(20 September 2018).&#32;\"What Is A Data Warehouse? 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What Does it Mean for CMOs?\".&#32;LabVantage Blog.&#32;https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/data-integrity-is-here-what-does-it-mean-for-cmos\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jones, A.; Valli, C.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Chapter 1: An Introduction to Digital Forensics\".&#32;Building a Digital Forensic Laboratory: Establishing and Managing a Successful Facility.&#32;Butterworth-Heinemann.&#32;p.&#160;11.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781856175104.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Tomlinson,&#32;J. J.&#59;&#32;Elliott-Smith,&#32;W.&#59;&#32;Radosta,&#32;T.&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Laboratory Information Management System Chain of Custody: Reliability and Security\"&#32;(in en).&#32;Journal of Automated Methods and Management in Chemistry&#32;2006: 1\u20134.&#32;doi:10.1155\/JAMMC\/2006\/74907.&#32;ISSN&#160;1463-9246.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC1903459.&#32;PMID&#160;17671623.&#32;http:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/jamc\/2006\/074907\/abs\/ . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Quality Assurance - Data Management\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Stable Isotope Ratio Facility for Environmental Research (SIRFER) at the University of Utah.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 17 November 2011.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111117174948\/http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Hitchcock, N.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"Chapter 10: Efficient utilization of LIMS data and integration with mining process management systems\".&#32;In&#32;Dessureault, S.D.; Ganguli, R.; Kecojevic, V.; Dwyer, J.G..&#32;Application of Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral Industry.&#32;Taylor &amp; Francis.&#32;pp.&#160;85\u201388.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780415374491. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Turner, E.; Bolton, J.&#32;(2001).&#32;\"Required steps for the validation of a Laboratory Information Management System\".&#32;Quality Assurance&#32;9&#32;(3\u20134): 217\u2013224.&#32;doi:10.1080\/713844028.&#32;PMID&#160;12553085. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Al-Issa, Y.; Ottom, M.A.; Tamrawi, A.&#32;(2019).&#32;\"eHealth Cloud Security Challenges: A Survey\".&#32;Journal of Healthcare Engineering&#32;2019: 7516035.&#32;doi:10.1155\/2019\/7516035.&#32;PMC&#160;PMC6745146.&#32;PMID&#160;31565209.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC6745146 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"3.15 Explore Tables\".&#32;LabWare, Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 20 March 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170320223135\/https:\/\/limshelp.labware.com\/limsv5\/V5_Manual_3_15_nbsp__Explore_Tables.htm .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Monkey, S.&#32;(23 January 2017).&#32;\"The value of a control file when writing data files\".&#32;ShortStories: Tales from software development.&#32;https:\/\/corengen.wordpress.com\/2017\/01\/23\/the-value-of-a-control-file-when-writing-data-files\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Tsyktor, V.&#32;(30 December 2017).&#32;\"How to Build a Data Backup Service for SaaS\".&#32;Apriorit Dev Blog.&#32;https:\/\/www.apriorit.com\/dev-blog\/492-build-data-backup-service-saas .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Environmental Monitoring\".&#32;Core Informatics, LLC.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 27 February 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170227121045\/http:\/\/corelims.com\/products\/core-lims-product-summary\/features\/environmental-monitoring\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Orchard-Webb, D.&#32;(28 August 2019).&#32;\"Matrix Gemini Biobank Management LIMS Includes New Monitoring And Maintenance Solutions\".&#32;Biobanking.com.&#32;https:\/\/www.biobanking.com\/matrix-gemini-biobank-management-lims-includes-new-monitoring-and-maintenance-solutions\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Novatek Environmental Monitoring\".&#32;Novatek International.&#32;https:\/\/ntint.com\/product\/novatek-environmental-monitoring\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 57.0 57.1 Gilles, C.&#32;(1 July 2008).&#32;\"Bar Code and Sample Tracking: It All Starts with the Label\".&#32;Scientific Computing.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 18 December 2010.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101218190848\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The Hidden Power of Barcodes\".&#32;CSols, Inc.&#32;8 February 2018.&#32;https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/hidden-power-barcodes\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Haigney, S.&#32;(18 November 2018).&#32;\"The Fax Is Not Yet Obsolete\".&#32;The Atlantic.&#32;https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/archive\/2018\/11\/why-people-still-use-fax-machines\/576070\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Pavlis, R.&#32;(May\/June 2004).&#32;\"Trends in instrument-to-LIMS interfacing\".&#32;Scientific Computing World.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 10 September 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910043807\/http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88 .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 DeHeer, L.&#32;(1 October 2009).&#32;\"Instrument Interfacing - The Great Paradox of LIMS?\".&#32;Blaze Systems Corporation.&#32;https:\/\/www.blazesystems.com\/white-papers\/instruments.html .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Curtis Jr., D.&#32;(12 December 2019).&#32;\"Benefits and Best Practices for Integrating Laboratory Instruments with LIMS\".&#32;Astrix Lab Informatics Blog.&#32;https:\/\/astrixinc.com\/benefits-and-best-practices-for-integrating-laboratory-instruments-with-lims\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Ryan, M.&#32;(28 August 2019).&#32;\"Mobile LIMS Applications in the Laboratory\".&#32;The Connected Lab.&#32;Thermo Fisher Scientific.&#32;https:\/\/www.thermofisher.com\/blog\/connectedlab\/mobile-lims-applications-in-the-laboratory\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"O3 LimsXpress\".&#32;Bytewize AB.&#32;https:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3limsxpress .&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature<\/a>\nCategory: Laboratory informaticsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 January 2022, at 19:06.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 252,584 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-LIMS_feature rootpage-LIMS_feature skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LIMS feature<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\">\n<p>A <b>LIMS feature<\/b> is one or more pieces of functionality that appear within a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS).\n<\/p><p>The LIMS is an evolving concept, with new features and abilities being introduced every year. As laboratory demands change and technological progress continues, the functions of a LIMS will also change. Yet like the automobile, the LIMS tends to have a base set of functionality that defines it. That functionality can roughly be divided into five laboratory processing phases, with numerous software functions falling under each<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MT5310_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MT5310-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>: \n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the reception and log in of a sample and its associated customer data<\/li>\n<li>the assignment, scheduling, and tracking of the sample and the associated analytical workload<\/li>\n<li>the processing and quality control associated with the sample and the utilized equipment and inventory<\/li>\n<li>the storage of data associated with the sample analysis<\/li>\n<li>the inspection, approval, and compilation of the sample data for reporting and\/or further analysis<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Of course, there are LIMS features that are difficult to categorize under any of these phases. Such features often contribute to the entire LIMS and how it's utilized. For example, multilingual support appears in LIMS like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Assaynet_Inc.\" title=\"Assaynet Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f78169d45cd9ed8cbf34e76f4c6cf04\">Assaynet's<\/a> Assaynet LIMS and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SLCLAB_Inform%C3%A1tica_SL\" title=\"SLCLAB Inform\u00e1tica SL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79400a95a2c7594421f69d99c5b9182c\">SLCLAB Inform\u00e1tica's<\/a> ALFA21, allowing users to interact with the LIMS in more than one language. Some functionality may also overlap several laboratory phases, making it difficult to firmly classify. \n<\/p><p>The features described below come from an analysis of freely available LIMS product information on vendor websites. An attempt was made to discover the features most utilized in vendors' LIMS products and collect information on those features for each LIMS. Not every possible feature is referenced here; some LIMS products fill specific niches, utilizing unique functionality to solve a specific problem. \n<\/p><p>That said, keep in mind the categorization of features below is very loose. It may be viable to argue a feature belongs under a different section or multiple sections. For the purposes of organizing this information in an uncomplicated manner, however, some liberty has been taken in the categorizing of features.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Sample,_inventory,_and_data_management\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample.2C_inventory.2C_and_data_management\">Sample, inventory, and data management<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_login_and_management\">Sample login and management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sample_(material)\" title=\"Sample (material)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f8cd41a077a88d02370c02a3ba3d9d6\">Sample<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Accessioning_(medical)\" title=\"Accessioning (medical)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3a1f1a5d35fd9152d82893878bf9aa1\">accessioning<\/a> and management is one of the core functions a modern LIMS is tasked with, whether it's in a manufacturing, water treatment, or pharmaceutical laboratory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AE0302_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AE0302-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As such, researchers who work in these types of labs are unable to complete their experiment-based goals without an effective method of managing samples. The process of sample management for experiments includes, but is not limited to<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AE0302_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AE0302-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>storing related sample information, including aliquot numbers, dates, and external links<\/li>\n<li>setting <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">user alerts<\/a> for sample status<\/li>\n<li>creating and documenting viewable sample container schemas with name and status<\/li>\n<li>assigning sample <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">access rights<\/a><\/li>\n<li>assigning custom sample ID numbers based on a specification<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Additional functionality that could potentially fall under this feature:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>utilizing a unique ID system<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">barcoding<\/a> of samples<\/li>\n<li>defining sample points and series<\/li>\n<li>creating data associations for samples, such as pedigree for sample\/aliquot relationships or relationships based on experiment, etc.<\/li>\n<li>issuing sample receipts<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_tracking\">Sample tracking<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Laboratory_oven_for_samples-02.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"3845378e9adab989c8133c27bd702ca9\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/45\/Laboratory_oven_for_samples-02.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"348\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Laboratory_oven_for_samples-02.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"3845378e9adab989c8133c27bd702ca9\"><\/a><\/div>Where's sample 20110512_122GJH? Sample tracking functionality will let you know which lab oven it's in.<\/div><\/div><\/div>For most laboratory personnel, knowing that a sample has arrived to the lab isn't good enough; they need to know where it's located and what actions are being performed on it. Enter the sample tracking feature. Without it, many problems arise. In the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Forensic_laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Forensic laboratory\" data-key=\"dabef2566b55c1f13b395543b47ae81e\">forensic world<\/a>, for example, many samples are linked to a criminal investigation. In this case, misidentification, contamination, or duplication can become significant issues: a lost sample is essentially missing evidence, while a duplicated sample can render it useless as evidence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForensicSamp_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForensicSamp-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>After sample reception and its initial handling procedures, many LIMS can then track sample location as well as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chain_of_custody\" title=\"Chain of custody\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ba04fe2bb1c8375e133455821aa3894\">chain of custody<\/a>. Location tracking usually involves assigning the sample to a particular freezer location, often down to the granular level of shelf, rack, box, row, and column. The process of tracking a sample has become more streamlined with increasing support of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">barcode<\/a> and radio frequency ID (RFID) technology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VaniotisHow18_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VaniotisHow18-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> While handwritten labels were the norm, barcode and RFID support in a LIMS can \"tie together a vast amount of information, clearly relating each sample to a specific case.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForensicSamp_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForensicSamp-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Other event tracking such as freeze and thaw cycles that a sample undergoes in the laboratory may also be required. As each laboratory's needs for tracking additional data points can vary widely, many modern LIMS have implemented extensive configurability to compensate for varying environments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PP0102_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PP0102-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The functionality of sample tracking strongly ties into the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d184d528c3d8bec99c88b45a9e026379\">audit trail<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c608855a16e5bdf3db2a1f6abb50db\">chain of custody<\/a> features of a LIMS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_and_result_batching\">Sample and result batching<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>What is batching? The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"877b052e12328aa52f6f7c3f2d56f99a\">United States Environmental Protection Agency<\/a> (EPA) defines a batch as \"a group of samples which behave similarly with respect to the sampling or testing procedures being employed and which are processed as a unit.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPABatch_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPABatch-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This definition can be applied to many laboratories which handle large quantities of samples for some form of analysis or processing. A LIMS that has the ability to check in, link, and track groups of samples across one or multiple facilities is valuable to such laboratories. Additionally, batching the analysis results of multiple samples or groups of samples gives laboratories more flexibility with how they manage their data. Batching also offers the benefit of mimicking the production groups of samples while also capturing quality control data for the entire group.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Task_and_event_scheduling\">Task and event scheduling<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Within the context of a LIMS, the ability to schedule a task or event is a natural extension of how work was done in a laboratory before the advent of data management systems. Workloads are assigned to technicians, maintenance schedules are created and followed, and research deadlines must be observed. While these tasks have in the past been performed without LIMS, a modern data information management system can now optimize those tasks and provide additional scheduling functionality to streamline the operation of a lab. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Autoscribe_Ltd.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Autoscribe Ltd.\" data-key=\"ba9f78c6da480063a9fa9fb861ec7013\">Autoscribe Ltd.<\/a>, for example, offers a scheduling module for its LIMS that allows users to automatically schedule multiple jobs, data backups, alarms, and reports.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASSched_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASSched-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Some LIMS like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabWare,_Inc.\" title=\"LabWare, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34254ba2e2bbcd4ce616eba66db7d2f6\">LabWare, Inc.'s<\/a> LabWare LIMS offer multiple types of schedulers that match to the particular functions of a research laboratory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LWSched_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LWSched-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Additional functionality within this feature includes the ability to configure automated assignments of analysis requests, establish recurring events, and in most cases, create printable schedules.\n<\/p><p>Examples of tasks and events that can feasibly be scheduled in a LIMS include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>registration of received samples into the system<\/li>\n<li>production of reports<\/li>\n<li>creation and sending of e-mails and alerts<\/li>\n<li>maintenance of equipment<\/li>\n<li>assignment of workloads to personnel<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Option_for_manual_result_entry\">Option for manual result entry<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While many LIMS vendors tout the ability of their product to automate the entry of results into the LIMS database, the need for manual data entry of analysis results still exists. This feature is important to laboratories obtaining analysis results from multiple sources, including non-digital paper-based results and instruments that can't be connected to the LIMS. Additional functionality associated with this feature includes a customizable spell check dictionary and the ability to add comments, notes, and narratives to most anything in the LIMS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Multiple_data_viewing_methods\">Multiple data viewing methods<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Laboratories produce data, and LIMS exist to help manage that data. Additionally, even before the existence of LIMS, scientists have had a corresponding need for visually representing data. Today, a LIMS can not only collect and analyze data from samples, but it also can represent that data in reports, graphs, gradients, and spreadsheets. Depending on the LIMS, more than one way to visually represent the data may exist.\n<\/p><p>Some laboratory information management systems take a specialized approach to data views. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biomatters_Ltd.\" title=\"Biomatters Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"506681e49f25e73e9bd31f6bbd62b506\">Biomatters Ltd.'s<\/a> Geneious offers multiple methods of viewing complicated sequence analysis data, including 3-D structuring and representations of plasmid vectors, as well as other <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/DNA_sequencing#High-throughput_methods\" title=\"DNA sequencing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"090351f8c03a4d52a4aa39a94f5b52ba\">next-generation sequencing<\/a> (NGS) activities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BioView_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BioView-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_and_trend_analysis\">Data and trend analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:262px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Analyse_residus.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e109757f723abf3b557ade246e65a88\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/58\/Analyse_residus.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"260\" height=\"94\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Analyse_residus.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"0e109757f723abf3b557ade246e65a88\"><\/a><\/div>Some LIMS allow users to analyze sample data directly from the software.<\/div><\/div><\/div> Sample experimentation and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1\">analysis<\/a> play an important part of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a>, helping laboratories make better sense of their experiments and reach valuable conclusions about them. While this important phase of laboratory work has often been done externally from the LIMS, it's now common to see data analysis tools being included. Such tools allow raw instrument data as well as other imported and internal LIMS data to be analyzed, which then can be stored, processed, and reported on. Additionally, built-in calculations and functions used in the analysis are usually definable and editable for further flexibility, and custom calculations and functions are often able to be made by the end user.\n<p>As with the feature \"multiple data viewing methods,\" data and trend analysis is also increasingly important in laboratories that have specialized data management needs. When even in 2009 genetic scientists in large- and medium-sized <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sequencing\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Sequencing\" data-key=\"e36167a9eb152ca16a0c4c4e6d13f323\">sequencing<\/a> and core centers were voicing concerns about \"a lack of adequate vendor-supported software and laboratory information management systems (LIMS)\" that had the necessary analytical features<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PLoS0506_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PLoS0506-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, today's data management options, like the previously mentioned Geneious<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BioView_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BioView-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, readily offer data analysis tools for a diverse array of laboratory types.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_and_equipment_sharing\">Data and equipment sharing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Aside from data storage and sample registration, a modern LIMS' major contribution to the laboratory is aiding in the sharing of experiment results, reports, and other data types with those who need it most. Rather than pieces of information becoming misplaced or forgotten in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be60c7be96aba8e9a84537fd8835fa54\">laboratory notebooks<\/a>, the LIMS makes it easier to share sample test results and increase the efficiency of collaboration inside and outside the laboratory. Yet data is more than just sample test results; it also comes in the form of charts, reports, policy and procedure documents, and other document types. Additionally, the need for controlling who has access to these and other types of data is also an important consideration. As such, this feature is at least partially tied to other features like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9e325ecd80a3deb3b4aa2159bc0eda\">document management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">configurable security<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Customizable_fields_and\/or_interface\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\">Customizable fields and\/or interface<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As thorough as some user interface (UI) developers may be in adding relevant fields and interface options for LIMS end users, there are at times options that are either omitted or unanticipated. This has traditionally required the end user to contact the vendor and ask if the needed option(s) can be added in the next release. However, modern LIMS vendors have responded instead by adding functionality that gives end users and\/or LIMS administrators more control over the user interface, including the addition and customization of user fields and inputs.\n<\/p><p>Aspects of the LIMS' user interface that are becoming more customizable by the end user include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>system nomenclature<\/li>\n<li>equations used in calculations<\/li>\n<li>data and universal fields<\/li>\n<li>data tables<\/li>\n<li>appearance of the interface and\/or menus<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multilingual\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fd0b3665c1c3057e482b85ebea2bab8\">primary system language<\/a><\/li>\n<li>the LIMS source code, especially if in a non-proprietary format<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Increasingly, today's vendors tend to refer to their systems as being \"configurable\" rather than \"customizable.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASLIMSCustom_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASLIMSCustom-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PromiumTheBeni_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PromiumTheBeni-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Vendors such as Autoscribe Informatics will include screen editing and other tools that administrators can user to configure the various screens, data fields, nomenclature, etc. of the LIMS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASLIMSCustom_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASLIMSCustom-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Query_capability\">Query capability<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:242px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:QueryBuilder.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"389ea5f11fd662766f644c6e29299402\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/bc\/QueryBuilder.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"240\" height=\"157\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:QueryBuilder.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"389ea5f11fd662766f644c6e29299402\"><\/a><\/div>Advanced query tools allow researchers to better complete project objectives.<\/div><\/div><\/div>As was the case before the advent of databases and electronic data management solutions, today researchers must search through sample results, experiment notes, and other types of data to better draw conclusions about their research. Whereas this used to mean browsing through laboratory notebooks, Excel spreadsheets, or Access databases, now powerful query tools exists within data management tools like a LIMS. Not only can data be searched for based on name, number, or vendor, LIMSs like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\" title=\"Abbott Informatics Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90479bab12020c96864541696a62156f\">Abbott's<\/a> STARLIMS and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Mountain_States_Consulting,_LLC\" title=\"Mountain States Consulting, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07aa1abcf286c45d2d5f3b6713e6d43d\">Mountain States Consulting's<\/a> MSC-LIMS allow for queries of attached <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8\">metadata<\/a> like user ID, project number, task number, sample type, location, and collection date.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AbbottStarlimsPDF_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AbbottStarlimsPDF-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MSCFeats_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MSCFeats-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Finally, as LIMS continue to include both sample management and experimental data management functionality, queries become more powerful in general as now sample and experiment can be matched together in one database.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AE0302_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AE0302-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>Query functionality often includes the ability to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>search both transactional data and archived data tables<\/li>\n<li>search multiple databases via an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Application_programming_interface\" title=\"Application programming interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934\">application programming interface<\/a> (API) or open database connectivity (ODBC) connection<\/li>\n<li>filter and sort data<\/li>\n<li>create <i>ad hoc<\/i> queries<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Import_data\">Import data<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data can originate from numerous places in the laboratory. The ability to import that data into a LIMS can be beneficial, especially when an instrument can't be connected or an external client provides a data feed independent of the LIMS. Some LIMS may even allow users to cross-reference laboratory nomenclature from received data sources with the recipient's. And of course <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c828f7d6e33928579d97389a65a675\">instrument interfacing<\/a> allows for even more importation options. Additional <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148c3f13ce1e0562e2d8b33c7002622e\">data validation<\/a> procedures may be applied to the imported data to guarantee information homogeneity. Some LIMS may also allow for the import of non-normalized legacy data tables and integration with LIMS data tables to form a single unified database. \n<\/p><p>However, potential buyers should ensure the LIMS vendor is clear in how their system manages data imports. For example, products such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/AgileBio\" title=\"AgileBio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c34addf58af91e53114eed40843f5e6e\">AgileBio<\/a>'s LabCollector may limit imports to a particular format such as CSV files.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ABLabcollectorImport_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ABLabcollectorImport-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In particular, data migrations require extra vigilance from the potential buyer, who should confirm the LIMS vendor's ability to cleanly, completely, and reliably import your data into a new system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RooksbyNotAll20_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RooksbyNotAll20-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Internal_file_or_data_linking\">Internal file or data linking<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature allows LIMS users to link together reports, protocols, sample results, and more, providing greater contextual clarity to projects. Examples include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>linking a sample batch to a test or sample preparation methodology<\/li>\n<li>linking a test process to a particular customer<\/li>\n<li>linking a report to a sample batch<\/li>\n<li>linking a group of test results to a raw data file<\/li>\n<li>linking an image to a work order<\/li>\n<li>linking all lab results with the correct reporting test method<\/li>\n<li>linking data forms created offline (remote data collection) to the submitted data in the system<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_file_or_data_linking\">External file or data linking<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature allows LIMS users to link together data and files in the LIMS with data, files, and customers outside the domain of the LIMS. Examples include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>linking external file attachments\u2014such as images and documents\u2014to a LIMS record<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OasisLIMS4.0_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OasisLIMS4.0-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>linking data files from chromatography equipment to synthesis data<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2ndGetOhNo_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2ndGetOhNo-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>linking external standard operating procedure documents with an internal test specification<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LWSched_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LWSched-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ELN_support_or_integration\">ELN support or integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As a software replacement for more traditional paper , the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN) has been important to laboratory functions. Yet the lines between ELN and LIMS began to blur in the 2000s, with both types of software incorporating features from the other.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWorld1-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompELN_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompELN-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup> More than a decade later, the ELN has become more distinct in purpose and functionality and is typically sold as a stand-alone solution. Despite this, some vendors such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Agilent_Technologies,_Inc.\" title=\"Agilent Technologies, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dcea1a676a012bcbe3af9562dd17f8a0\">Agilent<\/a> have integrated ELN functionality into their LIMS in order to provide greater flexibility to researchers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GenohmHome_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GenohmHome-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Other vendors such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Core_Informatics,_LLC\" title=\"Core Informatics, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca7be316a3db322a0fb60c66d41e8647\">Core Informatics<\/a> (part of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Thermo_Scientific\" title=\"Thermo Scientific\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e914753f99d483d4577b35fed71b3c94\">Thermo Fisher Scientific<\/a>) choose to keep the ELN as a separately managed solution but one that can easily integrate with a LIMS solution.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CICoreELNInt_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CICoreELNInt-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_MS_Excel\">Export to MS Excel<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While Microsoft Excel had long been used within the laboratory setting, a slow shift towards relational databases and LIMS occurred in the late 1990s and early 2000s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilliamsExcel_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilliamsExcel-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Additional concerns with the difficulties of Excel's validation and compliance with FDA <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> and other regulations ultimately led many labs to turn to data management solutions that are easier to validate.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PragmaticExcelIntro_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PragmaticExcelIntro-24\">&#91;24&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Several decades later, some laboratories continue to use Excel in some fashion, and thus having a LIMS capable of handling Excel data remains useful. In particular, selecting and exporting the LIMS' data (from test results to quality control charts) into a format such as Excel may further data visualization, insights, and dissemination for some users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MSCExcel_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MSCExcel-25\">&#91;25&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OLCL_LIMSQual_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OLCL_LIMSQual-26\">&#91;26&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Raw_data_management\">Raw data management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While not described as a feature on most LIMS vendor websites, a few indicate that their LIMS is capable of managing (import, export, editing, etc.) data in its raw format for future analysis. This raw data is typically implied to be originating from instruments that interface with the LIMS, which in itself is not unusual. That raw data may remain housed in instruments, getting transformed into reportable data in the LIMS, but presumably most LIMS are also capable of housing the raw instrument data as well.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SSLisa_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SSLisa-27\">&#91;27&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Labs may also turn to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">scientific data management systems<\/a> to better manage their raw data sources.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CSolsTheVal19_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CSolsTheVal19-28\">&#91;28&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_warehouse\">Data warehouse<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS' <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca506499cdf544371c0a0d549ff0e9ee\">data warehouse<\/a> serves the important function of storing, extracting, and managing the data that laboratories produce for the purposes or analysis, reporting, and process management, typically separate from the primary storage database. Data warehouses also offer the benefit of speeding up queries, making queries and data mining more user-friendly, and smoothing out data gaps.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HarrisWhatIs18_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HarrisWhatIs18-29\">&#91;29&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Deadline_control\">Deadline control<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Deadline control is functionality within a LIMS that allows users to manage and be notified of events that occur within the laboratory. With this functionality users can also be notified of upcoming deadlines on anything from sample analysis to license renewal. \n<\/p><p>Note that this functionality may also feasibly fall under the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f358fd26f821c76edf862b7dee946f8\">task and event scheduling<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">alarms<\/a> features. As deadline control seems to be advertised as a notable feature by only a few vendors, it seems even more likely that this functionality is practically considered part of scheduling or alarms.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Production_control\">Production control<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are many types of businesses that produce goods, and in most cases there is a research and development (R&amp;D) laboratory involved at some point in the process. This is especially true in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries, where production measurements such as yield, volume, activity, and impurity are vital. As LIMSs have already recorded such information during tests and analysis, the addition of production control functionality seems natural. Some LIMS take a very active approach to this. For example, the former <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/2nd_Sight_Solutions\" title=\"2nd Sight Solutions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1c0c8211e99fa5b1721f70d18f27361\">2nd Sight Solutions'<\/a> OhNo! featured production control as major functionality for the synthesis of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiopharmacology\" title=\"Radiopharmacology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c05f4c40cbd311d197b3e45faaed0146\">radiopharmaceuticals<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2ndUseOhNo_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2ndUseOhNo-30\">&#91;30&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Other LIMS may have less pronounced production functionality, while still offering the ability to track the production process in and out of the lab. And yet other LIMSs like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dialog_EDV_Systementwicklung_GmbH\" title=\"Dialog EDV Systementwicklung GmbH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b356876b61fc0ab262b96797fb30d14\">dialog's<\/a> diaLIMS offer robust production-based functionality but as a module or add-on to the base LIMS software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DialogStandard_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DialogStandard-31\">&#91;31&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The types of functionality that may fall under this feature include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>recipe management<\/li>\n<li>consumable tracking<\/li>\n<li>batch traceability<\/li>\n<li>production planning<\/li>\n<li>enterprise resource planning<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Finally, in production environments the LIMS is often referenced in conjunction with a manufacturing execution system (MES). The MES is used for tracking and documenting how raw materials are transformed into finished products, as well as optimizing the various workflows in the production processes. The MES may either interface with a LIMS for quality testing, management, and statistical analysis, or the MES may actually contain a LIMS module.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ITrackManuf_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ITrackManuf-32\">&#91;32&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetronicManuf_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetronicManuf-33\">&#91;33&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Project_and\/or_task_management\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Project_and.2For_task_management\">Project and\/or task management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Project and task management within a LIMS typically involves the scheduling of tasks to workers and organizing associated tasks into a more cohesive unit for better tracking and management. While the functionality of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f358fd26f821c76edf862b7dee946f8\">task and event scheduling<\/a> can also be found in project and task management, many LIMS include functionality beyond scheduling that warrants the addition of the project and\/or task management feature. This functionality includes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>job allocation and rescheduling<\/li>\n<li>instrument workload tracking<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Work-related_time_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a1c775a9fc866d0f19372667539beb9\">time tracking<\/a><\/li>\n<li>pending workload verification<\/li>\n<li>priority setting<\/li>\n<li>project-based <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"233ebf71073035e741a5acf410dc8242\">workflow management<\/a><\/li>\n<li>sample, batch, and document <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Internal_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e535cc310bda347927d684c2b50f959a\">linking<\/a><\/li>\n<li>work list sharing<\/li>\n<li>recurring event management<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Inventory_management\">Inventory management<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:242px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Laboratory-reagents.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd30923c04993dafc55a83cbb6fc5283\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/4d\/Laboratory-reagents.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"240\" height=\"180\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Laboratory-reagents.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"bd30923c04993dafc55a83cbb6fc5283\"><\/a><\/div>LIMS can help laboratories keep track of their stock of reagents and even streamline reordering of them.<\/div><\/div><\/div>Laboratories use a wide array of inventory and equipment, from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Reagent\" title=\"Reagent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"39ef926218accd8f01f4c68c5a82f9dc\">reagents<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiopharmacology\" title=\"Radiopharmacology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c05f4c40cbd311d197b3e45faaed0146\">radiopharmaceuticals<\/a> to glassware and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_bath\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Laboratory bath\" data-key=\"ef20b7240457dba2d8433e9dca6047f7\">laboratory baths<\/a>. With that comes the need to know how much\/many and the frequency of use. For this, LIMS solutions include some sort of inventory management functionality. \n<ul><li>register origin, demographics of incoming materials<\/li>\n<li>track used and in-use items via barcodes or RFID<\/li>\n<li>track inventory reduction based on usage and shipping out of the lab<\/li>\n<li>create alerts for when items reach a certain stock level<\/li>\n<li>calculate inventory cost and fluctuation<\/li>\n<li>manage transportation and routing<\/li>\n<li>manual incrementing\/decrementing of item counts<\/li>\n<li>track location and usage of laboratory equipment<\/li>\n<li>assign storage locations<\/li>\n<li>track forensic evidence<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Document_creation_and_management\">Document creation and management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Standard operating procedures (SOPs), specifications, safety manuals and protocols, regulatory files, certificates, reports, graphs, images, and receipts are all collected and used in the average laboratory. With a LIMS already designed to manage and store sample and experiment data, it makes sense to include functionality to create, import, export, and manage other sorts of data files. As sample and experimental data can be indexed, queried, and linked, so too can documents. Functionality of a typical document management system includes the ability to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>upload and index documents of most any file type and size<\/li>\n<li>enforce <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Version_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0f243a35540cf60e68f6749ca5ffaac\">version control<\/a><\/li>\n<li>provide full text search<\/li>\n<li>convert and\/or export to PDF or other relevant formats<\/li>\n<li>add documents as attachments to other analyses, files, projects, etc. in the system<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Case_management\">Case management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information system<\/a> (LIS) has played an important role in the clinical case management tasks of patient-centric and clinical laboratories. However, LIMS begun taking on clinical functionality such as case management around the late 2000s, which began to effectively blur the lines between an LIS and a LIMS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HiceSwim09_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HiceSwim09-34\">&#91;34&#93;<\/a><\/sup>. Since then, many more self-proclaimed LIMS products have emerged in the clinical, public health, and veterinary industries, areas that have historically been served by LIS software. This has resulted in numerous LIMS options that offer clinical functionality such as case management. When also taking into consideration the fields of law enforcement and forensic science, case management plays an important role in some LIMS. Functionality seen in the case management feature includes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>case accessioning and assignment<\/li>\n<li>disease tracking<\/li>\n<li>trend analysis<\/li>\n<li>clinical history follow-up<\/li>\n<li>outreach services<\/li>\n<li>out-of-range result <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">alerts<\/a><\/li>\n<li>document and result association<\/li>\n<li>evidence control<\/li>\n<li>study management<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workflow_management\">Workflow management<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"floatleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Workflow_IA.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" title=\"Capturing workflow in the lab is becoming more commonplace for the LIMS.\" data-key=\"00653041ded02667b937fcc40d1624d4\"><img alt=\"Capturing workflow in the lab is becoming more commonplace for the LIMS.\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2e\/Workflow_IA.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"240\" \/><\/a><\/div><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">Workflow<\/a> management is common in the laboratory, acting as a graphical representation of planned sequential steps to either fully or partially automate a process within the lab. Separate standards-based workflow management systems (in the form of a software component) have traditionally performed this task.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WfMC1_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WfMC1-35\">&#91;35&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, in the late 2000s LIMS vendors began incorporating workflow management functionality into their LIMS software, reducing the headaches that customization of a LIMS often brought.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWF_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWF-36\">&#91;36&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<p>Today's commercial and open-source LIMS solutions frequently feature workflow management functionality, including<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SIGLa_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SIGLa-37\">&#91;37&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-X-LIMS_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-X-LIMS-38\">&#91;38&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWF_36-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWF-36\">&#91;36&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"flowlist\">\n<ul><li>attribute definition of activities<\/li>\n<li>definition of inputs and outputs of activities<\/li>\n<li>assignment of documentation to activities<\/li>\n<li>setting of quality control limits<\/li>\n<li>dynamically modify workflow in case of future changes<\/li>\n<li>receive notification of changes to the workflow<\/li>\n<li>sending user-defined messages during the process<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Specification_management\">Specification management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Specification_(technical_standard)\" title=\"Specification (technical standard)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc2050725de4ea7ca520800e4f969b20\">Specification<\/a> (spec) management is vital to not only the manufacturing and research industries but also to a host of other laboratories requiring precise measurements and infallible test methods. Just as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM<\/a> offers standards and specs for LIMS<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTM_LIMS_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTM_LIMS-39\">&#91;39&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, so too do LIMS users have standards and specs for their laboratory. With spec management in place within the LIMS, laboratories can then:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>enforce standard operating procedures and business rules<\/li>\n<li>create specs down to a project or sample level<\/li>\n<li>validate recipes and procedures<\/li>\n<li>accept or reject sample batches<\/li>\n<li>document internal and external spec history<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Note that some of the functionality of spec management may cross over into the realm of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2bf55c170c7429ac892dd177aaa2e2\">quality control<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148c3f13ce1e0562e2d8b33c7002622e\">data validation<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Customer_and_supplier_management\">Customer and supplier management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Unless a laboratory is conducting internalized independent research, in most cases it will do business with external entities such as contract labs, sample providers, equipment providers, and reagent suppliers. In some cases, even internal employees may be considered a customer, necessitating documentation of who is using the system and in what ways. For a veterinary lab, the customer may be the animal and handler. For a forensic lab the customer may be more complex: internal staff, university staff, police departments, and maintainers of nationwide crime databases may all at some point act as customers. In these cases, documenting these various points of contact and linking them to samples, equipment, and tests becomes vital. Managing demographics, complaints, correspondence, and history are all feasible with customer management functionality. This process is often made simpler through the use of a more context-neutral entity creation system, which allows for more flexible management of contacts.\n<\/p><p>This feature may also be referred to as contact management, an address book module, or a customer service module.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Billing_management\">Billing management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While the finances of a laboratory are important, they've typically been handled separately as a business process. However, some LIMS include additional functionality to make handling financial transactions and documentation of all sorts possible within the LIMS. In theory, such functionality brings the possibility of keeping more of a laboratory's data centrally located and queryable. This feature may include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>payment processing<\/li>\n<li>expense reporting<\/li>\n<li>price quotes<\/li>\n<li>revenue cycle management<\/li>\n<li>workload tracking of billable hours<\/li>\n<li>bill of materials<\/li>\n<li>grant management<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Quality,_security,_and_compliance\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality.2C_security.2C_and_compliance\">Quality, security, and compliance<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regulatory_compliance\">Regulatory compliance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The topic of whether or not a LIMS meets regulatory compliance is often a complex one. While Title <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> has arguably had the largest influence on an electronic data management system's compliance, other influential standards have shaped the way LIMS and other systems handle and store data. Other compliance-based codes, standards, and regulations include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM<\/a> standards<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\" title=\"The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f364a7d9dca831de0caaaba41cf0b7ea\">ASCLD\/LAB<\/a> crime lab accreditation<\/li>\n<li>Freedom of Information Act<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\" title=\"Good Automated Laboratory Practices\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6\">GALP<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\" title=\"Good Automated Manufacturing Practice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb\">GAMP<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153\">HIPAA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems\" title=\"International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1de9af67005dfe2895e5d8cf6de57d4a\">ICD<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000\/9001<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/TS_16949\" title=\"ISO\/TS 16949\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98e43baa168925d15899a66e9c9f0b8f\">ISO\/TS 16949<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ODBC\" title=\"ODBC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58229ca4974143c9d42736a040160be\">ODBC<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\" title=\"The NELAC Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991\">TNI<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute#National_Environmental_Laboratory_Accreditation_Program\" title=\"The NELAC Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4413d2879e883354b99ce8cb3f57240d\">NELAP<\/a> enviromnental lab accreditation<\/li>\n<li>Title <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3\" title=\"40 CFR Part 3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef\">40 CFR Part 3<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>With so many codes, standards, and regulations, it can be challenging for potential LIMS buyers to fully vet whether a vendor's solution meets regulatory requirements, let alone helps labs meet the regulations and standards that affect them. In truth, most reputable vendors today have regulatory compliance well considered for their LIMS solutions, which are often purpose-built. However, it is ultimately up to the potential buyer to confirm that the vendor's solution complies to activities within their industry. Buyers are advised to contact vendors with their user requirements and ask how the vendor's software meets and\/or exceeds those requirements.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-QA\/QC_functions\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"QA.2FQC_functions\">QA\/QC functions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The quality management functions of a LIMS allow users to maintain a level of necessary quality across many of the activites in a laboratory. From running quality assurance tests to ensuring employed researchers are proficient at certain tasks, the QA\/QC functionality of a LIMS is largely responsible for the output of consistent data and manufactured products in and out of the lab.\n<\/p><p>Common functionality includes<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AL3218_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AL3218-40\">&#91;40&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CCHTS1409_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CCHTS1409-41\">&#91;41&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>single or batch QA\/QC tests<\/li>\n<li>quality control charts and reports<\/li>\n<li>proficiency testing<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7cdfd8a9cb7d3fb30940b90e227ee90\">document management<\/a><\/li>\n<li>instrument maintenance<\/li>\n<li>data acceptance\/rejection<\/li>\n<li>certificates of analysis (COA)<\/li>\n<li>data types defined by QC analysis<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Performance_evaluation\">Performance evaluation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As prevalent as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9e325ecd80a3deb3b4aa2159bc0eda\">document management<\/a> has become in LIMS, it makes sense to that the LIMS should also provide functionality to collate and store all the documentation associated with employee training and certification. Changes to laboratory techniques, scientific understanding, and business practices force researchers to learn, reevaluate, and demonstrate competency in order to maintain quality levels in the laboratory. Evaluations can frequently extend beyond staff members, however. Clinics, visit types, vendors, or test species can also be tracked and evaluated based on custom criteria. The performance evaluation functionality of a LIMS makes this possible. \n<\/p><p>That functionality typically includes the ability to maintain training records and history, and also to link that training to a technique or piece of equipment. Afterwards, the staff member, vendor, etc. can be marked as competent or certified in the equipment, knowledge, or process. Periodical assessment of the training and its practical effectiveness can later be performed. Productivity of an entity or process can also be gauged over a certain date range based on <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Work-related_time_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a1c775a9fc866d0f19372667539beb9\">tracked time<\/a>, pre-determined milestones, or some other criteria.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Audit_trail\">Audit trail<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Syvalidate_screen.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b19e0089cab173f0bf3d99af53437ab\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/25\/Syvalidate_screen.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"216\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Syvalidate_screen.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"5b19e0089cab173f0bf3d99af53437ab\"><\/a><\/div>Whether validating sample data or an entire LIMS, maintaining an audit trail is an important part of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> compliance.<\/div><\/div><\/div> As laws and regulations like Title <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> mandate \"computer systems (including hardware and software), controls, and attendant documentation\" utilize electronic signatures and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0\">audit trails<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDA21CFR11_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDA21CFR11-42\">&#91;42&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, LIMS developers must put serious thought into how their software handles audit trail functionality. The audit trail\u2014documentation of the sequence of activities that have affected an action\u2014must be thorough and seamlessly integrated into the software, and it has become a mandatory feature for labs operating in regulated environments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McDowallHowCan16_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McDowallHowCan16-43\">&#91;43&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>Information recorded in the audit trail typically includes:\n<\/p>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r43802\"\/><div class=\"flowlist\">\n<ul><li>operator code<\/li>\n<li>time stamp<\/li>\n<li>location<\/li>\n<li>case number<\/li>\n<li>transaction type<\/li>\n<li>amount and quantity prior to change<\/li>\n<li>user notes (e.g., reason for change)<\/li>\n<li>in some cases, data in temporary memory<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LVData19_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LVData19-44\">&#91;44&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Chain_of_custody\">Chain of custody<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chain_of_custody\" title=\"Chain of custody\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ba04fe2bb1c8375e133455821aa3894\">chain of custody<\/a> (COC) of an item is of varying importance, depending on the type of laboratory. A highly regulated laboratory that works under Code of Federal Regulation or other guidelines makes tracking COC a vital part of its operations. This is especially true in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Forensic_laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Forensic laboratory\" data-key=\"dabef2566b55c1f13b395543b47ae81e\">forensic labs<\/a>, which depend on continuous accountability of their evidence collection, retention, and disposal procedures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JonesBuild09_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JonesBuild09-45\">&#91;45&#93;<\/a><\/sup> At its core, the COC strives to answer at least these five questions<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">&#91;46&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Where is my sample or specimen now?<\/li>\n<li>Who possess my sample or specimen now?<\/li>\n<li>When did that individual take possession of my sample or specimen?<\/li>\n<li>Where has my sample or specimen been?<\/li>\n<li>Who has been in possession of my sample or specimen?<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>As with an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0\">audit trail<\/a>, a laboratory depends on recorded information like user ID, time stamp, and location ID to maintain a robust and accurate COC. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">Barcodes<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"922cb0190a1750c3545849959a860288\">inventory management<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">configurable security roles<\/a> all play an important part in maintaining chain of custody.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Configurable_roles_and_security\">Configurable roles and security<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Many roles exist within the laboratory setting, each with its own set of responsibilities. And just as the role an individual plays within the laboratory may change, so may the responsibilities associated with each role. This sort of change necessitates a flexible and configurable security system, one that allows for the placement of individual LIMS users into defined security roles which provide role-specific access to certain LIMS functionality. Additionally, as responsibilities change within roles, that same flexible configuration is necessary for assigning or restricting access to certain LIMS functionality for each existing or newly created role.\n<\/p><p>Of course, roles aren't always assigned on an individual level. Often large groups of individuals may need to be assigned to roles, necessitating group assignments for security purposes. For example, a group of laboratory trainees may only be given read-only access to the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_login_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98071177bc94b23b88297692a3a52005\">sample login<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4622d31a3236faeab999eee2d2493313\">sample tracking<\/a> functionality of the system through a custom \"Trainees\" group role, while the head researcher of the lab may be given the \"Administrator\" role, which allows that individual to access most if not all of the LIMS' functionality.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_normalization\">Data normalization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>For the purposes of describing LIMS functionality, \"data normalization\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring data that moves into the LIMS is formatted in a standardized way, matching the format of existing LIMS data.\n<\/p><p>Here's an example to better explain this issue. When a LIMS is initially configured, in most if not all cases a clear standard can be set for how logged samples and their associated measurements pre- and post-analysis are recorded in the system. Perhaps all temperatures will be recorded in Celsius to two decimal places. If temperature data imported from a spreadsheet or a lab instrument is not in this format, the LIMS can normalize the incoming data to match the standard already set for existing LIMS temperature data. This ensures consistency within the LIMS database and typically leads to better data validation efforts later on.\n<\/p><p><i>Note<\/i>: Some LIMS developers may include data normalization functionality within what they may refer to as \"data validation\" functionality. The line between these two may be blurred or not exist at all.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_validation\">Data validation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>For the purposes of describing LIMS functionality, \"data validation\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring existing data in the LIMS\u2014either pre-analysis or post-analysis\u2014sufficiently meets any number of standards or thresholds set for sample login, sample analysis, or any other data management process in the LIMS. This validation process may be completely automatic and system-based, or it may also include additional steps on the part of the user base utilizing additional LIMS functionality, including verification of standard operating procedures (SOPs), QC samples, and QA approval.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SIRFERQual_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SIRFERQual-47\">&#91;47&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HitchcockEffic05_48-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HitchcockEffic05-48\">&#91;48&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><i>Note<\/i>: This functionality shouldn't be confused with the process of validating the LIMS itself, which is an entirely different process partially falling under <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e58f73cb3d51704d053508c71fae968\">regulatory compliance<\/a> and involves the process of ensuring \"the software is performing in a manner for which it was designed.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TurnerReq01_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TurnerReq01-49\">&#91;49&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_encryption\">Data encryption<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The existence of this functionality in LIMS software generally indicates the LIMS has the ability to protect the integrity and authenticity of its housed data through the use of a variety of technologies which makes data unreadable except to those users or systems possessing a key\/right\/etc. to unlock\/read the data. This functionality has been important for the web-enabled LIMS, which transfers information over the internet in a client-server relationship, and it has become an increasingly vital part of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f\">cloud-based<\/a> software offerings managing data in transit and at rest.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Al-IssaEhealth19_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Al-IssaEhealth19-50\">&#91;50&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As a wide variety of encryption technologies exist, it's generally a good idea to consult with the developers of a LIMS to determine the strengths and weaknesses of their employed encryption methods.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Version_control\">Version control<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Version control is a form of safeguard which helps preserve data integrity. This is typically done by creating a modifiable new version of a piece of information rather than allowing the original to be modified. Such versioning may be applied to a wide variety of digital information housed in the LIMS, including test methods, training certifications, instrument logs, specifications, and process and procedure (P&amp;P) documentation. In LIMS like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabWare,_Inc.#LabWare_LIMS\" title=\"LabWare, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebcf51e648458d511e5cdee899eda5f0\">LabWare LIMS<\/a>, reference data can also be versioned while also retaining the original relationship between samples and test results, including the version of reference data current at the time lab testing is performed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LWExploreTables_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LWExploreTables-51\">&#91;51&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Information tracked with such revisions includes attributes like user name, time the edit was made, and what exactly was edited. This also benefits those managing <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d184d528c3d8bec99c88b45a9e026379\">audit trails<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c608855a16e5bdf3db2a1f6abb50db\">chains of custody<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Freezers_for_cryopreservation_at_IMSC.JPG\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"eafe2339f92df1db9f02a21886dd6b81\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b3\/Freezers_for_cryopreservation_at_IMSC.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Freezers_for_cryopreservation_at_IMSC.JPG\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"eafe2339f92df1db9f02a21886dd6b81\"><\/a><\/div>The temperature of an open cryopreservation container may be monitored on a computer via a connection to a LIMS with environmental monitoring functionality.<\/div><\/div><\/div> Some LIMS vendors may choose to employ a different form of version control called file locking, which simply puts the affected information into a read-only mode for users while someone else is busy editing it.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MonkeyTheVal17_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MonkeyTheVal17-52\">&#91;52&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Another popular strategy is to, rather than locking the file, allow multiple people edit to a piece of information, later merging the various edits. Potential LIMS buyers may need to inquire with developers to determine what type of versioning scheme is used in the vendor's software.\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Automatic_data_backup\">Automatic data backup<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The functionality of automatic data backup in a LIMS usually means information contained in one or more associated databases or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_warehouse\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3082d0bb37d14d6ab62b393bd2834094\">data warehouses<\/a> can be automatically preserved in an additional backup file. The save location for that file as well as the scheduled backup time is configurable, typically through the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Administrator_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f50a63eeb9565f98cb5f9288a37bd9e9\">administrative module<\/a> of the LIMS. As cloud-based LIMS have taken hold, scheduled cloud-to-cloud data backups of software data are becoming more practical.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TsyktorHowTo17_53-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TsyktorHowTo17-53\">&#91;53&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environmental_monitoring\">Environmental monitoring<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Some LIMS like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Core_Informatics,_LLC#Core_LIMS\" title=\"Core Informatics, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ada2b0ccdfbe0f51cd99e3529c5939a\">Core LIMS<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Autoscribe_Informatics\" title=\"Autoscribe Informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6717ffadc460d7e57fe1ada4aef275bb\">Matrix Gemini<\/a> allow users to monitor the environmental conditions of not only sample storage containers but also the entire laboratory itself.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CoreEnviro_54-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CoreEnviro-54\">&#91;54&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Orchard-WebbMatrix19_55-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Orchard-WebbMatrix19-55\">&#91;55&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Attributes like humidity, air quality, and temperature may be monitored to ensure sample storage units and experiments maintain desired conditions. Alarms may be able to be configured to notify staff if a storage container's environmental attributes go beyond a certain threshold. Manufacturers utilizing a LIMS like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Novatek_International#NOVA-LIMS\" title=\"Novatek International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c36b899722c716eb95076fc0807ca0d\">NOVA-LIMS<\/a> may also be able to employ more advanced environmental tracking features in the plant to guarantee a more consistent, higher quality product is created.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NINovaEnviro_56-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NINovaEnviro-56\">&#91;56&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Reporting,_barcoding,_and_printing\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reporting.2C_barcoding.2C_and_printing\">Reporting, barcoding, and printing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Custom_reporting\">Custom reporting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Reporting is a vital part of a LIMS, as it allows users to gain a clearer picture of collected data and potential trends. At a minimum, a number of pre-configured report styles come standard with a LIMS. However, some LIMS are more flexible than others, offering the ability to customize reports in numerous ways. The most popular attributes of custom reporting include custom headers, custom information placement (such as branding), charts, pivot tables, and multiple output formats.\n<\/p><p>Note: Some LIMS vendors will offer custom reporting as an option as an added cost, depending on both the base reporting functionality of the LIMS and the level of customization required.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Report_printing\">Report printing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Today's LIMS software almost universally offers the ability to print reports and other materials, so this feature may seem a bit redundant to list. Nonetheless, printer support is a feature worth confirming when considering a piece of LIMS software.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Label_support\">Label support<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The label\u2014typically affixed to a sample or evidence container\u2014is a vital part of the sample tracking process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SCLabel_57-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SCLabel-57\">&#91;57&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Identifying information such as sample number, batch number, and barcodes are printed on such labels to ensure optimized sample management and more precise sample data. As such, some LIMS allow users to design and print labels directly from the software.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Code_barres.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"23481b6010df77bcb0ef723e7bef48fd\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/ba\/Code_barres.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"282\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Code_barres.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"23481b6010df77bcb0ef723e7bef48fd\"><\/a><\/div>The word \"Wikipedia\" encoded in Code 128 and Code 39<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Barcode_support\">Barcode support<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Barcodes offer many advantages to laboratory techs handling samples, including more accurate data input, tighter sample\/instrument associations, tighter sample\/study associations, and more room for human-readable information on a label.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SCLabel_57-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SCLabel-57\">&#91;57&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As such, LIMS developers have integrated barcode support into their laboratory information management systems, including support for symbologies like Code 128, Code 39, and Interleaved 2 of 5. Aside from printing options, a LIMS may also offer support for a variety of barcode readers.\n<\/p><p>Radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology has also made inroads into the laboratory. Like barcode labels, RFID tags can be placed on samples and get read when exposed to active RFID scanning devices. This technology has some advantages over barcodes in that direct line of sight isn't required, the scanning and tracking process is more automated, and more data can be encoded.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CSolsTheHidden18_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CSolsTheHidden18-58\">&#91;58&#93;<\/a><\/sup> With these apparent advantages, some LIMS vendors have also added support for RFID-fed sample information.\n<\/p><p>Barcode\/RFID support and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Label_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c45986a47a971ad2357a50e5d5fd8db0\">label support<\/a> are typically found together in LIMS software, but not always, thus their separation into two features of a LIMS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_PDF\">Export to PDF<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Portable Document Format (PDF).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_MS_Word\">Export to MS Word<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Microsoft Office Word format.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_HTML_or_XML\">Export to HTML or XML<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and\/or Extensible Markup Language (XML) format.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fax_integration\">Fax integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with this feature is able to connect with a fax machine and send information to it via manual input, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals. However, with the declining popularity of the fax machine<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaigneyTheFax18_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaigneyTheFax18-59\">&#91;59&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, this feature is starting to disappear from modern LIMS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Email_integration\">Email integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with this feature is able to integrate with and use the electronic mail information exchange method to send reports, alerts, and more via manual input, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals.\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Base_functionality\">Base functionality<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Administrator_management\">Administrator management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The administrator management tools of a LIMS allow lab technicians to set up the LIMS most optimally for the laboratory. Through the administrator management interface of a LIMS, other features may be accessed like setting up <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">user roles<\/a> and scheduling <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Automatic_data_backup\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f865b497bf295ba58d4ee5d9a03b2e6\">automatic data backups<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Report_printing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebf26bf9e1368b8e9ac1c5ba42a10bb0\">report printing<\/a>, administrator management is nearly ubiquitous in LIMS software, generally considered a mandatory feature. However, for the purposes of being thorough, it's important to point out its existence. \n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modular\">Modular<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature indicates that a LIMS has an intentional modular design, which separates some functionality into manageable components of the overall system. Generally speaking, a modular design allows for 1. the structured addition of new functionality to a LIMS and 2. the limiting of overall effects on the system design as new functionality is added.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Instrument_interfacing_and_management\">Instrument interfacing and management<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:262px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a01d42750c6ad2ab9e8146264958b8a\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f9\/Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"260\" height=\"195\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"3a01d42750c6ad2ab9e8146264958b8a\"><\/a><\/div>An entire room of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Gas_chromatography\" title=\"Gas chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e621fc6f90266fbc8db27d516e9cbb94\">gas chromatography<\/a> instruments could potentially be connected to a LIMS via instrument interfacing.<\/div><\/div><\/div>Laboratories depend on instruments, and with those instruments comes scientific measurements which produce data. It's therefor natural a lab technician would want to connect those instruments to a laboratory information management system, which is already organizing and storing laboratory data. This sort of interfacing is typically handled with instrument-to-LIMS interfaces, which started out as merely a data-transfer mechanism. By the 2000s, that interface mechanism became much more robust as a data management tool, though often at great expense with heavy involvement from third parties.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PavlisTrends04_60-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PavlisTrends04-60\">&#91;60&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This eventually meant that \"many LIMS vendors [could] act as single source providers of the entire instrument interfacing solution,\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeHeerInstrument09_61-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeHeerInstrument09-61\">&#91;61&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, providing a cheaper and smoother solution to LIMS customers. Today, instrument interfacing is integral to LIMS and is considerably easier to do than prior decades.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CurtisBeni19_62-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CurtisBeni19-62\">&#91;62&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>The ability to calibrate and schedule maintenance for interfaced instruments may also be included in this category.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Mobile_device_integration\">Mobile device integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Some LIMS vendors tout support for mobile devices using their laboratory information management system. This feature has become increasingly common with the advent of first the web-based LIMS, followed by the cloud-based LIMS. This has given technicians the ability to collect data in the field, approve results remotely, and manage experiment workflow on the fly.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RyanMobile19_63-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RyanMobile19-63\">&#91;63&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Alarms_and\/or_alerts\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Alarms_and.2For_alerts\">Alarms and\/or alerts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Alarms and alerts are an integral part of a LIMS. They can be automatic or scheduled, and they can come in the form of an e-mail, a pop-up message, or a mobile text message. When the results for a sample analysis go out out of range, an automatic warning message can appear on the screen of the technician responsible for the analysis. A scheduled alert can be e-mailed to a lab technician every month indicating a piece of laboratory equipment needs routine maintenance. If the LIMS is equipped with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Environmental_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"784f7ba1fb87304630630ab73bb57cc6\">environmental monitoring<\/a>, an alert can be sent in the form of an SMS text message to the head researcher if the temperature inside a freezer unexpectedly rises. All of these scenarios represent a tiny fraction of the possible implementation of alarms and alerts in a LIMS, highlighting how powerful (yet easy to take for granted) this feature is.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Work-related_time_tracking\">Work-related time tracking<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature specifically refers to a LIMS' ability to track the amount of time an employee spends at work in general (for payroll purposes) or on more specific projects and tasks (as part of an employee work evaluation program).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Voice_recognition_system\">Voice recognition system<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with this feature allows some functions of the LIMS (for example, accessing sample analysis results) to be accessed via voice commands.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_monitoring\">External monitoring<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature allows clients outside the laboratory to monitor the status of sample batches, test results, and more via an online web portal or, less commonly, as activity alerts sent via e-mail, fax, or SMS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Messaging\">Messaging<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:217px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ae3b5e41e0c11ff4ca1baf0b7d4352f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b6\/Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"215\" height=\"243\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"4ae3b5e41e0c11ff4ca1baf0b7d4352f\"><\/a><\/div>Instant messaging clients built into a LIMS often make it easier to collaborate.<\/div><\/div><\/div>The messaging feature of a LIMS may refer to one (or both) of two things:\n<ul><li>a built-in instant messaging system that allows users to converse with each other through text messages real-time, or<\/li>\n<li>SMS text messaging integration that allows users or the LIMS itself to send messages or alerts to a user's mobile or smart phone.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Multilingual\">Multilingual<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>If a LIMS is listed as multilingual, its an indication the LIMS interface can be configured to display more than one language depending on the preference a user or administrator chooses. Some LIMS interfaces can only be displayed in one of two languages (English or German, for example), while others come configured with support for dozens of languages.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Network-capable\">Network-capable<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature is perhaps archaic and\/or obvious, but it is mentioned nonetheless. It's generally applied to a non-web-based (on-premises) LIMS installed over a local or wide-area computer network, essentially indicating the LIMS is not an isolated application, but rather one that can interface with other instances of the LIMS or other networked instruments.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Web_client_or_portal\">Web client or portal<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with a web client or portal is either a web-based LIMS (one that is not installed on every computer, but rather is hosted on a server and accessed via a web browser) or a non-web-based LIMS with an included portal to access it via the internet.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Online_or_integrated_help\">Online or integrated help<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This indicates a LIMS has help infrastructure integrated into the software, support documentation via the LIMS vendor's website, or both.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Software_as_a_service_delivery_model\">Software as a service delivery model<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This indicates the software can be licensed and utilized via the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> (SaaS) delivery model. This typically constitutes a LIMS vendor having a \"cloud-based\" offering.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Usage-based_cost\">Usage-based cost<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While rare, some LIMS vendors allow potential clients to license and utilize the vendor's software under a usage-based cost model. An example of this model in use is Bytewize AB's <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bytewize_AB#O3_Lims_and_O3_LimsXpress\" title=\"Bytewize AB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65bc566848b41a14e430d1bedd8eb6ac\">O3 LimsXpress<\/a>, which has a cost directly related to the amount of samples processed each month.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BWO3X_64-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BWO3X-64\">&#91;64&#93;<\/a><\/sup> You may also see this sort of usage-based cost on some cloud-based LIMS.\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&#160;<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-count references-column-count-3\" style=\"-moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-MT5310-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MT5310_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Skobelev, D.O.; T.M. Zaytseva; A.D. Kozlov; V.L. Perepelitsa; A.S. Makarova&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Laboratory information management systems in the work of the analytic laboratory\".&#32;<i>Measurement Techniques<\/i>&#32;<b>53<\/b>&#32;(10): 1182\u20131189.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs11018-011-9638-7\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s11018-011-9638-7<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+information+management+systems+in+the+work+of+the+analytic+laboratory&amp;rft.jtitle=Measurement+Techniques&amp;rft.aulast=Skobelev%2C+D.O.%3B+T.M.+Zaytseva%3B+A.D.+Kozlov%3B+V.L.+Perepelitsa%3B+A.S.+Makarova&amp;rft.au=Skobelev%2C+D.O.%3B+T.M.+Zaytseva%3B+A.D.+Kozlov%3B+V.L.+Perepelitsa%3B+A.S.+Makarova&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.volume=53&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=1182%E2%80%931189&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1007%2Fs11018-011-9638-7&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AE0302-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AE0302_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AE0302_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AE0302_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Macneil, R.&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC3146905\" target=\"_blank\">\"The benefits of integrated systems for managing both samples and experimental data: An opportunity for labs in universities and government research institutions to lead the way\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Automated Experimentation<\/i>&#32;<b>3<\/b>&#32;(2): 2.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186%2F1759-4499-3-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/1759-4499-3-2<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3146905\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC3146905<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/21707999\" target=\"_blank\">21707999<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC3146905\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC3146905<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+benefits+of+integrated+systems+for+managing+both+samples+and+experimental+data%3A+An+opportunity+for+labs+in+universities+and+government+research+institutions+to+lead+the+way&amp;rft.jtitle=Automated+Experimentation&amp;rft.aulast=Macneil%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Macneil%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=2&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1186%2F1759-4499-3-2&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC3146905&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/21707999&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3DPMC3146905&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForensicSamp-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForensicSamp_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForensicSamp_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Murthy, T.; Hewson, B.&#32;(1 September 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Effective Forensic Sample Tracking and Handling\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>American Laboratory<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Effective+Forensic+Sample+Tracking+and+Handling&amp;rft.atitle=American+Laboratory&amp;rft.aulast=Murthy%2C+T.%3B+Hewson%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Murthy%2C+T.%3B+Hewson%2C+B.&amp;rft.date=1+September+2010&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanlaboratory.com%2F914-Application-Notes%2F506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VaniotisHow18-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-VaniotisHow18_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Vaniotis, G.&#32;(19 July 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.labtag.com\/rfid-labels-in-the-lab\" target=\"_blank\">\"How RFID Labels Can Smarten Up Your Laboratory\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Labtag Blog<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.labtag.com\/rfid-labels-in-the-lab\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/blog.labtag.com\/rfid-labels-in-the-lab<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+RFID+Labels+Can+Smarten+Up+Your+Laboratory&amp;rft.atitle=Labtag+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Vaniotis%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Vaniotis%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=19+July+2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.labtag.com%2Frfid-labels-in-the-lab&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PP0102-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PP0102_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Muntean, E.; Munteanb, N.; Mih\u0103iescua, T.; Mih\u0103iescuc, R.&#32;(2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.usamvcluj.ro\/index.php\/promediu\/article\/view\/2835\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS use in laboratory data management\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ProEnvironment\/Promediu<\/i>&#32;<b>1<\/b>&#32;(2): 19\u201323<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.usamvcluj.ro\/index.php\/promediu\/article\/view\/2835\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/journals.usamvcluj.ro\/index.php\/promediu\/article\/view\/2835<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=LIMS+use+in+laboratory+data+management&amp;rft.jtitle=ProEnvironment%2FPromediu&amp;rft.aulast=Muntean%2C+E.%3B+Munteanb%2C+N.%3B+Mih%C4%83iescua%2C+T.%3B+Mih%C4%83iescuc%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Muntean%2C+E.%3B+Munteanb%2C+N.%3B+Mih%C4%83iescua%2C+T.%3B+Mih%C4%83iescuc%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=19%E2%80%9323&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.usamvcluj.ro%2Findex.php%2Fpromediu%2Farticle%2Fview%2F2835&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPABatch-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EPABatch_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.epa.gov\/epawaste\/hazard\/web\/html\/faqs_qc.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Batch Sizes And QC Questions\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. EPA.&#32;4 April 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.epa.gov\/epawaste\/hazard\/web\/html\/faqs_qc.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/archive.epa.gov\/epawaste\/hazard\/web\/html\/faqs_qc.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Batch+Sizes+And+QC+Questions&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=4+April+2016&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+EPA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.epa.gov%2Fepawaste%2Fhazard%2Fweb%2Fhtml%2Ffaqs_qc.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASSched-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASSched_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/press-releases\/easy-scheduling-of-lims-activities\" target=\"_blank\">\"Easy scheduling of LIMS activities\"<\/a>.&#32;Autoscribe Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/press-releases\/easy-scheduling-of-lims-activities\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/press-releases\/easy-scheduling-of-lims-activities<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Easy+scheduling+of+LIMS+activities&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Autoscribe+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Fresources%2Fpress-releases%2Feasy-scheduling-of-lims-activities&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LWSched-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LWSched_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LWSched_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200512174255\/https:\/\/www.labware.com\/en\/p\/Products\/Summary-of-Core-Product-Features\" target=\"_blank\">\"Summary of Core Product Features\"<\/a>.&#32;LabWare, Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labware.com\/en\/p\/Products\/Summary-of-Core-Product-Features\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 12 May 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200512174255\/https:\/\/www.labware.com\/en\/p\/Products\/Summary-of-Core-Product-Features\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200512174255\/https:\/\/www.labware.com\/en\/p\/Products\/Summary-of-Core-Product-Features<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Summary+of+Core+Product+Features&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=LabWare%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200512174255%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.labware.com%2Fen%2Fp%2FProducts%2FSummary-of-Core-Product-Features&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BioView-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BioView_9-0\">9.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BioView_9-1\">9.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.geneious.com\/features\/ngs-visualization-downstream-analysis\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"NGS Visualization and Downstream Analysis\"<\/a>.&#32;Biomatters Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.geneious.com\/features\/ngs-visualization-downstream-analysis\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.geneious.com\/features\/ngs-visualization-downstream-analysis\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=NGS+Visualization+and+Downstream+Analysis&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Biomatters+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.geneious.com%2Ffeatures%2Fngs-visualization-downstream-analysis%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PLoS0506-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PLoS0506_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Richter, B.G.; Sexton, D.P.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC2667638\" target=\"_blank\">\"Managing and Analyzing Next-Generation Sequence Data\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>PLoS Computational Biology<\/i>&#32;<b>5<\/b>&#32;(6): e1000369.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1000369\" target=\"_blank\">10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1000369<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC2667638\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC2667638<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/19557125\" target=\"_blank\">19557125<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC2667638\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC2667638<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Managing+and+Analyzing+Next-Generation+Sequence+Data&amp;rft.jtitle=PLoS+Computational+Biology&amp;rft.aulast=Richter%2C+B.G.%3B+Sexton%2C+D.P.&amp;rft.au=Richter%2C+B.G.%3B+Sexton%2C+D.P.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=e1000369&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1000369&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC2667638&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/19557125&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3DPMC2667638&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASLIMSCustom-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASLIMSCustom_11-0\">11.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASLIMSCustom_11-1\">11.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/blog\/lims-customization-vs-configuration\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS Customization vs Configuration\"<\/a>.&#32;Autoscribe Informatics, Inc.&#32;8 March 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/blog\/lims-customization-vs-configuration\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/blog\/lims-customization-vs-configuration<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIMS+Customization+vs+Configuration&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=8+March+2015&amp;rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Fresources%2Fblog%2Flims-customization-vs-configuration&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PromiumTheBeni-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PromiumTheBeni_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.promium.com\/resources\/news-articles\/the-benefits-of-a-configurable-off-the-shelf-lims-cots\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Benefits of a configurable COTS LIMS\"<\/a>.&#32;Promium, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.promium.com\/resources\/news-articles\/the-benefits-of-a-configurable-off-the-shelf-lims-cots\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.promium.com\/resources\/news-articles\/the-benefits-of-a-configurable-off-the-shelf-lims-cots\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Benefits+of+a+configurable+COTS+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Promium%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.promium.com%2Fresources%2Fnews-articles%2Fthe-benefits-of-a-configurable-off-the-shelf-lims-cots%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AbbottStarlimsPDF-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AbbottStarlimsPDF_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170810191058\/https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/biorepository-lims-spec-document.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"STARLIMS Biorepository Industry LIMS Specification Document\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Abbott Informatics Corporation.&#32;18 September 2017.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/biorepository-lims-spec-document.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 10 August 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170810191058\/https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/biorepository-lims-spec-document.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170810191058\/https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/biorepository-lims-spec-document.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=STARLIMS+Biorepository+Industry+LIMS+Specification+Document&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=18+September+2017&amp;rft.pub=Abbott+Informatics+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170810191058%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.abbott%2Fshared%2Fbiorepository-lims-spec-document.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MSCFeats-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MSCFeats_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.msc-lims.com\/lims\/msc-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"MSC-LIMS Product Summary\"<\/a>.&#32;Mountain States Consulting, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.msc-lims.com\/lims\/msc-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.msc-lims.com\/lims\/msc-lims.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=MSC-LIMS+Product+Summary&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Mountain+States+Consulting%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.msc-lims.com%2Flims%2Fmsc-lims.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ABLabcollectorImport-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ABLabcollectorImport_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labcollector.com\/labcollector-lims\/features\/reporting\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"LabCollector: Importing, Exporting, &amp; Reporting\"<\/a>.&#32;AgileBio<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labcollector.com\/labcollector-lims\/features\/reporting\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labcollector.com\/labcollector-lims\/features\/reporting\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LabCollector%3A+Importing%2C+Exporting%2C+%26+Reporting&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=AgileBio&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labcollector.com%2Flabcollector-lims%2Ffeatures%2Freporting%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RooksbyNotAll20-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RooksbyNotAll20_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Rooksby, G.&#32;(28 January 2020).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.interactivesoftware.co.uk\/2020\/01\/28\/lims-data-migration\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Not All LIMS Data Migration Services Are Created Equal\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Interactive Software Blog<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.interactivesoftware.co.uk\/2020\/01\/28\/lims-data-migration\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.interactivesoftware.co.uk\/2020\/01\/28\/lims-data-migration\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Not+All+LIMS+Data+Migration+Services+Are+Created+Equal&amp;rft.atitle=Interactive+Software+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Rooksby%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Rooksby%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=28+January+2020&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.interactivesoftware.co.uk%2F2020%2F01%2F28%2Flims-data-migration%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OasisLIMS4.0-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OasisLIMS4.0_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oasislims.com\/lims.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"OasisLIMS 4.0 Enterprise\"<\/a>.&#32;Oasis Infotech Pvt. Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oasislims.com\/lims.php\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.oasislims.com\/lims.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=OasisLIMS+4.0+Enterprise&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Oasis+Infotech+Pvt.+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oasislims.com%2Flims.php&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2ndGetOhNo-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-2ndGetOhNo_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160123085133\/http:\/\/www.2sslab.com\/Features.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Get OhNo! for Radiopharmaceutical Control\"<\/a>.&#32;2nd Sight Solutions.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.2sslab.com\/Features.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 23 January 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160123085133\/http:\/\/www.2sslab.com\/Features.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160123085133\/http:\/\/www.2sslab.com\/Features.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Get+OhNo%21+for+Radiopharmaceutical+Control&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=2nd+Sight+Solutions&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160123085133%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.2sslab.com%2FFeatures.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciCompWorld1-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Elliot, M.H.&#32;(December 2006\u2013January 2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/state-eln-market?feature_id=50\" target=\"_blank\">\"The state of the ELN Market\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing World<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/state-eln-market?feature_id=50\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/state-eln-market?feature_id=50<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+state+of+the+ELN+Market&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing+World&amp;rft.aulast=Elliot%2C+M.H.&amp;rft.au=Elliot%2C+M.H.&amp;rft.date=December+2006%E2%80%93January+2007&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Ffeature%2Fstate-eln-market%3Ffeature_id%3D50&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciCompELN-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompELN_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Elliot, Michael H.&#32;(October 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160417085757\/https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/articles\/2011\/11\/informatics-convergence-presents-opportunities-and-challenges\" target=\"_blank\">\"Informatics Convergence Presents Opportunities and Challenges\"<\/a>.&#32;Scientific Computing.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/articles-IN-Informatics-Convergence-Presents-Opportunities-and-Challenges-111111.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 17 April 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160417085757\/https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/articles\/2011\/11\/informatics-convergence-presents-opportunities-and-challenges\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160417085757\/https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/articles\/2011\/11\/informatics-convergence-presents-opportunities-and-challenges<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Informatics+Convergence+Presents+Opportunities+and+Challenges&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Elliot%2C+Michael+H.&amp;rft.au=Elliot%2C+Michael+H.&amp;rft.date=October+2011&amp;rft.pub=Scientific+Computing&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160417085757%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Farticles%2F2011%2F11%2Finformatics-convergence-presents-opportunities-and-challenges&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GenohmHome-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GenohmHome_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/explore.agilent.com\/AgilentSlims\" target=\"_blank\">\"Agilent SLIMS: Lab Workflow Management Software\"<\/a>.&#32;Agilent Technologies, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/explore.agilent.com\/AgilentSlims\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/explore.agilent.com\/AgilentSlims<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Agilent+SLIMS%3A+Lab+Workflow+Management+Software&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Agilent+Technologies%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fexplore.agilent.com%2FAgilentSlims&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CICoreELNInt-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CICoreELNInt_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160814211539\/http:\/\/www.coreinformatics.com\/products\/core-eln\/core-eln-features\/integration\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Core ELN Integration\"<\/a>.&#32;Core Informatics, LLC.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.coreinformatics.com\/products\/core-eln\/core-eln-features\/integration\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 14 August 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160814211539\/http:\/\/www.coreinformatics.com\/products\/core-eln\/core-eln-features\/integration\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160814211539\/http:\/\/www.coreinformatics.com\/products\/core-eln\/core-eln-features\/integration\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Core+ELN+Integration&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Core+Informatics%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160814211539%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.coreinformatics.com%2Fproducts%2Fcore-eln%2Fcore-eln-features%2Fintegration%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WilliamsExcel-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WilliamsExcel_23-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Williams, R.W.&#32;(2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100616100719\/http:\/\/www.sfn.org\/skins\/main\/pdf\/ShortCourses\/2003\/sc1_9.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Managing Your Lab Data Flux: Getting Beyond Excel\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>The Bioinformatics of Brains: From Genes and Proteins to Behaviors<\/i>.&#32;Society for Neuroscience.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sfn.org\/skins\/main\/pdf\/ShortCourses\/2003\/sc1_9.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 16 June 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100616100719\/http:\/\/www.sfn.org\/skins\/main\/pdf\/ShortCourses\/2003\/sc1_9.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100616100719\/http:\/\/www.sfn.org\/skins\/main\/pdf\/ShortCourses\/2003\/sc1_9.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Managing+Your+Lab+Data+Flux%3A+Getting+Beyond+Excel&amp;rft.atitle=The+Bioinformatics+of+Brains%3A+From+Genes+and+Proteins+to+Behaviors&amp;rft.aulast=Williams%2C+R.W.&amp;rft.au=Williams%2C+R.W.&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.pub=Society+for+Neuroscience&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20100616100719%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfn.org%2Fskins%2Fmain%2Fpdf%2FShortCourses%2F2003%2Fsc1_9.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PragmaticExcelIntro-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PragmaticExcelIntro_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Howard, D.A.; Harrison, D.&#32;(2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.spreadsheetvalidation.com\/pdf\/Excel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Pragmatic Approach to the Validation of Excel Spreadsheets \u2013 Overview\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Pharma IT<\/i>&#32;<b>1<\/b>&#32;(2): 30\u201335<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.spreadsheetvalidation.com\/pdf\/Excel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.spreadsheetvalidation.com\/pdf\/Excel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=A+Pragmatic+Approach+to+the+Validation+of+Excel+Spreadsheets+%E2%80%93+Overview&amp;rft.jtitle=Pharma+IT&amp;rft.aulast=Howard%2C+D.A.%3B+Harrison%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Howard%2C+D.A.%3B+Harrison%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=30%E2%80%9335&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spreadsheetvalidation.com%2Fpdf%2FExcel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MSCExcel-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MSCExcel_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.msc-lims.com\/demo\/excelinterface.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Excel Interface\"<\/a>.&#32;Mountain States Consulting, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.msc-lims.com\/demo\/excelinterface.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.msc-lims.com\/demo\/excelinterface.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Excel+Interface&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Mountain+States+Consulting%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msc-lims.com%2Fdemo%2Fexcelinterface.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OLCL_LIMSQual-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OLCL_LIMSQual_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlims.com\/product\/quality-control-qaqc\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS Quality Control QA\/QC\"<\/a>.&#32;Online LIMS Canada Limited<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlims.com\/product\/quality-control-qaqc\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.onlims.com\/product\/quality-control-qaqc\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIMS+Quality+Control+QA%2FQC&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Online+LIMS+Canada+Limited&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.onlims.com%2Fproduct%2Fquality-control-qaqc%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SSLisa-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SSLisa_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sigmaplot.co.uk\/products\/lisa\/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"LISA.lims - The Premier LIMS Solution\"<\/a>.&#32;Systat Software, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sigmaplot.co.uk\/products\/lisa\/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.sigmaplot.co.uk\/products\/lisa\/index.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LISA.lims+-+The+Premier+LIMS+Solution&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Systat+Software%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sigmaplot.co.uk%2Fproducts%2Flisa%2Findex.php&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CSolsTheVal19-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CSolsTheVal19_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">CSols, Inc&#32;(25 July 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/the-value-of-a-scientific-data-management-system-sdms\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Value of a Scientific Data Management System (SDMS)\"<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/the-value-of-a-scientific-data-management-system-sdms\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/the-value-of-a-scientific-data-management-system-sdms\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Value+of+a+Scientific+Data+Management+System+%28SDMS%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=CSols%2C+Inc&amp;rft.au=CSols%2C+Inc&amp;rft.date=25+July+2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csolsinc.com%2Fblog%2Fthe-value-of-a-scientific-data-management-system-sdms%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HarrisWhatIs18-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HarrisWhatIs18_29-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Harris, J.&#32;(20 September 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.panoply.io\/what-is-a-data-warehouse-a-tutorial-for-beginners\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is A Data Warehouse? A Tutorial For Beginners\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Panoply Blog<\/i>.&#32;Panoply Technologies, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.panoply.io\/what-is-a-data-warehouse-a-tutorial-for-beginners\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/blog.panoply.io\/what-is-a-data-warehouse-a-tutorial-for-beginners<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+Is+A+Data+Warehouse%3F+A+Tutorial+For+Beginners&amp;rft.atitle=Panoply+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Harris%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Harris%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=20+September+2018&amp;rft.pub=Panoply+Technologies%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.panoply.io%2Fwhat-is-a-data-warehouse-a-tutorial-for-beginners&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2ndUseOhNo-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-2ndUseOhNo_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.2sslab.com\/Production.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Use OhNo! for complete control\"<\/a>.&#32;2nd Sight Solutions<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.2sslab.com\/Production.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.2sslab.com\/Production.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Use+OhNo%21+for+complete+control&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=2nd+Sight+Solutions&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.2sslab.com%2FProduction.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DialogStandard-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DialogStandard_31-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dialog-edv.de\/produkte\/standardloesungen\/produktionsunterstuetzung\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Standardl\u00f6sung f\u00fcr die Produktion\"<\/a>.&#32;dialog EDV Systementwicklung GmbH<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dialog-edv.de\/produkte\/standardloesungen\/produktionsunterstuetzung\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.dialog-edv.de\/produkte\/standardloesungen\/produktionsunterstuetzung\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Standardl%C3%B6sung+f%C3%BCr+die+Produktion&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=dialog+EDV+Systementwicklung+GmbH&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dialog-edv.de%2Fprodukte%2Fstandardloesungen%2Fproduktionsunterstuetzung%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ITrackManuf-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ITrackManuf_32-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.i-trackcorp.com\/what-is-mes.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Manufacturing Execution Software - Lab Information Management Software\"<\/a>.&#32;I-Track, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.i-trackcorp.com\/what-is-mes.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.i-trackcorp.com\/what-is-mes.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Manufacturing+Execution+Software+-+Lab+Information+Management+Software&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=I-Track%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.i-trackcorp.com%2Fwhat-is-mes.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NetronicManuf-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NetronicManuf_33-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180604124600\/https:\/\/www.netronic.com\/solutions\/manufacturing-execution-system-and-lims\" target=\"_blank\">\"Manufacturing Execution System &amp; LIMS for Strip Materials\"<\/a>.&#32;NETRONIC Software GmbH.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.netronic.com\/solutions\/manufacturing-execution-system-and-lims\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 04 June 2018<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180604124600\/https:\/\/www.netronic.com\/solutions\/manufacturing-execution-system-and-lims\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180604124600\/https:\/\/www.netronic.com\/solutions\/manufacturing-execution-system-and-lims<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Manufacturing+Execution+System+%26+LIMS+for+Strip+Materials&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=NETRONIC+Software+GmbH&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20180604124600%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.netronic.com%2Fsolutions%2Fmanufacturing-execution-system-and-lims&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HiceSwim09-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HiceSwim09_34-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hice, R.&#32;(1 July 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100119015222\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>STARLIMS' Laboratory Informatics Blog<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 19 January 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100119015222\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100119015222\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Swimming+in+the+Clinical+Pool%3A+Why+LIMS+are+supplanting+old-school+clinical+LIS+applications&amp;rft.atitle=STARLIMS%27+Laboratory+Informatics+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Hice%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Hice%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=1+July+2009&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20100119015222%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fblog.starlims.com%2F2009%2F07%2F01%2Fswimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WfMC1-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WfMC1_35-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201024165000\/http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/standards\/docs\/TC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Workflow Management Coalition Terminology &amp; Glossary\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Workflow Management Coalition.&#32;February 1999.&#32;pp. 9.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/standards\/docs\/TC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 24 October 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201024165000\/http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/standards\/docs\/TC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201024165000\/http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/standards\/docs\/TC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Workflow+Management+Coalition+Terminology+%26+Glossary&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=February+1999&amp;rft.pages=pp.+9&amp;rft.pub=Workflow+Management+Coalition&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20201024165000%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wfmc.org%2Fstandards%2Fdocs%2FTC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciCompWF-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompWF_36-0\">36.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompWF_36-1\">36.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Maxwell, G.&#32;(1 November 2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090807034051\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/using-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Using Workflows in LIMS to Reduce Customization\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/using-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 07 August 2009<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090807034051\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/using-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090807034051\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/using-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Using+Workflows+in+LIMS+to+Reduce+Customization&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing&amp;rft.aulast=Maxwell%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Maxwell%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=1+November+2003&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20090807034051%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Fusing-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SIGLa-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SIGLa_37-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Melo, A.; Faria-Campos, A.; DeLaat, D.M. et al.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC3045801\" target=\"_blank\">\"SIGLa: an adaptable LIMS for multiple laboratories\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>BMC Genomics<\/i>&#32;<b>11<\/b>&#32;(Suppl 5): S8.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186%2F1471-2164-11-S5-S8\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/1471-2164-11-S5-S8<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3045801\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC3045801<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/21210974\" target=\"_blank\">21210974<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC3045801\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC3045801<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=SIGLa%3A+an+adaptable+LIMS+for+multiple+laboratories&amp;rft.jtitle=BMC+Genomics&amp;rft.aulast=Melo%2C+A.%3B+Faria-Campos%2C+A.%3B+DeLaat%2C+D.M.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Melo%2C+A.%3B+Faria-Campos%2C+A.%3B+DeLaat%2C+D.M.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft.issue=Suppl+5&amp;rft.pages=S8&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1186%2F1471-2164-11-S5-S8&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC3045801&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/21210974&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3DPMC3045801&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-X-LIMS-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-X-LIMS_38-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ethosoft.com\/x-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"X-LIMS\"<\/a>.&#32;EthoSoft, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/ethosoft.com\/x-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/ethosoft.com\/x-lims\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=X-LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=EthoSoft%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fethosoft.com%2Fx-lims%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTM_LIMS-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTM_LIMS_39-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1578 18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578+18+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2Fe1578-18.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AL3218-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AL3218_40-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Paszko, C.; Pugsley, C.&#32;(2000).&#32;\"Considerations in selecting a laboratory information management system (LIMS)\".&#32;<i>American Laboratory<\/i>&#32;<b>32<\/b>&#32;(18): 38\u201342.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2F0169-7439%2894%2990006-X\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/0169-7439(94)90006-X<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Considerations+in+selecting+a+laboratory+information+management+system+%28LIMS%29&amp;rft.jtitle=American+Laboratory&amp;rft.aulast=Paszko%2C+C.%3B+Pugsley%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Paszko%2C+C.%3B+Pugsley%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.volume=32&amp;rft.issue=18&amp;rft.pages=38%E2%80%9342&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2F0169-7439%2894%2990006-X&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CCHTS1409-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CCHTS1409_41-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Hull, C.; Wray, B.; Winslow, F.; Vilicich, M.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Tracking and Controlling Everything that Affects Quality is the Key to a Quality Management System\".&#32;<i>Combinatorial Chemistry &amp; High Throughput Screening<\/i>&#32;<b>14<\/b>&#32;(9): 772\u2013780.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2174%2F138620711796957125\" target=\"_blank\">10.2174\/138620711796957125<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/21631414\" target=\"_blank\">21631414<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Tracking+and+Controlling+Everything+that+Affects+Quality+is+the+Key+to+a+Quality+Management+System&amp;rft.jtitle=Combinatorial+Chemistry+%26+High+Throughput+Screening&amp;rft.aulast=Hull%2C+C.%3B+Wray%2C+B.%3B+Winslow%2C+F.%3B+Vilicich%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Hull%2C+C.%3B+Wray%2C+B.%3B+Winslow%2C+F.%3B+Vilicich%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.pages=772%E2%80%93780&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.2174%2F138620711796957125&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/21631414&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDA21CFR11-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDA21CFR11_42-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11\" target=\"_blank\">\"Title 21: Food and Drugs - Chapter 1: Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, Subchapter A: General - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. Food and Drug Administration<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Title+21%3A+Food+and+Drugs+-+Chapter+1%3A+Food+and+Drug+Administration%2C+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services%2C+Subchapter+A%3A+General+-+Part+11%3A+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcdrh%2Fcfdocs%2Fcfcfr%2FCFRSearch.cfm%3FCFRPart%3D11&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McDowallHowCan16-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-McDowallHowCan16_43-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">McDowall, R.D.&#32;(June 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/rx-360.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/How-Can-LIMS-Help-Ensure-Data-Integrity-by-R.D.-McDowall-2016.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Can LIMS Help Ensure Data Integrity?\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>LC-GC Europe<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/rx-360.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/How-Can-LIMS-Help-Ensure-Data-Integrity-by-R.D.-McDowall-2016.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/rx-360.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/How-Can-LIMS-Help-Ensure-Data-Integrity-by-R.D.-McDowall-2016.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+Can+LIMS+Help+Ensure+Data+Integrity%3F&amp;rft.atitle=LC-GC+Europe&amp;rft.aulast=McDowall%2C+R.D.&amp;rft.au=McDowall%2C+R.D.&amp;rft.date=June+2016&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frx-360.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F08%2FHow-Can-LIMS-Help-Ensure-Data-Integrity-by-R.D.-McDowall-2016.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LVData19-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LVData19_44-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">LabVantage Solutions&#32;(14 September 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/data-integrity-is-here-what-does-it-mean-for-cmos\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Integrity is Here. What Does it Mean for CMOs?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>LabVantage Blog<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/data-integrity-is-here-what-does-it-mean-for-cmos\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/data-integrity-is-here-what-does-it-mean-for-cmos\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Integrity+is+Here.+What+Does+it+Mean+for+CMOs%3F&amp;rft.atitle=LabVantage+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=LabVantage+Solutions&amp;rft.au=LabVantage+Solutions&amp;rft.date=14+September+2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labvantage.com%2Fdata-integrity-is-here-what-does-it-mean-for-cmos%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JonesBuild09-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-JonesBuild09_45-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Jones, A.; Valli, C.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: An Introduction to Digital Forensics\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Building a Digital Forensic Laboratory: Establishing and Managing a Successful Facility<\/i>.&#32;Butterworth-Heinemann.&#32;p.&#160;11.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781856175104<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+An+Introduction+to+Digital+Forensics&amp;rft.atitle=Building+a+Digital+Forensic+Laboratory%3A+Establishing+and+Managing+a+Successful+Facility&amp;rft.aulast=Jones%2C+A.%3B+Valli%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+A.%3B+Valli%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B11&amp;rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&amp;rft.isbn=9781856175104&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF5IU7XXKwCQC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Tomlinson,&#32;J. J.&#59;&#32;Elliott-Smith,&#32;W.&#59;&#32;Radosta,&#32;T.&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/jamc\/2006\/074907\/abs\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Information Management System Chain of Custody: Reliability and Security\"<\/a>&#32;(in en).&#32;<i>Journal of Automated Methods and Management in Chemistry<\/i>&#32;<b>2006<\/b>: 1\u20134.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1155%2FJAMMC%2F2006%2F74907\" target=\"_blank\">10.1155\/JAMMC\/2006\/74907<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" data-key=\"a5dec3e4d005e654c29ad167ab53f53a\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1463-9246\" target=\"_blank\">1463-9246<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1903459\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC1903459<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/17671623\" target=\"_blank\">17671623<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/jamc\/2006\/074907\/abs\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/jamc\/2006\/074907\/abs\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+Information+Management+System+Chain+of+Custody%3A+Reliability+and+Security&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Automated+Methods+and+Management+in+Chemistry&amp;rft.aulast=Tomlinson&amp;rft.aufirst=J.+J.&amp;rft.au=Tomlinson%2C%26%2332%3BJ.+J.&amp;rft.au=Elliott-Smith%2C%26%2332%3BW.&amp;rft.au=Radosta%2C%26%2332%3BT.&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.volume=2006&amp;rft.pages=1%E2%80%934&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1155%2FJAMMC%2F2006%2F74907&amp;rft.issn=1463-9246&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC1903459&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/17671623&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindawi.com%2Fjournals%2Fjamc%2F2006%2F074907%2Fabs%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SIRFERQual-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SIRFERQual_47-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111117174948\/http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quality Assurance - Data Management\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Stable Isotope Ratio Facility for Environmental Research (SIRFER) at the University of Utah.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 17 November 2011<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111117174948\/http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111117174948\/http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Quality+Assurance+-+Data+Management&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Stable+Isotope+Ratio+Facility+for+Environmental+Research+%28SIRFER%29+at+the+University+of+Utah&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20111117174948%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fsirfer.utah.edu%2Fqaqc.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HitchcockEffic05-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HitchcockEffic05_48-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Hitchcock, N.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"Chapter 10: Efficient utilization of LIMS data and integration with mining process management systems\".&#32;In&#32;Dessureault, S.D.; Ganguli, R.; Kecojevic, V.; Dwyer, J.G..&#32;<i>Application of Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral Industry<\/i>.&#32;Taylor &amp; Francis.&#32;pp.&#160;85\u201388.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780415374491.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+10%3A+Efficient+utilization+of+LIMS+data+and+integration+with+mining+process+management+systems&amp;rft.atitle=Application+of+Computers+and+Operations+Research+in+the+Mineral+Industry&amp;rft.aulast=Hitchcock%2C+N.&amp;rft.au=Hitchcock%2C+N.&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B85%E2%80%9388&amp;rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&amp;rft.isbn=9780415374491&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TurnerReq01-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TurnerReq01_49-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Turner, E.; Bolton, J.&#32;(2001).&#32;\"Required steps for the validation of a Laboratory Information Management System\".&#32;<i>Quality Assurance<\/i>&#32;<b>9<\/b>&#32;(3\u20134): 217\u2013224.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1080%2F713844028\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/713844028<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12553085\" target=\"_blank\">12553085<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Required+steps+for+the+validation+of+a+Laboratory+Information+Management+System&amp;rft.jtitle=Quality+Assurance&amp;rft.aulast=Turner%2C+E.%3B+Bolton%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Turner%2C+E.%3B+Bolton%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&amp;rft.pages=217%E2%80%93224&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1080%2F713844028&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/12553085&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Al-IssaEhealth19-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Al-IssaEhealth19_50-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Al-Issa, Y.; Ottom, M.A.; Tamrawi, A.&#32;(2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC6745146\" target=\"_blank\">\"eHealth Cloud Security Challenges: A Survey\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Journal of Healthcare Engineering<\/i>&#32;<b>2019<\/b>: 7516035.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1155%2F2019%2F7516035\" target=\"_blank\">10.1155\/2019\/7516035<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6745146\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC6745146<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/31565209\" target=\"_blank\">31565209<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC6745146\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=PMC6745146<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=eHealth+Cloud+Security+Challenges%3A+A+Survey&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Healthcare+Engineering&amp;rft.aulast=Al-Issa%2C+Y.%3B+Ottom%2C+M.A.%3B+Tamrawi%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Al-Issa%2C+Y.%3B+Ottom%2C+M.A.%3B+Tamrawi%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.volume=2019&amp;rft.pages=7516035&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1155%2F2019%2F7516035&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC6745146&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/31565209&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3DPMC6745146&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LWExploreTables-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LWExploreTables_51-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170320223135\/https:\/\/limshelp.labware.com\/limsv5\/V5_Manual_3_15_nbsp__Explore_Tables.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"3.15 Explore Tables\"<\/a>.&#32;LabWare, Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/limshelp.labware.com\/limsv5\/V5_Manual_3_15_nbsp__Explore_Tables.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 20 March 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170320223135\/https:\/\/limshelp.labware.com\/limsv5\/V5_Manual_3_15_nbsp__Explore_Tables.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170320223135\/https:\/\/limshelp.labware.com\/limsv5\/V5_Manual_3_15_nbsp__Explore_Tables.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=3.15+Explore+Tables&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=LabWare%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170320223135%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Flimshelp.labware.com%2Flimsv5%2FV5_Manual_3_15_nbsp&#95;_Explore_Tables.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MonkeyTheVal17-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MonkeyTheVal17_52-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Monkey, S.&#32;(23 January 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/corengen.wordpress.com\/2017\/01\/23\/the-value-of-a-control-file-when-writing-data-files\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The value of a control file when writing data files\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ShortStories: Tales from software development<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/corengen.wordpress.com\/2017\/01\/23\/the-value-of-a-control-file-when-writing-data-files\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/corengen.wordpress.com\/2017\/01\/23\/the-value-of-a-control-file-when-writing-data-files\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+value+of+a+control+file+when+writing+data+files&amp;rft.atitle=ShortStories%3A+Tales+from+software+development&amp;rft.aulast=Monkey%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Monkey%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=23+January+2017&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcorengen.wordpress.com%2F2017%2F01%2F23%2Fthe-value-of-a-control-file-when-writing-data-files%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TsyktorHowTo17-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TsyktorHowTo17_53-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Tsyktor, V.&#32;(30 December 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.apriorit.com\/dev-blog\/492-build-data-backup-service-saas\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to Build a Data Backup Service for SaaS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Apriorit Dev Blog<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.apriorit.com\/dev-blog\/492-build-data-backup-service-saas\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.apriorit.com\/dev-blog\/492-build-data-backup-service-saas<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+to+Build+a+Data+Backup+Service+for+SaaS&amp;rft.atitle=Apriorit+Dev+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Tsyktor%2C+V.&amp;rft.au=Tsyktor%2C+V.&amp;rft.date=30+December+2017&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.apriorit.com%2Fdev-blog%2F492-build-data-backup-service-saas&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CoreEnviro-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CoreEnviro_54-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170227121045\/http:\/\/corelims.com\/products\/core-lims-product-summary\/features\/environmental-monitoring\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Environmental Monitoring\"<\/a>.&#32;Core Informatics, LLC.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/corelims.com\/products\/core-lims-product-summary\/features\/environmental-monitoring\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 27 February 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170227121045\/http:\/\/corelims.com\/products\/core-lims-product-summary\/features\/environmental-monitoring\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170227121045\/http:\/\/corelims.com\/products\/core-lims-product-summary\/features\/environmental-monitoring\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Environmental+Monitoring&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Core+Informatics%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170227121045%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fcorelims.com%2Fproducts%2Fcore-lims-product-summary%2Ffeatures%2Fenvironmental-monitoring%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Orchard-WebbMatrix19-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Orchard-WebbMatrix19_55-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Orchard-Webb, D.&#32;(28 August 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.biobanking.com\/matrix-gemini-biobank-management-lims-includes-new-monitoring-and-maintenance-solutions\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Matrix Gemini Biobank Management LIMS Includes New Monitoring And Maintenance Solutions\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Biobanking.com<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.biobanking.com\/matrix-gemini-biobank-management-lims-includes-new-monitoring-and-maintenance-solutions\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.biobanking.com\/matrix-gemini-biobank-management-lims-includes-new-monitoring-and-maintenance-solutions\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Matrix+Gemini+Biobank+Management+LIMS+Includes+New+Monitoring+And+Maintenance+Solutions&amp;rft.atitle=Biobanking.com&amp;rft.aulast=Orchard-Webb%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Orchard-Webb%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=28+August+2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biobanking.com%2Fmatrix-gemini-biobank-management-lims-includes-new-monitoring-and-maintenance-solutions%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NINovaEnviro-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NINovaEnviro_56-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ntint.com\/product\/novatek-environmental-monitoring\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Novatek Environmental Monitoring\"<\/a>.&#32;Novatek International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/ntint.com\/product\/novatek-environmental-monitoring\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/ntint.com\/product\/novatek-environmental-monitoring\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Novatek+Environmental+Monitoring&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Novatek+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fntint.com%2Fproduct%2Fnovatek-environmental-monitoring%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SCLabel-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SCLabel_57-0\">57.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SCLabel_57-1\">57.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Gilles, C.&#32;(1 July 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101218190848\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bar Code and Sample Tracking: It All Starts with the Label\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 18 December 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101218190848\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101218190848\/http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Bar+Code+and+Sample+Tracking%3A+It+All+Starts+with+the+Label&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing&amp;rft.aulast=Gilles%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Gilles%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=1+July+2008&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20101218190848%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Fbar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CSolsTheHidden18-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CSolsTheHidden18_58-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/hidden-power-barcodes\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Hidden Power of Barcodes\"<\/a>.&#32;CSols, Inc.&#32;8 February 2018<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/hidden-power-barcodes\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/hidden-power-barcodes\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Hidden+Power+of+Barcodes&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=8+February+2018&amp;rft.pub=CSols%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csolsinc.com%2Fblog%2Fhidden-power-barcodes%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HaigneyTheFax18-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HaigneyTheFax18_59-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Haigney, S.&#32;(18 November 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/archive\/2018\/11\/why-people-still-use-fax-machines\/576070\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Fax Is Not Yet Obsolete\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Atlantic<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/archive\/2018\/11\/why-people-still-use-fax-machines\/576070\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/archive\/2018\/11\/why-people-still-use-fax-machines\/576070\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Fax+Is+Not+Yet+Obsolete&amp;rft.atitle=The+Atlantic&amp;rft.aulast=Haigney%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Haigney%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=18+November+2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Ftechnology%2Farchive%2F2018%2F11%2Fwhy-people-still-use-fax-machines%2F576070%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PavlisTrends04-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PavlisTrends04_60-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Pavlis, R.&#32;(May\/June 2004).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910043807\/http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88\" target=\"_blank\">\"Trends in instrument-to-LIMS interfacing\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing World<\/i>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 10 September 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910043807\/http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150910043807\/http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Trends+in+instrument-to-LIMS+interfacing&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing+World&amp;rft.aulast=Pavlis%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Pavlis%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=May%2FJune+2004&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150910043807%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Ffeatures%2Ffeature.php%3Ffeature_id%3D88&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DeHeerInstrument09-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DeHeerInstrument09_61-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">DeHeer, L.&#32;(1 October 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.blazesystems.com\/white-papers\/instruments.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Instrument Interfacing - The Great Paradox of LIMS?\"<\/a>.&#32;Blaze Systems Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.blazesystems.com\/white-papers\/instruments.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.blazesystems.com\/white-papers\/instruments.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Instrument+Interfacing+-+The+Great+Paradox+of+LIMS%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=DeHeer%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=DeHeer%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=1+October+2009&amp;rft.pub=Blaze+Systems+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.blazesystems.com%2Fwhite-papers%2Finstruments.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CurtisBeni19-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CurtisBeni19_62-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Curtis Jr., D.&#32;(12 December 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/astrixinc.com\/benefits-and-best-practices-for-integrating-laboratory-instruments-with-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Benefits and Best Practices for Integrating Laboratory Instruments with LIMS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Astrix Lab Informatics Blog<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/astrixinc.com\/benefits-and-best-practices-for-integrating-laboratory-instruments-with-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/astrixinc.com\/benefits-and-best-practices-for-integrating-laboratory-instruments-with-lims\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Benefits+and+Best+Practices+for+Integrating+Laboratory+Instruments+with+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=Astrix+Lab+Informatics+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Curtis+Jr.%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Curtis+Jr.%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=12+December+2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fastrixinc.com%2Fbenefits-and-best-practices-for-integrating-laboratory-instruments-with-lims%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RyanMobile19-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RyanMobile19_63-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Ryan, M.&#32;(28 August 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.thermofisher.com\/blog\/connectedlab\/mobile-lims-applications-in-the-laboratory\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Mobile LIMS Applications in the Laboratory\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Connected Lab<\/i>.&#32;Thermo Fisher Scientific<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.thermofisher.com\/blog\/connectedlab\/mobile-lims-applications-in-the-laboratory\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.thermofisher.com\/blog\/connectedlab\/mobile-lims-applications-in-the-laboratory\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Mobile+LIMS+Applications+in+the+Laboratory&amp;rft.atitle=The+Connected+Lab&amp;rft.aulast=Ryan%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Ryan%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=28+August+2019&amp;rft.pub=Thermo+Fisher+Scientific&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thermofisher.com%2Fblog%2Fconnectedlab%2Fmobile-lims-applications-in-the-laboratory%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BWO3X-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BWO3X_64-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3limsxpress\" target=\"_blank\">\"O3 LimsXpress\"<\/a>.&#32;Bytewize AB<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3limsxpress\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3limsxpress<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=O3+LimsXpress&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Bytewize+AB&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bytewize.com%2Fo3limsxpress&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110110029\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 1.005 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.067 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 43843\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 305234\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 133107\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 20\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 101900\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 848.954 1 -total\n 91.59% 777.590 1 Template:Reflist\n 73.58% 624.630 64 Template:Citation\/core\n 59.86% 508.198 51 Template:Cite_web\n 17.14% 145.547 11 Template:Cite_journal\n 9.02% 76.559 27 Template:Date\n 4.78% 40.597 99 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 3.45% 29.250 2 Template:Cite_book\n 3.39% 28.806 24 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/45\/Laboratory_oven_for_samples-02.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/58\/Analyse_residus.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/bc\/QueryBuilder.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/4d\/Laboratory-reagents.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2e\/Workflow_IA.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/25\/Syvalidate_screen.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b3\/Freezers_for_cryopreservation_at_IMSC.JPG","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/ba\/Code_barres.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f9\/Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b6\/Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png"],"ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_timestamp":1704906980,"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_type":"article","8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_title":"Laboratory information management system","8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system","8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_plaintext":"\n\nLaboratory information management systemFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search Laboratories around the world depend on a LIMS to manage data, assign rights, manage inventory, and more.\nSometimes referred to as a laboratory information system (LIS) or laboratory management system (LMS), a laboratory information management system (LIMS) is a software-based laboratory and information management system that offers a set of key features that support a modern laboratory's operations. Those key features include\u2014but are not limited to\u2014workflow and data tracking support, flexible architecture, and smart data exchange interfaces, which fully \"support its use in regulated environments.\"&#91;1&#93; The features and uses of a LIMS have evolved over the years from simple sample tracking to an integrated application that handles both laboratory management and enterprise resource planning processes, from testing to marketing.\nDue to the rapid pace at which laboratories and their data management needs shift, the definition of LIMS has become somewhat controversial. As the needs of the modern laboratory vary widely from lab to lab, what is needed from a laboratory information management system also shifts. The end result: the definition of a LIMS will shift based on who you ask and what their vision of the modern lab is.&#91;1&#93; Dr. Alan McLelland of the Institute of Biochemistry, Royal Infirmary, Glasgow highlighted this problem in the late 1990s by explaining how a LIMS is perceived by an analyst, a laboratory manager, an information systems manager, and an accountant, \"all of them correct, but each of them limited by the users' own perceptions.\"&#91;2&#93;\nHistorically the term \"LIMS\" has tended to be used to reference informatics systems targeted for environmental, research, or commercial analysis such as pharmaceutical or petrochemical work. \"LIS\" has tended to be used to reference laboratory informatics systems in the forensics and clinical markets, which often required special case management tools. The process development execution system or \"PDES,\" while having similar functionality in some ways, has generally applied to a wider scope, including, for example, virtual manufacturing techniques, while not necessarily integrating with laboratory equipment. \nIn modern times, LIMS functionality has spread even farther beyond its original purpose of sample management. Assay data management, data mining, data analysis, and the integration of electronic laboratory notebooks (ELNs) and third-party applications are all features that have been added to many LIMS, enabling the realization of translational medicine completely within a single software solution. Additionally, the distinction between a LIMS and a LIS has blurred, as many LIMS now also fully support comprehensive case-centric clinical specimen and patient data management.\n\nContents \n\n1 History of LIMS \n2 Technology \n\n2.1 Laboratory information management operations \n\n2.1.1 Sample management \n2.1.2 Instrument and application integration \n2.1.3 Electronic data exchange \n2.1.4 Additional functions \n\n\n2.2 LIMS architecture and delivery methods \n\n2.2.1 Thick-client \n2.2.2 Thin-client \n2.2.3 Web-based \n\n\n2.3 LIMS configurability \n\n\n3 The distinction between a LIMS and a LIS \n4 Standards affecting LIMS \n5 LIMS vendors \n6 See also \n7 Further reading \n8 References \n\n\n\nHistory of LIMS \nUp until the late 1970s, management of laboratory samples and their associated analysis and reporting was a time-consuming manual processes often riddled with transcription errors. This gave some organizations impetus to streamline the collection of data and how it was reported. Custom in-house solutions were developed by a few individual laboratories, while some enterprising entities at the same time sought to develop a more commercial reporting solution in the form of special instrument-based systems.&#91;3&#93; \nIn 1982 the first generation of LIMS was introduced in the form of a single centralized minicomputer, which offered laboratories the first opportunity to utilize automated reporting tools. As the interest in these early LIMS grew, industry leaders like Gerst Gibbon of the Federal Energy Technology Centre in Pittsburgh began planting the seeds through LIMS-related conferences. By 1988, the second-generation commercial offerings were tapping into relational databases to expand LIMS into more application-specific territory, and international LIMS conferences were in full swing. As personal computers became more powerful and prominent, a third generation of LIMS emerged in the early 1990s. These new LIMS took advantage of the developing client\/server architecture, allowing laboratories to implement better data processing and exchanges.&#91;3&#93;\nBy 1995, the client\/server tools had developed to the point of allowing processing of data anywhere on the network. Web-enabled LIMS were introduced the following year, enabling researchers to extend operations outside the confines of the laboratory. From 1996 to 2002 additional functionality was included in LIMS, from wireless networking capabilities and georeferencing of samples, to the adoption of XML standards and the development of internet purchasing.&#91;3&#93;\nBy the early 2010s, some LIMS had added additional characteristics that continued to shape how a LIMS was defined. Examples include the addition of clinical functionality and electronic laboratory notebook (ELN) functionality, as well a rise in the cloud-based software as a service (SaaS) distribution model.&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93; By the late 2010s, cloud-based LIMS were more numerous in quantity and adoption but not the de facto standard, as the costs and daunting nature associated with vendors transitioning legacy products to the cloud and with companies trying to integrate a cloud-based LIMS into a complicated IT environment have partially stymied growth.&#91;6&#93;&#91;7&#93; Despite these challenges, market research companies such as Markets and Markets believe that cloud-based version of the LIMS will see the highest growth rate in the coming years, citing \"on-demand self-serving analytics, ease of use, affordability, reliability, no upfront capital investment for hardware, adaptability &amp; flexibility, and a pay-as-you-go pricing model\" as primary drivers.&#91;8&#93;\n\nTechnology \nLaboratory information management operations \nThe LIMS is an evolving concept, with new features and functionality being added often. As laboratory demands change and technological progress continues, the functions of a LIMS will likely also change. Despite these changes, a LIMS tends to have a base set of functionality that defines it. That functionality can roughly be divided into five laboratory processing phases, with numerous software functions falling under each&#91;9&#93;: \n\nthe reception and log in of a sample and its associated customer data;\nthe assignment, scheduling, and tracking of the sample and the associated analytical workload;\nthe processing and quality control associated with the sample and the utilized equipment and inventory;\nthe storage of data associated with the sample analysis; and\nthe inspection, approval, and compilation of the sample data for reporting and\/or further analysis.\nThere are several pieces of core functionality associated with these laboratory processing phases that tend to appear in most LIMS.\n\nSample management \n A lab worker matches blood samples to documents. With a LIMS, this sort of sample management is made more efficient.\nThe core function of LIMS has traditionally been the management of samples.&#91;3&#93; This typically is initiated when a sample is received in the laboratory, at which point the sample will be registered in the LIMS. This registration process may involve accessioning the sample and producing barcodes to affix to the sample container. Various other parameters such as clinical or phenotypic information corresponding with the sample are also often recorded. The LIMS then tracks chain of custody (CoC) as well as sample location. Location tracking usually involves assigning the sample to a particular freezer location, often down to the granular level of shelf, rack, box, row, and column. Other event tracking such as freeze and thaw cycles that a sample undergoes in the laboratory may also be required.\nModern LIMS have implemented extensive configurability, as each laboratory's needs for tracking additional data points can vary widely. LIMS vendors cannot typically make assumptions about what these data tracking needs are, and therefore vendors often create LIMS that are adaptable to individual environments. This typically involves the inclusion of workflow management tools in the LIMS. Users may also have regulatory concerns to comply with such as CLIA, HIPAA, good laboratory practice (GLP), and FDA specifications, affecting certain aspects of sample management in a LIMS solution.&#91;10&#93; One key to compliance with many of these standards is audit logging of all changes to LIMS data, and in some cases a full electronic signature system is required for rigorous tracking of field-level changes to LIMS data.\n\nInstrument and application integration \nModern LIMS offer integration with laboratory instruments as standard. A LIMS may create control files that are \"fed\" into the instrument and direct its operation on some physical item such as a sample tube or sample plate. The LIMS may then import instrument results files to extract data for quality control assessment of the operation on the sample. Access to the instrument data can sometimes be regulated based on chain of custody assignments or other security features if need be.\nIn addition, a LIMS typically allows for the import and management of raw assay data results.&#91;11&#93; Modern targeted assays such as qPCR and deep sequencing can produce tens of thousands of data points per sample. Furthermore, in the case of drug and diagnostic development, a dozen or more assays may be run for each sample. In order to track this data, a LIMS solution needs to be adaptable to many different assay formats at both the data layer and import creation layer, while maintaining a high level of overall performance.\nIncreasingly, a LIMS also provides the ability to integrate with third-party applications such as enterprise resource planning systems or regulatory compliance systems (such as seed-to-sale reporting systems for cannabis testing).&#91;12&#93;&#91;13&#93; This integration is typically achieved through the use of an application programming interface (API)&#91;12&#93;&#91;13&#93;, code which serves as an interface between different software programs and facilitates their interaction.\n\nElectronic data exchange \nThe exponentially growing volume of data created in laboratories, coupled with increased business demands and focus on profitability, have pushed LIMS vendors to increase attention to how their LIMS handles electronic data exchanges. Attention must be paid to how an instrument's input and output data is managed, how remote sample collection data is imported and exported, and how mobile and other third-party applications integrate with the LIMS. The successful transfer of data files in a wide variety of formats, while maintaining the associated metadata and keeping it secure, is paramount. Historically speaking, the transition \"from proprietary databases to standardized database management systems such as Oracle ... and SQL\" has had significant impact on how data is managed and exchanged in laboratories&#91;14&#93;, culminating today in cloud-based relational and NOSQL databases that can be set up, operated, and scaled with relative ease.&#91;15&#93;&#91;16&#93;\n\nAdditional functions \nAside from the key functions of sample management, instrument and application integration, and electronic data exchange, there are numerous additional operations that can be managed in a LIMS. This includes but is not limited to&#91;17&#93;&#91;18&#93;&#91;19&#93;:\n\naudit management\nfully track and maintain an audit trail\nbarcode handling\nassign one or more data points to a barcode format; read and extract information from a barcode\nchain of custody\nassign roles and groups that dictate access to specific data records and who is managing them\ncompliance\nfollow regulatory standards that affect the laboratory\ncustomer relationship management\nhandle the demographic information and communications for associated clients\ndocument management\nprocess and convert data to certain formats; manage how documents are distributed and accessed\ninstrument calibration and maintenance\nschedule important maintenance and calibration of lab instruments and keep detailed records of such activities\ninventory and equipment management\nmeasure and record inventories of vital supplies and laboratory equipment\nmanual and electronic data entry\nprovide fast and reliable interfaces for data to be entered by a human or electronic component\nmethod management\nprovide one location for all laboratory process and procedure (P&amp;P) and methodology to be housed and managed\npersonnel and workload management\norganize work schedules, workload assignments, employee demographic information, and financial information\nquality assurance and control\ngauge and control sample quality, data entry standards, and workflow; reports\ncreate and schedule reports in a specific format; schedule and distribute reports to designated parties\ntime tracking and performance assessment\ncalculate and maintain processing and handling times on chemical reactions and workflows while assessing analyst, instrument, or test performance\ndata mining\nsearch a wide variety of data repositories and their associated metadata to make and improve on research insights\ninvoicing and sales\nprovide an integrated structure to bill clients directly and track sales activity\nLIMS architecture and delivery methods \nA LIMS has utilized many architectures and distribution models over the years. As technology has changed, how a LIMS is installed, managed, and utilized has also changed with it.\nThe following represents architectures which have been utilized at one point or another:\n\nThick-client \nA thick-client LIMS is a more traditional client\/server architecture, with some of the system residing on the computer or workstation of the user (the client) and the rest on the server. The LIMS software is installed on the client computer, which does all of the data processing. Later it passes information to the server, which has the primary purpose of data storage. Most changes, upgrades, and other modifications will happen on the client side. \nThis was one of the first architectures implemented into a LIMS, having the advantage of providing higher processing speeds (because processing is done on the client and not the server) and slightly more security (as access to the server data is limited only to those with client software). Additionally, thick-client systems have also provided more interactivity and customization, though often at a greater learning curve. The disadvantages of client-side LIMS include the need for more robust client computers and more time-consuming upgrades, as well as a lack of base functionality through a web browser. The thick-client LIMS can become web-enabled through an add-on component.&#91;20&#93;&#91;21&#93;\nWeb-enabled\nA web-enabled LIMS architecture is essentially a thick-client architecture with an added web browser component. In this setup, the client-side software has additional functionality that allows users to interface with the software through their device's browser. This functionality is typically limited only to certain functions of the web client. The primary advantage of a web-enabled LIMS is the end-user can access data both on the client side and the server side of the configuration. As in a thick-client architecture, updates in the software must be propagated to every client machine. However, the added disadvantages of requiring always-on access to the host server and the need for cross-platform functionality mean that additional overhead costs may arise.&#91;20&#93;&#91;21&#93;\n\nThin-client \n The concept of cloud computing is one of the most recent architecture and delivery models to affect LIMS.A thin-client LIMS is a more modern architecture which offers full application functionality accessed through a device's web browser. The actual LIMS software resides on a server (host) which feeds and processes information without saving it to the user's hard disk. Any necessary changes, upgrades, and other modifications are handled by the entity hosting the server-side LIMS software, meaning all end-users see all changes made. To this end, a true thin-client LIMS will leave no \"footprint\" on the client's computer, and only the integrity of the web browser need be maintained by the user. The advantages of this system include significantly lower cost of ownership and fewer network and client-side maintenance expenses. However, this architecture has the disadvantage of requiring real-time server access, a need for increased network throughput, and slightly less functionality. A sort of hybrid architecture that incorporates the features of thin-client browser usage with a thick client installation exists in the form of a web-based LIMS.&#91;20&#93;&#91;21&#93;\nAdditionally, maintenance support and warranty (MSW) agreements are usually offered with thin-client installations. Pricing levels are typically based on a percentage of the license fee, with a standard level of service for 10 concurrent users being approximately 10 hours of support and additional customer service at a set per-hour rate. Though some may choose to opt out of an MSW after the first year, it's often more economical to continue the plan in order to receive updates to the LIMS, giving it a longer life span in the laboratory.\nCloud and SaaS\nIn the early 2010s, LIMS vendors began to rent hosted, thin-client solutions as \"software as a service\" (SaaS). These cloud-based solutions tended to be less configurable than on-premise solutions and were therefore considered for less demanding implementations such as laboratories with few users and limited sample processing volumes. However, cloud-based software has seen greater adoption as the technology has improved, and configurable LIMS for laboratory operations big and small have become a more realistic option.&#91;6&#93;&#91;7&#93;\n\nWeb-based \nArguably one of the most confusing architectures, web-based LIMS architecture is a hybrid of the thick- and thin-client architectures. While much of the client-side work is done through a web browser, the LIMS also requires the additional support of Microsoft's .NET Framework technology installed on the client device. The end result is a process that is apparent to the end-user through the Microrosoft-compatible web browser, but perhaps not so apparent as it runs thick-client-like processing in the background. In this case, web-based architecture has the advantage of providing more functionality through a more friendly web interface. The disadvantages of this setup are more sunk costs in system administration and support for Internet Explorer and .NET technologies, and reduced functionality on mobile platforms.&#91;20&#93;&#91;21&#93;\n\nLIMS configurability \nLIMS implementations are notorious for often being lengthy and costly.&#91;22&#93;&#91;dead link &#93; This is due in part to the diversity of requirements within each lab, but also to the inflexible nature of LIMS products for adapting to these widely varying requirements. The technology of LIMS solutions has improved as software design methodologies have improved, however, and many more configurable and adaptable options exist than previously. This means not only that implementations are much faster, but also that the costs are lower and the risk of obsolescence is minimized.\n\nThe distinction between a LIMS and a LIS \nHistorically, the LIMS and LIS have exhibited a few key differences, making them noticeably separate entities&#91;23&#93;:\n1. A LIMS traditionally has been designed to process and report data related to batches of samples from biology labs, water treatment facilities, drug trials, and other entities that handle complex batches of data. A LIS has been designed primarily for processing and reporting data related to individual patients in a clinical setting.&#91;24&#93;&#91;25&#93;\n2. A LIMS needs to satisfy good manufacturing practice (GMP) and meet the reporting and audit needs of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and research scientists in many different industries. A LIS, however, must satisfy the reporting and auditing needs of hospital accreditation agencies, HIPAA, and other clinical medical practitioners.&#91;24&#93;\n3. A LIMS is most competitive in group-centric settings (dealing with \"batches\" and \"samples\") that often deal with mostly anonymous research-specific laboratory data, whereas a LIS is usually most competitive in patient-centric settings (dealing with \"subjects\" and \"specimens\") and clinical labs.&#91;25&#93;&#91;26&#93;&#91;27&#93;\nHowever, these distinctions began to fade somewhat in the early 2010s as some LIMS vendors began to adopt the case-centric information management normally reserved for a LIS, blurring the lines between the two components further.&#91;27&#93; Thermo Scientific's Clinical LIMS was an example of this merger of LIMS with LIS, with Dave Champagne, informatics vice president and general manager, stating: \"Routine molecular diagnostics requires a convergence of the up-to-now separate systems that have managed work in the lab (the LIMS) and the clinic (the LIS). The industry is asking for, and the science is requiring, a single lab-centric solution that delivers patient-centric results.\"&#91;28&#93; Abbott Informatics Corporation's STARLIMS product was another example of this LIMS\/LIS merger.&#91;23&#93; With the distinction between the two entities becoming less clear, discussions within the laboratory informatics community began to includes the question of whether or not the two entities should be considered the same.&#91;29&#93;&#91;30&#93; As of 2017&#91;update&#93;, vendors continue to recognize the historical differences between the two products while also continuing to acknowledge that some developed LIMS are taking on more of the clinical aspects usually reserved for a LIS.&#91;31&#93;&#91;32&#93;&#91;33&#93;\n\nStandards affecting LIMS \nA LIMS' development and use is affected by standards such as:\n\nTitle 21 CFR Part 11 from the Food and Drug Administration (United States)\nISO 17025\nISO 15189\nGood laboratory practice\nLIMS vendors \nSee the LIMS vendor page for a list of LIMS vendors past and present.\n\nSee also \nLaboratory informatics\nCommon LIMS features\nFurther reading \nGibbon, G.A.&#32;(1996).&#32;\"A brief history of LIMS\".&#32;Laboratory Automation and Information Management&#32;32&#32;(1): 1\u20135.&#32;doi:10.1016\/1381-141X(95)00024-K. &#160; \nWood, S.&#32;(September 2007).&#32;\"Comprehensive Laboratory Informatics: A Multilayer Approach\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;American Laboratory.&#32;p. 1.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 25 August 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf . &#160; \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 \"So what is a LIMS?\".&#32;Laboratory Information Management.&#32;Sapio Sciences.&#32;28 July 2010.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 04 March 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304102056\/http:\/\/sapiosciences.blogspot.com\/2010\/07\/so-what-is-lims.html .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 McLelland, A.&#32;(1998).&#32;\"What is a LIMS - a laboratory toy, or a critical IT component?\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Royal Society of Chemistry.&#32;p. 1.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 04 October 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131004232754\/http:\/\/www.rsc.org\/pdf\/andiv\/tech.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Gibbon, G.A.&#32;(1996).&#32;\"A brief history of LIMS\".&#32;Laboratory Automation and Information Management&#32;32&#32;(1): 1\u20135.&#32;doi:10.1016\/1381-141X(95)00024-K. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Nagisetty, P.&#32;(2 November 2012).&#32;\"Is any one aware of a SaaS LIMS success story?\".&#32;LinkedIn.&#32;https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/feed\/update\/urn:li:groupPost:2069898-181604484\/ .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Mullin, R.&#32;(24 May 2010).&#32;\"LIMS in the Cloud\".&#32;Chemical &amp; Engineering News&#32;88&#32;(21): 12\u201316.&#32;http:\/\/cen.acs.org\/articles\/88\/i21\/LIMS-Cloud.html .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 Knippenberg, R.&#32;(9 May 2017).&#32;\"Moving your Lab IT Infrastructure to the Cloud? Consider Nearshoring\".&#32;Astrix Blog.&#32;Astrix Technology Group.&#32;https:\/\/astrixinc.com\/moving-lab-infrastructure-cloud-consider-nearshoring\/ .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 Joyce, J.&#32;(1 May 2017).&#32;\"What You and Your IT Team Should Know About the Cloud\".&#32;Lab Manager.&#32;LabX Media Group.&#32;https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/business-management\/what-you-and-your-it-team-should-know-about-the-cloud-3048 .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Markets and Markets&#32;(July 2018).&#32;\"Laboratory Information Management System Market by Type (Broad), Component (Software, Service), Deployment Model (On-premise, Remote, Cloud), Industry (CRO, CMO, Toxicology, Pharma, Biotech, Chemical, Agriculture, Oil, Gas) - Global Forecast to 2023\".&#32;MarketsandMarkets Research Private Ltd.&#32;https:\/\/www.marketsandmarkets.com\/Market-Reports\/laboratory-information-management-systems-market-250610373.html .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Skobelev, D.O.; Zaytseva, T.M.; Kozlov, A.D. et al.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Laboratory information management systems in the work of the analytic laboratory\".&#32;Measurement Techniques&#32;53&#32;(10): 1182\u20131189.&#32;doi:10.1007\/s11018-011-9638-7. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Zipp, K.&#32;(21 February 2007).&#32;\"Regulatory compliance drives LIMS\".&#32;Design World.&#32;WTWH Media, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.designworldonline.com\/Regulatory-compliance-drives-LIMS\/ .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Khan, Masood N.; Findlay, John W.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"11.6 Integration: Tying It All Together\".&#32;Ligand-Binding Assays: Development, Validation, and Implementation in the Drug Development Arena.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;324.&#32;ISBN&#160;0470041382.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QzM0LUMfdAkC .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 12.0 12.1 \"10 Ways LIMS Can Automate Your Lab\".&#32;CSols, Inc.&#32;9 February 2017.&#32;https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/10-ways-lims-can-automate-lab\/ .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 13.0 13.1 Audino, S.&#32;(7 February 2018).&#32;\"Managing Cannabis Testing Lab Workflows using LIMS\".&#32;Cannabis Industry Journal.&#32;https:\/\/cannabisindustryjournal.com\/feature_article\/managing-cannabis-testing-lab-workflows-using-lims\/ .&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2019 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wood, S.&#32;(September 2007).&#32;\"Comprehensive Laboratory Informatics: A Multilayer Approach\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;American Laboratory.&#32;p. 1.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 25 August 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Amazon Relational Database Service (RDS)\".&#32;Amazon Web Services, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/aws.amazon.com\/rds\/ .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Lardionois, F.&#32;(14 February 2017).&#32;\"Google launches Cloud Spanner, its new globally distributed relational database service\".&#32;TechCrunch.&#32;Oath, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2017\/02\/14\/google-launches-cloud-spanner-a-new-globally-distributed-database-service\/ .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Tennenhouse, E.&#32;(22 December 2016).&#32;\"2016 LIMS User Survey Results\".&#32;Lab Manager.&#32;LabX Media Group.&#32;https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/surveys\/how-our-readers-are-using-lims-4171 .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Barrington\u2013Light, D.&#32;(31 July 2017).&#32;\"Data Integrity Challenges in Pharmaceutical Manufacturing: Meeting Tomorrow\u2019s Guidelines Today\".&#32;Bioscience Technology.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 14 September 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170914180035\/https:\/\/www.biosciencetechnology.com\/article\/2017\/07\/data-integrity-challenges-pharmaceutical-manufacturing-meeting-tomorrows-guidelines-today .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 O'Leary, K.M.&#32;(11 August 2008).&#32;\"Selecting the Right LIMS: Critiquing technological strengths and limitations\".&#32;Scientific Computing.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 29 August 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160829104930\/https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2008\/08\/selecting-right-lims .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 \"How Differences in Technology Affect LIMS Functionality, Cost, &amp; ROI\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;LabVantage Solutions, Inc.&#32;2011.&#32;pp. 2\u20133.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 27 February 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140227052508\/http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/resources\/pdf\/whitepapers\/ThinClient1101JY21CYL.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Royce, J.R.&#32;(31 March 2010).&#32;\"Industry Insights: Examining the Risks, Benefits and Trade-offs of Today\u2019s LIMS\".&#32;Scientific Computing.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2010\/03\/industry-insights-examining-risks-benefits-and-trade-offs-today%E2%80%99s-lims .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 23.0 23.1 \"Adding \"Management\" to Your LIS\".&#32;STARLIMS Corporation.&#32;2012.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 28 April 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/ .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 24.0 24.1 Friedman, B.&#32;(4 November 2008).&#32;\"LIS vs. LIMS: It's Time to Blend the Two Types of Lab Information Systems\".&#32;Lab Soft News.&#32;http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html .&#32;Retrieved 07 November 2012 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 25.0 25.1 \"LIMS\/LIS Market and POCT Supplement\".&#32;analytica-world.com.&#32;20 February 2004.&#32;https:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Friedman, B.&#32;(19 November 2008).&#32;\"LIS vs. LIMS: Some New Insights\".&#32;Lab Soft News.&#32;http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html .&#32;Retrieved 07 November 2012 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 27.0 27.1 Hice, R.&#32;(1 July 2009).&#32;\"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\".&#32;STARLIMS Corporation.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 13 March 2011.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/ .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Tufel, G.&#32;(1 February 2012).&#32;\"Convergence of LIMS and LIS\".&#32;Clinical Lab Products.&#32;MEDQOR.&#32;https:\/\/clpmag.com\/lab-essentials\/information-technology\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jones, J.&#32;(March 2012).&#32;\"What is the difference between a LIS and a LIMS?\".&#32;LinkedIn.&#32;https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/feed\/update\/urn:li:groupPost:2069898-98494737\/ .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jones, John&#32;(September 2012).&#32;\"Are LIMS and LIS the same thing?\".&#32;LinkedIn.&#32;http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083 .&#32;Retrieved 07 November 2012 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"FAQ: What is the difference between a LIMS and a medical laboratory quality system?\".&#32;AgiLab SAS.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 25 March 2019.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190325075813\/http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/ .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Difference Between LIS and LIMS\".&#32;CloudLIMS.com, LLC.&#32;1 October 2016.&#32;https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html .&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Reisenwitz, C.&#32;(11 May 2017).&#32;\"What Is a Laboratory Information Management System?\".&#32;Capterra Medical Software Blog.&#32;Capterra, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system<\/a>\nCategories: All articles with dead external linksArticles with dead external linksArticles containing potentially dated statements from 2017All articles containing potentially dated statementsLaboratory informaticsSoftware systemsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 27 December 2023, at 22:54.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 158,317 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_information_management_system rootpage-Laboratory_information_management_system skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory information management system<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:362px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Icos_Laboratories.JPG\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"df3af756412e96d7e4d8a0386662df33\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/dd\/Icos_Laboratories.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"360\" height=\"270\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Icos_Laboratories.JPG\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"df3af756412e96d7e4d8a0386662df33\"><\/a><\/div>Laboratories around the world depend on a LIMS to manage data, assign rights, manage inventory, and more.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Sometimes referred to as a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information system<\/a> (LIS) or laboratory management system (LMS), a <b>laboratory information management system<\/b> (LIMS) is a software-based <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> and information management system that offers a set of key features that support a modern laboratory's operations. Those key features include\u2014but are not limited to\u2014<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a> and data tracking support, flexible architecture, and smart data exchange interfaces, which fully \"support its use in regulated environments.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SapioWhatIs10_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SapioWhatIs10-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The features and uses of a LIMS have evolved over the years from simple <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sample\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sample\" data-key=\"42caec2b3b43728966d776543d4f905f\">sample<\/a> tracking to an integrated application that handles both laboratory management and enterprise resource planning processes, from testing to marketing.\n<\/p><p>Due to the rapid pace at which laboratories and their data management needs shift, the definition of LIMS has become somewhat controversial. As the needs of the modern laboratory vary widely from lab to lab, what is needed from a laboratory information management system also shifts. The end result: the definition of a LIMS will shift based on who you ask and what their vision of the modern lab is.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SapioWhatIs10_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SapioWhatIs10-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Dr. Alan McLelland of the Institute of Biochemistry, Royal Infirmary, Glasgow highlighted this problem in the late 1990s by explaining how a LIMS is perceived by an analyst, a laboratory manager, an information systems manager, and an accountant, \"all of them correct, but each of them limited by the users' own perceptions.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McLelland98_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McLelland98-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Historically the term \"LIMS\" has tended to be used to reference informatics systems targeted for environmental, research, or commercial analysis such as pharmaceutical or petrochemical work. \"LIS\" has tended to be used to reference <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> systems in the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Forensic_science\" title=\"Forensic science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"415d36a7b65494677b6d2873d5febec1\">forensics<\/a> and clinical markets, which often required special case management tools. The process development execution system or \"PDES,\" while having similar functionality in some ways, has generally applied to a wider scope, including, for example, virtual manufacturing techniques, while not necessarily integrating with laboratory equipment. \n<\/p><p>In modern times, LIMS functionality has spread even farther beyond its original purpose of sample management. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Assay\" title=\"Assay\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea17cf4415e898e1838538495235ef71\">Assay<\/a> data management, data mining, data analysis, and the integration of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a> (ELNs) and third-party applications are all features that have been added to many LIMS, enabling the realization of translational medicine completely within a single software solution. Additionally, the distinction between a LIMS and a LIS has blurred, as many LIMS now also fully support comprehensive case-centric clinical specimen and patient data management.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_LIMS\">History of LIMS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Up until the late 1970s, management of laboratory samples and their associated analysis and reporting was a time-consuming manual processes often riddled with transcription errors. This gave some organizations impetus to streamline the collection of data and how it was reported. Custom in-house solutions were developed by a few individual laboratories, while some enterprising entities at the same time sought to develop a more commercial reporting solution in the form of special instrument-based systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSHistory-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>In 1982 the first generation of LIMS was introduced in the form of a single centralized minicomputer, which offered laboratories the first opportunity to utilize automated reporting tools. As the interest in these early LIMS grew, industry leaders like Gerst Gibbon of the Federal Energy Technology Centre in Pittsburgh began planting the seeds through LIMS-related conferences. By 1988, the second-generation commercial offerings were tapping into to expand LIMS into more application-specific territory, and international LIMS conferences were in full swing. As personal computers became more powerful and prominent, a third generation of LIMS emerged in the early 1990s. These new LIMS took advantage of the developing client\/server architecture, allowing laboratories to implement better data processing and exchanges.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSHistory-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By 1995, the client\/server tools had developed to the point of allowing processing of data anywhere on the network. Web-enabled LIMS were introduced the following year, enabling researchers to extend operations outside the confines of the laboratory. From 1996 to 2002 additional functionality was included in LIMS, from wireless networking capabilities and georeferencing of samples, to the adoption of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/XML\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"XML\" data-key=\"fda82e3b4db7e4b2856b016933a1d2d1\">XML<\/a> standards and the development of internet purchasing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSHistory-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By the early 2010s, some LIMS had added additional characteristics that continued to shape how a LIMS was defined. Examples include the addition of clinical functionality and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN) functionality, as well a rise in the cloud-based <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> (SaaS) distribution model.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LinkedInSaaSModel_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LinkedInSaaSModel-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MullinLIMS10_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MullinLIMS10-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> By the late 2010s, cloud-based LIMS were more numerous in quantity and adoption but not the <i>de facto<\/i> standard, as the costs and daunting nature associated with vendors transitioning legacy products to the cloud and with companies trying to integrate a cloud-based LIMS into a complicated IT environment have partially stymied growth.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KnippenbergMoving17_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KnippenbergMoving17-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JoyceWhatYou17_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JoyceWhatYou17-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Despite these challenges, market research companies such as Markets and Markets believe that cloud-based version of the LIMS will see the highest growth rate in the coming years, citing \"on-demand self-serving analytics, ease of use, affordability, reliability, no upfront capital investment for hardware, adaptability &amp; flexibility, and a pay-as-you-go pricing model\" as primary drivers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MMLab18_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MMLab18-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technology\">Technology<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laboratory_information_management_operations\">Laboratory information management operations<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The LIMS is an evolving concept, with new features and functionality being added often. As laboratory demands change and technological progress continues, the functions of a LIMS will likely also change. Despite these changes, a LIMS tends to have a base set of functionality that defines it. That functionality can roughly be divided into five laboratory processing phases, with numerous software functions falling under each<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MT5310_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MT5310-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>: \n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the reception and log in of a sample and its associated customer data;<\/li>\n<li>the assignment, scheduling, and tracking of the sample and the associated analytical workload;<\/li>\n<li>the processing and quality control associated with the sample and the utilized equipment and inventory;<\/li>\n<li>the storage of data associated with the sample analysis; and<\/li>\n<li>the inspection, approval, and compilation of the sample data for reporting and\/or further analysis.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>There are several pieces of core functionality associated with these laboratory processing phases that tend to appear in most LIMS.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_management\">Sample management<\/span><\/h4>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:262px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Lab_worker_with_blood_samples.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac71dd0bf91f76184b94b6846272a6fc\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/57\/Lab_worker_with_blood_samples.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"260\" height=\"211\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Lab_worker_with_blood_samples.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"ac71dd0bf91f76184b94b6846272a6fc\"><\/a><\/div>A lab worker matches blood samples to documents. With a LIMS, this sort of sample management is made more efficient.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The core function of LIMS has traditionally been the management of samples.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSHistory-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This typically is initiated when a sample is received in the laboratory, at which point the sample will be registered in the LIMS. This registration process may involve <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Accessioning_(medical)\" title=\"Accessioning (medical)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3a1f1a5d35fd9152d82893878bf9aa1\">accessioning<\/a> the sample and producing <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode\" title=\"Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355\">barcodes<\/a> to affix to the sample container. Various other parameters such as clinical or phenotypic <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> corresponding with the sample are also often recorded. The LIMS then tracks chain of custody (CoC) as well as sample location. Location tracking usually involves assigning the sample to a particular freezer location, often down to the granular level of shelf, rack, box, row, and column. Other event tracking such as freeze and thaw cycles that a sample undergoes in the laboratory may also be required.\n<\/p><p>Modern LIMS have implemented extensive configurability, as each laboratory's needs for tracking additional data points can vary widely. LIMS vendors cannot typically make assumptions about what these data tracking needs are, and therefore vendors often create LIMS that are adaptable to individual environments. This typically involves the inclusion of workflow management tools in the LIMS. Users may also have regulatory concerns to comply with such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/CLIA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CLIA\" data-key=\"9c0b9bbf5c8d2310833a79d137ac621e\">CLIA<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HIPAA\" data-key=\"70050974d1eda9ff8cf9ecf7e4fcd015\">HIPAA<\/a>, good laboratory practice (GLP), and FDA specifications, affecting certain aspects of sample management in a LIMS solution.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegCompLIMS_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegCompLIMS-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> One key to compliance with many of these standards is audit logging of all changes to LIMS data, and in some cases a full electronic signature system is required for rigorous tracking of field-level changes to LIMS data.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Instrument_and_application_integration\">Instrument and application integration<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Modern LIMS offer integration with laboratory instruments as standard. A LIMS may create control files that are \"fed\" into the instrument and direct its operation on some physical item such as a sample tube or sample plate. The LIMS may then import instrument results files to extract data for quality control assessment of the operation on the sample. Access to the instrument data can sometimes be regulated based on chain of custody assignments or other security features if need be.\n<\/p><p>In addition, a LIMS typically allows for the import and management of raw assay data results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LBAssays_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LBAssays-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Modern targeted assays such as qPCR and deep <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sequencing\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Sequencing\" data-key=\"e36167a9eb152ca16a0c4c4e6d13f323\">sequencing<\/a> can produce tens of thousands of data points per sample. Furthermore, in the case of drug and diagnostic development, a dozen or more assays may be run for each sample. In order to track this data, a LIMS solution needs to be adaptable to many different assay formats at both the data layer and import creation layer, while maintaining a high level of overall performance.\n<\/p><p>Increasingly, a LIMS also provides the ability to integrate with third-party applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Enterprise_resource_planning\" title=\"Enterprise resource planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b\">enterprise resource planning<\/a> systems or regulatory compliance systems (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Seed-to-sale\" title=\"Seed-to-sale\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"568ade15948dfeb6fe22ea061965ecfd\">seed-to-sale<\/a> reporting systems for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cannabis\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Cannabis\" data-key=\"ae3a33525e4682427d4498e16c586f9e\">cannabis<\/a> testing).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CSols10Ways17_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CSols10Ways17-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AudinoManaging18_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AudinoManaging18-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This integration is typically achieved through the use of an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Application_programming_interface\" title=\"Application programming interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934\">application programming interface<\/a> (API)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CSols10Ways17_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CSols10Ways17-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AudinoManaging18_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AudinoManaging18-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, code which serves as an interface between different software programs and facilitates their interaction.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Electronic_data_exchange\">Electronic data exchange<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The exponentially growing volume of data created in laboratories, coupled with increased business demands and focus on profitability, have pushed LIMS vendors to increase attention to how their LIMS handles electronic data exchanges. Attention must be paid to how an instrument's input and output data is managed, how remote sample collection data is imported and exported, and how mobile and other third-party applications integrate with the LIMS. The successful transfer of data files in a wide variety of formats, while maintaining the associated metadata and keeping it secure, is paramount. Historically speaking, the transition \"from proprietary databases to standardized database management systems such as Oracle ... and SQL\" has had significant impact on how data is managed and exchanged in laboratories<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WoodCompLabInfo_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WoodCompLabInfo-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, culminating today in cloud-based relational and NOSQL databases that can be set up, operated, and scaled with relative ease.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AWSAmazonRDS_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AWSAmazonRDS-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LardinoisGoogle17_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LardinoisGoogle17-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Additional_functions\">Additional functions<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Aside from the key functions of sample management, instrument and application integration, and electronic data exchange, there are numerous additional operations that can be managed in a LIMS. This includes but is not limited to<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTM_E1578_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTM_E1578-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TennenhouseHowOur16_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TennenhouseHowOur16-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Barrington-LightDataInt17_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Barrington-LightDataInt17-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt> management<\/dt>\n<dd>fully track and maintain an audit trail<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode\" title=\"Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355\">barcode<\/a> handling<\/dt>\n<dd>assign one or more data points to a barcode format; read and extract information from a barcode<\/dd>\n<dt>chain of custody<\/dt>\n<dd>assign roles and groups that dictate access to specific data records and who is managing them<\/dd>\n<dt>compliance<\/dt>\n<dd>follow regulatory standards that affect the laboratory<\/dd>\n<dt>customer relationship management<\/dt>\n<dd>handle the demographic information and communications for associated clients<\/dd>\n<dt>document management<\/dt>\n<dd>process and convert data to certain formats; manage how documents are distributed and accessed<\/dd>\n<dt>instrument calibration and maintenance<\/dt>\n<dd>schedule important maintenance and calibration of lab instruments and keep detailed records of such activities<\/dd>\n<dt>inventory and equipment management<\/dt>\n<dd>measure and record inventories of vital supplies and laboratory equipment<\/dd>\n<dt>manual and electronic data entry<\/dt>\n<dd>provide fast and reliable interfaces for data to be entered by a human or electronic component<\/dd>\n<dt>method management<\/dt>\n<dd>provide one location for all laboratory process and procedure (P&amp;P) and methodology to be housed and managed<\/dd>\n<dt>personnel and workload management<\/dt>\n<dd>organize work schedules, workload assignments, employee demographic information, and financial information<\/dd>\n<dt>quality assurance and control<\/dt>\n<dd>gauge and control sample quality, data entry standards, and workflow; reports<\/dd>\n<dd>create and schedule reports in a specific format; schedule and distribute reports to designated parties<\/dd>\n<dt>time tracking and performance assessment<\/dt>\n<dd>calculate and maintain processing and handling times on chemical reactions and workflows while assessing analyst, instrument, or test performance<\/dd>\n<dt>data mining<\/dt>\n<dd>search a wide variety of data repositories and their associated metadata to make and improve on research insights<\/dd>\n<dt>invoicing and sales<\/dt>\n<dd>provide an integrated structure to bill clients directly and track sales activity<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMS_architecture_and_delivery_methods\">LIMS architecture and delivery methods<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS has utilized many architectures and distribution models over the years. As technology has changed, how a LIMS is installed, managed, and utilized has also changed with it.\n<\/p><p><b>The following represents architectures which have been utilized at one point or another:<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Thick-client\">Thick-client<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>A thick-client LIMS is a more traditional client\/server architecture, with some of the system residing on the computer or workstation of the user (the client) and the rest on the server. The LIMS software is installed on the client computer, which does all of the data processing. Later it passes information to the server, which has the primary purpose of data storage. Most changes, upgrades, and other modifications will happen on the client side. \n<\/p><p>This was one of the first architectures implemented into a LIMS, having the advantage of providing higher processing speeds (because processing is done on the client and not the server) and slightly more security (as access to the server data is limited only to those with client software). Additionally, thick-client systems have also provided more interactivity and customization, though often at a greater learning curve. The disadvantages of client-side LIMS include the need for more robust client computers and more time-consuming upgrades, as well as a lack of base functionality through a web browser. The thick-client LIMS can become web-enabled through an add-on component.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabVantageDifInTech_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabVantageDifInTech-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>Web-enabled<\/b>\n<\/p><p>A web-enabled LIMS architecture is essentially a thick-client architecture with an added web browser component. In this setup, the client-side software has additional functionality that allows users to interface with the software through their device's browser. This functionality is typically limited only to certain functions of the web client. The primary advantage of a web-enabled LIMS is the end-user can access data both on the client side and the server side of the configuration. As in a thick-client architecture, updates in the software must be propagated to every client machine. However, the added disadvantages of requiring always-on access to the host server and the need for cross-platform functionality mean that additional overhead costs may arise.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabVantageDifInTech_21-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabVantageDifInTech-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Thin-client\">Thin-client<\/span><\/h4>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:362px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Cloud_computing.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"68b2398137bd2f9af0e50289acecc0e7\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b5\/Cloud_computing.svg\/360px-Cloud_computing.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"360\" height=\"326\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Cloud_computing.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"68b2398137bd2f9af0e50289acecc0e7\"><\/a><\/div>The concept of cloud computing is one of the most recent architecture and delivery models to affect LIMS.<\/div><\/div><\/div><p>A thin-client LIMS is a more modern architecture which offers full application functionality accessed through a device's web browser. The actual LIMS software resides on a server (host) which feeds and processes information without saving it to the user's hard disk. Any necessary changes, upgrades, and other modifications are handled by the entity hosting the server-side LIMS software, meaning all end-users see all changes made. To this end, a true thin-client LIMS will leave no \"footprint\" on the client's computer, and only the integrity of the web browser need be maintained by the user. The advantages of this system include significantly lower cost of ownership and fewer network and client-side maintenance expenses. However, this architecture has the disadvantage of requiring real-time server access, a need for increased network throughput, and slightly less functionality. A sort of hybrid architecture that incorporates the features of thin-client browser usage with a thick client installation exists in the form of a web-based LIMS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp_20-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabVantageDifInTech_21-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabVantageDifInTech-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Additionally, maintenance support and warranty (MSW) agreements are usually offered with thin-client installations. Pricing levels are typically based on a percentage of the license fee, with a standard level of service for 10 concurrent users being approximately 10 hours of support and additional customer service at a set per-hour rate. Though some may choose to opt out of an MSW after the first year, it's often more economical to continue the plan in order to receive updates to the LIMS, giving it a longer life span in the laboratory.\n<\/p><p><b>Cloud and SaaS<\/b>\n<\/p><p>In the early 2010s, LIMS vendors began to rent hosted, thin-client solutions as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a>\" (SaaS). These cloud-based solutions tended to be less configurable than on-premise solutions and were therefore considered for less demanding implementations such as laboratories with few users and limited sample processing volumes. However, cloud-based software has seen greater adoption as the technology has improved, and configurable LIMS for laboratory operations big and small have become a more realistic option.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KnippenbergMoving17_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KnippenbergMoving17-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JoyceWhatYou17_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JoyceWhatYou17-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Web-based\">Web-based<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Arguably one of the most confusing architectures, web-based LIMS architecture is a hybrid of the thick- and thin-client architectures. While much of the client-side work is done through a web browser, the LIMS also requires the additional support of Microsoft's .NET Framework technology installed on the client device. The end result is a process that is apparent to the end-user through the Microrosoft-compatible web browser, but perhaps not so apparent as it runs thick-client-like processing in the background. In this case, web-based architecture has the advantage of providing more functionality through a more friendly web interface. The disadvantages of this setup are more sunk costs in system administration and support for Internet Explorer and .NET technologies, and reduced functionality on mobile platforms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp_20-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabVantageDifInTech_21-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabVantageDifInTech-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMS_configurability\">LIMS configurability<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>LIMS implementations are notorious for often being lengthy and costly.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompRisksBens_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompRisksBens-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">&#91;<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Wikipedia:Link rot\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\"\">dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>&#93;<\/span><\/sup> This is due in part to the diversity of requirements within each lab, but also to the inflexible nature of LIMS products for adapting to these widely varying requirements. The technology of LIMS solutions has improved as software design methodologies have improved, however, and many more configurable and adaptable options exist than previously. This means not only that implementations are much faster, but also that the costs are lower and the risk of obsolescence is minimized.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_distinction_between_a_LIMS_and_a_LIS\">The distinction between a LIMS and a LIS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Historically, the LIMS and LIS have exhibited a few key differences, making them noticeably separate entities<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StarlimsLimsLis-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p>1. A LIMS traditionally has been designed to process and report data related to batches of samples from biology labs, water treatment facilities, drug trials, and other entities that handle complex batches of data. A LIS has been designed primarily for processing and reporting data related to individual patients in a clinical setting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lislims1_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lislims1-24\">&#91;24&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-analytica_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-analytica-25\">&#91;25&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>2. A LIMS needs to satisfy good manufacturing practice (GMP) and meet the reporting and audit needs of the U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> and research scientists in many different industries. A LIS, however, must satisfy the reporting and auditing needs of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital\" title=\"Hospital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f070c66d8123fe91063594befebdff\">hospital<\/a> accreditation agencies, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HIPAA\" data-key=\"70050974d1eda9ff8cf9ecf7e4fcd015\">HIPAA<\/a>, and other clinical medical practitioners.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lislims1_24-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lislims1-24\">&#91;24&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>3. A LIMS is most competitive in group-centric settings (dealing with \"batches\" and \"samples\") that often deal with mostly anonymous research-specific laboratory data, whereas a LIS is usually most competitive in patient-centric settings (dealing with \"subjects\" and \"specimens\") and clinical labs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-analytica_25-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-analytica-25\">&#91;25&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lislims2_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lislims2-26\">&#91;26&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-starlims_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-starlims-27\">&#91;27&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, these distinctions began to fade somewhat in the early 2010s as some LIMS vendors began to adopt the case-centric information management normally reserved for a LIS, blurring the lines between the two components further.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-starlims_27-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-starlims-27\">&#91;27&#93;<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Thermo_Scientific\" title=\"Thermo Scientific\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e914753f99d483d4577b35fed71b3c94\">Thermo Scientific<\/a>'s Clinical LIMS was an example of this merger of LIMS with LIS, with Dave Champagne, informatics vice president and general manager, stating: \"Routine molecular diagnostics requires a convergence of the up-to-now separate systems that have managed work in the lab (the LIMS) and the clinic (the LIS). The industry is asking for, and the science is requiring, a single lab-centric solution that delivers patient-centric results.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ConvergeLimsLis_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ConvergeLimsLis-28\">&#91;28&#93;<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\" title=\"Abbott Informatics Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90479bab12020c96864541696a62156f\">Abbott Informatics Corporation<\/a>'s STARLIMS product was another example of this LIMS\/LIS merger.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StarlimsLimsLis-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup> With the distinction between the two entities becoming less clear, discussions within the laboratory informatics community began to includes the question of whether or not the two entities should be considered the same.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LinkedInDifLisLims_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LinkedInDifLisLims-29\">&#91;29&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LinkedInLisLimsSame_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LinkedInLisLimsSame-30\">&#91;30&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As of 2017<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, vendors continue to recognize the historical differences between the two products while also continuing to acknowledge that some developed LIMS are taking on more of the clinical aspects usually reserved for a LIS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AgilabFAQ_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AgilabFAQ-31\">&#91;31&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudLISDifference16_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudLISDifference16-32\">&#91;32&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReisenwitzWhatIs17_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReisenwitzWhatIs17-33\">&#91;33&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards_affecting_LIMS\">Standards affecting LIMS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A LIMS' development and use is affected by standards such as:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">Title 21 CFR Part 11<\/a> from the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> (United States)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_17025\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 17025\" data-key=\"e8525a8d5d35bc9c3c1015749eb8de05\">ISO 17025<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189\" title=\"ISO 15189\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2\">ISO 15189<\/a><\/li>\n<li><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMS_vendors\">LIMS vendors<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>See the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_vendor\" title=\"LIMS vendor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08236f0cd1dbb49b88a9624fcc944f20\">LIMS vendor<\/a> page for a list of LIMS vendors past and present.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">Laboratory informatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa\">Common LIMS features<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation Journal\">Gibbon, G.A.&#32;(1996).&#32;\"A brief history of LIMS\".&#32;<i>Laboratory Automation and Information Management<\/i>&#32;<b>32<\/b>&#32;(1): 1\u20135.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2F1381-141X%2895%2900024-K\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/1381-141X(95)00024-K<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+LIMS&amp;rft.jtitle=Laboratory+Automation+and+Information+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Gibbon%2C+G.A.&amp;rft.au=Gibbon%2C+G.A.&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.volume=32&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=1%E2%80%935&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2F1381-141X%2895%2900024-K&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">Wood, S.&#32;(September 2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comprehensive Laboratory Informatics: A Multilayer Approach\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>American Laboratory<\/i>.&#32;p. 1.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 25 August 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Comprehensive+Laboratory+Informatics%3A+A+Multilayer+Approach&amp;rft.atitle=American+Laboratory&amp;rft.aulast=Wood%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Wood%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=September+2007&amp;rft.pages=p.+1&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170825181932%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.it.uu.se%2Fedu%2Fcourse%2Fhomepage%2Flims%2Fvt12%2FComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-SapioWhatIs10-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SapioWhatIs10_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SapioWhatIs10_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304102056\/http:\/\/sapiosciences.blogspot.com\/2010\/07\/so-what-is-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"So what is a LIMS?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Laboratory Information Management<\/i>.&#32;Sapio Sciences.&#32;28 July 2010.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sapiosciences.blogspot.com\/2010\/07\/so-what-is-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 04 March 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304102056\/http:\/\/sapiosciences.blogspot.com\/2010\/07\/so-what-is-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304102056\/http:\/\/sapiosciences.blogspot.com\/2010\/07\/so-what-is-lims.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=So+what+is+a+LIMS%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+Information+Management&amp;rft.date=28+July+2010&amp;rft.pub=Sapio+Sciences&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160304102056%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fsapiosciences.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F07%2Fso-what-is-lims.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McLelland98-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-McLelland98_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">McLelland, A.&#32;(1998).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131004232754\/http:\/\/www.rsc.org\/pdf\/andiv\/tech.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is a LIMS - a laboratory toy, or a critical IT component?\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Royal Society of Chemistry.&#32;p. 1.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rsc.org\/pdf\/andiv\/tech.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 04 October 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131004232754\/http:\/\/www.rsc.org\/pdf\/andiv\/tech.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131004232754\/http:\/\/www.rsc.org\/pdf\/andiv\/tech.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+a+LIMS+-+a+laboratory+toy%2C+or+a+critical+IT+component%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=McLelland%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=McLelland%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.pages=p.+1&amp;rft.pub=Royal+Society+of+Chemistry&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20131004232754%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.rsc.org%2Fpdf%2Fandiv%2Ftech.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LIMSHistory-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-2\">3.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-3\">3.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Gibbon, G.A.&#32;(1996).&#32;\"A brief history of LIMS\".&#32;<i>Laboratory Automation and Information Management<\/i>&#32;<b>32<\/b>&#32;(1): 1\u20135.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2F1381-141X%2895%2900024-K\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/1381-141X(95)00024-K<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+LIMS&amp;rft.jtitle=Laboratory+Automation+and+Information+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Gibbon%2C+G.A.&amp;rft.au=Gibbon%2C+G.A.&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.volume=32&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=1%E2%80%935&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2F1381-141X%2895%2900024-K&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LinkedInSaaSModel-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LinkedInSaaSModel_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Nagisetty, P.&#32;(2 November 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/feed\/update\/urn:li:groupPost:2069898-181604484\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is any one aware of a SaaS LIMS success story?\"<\/a>.&#32;LinkedIn<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/feed\/update\/urn:li:groupPost:2069898-181604484\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/feed\/update\/urn:li:groupPost:2069898-181604484\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Is+any+one+aware+of+a+SaaS+LIMS+success+story%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Nagisetty%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Nagisetty%2C+P.&amp;rft.date=2+November+2012&amp;rft.pub=LinkedIn&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linkedin.com%2Ffeed%2Fupdate%2Furn%3Ali%3AgroupPost%3A2069898-181604484%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MullinLIMS10-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MullinLIMS10_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Mullin, R.&#32;(24 May 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/cen.acs.org\/articles\/88\/i21\/LIMS-Cloud.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS in the Cloud\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Chemical &amp; Engineering News<\/i>&#32;<b>88<\/b>&#32;(21): 12\u201316<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/cen.acs.org\/articles\/88\/i21\/LIMS-Cloud.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/cen.acs.org\/articles\/88\/i21\/LIMS-Cloud.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=LIMS+in+the+Cloud&amp;rft.jtitle=Chemical+%26+Engineering+News&amp;rft.aulast=Mullin%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Mullin%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=24+May+2010&amp;rft.volume=88&amp;rft.issue=21&amp;rft.pages=12%E2%80%9316&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcen.acs.org%2Farticles%2F88%2Fi21%2FLIMS-Cloud.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KnippenbergMoving17-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KnippenbergMoving17_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KnippenbergMoving17_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Knippenberg, R.&#32;(9 May 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/astrixinc.com\/moving-lab-infrastructure-cloud-consider-nearshoring\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Moving your Lab IT Infrastructure to the Cloud? Consider Nearshoring\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Astrix Blog<\/i>.&#32;Astrix Technology Group<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/astrixinc.com\/moving-lab-infrastructure-cloud-consider-nearshoring\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/astrixinc.com\/moving-lab-infrastructure-cloud-consider-nearshoring\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Moving+your+Lab+IT+Infrastructure+to+the+Cloud%3F+Consider+Nearshoring&amp;rft.atitle=Astrix+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Knippenberg%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Knippenberg%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=9+May+2017&amp;rft.pub=Astrix+Technology+Group&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fastrixinc.com%2Fmoving-lab-infrastructure-cloud-consider-nearshoring%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JoyceWhatYou17-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-JoyceWhatYou17_7-0\">7.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-JoyceWhatYou17_7-1\">7.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Joyce, J.&#32;(1 May 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/business-management\/what-you-and-your-it-team-should-know-about-the-cloud-3048\" target=\"_blank\">\"What You and Your IT Team Should Know About the Cloud\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Lab Manager<\/i>.&#32;LabX Media Group<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/business-management\/what-you-and-your-it-team-should-know-about-the-cloud-3048\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/business-management\/what-you-and-your-it-team-should-know-about-the-cloud-3048<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+You+and+Your+IT+Team+Should+Know+About+the+Cloud&amp;rft.atitle=Lab+Manager&amp;rft.aulast=Joyce%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Joyce%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=1+May+2017&amp;rft.pub=LabX+Media+Group&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labmanager.com%2Fbusiness-management%2Fwhat-you-and-your-it-team-should-know-about-the-cloud-3048&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MMLab18-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MMLab18_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Markets and Markets&#32;(July 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.marketsandmarkets.com\/Market-Reports\/laboratory-information-management-systems-market-250610373.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Information Management System Market by Type (Broad), Component (Software, Service), Deployment Model (On-premise, Remote, Cloud), Industry (CRO, CMO, Toxicology, Pharma, Biotech, Chemical, Agriculture, Oil, Gas) - Global Forecast to 2023\"<\/a>.&#32;MarketsandMarkets Research Private Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.marketsandmarkets.com\/Market-Reports\/laboratory-information-management-systems-market-250610373.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.marketsandmarkets.com\/Market-Reports\/laboratory-information-management-systems-market-250610373.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Laboratory+Information+Management+System+Market+by+Type+%28Broad%29%2C+Component+%28Software%2C+Service%29%2C+Deployment+Model+%28On-premise%2C+Remote%2C+Cloud%29%2C+Industry+%28CRO%2C+CMO%2C+Toxicology%2C+Pharma%2C+Biotech%2C+Chemical%2C+Agriculture%2C+Oil%2C+Gas%29+-+Global+Forecast+to+2023&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Markets+and+Markets&amp;rft.au=Markets+and+Markets&amp;rft.date=July+2018&amp;rft.pub=MarketsandMarkets+Research+Private+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marketsandmarkets.com%2FMarket-Reports%2Flaboratory-information-management-systems-market-250610373.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MT5310-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MT5310_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Skobelev, D.O.; Zaytseva, T.M.; Kozlov, A.D. et al.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Laboratory information management systems in the work of the analytic laboratory\".&#32;<i>Measurement Techniques<\/i>&#32;<b>53<\/b>&#32;(10): 1182\u20131189.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs11018-011-9638-7\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s11018-011-9638-7<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+information+management+systems+in+the+work+of+the+analytic+laboratory&amp;rft.jtitle=Measurement+Techniques&amp;rft.aulast=Skobelev%2C+D.O.%3B+Zaytseva%2C+T.M.%3B+Kozlov%2C+A.D.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Skobelev%2C+D.O.%3B+Zaytseva%2C+T.M.%3B+Kozlov%2C+A.D.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.volume=53&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=1182%E2%80%931189&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1007%2Fs11018-011-9638-7&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RegCompLIMS-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegCompLIMS_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Zipp, K.&#32;(21 February 2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.designworldonline.com\/Regulatory-compliance-drives-LIMS\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Regulatory compliance drives LIMS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Design World<\/i>.&#32;WTWH Media, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.designworldonline.com\/Regulatory-compliance-drives-LIMS\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.designworldonline.com\/Regulatory-compliance-drives-LIMS\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Regulatory+compliance+drives+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=Design+World&amp;rft.aulast=Zipp%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Zipp%2C+K.&amp;rft.date=21+February+2007&amp;rft.pub=WTWH+Media%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.designworldonline.com%2FRegulatory-compliance-drives-LIMS%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LBAssays-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LBAssays_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Khan, Masood N.; Findlay, John W.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QzM0LUMfdAkC\" target=\"_blank\">\"11.6 Integration: Tying It All Together\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Ligand-Binding Assays: Development, Validation, and Implementation in the Drug Development Arena<\/i>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;324.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0470041382<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QzM0LUMfdAkC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QzM0LUMfdAkC<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=11.6+Integration%3A+Tying+It+All+Together&amp;rft.atitle=Ligand-Binding+Assays%3A+Development%2C+Validation%2C+and+Implementation+in+the+Drug+Development+Arena&amp;rft.aulast=Khan%2C+Masood+N.%3B+Findlay%2C+John+W.&amp;rft.au=Khan%2C+Masood+N.%3B+Findlay%2C+John+W.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B324&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=0470041382&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQzM0LUMfdAkC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CSols10Ways17-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CSols10Ways17_12-0\">12.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CSols10Ways17_12-1\">12.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/10-ways-lims-can-automate-lab\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"10 Ways LIMS Can Automate Your Lab\"<\/a>.&#32;CSols, Inc.&#32;9 February 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/10-ways-lims-can-automate-lab\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/10-ways-lims-can-automate-lab\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=10+Ways+LIMS+Can+Automate+Your+Lab&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=9+February+2017&amp;rft.pub=CSols%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csolsinc.com%2Fblog%2F10-ways-lims-can-automate-lab%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AudinoManaging18-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AudinoManaging18_13-0\">13.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AudinoManaging18_13-1\">13.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Audino, S.&#32;(7 February 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cannabisindustryjournal.com\/feature_article\/managing-cannabis-testing-lab-workflows-using-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Managing Cannabis Testing Lab Workflows using LIMS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Cannabis Industry Journal<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cannabisindustryjournal.com\/feature_article\/managing-cannabis-testing-lab-workflows-using-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cannabisindustryjournal.com\/feature_article\/managing-cannabis-testing-lab-workflows-using-lims\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 13 March 2019<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Managing+Cannabis+Testing+Lab+Workflows+using+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=Cannabis+Industry+Journal&amp;rft.aulast=Audino%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Audino%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=7+February+2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcannabisindustryjournal.com%2Ffeature_article%2Fmanaging-cannabis-testing-lab-workflows-using-lims%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WoodCompLabInfo-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WoodCompLabInfo_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wood, S.&#32;(September 2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comprehensive Laboratory Informatics: A Multilayer Approach\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>American Laboratory<\/i>.&#32;p. 1.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 25 August 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Comprehensive+Laboratory+Informatics%3A+A+Multilayer+Approach&amp;rft.atitle=American+Laboratory&amp;rft.aulast=Wood%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Wood%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=September+2007&amp;rft.pages=p.+1&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170825181932%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.it.uu.se%2Fedu%2Fcourse%2Fhomepage%2Flims%2Fvt12%2FComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AWSAmazonRDS-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AWSAmazonRDS_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/aws.amazon.com\/rds\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Amazon Relational Database Service (RDS)\"<\/a>.&#32;Amazon Web Services, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/aws.amazon.com\/rds\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/aws.amazon.com\/rds\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Amazon+Relational+Database+Service+%28RDS%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Amazon+Web+Services%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faws.amazon.com%2Frds%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LardinoisGoogle17-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LardinoisGoogle17_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Lardionois, F.&#32;(14 February 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2017\/02\/14\/google-launches-cloud-spanner-a-new-globally-distributed-database-service\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Google launches Cloud Spanner, its new globally distributed relational database service\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>TechCrunch<\/i>.&#32;Oath, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2017\/02\/14\/google-launches-cloud-spanner-a-new-globally-distributed-database-service\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2017\/02\/14\/google-launches-cloud-spanner-a-new-globally-distributed-database-service\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Google+launches+Cloud+Spanner%2C+its+new+globally+distributed+relational+database+service&amp;rft.atitle=TechCrunch&amp;rft.aulast=Lardionois%2C+F.&amp;rft.au=Lardionois%2C+F.&amp;rft.date=14+February+2017&amp;rft.pub=Oath%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechcrunch.com%2F2017%2F02%2F14%2Fgoogle-launches-cloud-spanner-a-new-globally-distributed-database-service%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTM_E1578-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTM_E1578_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578-18+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2Fe1578-18.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TennenhouseHowOur16-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TennenhouseHowOur16_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Tennenhouse, E.&#32;(22 December 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/surveys\/how-our-readers-are-using-lims-4171\" target=\"_blank\">\"2016 LIMS User Survey Results\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Lab Manager<\/i>.&#32;LabX Media Group<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/surveys\/how-our-readers-are-using-lims-4171\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/surveys\/how-our-readers-are-using-lims-4171<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=2016+LIMS+User+Survey+Results&amp;rft.atitle=Lab+Manager&amp;rft.aulast=Tennenhouse%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Tennenhouse%2C+E.&amp;rft.date=22+December+2016&amp;rft.pub=LabX+Media+Group&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labmanager.com%2Fsurveys%2Fhow-our-readers-are-using-lims-4171&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Barrington-LightDataInt17-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Barrington-LightDataInt17_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Barrington\u2013Light, D.&#32;(31 July 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170914180035\/https:\/\/www.biosciencetechnology.com\/article\/2017\/07\/data-integrity-challenges-pharmaceutical-manufacturing-meeting-tomorrows-guidelines-today\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Integrity Challenges in Pharmaceutical Manufacturing: Meeting Tomorrow\u2019s Guidelines Today\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Bioscience Technology<\/i>.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.biosciencetechnology.com\/article\/2017\/07\/data-integrity-challenges-pharmaceutical-manufacturing-meeting-tomorrows-guidelines-today\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 14 September 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170914180035\/https:\/\/www.biosciencetechnology.com\/article\/2017\/07\/data-integrity-challenges-pharmaceutical-manufacturing-meeting-tomorrows-guidelines-today\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170914180035\/https:\/\/www.biosciencetechnology.com\/article\/2017\/07\/data-integrity-challenges-pharmaceutical-manufacturing-meeting-tomorrows-guidelines-today<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Data+Integrity+Challenges+in+Pharmaceutical+Manufacturing%3A+Meeting+Tomorrow%E2%80%99s+Guidelines+Today&amp;rft.atitle=Bioscience+Technology&amp;rft.aulast=Barrington%E2%80%93Light%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Barrington%E2%80%93Light%2C+D.&amp;rft.date=31+July+2017&amp;rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170914180035%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.biosciencetechnology.com%2Farticle%2F2017%2F07%2Fdata-integrity-challenges-pharmaceutical-manufacturing-meeting-tomorrows-guidelines-today&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciComp-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciComp_20-0\">20.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciComp_20-1\">20.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciComp_20-2\">20.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciComp_20-3\">20.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">O'Leary, K.M.&#32;(11 August 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160829104930\/https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2008\/08\/selecting-right-lims\" target=\"_blank\">\"Selecting the Right LIMS: Critiquing technological strengths and limitations\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing<\/i>.&#32;Advantage Business Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2008\/08\/selecting-right-lims\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 29 August 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160829104930\/https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2008\/08\/selecting-right-lims\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160829104930\/https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2008\/08\/selecting-right-lims<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Selecting+the+Right+LIMS%3A+Critiquing+technological+strengths+and+limitations&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing&amp;rft.aulast=O%27Leary%2C+K.M.&amp;rft.au=O%27Leary%2C+K.M.&amp;rft.date=11+August+2008&amp;rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160829104930%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Farticle%2F2008%2F08%2Fselecting-right-lims&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LabVantageDifInTech-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabVantageDifInTech_21-0\">21.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabVantageDifInTech_21-1\">21.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabVantageDifInTech_21-2\">21.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabVantageDifInTech_21-3\">21.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140227052508\/http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/resources\/pdf\/whitepapers\/ThinClient1101JY21CYL.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Differences in Technology Affect LIMS Functionality, Cost, &amp; ROI\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;LabVantage Solutions, Inc.&#32;2011.&#32;pp. 2\u20133.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/resources\/pdf\/whitepapers\/ThinClient1101JY21CYL.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 27 February 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140227052508\/http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/resources\/pdf\/whitepapers\/ThinClient1101JY21CYL.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140227052508\/http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/resources\/pdf\/whitepapers\/ThinClient1101JY21CYL.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+Differences+in+Technology+Affect+LIMS+Functionality%2C+Cost%2C+%26+ROI&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.+2%E2%80%933&amp;rft.pub=LabVantage+Solutions%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140227052508%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.labvantage.com%2Fresources%2Fpdf%2Fwhitepapers%2FThinClient1101JY21CYL.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciCompRisksBens-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompRisksBens_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Royce, J.R.&#32;(31 March 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2010\/03\/industry-insights-examining-risks-benefits-and-trade-offs-today%E2%80%99s-lims\" target=\"_blank\">\"Industry Insights: Examining the Risks, Benefits and Trade-offs of Today\u2019s LIMS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific Computing<\/i>.&#32;Advantage Business Media<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2010\/03\/industry-insights-examining-risks-benefits-and-trade-offs-today%E2%80%99s-lims\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2010\/03\/industry-insights-examining-risks-benefits-and-trade-offs-today%E2%80%99s-lims<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Industry+Insights%3A+Examining+the+Risks%2C+Benefits+and+Trade-offs+of+Today%E2%80%99s+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing&amp;rft.aulast=Royce%2C+J.R.&amp;rft.au=Royce%2C+J.R.&amp;rft.date=31+March+2010&amp;rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Farticle%2F2010%2F03%2Findustry-insights-examining-risks-benefits-and-trade-offs-today%25E2%2580%2599s-lims&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-StarlimsLimsLis-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_23-0\">23.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_23-1\">23.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Adding \"Management\" to Your LIS\"<\/a>.&#32;STARLIMS Corporation.&#32;2012.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/services-and-resources\/resources\/lis-vs-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 April 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Adding+%22Management%22+to+Your+LIS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.pub=STARLIMS+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140428060811%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.starlims.com%2Fen-us%2Fresources%2Fwhite-papers%2Flis-vs-lims%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-lislims1-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-lislims1_24-0\">24.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-lislims1_24-1\">24.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Friedman, B.&#32;(4 November 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIS vs. LIMS: It's Time to Blend the Two Types of Lab Information Systems\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Lab Soft News<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIS+vs.+LIMS%3A+It%27s+Time+to+Blend+the+Two+Types+of+Lab+Information+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=Lab+Soft+News&amp;rft.aulast=Friedman%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Friedman%2C+B.&amp;rft.date=4+November+2008&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flabsoftnews.typepad.com%2Flab_soft_news%2F2008%2F11%2Fliss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-analytica-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-analytica_25-0\">25.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-analytica_25-1\">25.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS\/LIS Market and POCT Supplement\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>analytica-world.com<\/i>.&#32;20 February 2004<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIMS%2FLIS+Market+and+POCT+Supplement&amp;rft.atitle=analytica-world.com&amp;rft.date=20+February+2004&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.analytica-world.com%2Fen%2Fnews%2F35566%2Flims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-lislims2-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-lislims2_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Friedman, B.&#32;(19 November 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIS vs. LIMS: Some New Insights\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Lab Soft News<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=LIS+vs.+LIMS%3A+Some+New+Insights&amp;rft.atitle=Lab+Soft+News&amp;rft.aulast=Friedman%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Friedman%2C+B.&amp;rft.date=19+November+2008&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flabsoftnews.typepad.com%2Flab_soft_news%2F2008%2F11%2Flis-vs-lims.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-starlims-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-starlims_27-0\">27.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-starlims_27-1\">27.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hice, R.&#32;(1 July 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\"<\/a>.&#32;STARLIMS Corporation.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 13 March 2011<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Swimming+in+the+Clinical+Pool%3A+Why+LIMS+are+supplanting+old-school+clinical+LIS+applications&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Hice%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Hice%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=1+July+2009&amp;rft.pub=STARLIMS+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20110313145726%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fblog.starlims.com%2F2009%2F07%2F01%2Fswimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ConvergeLimsLis-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ConvergeLimsLis_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Tufel, G.&#32;(1 February 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/clpmag.com\/lab-essentials\/information-technology\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Convergence of LIMS and LIS\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Clinical Lab Products<\/i>.&#32;MEDQOR<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/clpmag.com\/lab-essentials\/information-technology\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/clpmag.com\/lab-essentials\/information-technology\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Convergence+of+LIMS+and+LIS&amp;rft.atitle=Clinical+Lab+Products&amp;rft.aulast=Tufel%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Tufel%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=1+February+2012&amp;rft.pub=MEDQOR&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclpmag.com%2Flab-essentials%2Finformation-technology%2Fconvergence-of-lims-and-lis%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LinkedInDifLisLims-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LinkedInDifLisLims_29-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jones, J.&#32;(March 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/feed\/update\/urn:li:groupPost:2069898-98494737\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is the difference between a LIS and a LIMS?\"<\/a>.&#32;LinkedIn<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/feed\/update\/urn:li:groupPost:2069898-98494737\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/feed\/update\/urn:li:groupPost:2069898-98494737\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+is+the+difference+between+a+LIS+and+a+LIMS%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Jones%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=March+2012&amp;rft.pub=LinkedIn&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linkedin.com%2Ffeed%2Fupdate%2Furn%3Ali%3AgroupPost%3A2069898-98494737%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LinkedInLisLimsSame-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LinkedInLisLimsSame_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jones, John&#32;(September 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083\" target=\"_blank\">\"Are LIMS and LIS the same thing?\"<\/a>.&#32;LinkedIn<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Are+LIMS+and+LIS+the+same+thing%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Jones%2C+John&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+John&amp;rft.date=September+2012&amp;rft.pub=LinkedIn&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.linkedin.com%2Fgroups%2FAre-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AgilabFAQ-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AgilabFAQ_31-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190325075813\/http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"FAQ: What is the difference between a LIMS and a medical laboratory quality system?\"<\/a>.&#32;AgiLab SAS.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 25 March 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190325075813\/http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190325075813\/http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FAQ%3A+What+is+the+difference+between+a+LIMS+and+a+medical+laboratory+quality+system%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=AgiLab+SAS&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20190325075813%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fagilab.com%2Ffaq%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CloudLISDifference16-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudLISDifference16_32-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Difference Between LIS and LIMS\"<\/a>.&#32;CloudLIMS.com, LLC.&#32;1 October 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Difference+Between+LIS+and+LIMS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=1+October+2016&amp;rft.pub=CloudLIMS.com%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcloudlims.com%2Flims%2Flims-vs-lis.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ReisenwitzWhatIs17-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ReisenwitzWhatIs17_33-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Reisenwitz, C.&#32;(11 May 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is a Laboratory Information Management System?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Capterra Medical Software Blog<\/i>.&#32;Capterra, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=What+Is+a+Laboratory+Information+Management+System%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Capterra+Medical+Software+Blog&amp;rft.aulast=Reisenwitz%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Reisenwitz%2C+C.&amp;rft.date=11+May+2017&amp;rft.pub=Capterra%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.capterra.com%2Fwhat-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/dd\/Icos_Laboratories.JPG","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/57\/Lab_worker_with_blood_samples.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b5\/Cloud_computing.svg\/720px-Cloud_computing.svg.png"],"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_timestamp":1704906980,"f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd_type":"article","f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd_title":"Public health informatics","f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_informatics","f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd_plaintext":"\n\nPublic health informaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search Collecting and utilizing vital statistics data is only one of many applications of public health informatics.\nPublic health informatics has been defined as \"the systematic application of information and computer science and technology to public health practice, research, and learning.\"&#91;1&#93;&#91;2&#93; Like other types of informatics, public health informatics is a multidisciplinary field, involving the studies of informatics, computer science, psychology, law, statistics, epidemiology, and microbiology.\nIn 2000, researcher William A. Yasnoff and his colleagues identified four key aspects that differentiate public health informatics from medical informatics and other informatics specialty areas. Public health informatics&#91;1&#93;:\n\nfocuses on \"applications of information science and technology that promote the health of populations as opposed to the health of specific individuals.\"\nfocuses on \"applications of information science and technology that prevent disease and injury by altering the conditions or the environment that put populations of individuals at risk.\"\n\"explore[s] the potential for prevention at all vulnerable points in the causal chains leading to disease, injury, or disability; applications should not be restricted to particular social, behavioral, or environmental contexts.\"\n\"reflect[s] the governmental context in which public health is practiced.\"\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Application \n3 Informatics \n\n3.1 In the United States \n\n\n4 Notes \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nBefore the advent of the internet, public health data, like other healthcare and business data, were collected on paper forms and stored centrally at the relevant public health agency. As computers became more commonplace, some data and information would be computerized, requiring a distinct data entry process, storage in various file formats, and analysis by mainframe computers using standard batch processing. With the coming of the internet and cheaper large-scale storage technologies, public health agencies with sufficient resources began transitioning to web-accessible collections of public health data, and, more recently, to automated messaging of the same information.&#91;3&#93;&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93;\n\nApplication \nIn the United States and other parts of the world, public health informatics is practiced by individuals in public health agencies at the national, state, and larger local health jurisdiction levels. Additionally, research and training in public health informatics takes place at a variety of academic institutions. In the United States, the bulk of public health informatics activities takes place at the state and local level, in the state departments of health and the county or parish departments of health. In other parts of the world the bulk of activities may occur at a national level, with local jurisdictions reporting directly to an appropriate government or health-related entity. Activities may include&#91;3&#93;&#91;4&#93;: \n\ncollecting and storing vital statistics such as birth and death records.\ncollecting reported communicable disease cases from doctors, hospitals, and laboratories for infectious disease surveillance.\nsharing infectious disease statistics and trends with other entities, including the public.\ncollecting child immunization and lead screening information.\ncollecting and analyzing emergency room data to detect early evidence of biological threats.\ncollecting hospital capacity information to allow for planning of responses in case of emergencies.\nAs part of the collection and application of public health data, several challenges still exist. Some entities may simply not be aware they need to report data to other entities. A lack of resources of either the reporter or collector may also hinder reporting and sharing of data. In some parts of the world, a lack of interoperability of data interchange formats (which can be at the purely syntactic or at the semantic level) may lead to under- or non-reported public health data. Finally, variations in reporting requirements across the states, territories, and localities pose challenges, which itself may lead to variability of incoming data to public health jurisdictions, requiring greater data quality standards.&#91;5&#93;\n\nInformatics \nDue to the complexity and variability of public health data, like health care data generally, the issue of data modeling presents a particular challenge. Flat data sets for statistical analysis were the norm; however, today's requirements of interoperability and integrated sets of data across the public health enterprise require more sophistication. The relational database is increasingly the norm in public health informatics. Designers and implementers of the many sets of data required for various public health purposes must find a workable balance between very complex and abstract data models and simplistic, ad hoc models that untrained public health practitioners come up with and feel capable of working with.\nAnother challenge is found in the need to extract usable public health information from the mass of available heterogeneous data. The public health informaticist is thus required to become familiar with a variety of analysis tools, ranging from business intelligence tools to produce routine or ad hoc reports, to sophisticated statistical analysis tools and geographic information systems (GIS) to expose the geographical dimension of public health trends.\n\nIn the United States \nThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia has played an important role in public health and infectious disease informatics. The agency's Center for Surveillance, Epidemiology and Laboratory Services (CSELS; formerly OSELS&#91;6&#93;&#91;7&#93;) and its Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance (DHIS; formerly PHITPO and PHSIPO&#91;6&#93;&#91;7&#93;) has focused on advancing the state of information science in these realms, applying digital information technologies to aid in the detection and management of diseases and syndromes in individuals and populations.&#91;8&#93; The CDC also created the National Electronic Disease Surveillance System (NEDSS)&#91;8&#93;, which includes a free comprehensive web and message-based reporting system called the NEDSS Base System (NBS), used for managing and transmitting reportable disease data.&#91;9&#93;\nSince 2002, the CDC has promoted the idea of the Public Health Information Network to facilitate the transmission of data from various partners in the health care industry and elsewhere (hospitals, clinical and environmental laboratories, doctors' practices, pharmacies) to local health agencies, then to state health agencies, and then to the CDC. At each stage the entity must be capable of receiving the data, storing it, aggregating it appropriately, and transmitting it to the next level.&#91;10&#93; To promote interoperability between the NBS and other informatics systems, the CDC has also encouraged the adoption of several standard vocabularies and messaging formats from the health care world. The most prominent of these are the Health Level 7 (HL7) standards for health care messaging, the LOINC system for encoding laboratory test and result information, and the Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine (SNOMED) vocabulary of health care concepts.&#91;9&#93;\nA typical example of data transmissions to the CDC would be infectious disease data, which hospitals, labs, and doctors are legally required to report to local health agencies. The local health agencies must then report to their state public health department and the states must report in aggregate form to the CDC. Among other uses of this received data, the CDC publishes the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), \"the agency\u2019s primary vehicle for scientific publication of timely, reliable, authoritative, accurate, objective, and useful public health information and recommendations.\"&#91;11&#93;\n\nNotes \nSome elements of this article are reused from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 Yasnoff, W.A.; O\u2019Carroll, P.W.; Koo, D. et al.&#32;(2000).&#32;\"Public Health Informatics: Improving and Transforming Public Health in the Information Age\".&#32;Journal of Public Health Management and Practice&#32;6&#32;(6): 67\u201375.&#32;doi:10.1097\/00124784-200006060-00010.&#32;PMID&#160;18019962. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Friede, A.; Blum, H.L.; McDonald, M.&#32;(1995).&#32;\"Public Health Informatics: How Information-Age Technology Can Strengthen Public Health\".&#32;Annual Review of Public Health&#32;16: 239\u2013252.&#32;doi:10.1146\/annurev.pu.16.050195.001323.&#32;PMID&#160;7639873. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 O'Carroll, P.W.&#32;(2003).&#32;Public Health Informatics and Information Systems.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;790.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780387954745.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ap6uCR0Ybo4C .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 Lombardo, J.S.; Buckeridge, D.L.&#32;(2012).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Disease Surveillance, a Public Health Priority\".&#32;Disease Surveillance: A Public Health Informatics Approach.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201340.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781118569054.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-xI2Kl39ZzoC&amp;printsec=frontcover .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 Krishnamurthy, R.S.; St. Louis, M.E.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Chapter 5: Informatics and the Management of Surveillance Data\".&#32;Principles and Practice of Public Health Surveillance.&#32;Oxford University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;65\u201387.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780195372922.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FF78GCiUbwUC&amp;pg=PA70 .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 Advisory Committee to the Director&#32;(July 2013).&#32;\"Advisory Committee to the Director: Record of the April 25, 2013 Meeting\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;pp. 9\u201314.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 22 July 2019.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190722192037\/https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/maso\/facm\/pdfs\/ACDCDC\/20130425_CDCACD.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 \"Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;27 July 2011.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 18 July 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130718025323\/http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/maso\/pdf\/CDC_Official.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 17 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance&#32;(19 June 2018).&#32;\"Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 04 July 2021.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210704090101\/https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/csels\/dhis\/documents\/dhis-fact-sheet-508.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 9.0 9.1 Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance&#32;(16 March 2017).&#32;\"National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS)\".&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nndss\/about\/nedss.html .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Public Health Information Network Functions and Specifications, Version 1.2\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;18 December 2002.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 23 October 2011.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111023111340\/http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/phin\/library\/archive_2002\/PHIN_Functions_Specifications_121802.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"About the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) Series\".&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;4 March 2020.&#32;https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/about.html .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_informatics<\/a>\nCategory: InformaticsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 6 January 2022, at 21:58.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 13,347 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Public_health_informatics rootpage-Public_health_informatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Public health informatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:602px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Drug_overdose_death_rates_by_state_per_100,000_people_2008_US.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca954e37aa8cf7fdad954cb6104aa831\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a4\/Drug_overdose_death_rates_by_state_per_100%2C000_people_2008_US.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Drug_overdose_death_rates_by_state_per_100,000_people_2008_US.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"ca954e37aa8cf7fdad954cb6104aa831\"><\/a><\/div>Collecting and utilizing vital statistics data is only one of many applications of public health informatics.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Public health informatics<\/b> has been defined as \"the systematic application of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> and computer science and technology to public health practice, research, and learning.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-YasnoffPHI_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-YasnoffPHI-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FriedePHI_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FriedePHI-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Like other types of informatics, public health informatics is a multidisciplinary field, involving the studies of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">informatics<\/a>, computer science, psychology, law, statistics, epidemiology, and microbiology.\n<\/p><p>In 2000, researcher William A. Yasnoff and his colleagues identified four key aspects that differentiate public health informatics from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_informatics\" title=\"Health informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4\">medical informatics<\/a> and other informatics specialty areas. Public health informatics<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-YasnoffPHI_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-YasnoffPHI-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>focuses on \"applications of information science and technology that promote the health of populations as opposed to the health of specific individuals.\"<\/li>\n<li>focuses on \"applications of information science and technology that prevent disease and injury by altering the conditions or the environment that put populations of individuals at risk.\"<\/li>\n<li>\"explore[s] the potential for prevention at all vulnerable points in the causal chains leading to disease, injury, or disability; applications should not be restricted to particular social, behavioral, or environmental contexts.\"<\/li>\n<li>\"reflect[s] the governmental context in which public health is practiced.\"<\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Before the advent of the internet, public health data, like other healthcare and business data, were collected on paper forms and stored centrally at the relevant public health agency. As computers became more commonplace, some data and information would be computerized, requiring a distinct data entry process, storage in various file formats, and analysis by mainframe computers using standard batch processing. With the coming of the internet and cheaper large-scale storage technologies, public health agencies with sufficient resources began transitioning to web-accessible collections of public health data, and, more recently, to automated messaging of the same information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OCarrollPHI_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OCarrollPHI-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LombardoDS_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LombardoDS-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeePrincPrac_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeePrincPrac-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Application\">Application<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In the United States and other parts of the world, public health informatics is practiced by individuals in public health agencies at the national, state, and larger local health jurisdiction levels. Additionally, research and training in public health informatics takes place at a variety of academic institutions. In the United States, the bulk of public health informatics activities takes place at the state and local level, in the state departments of health and the county or parish departments of health. In other parts of the world the bulk of activities may occur at a national level, with local jurisdictions reporting directly to an appropriate government or health-related entity. Activities may include<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OCarrollPHI_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OCarrollPHI-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LombardoDS_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LombardoDS-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>: \n<\/p>\n<ul><li>collecting and storing vital statistics such as birth and death records.<\/li>\n<li>collecting reported communicable disease cases from doctors, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital\" title=\"Hospital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f070c66d8123fe91063594befebdff\">hospitals<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratories<\/a> for infectious disease surveillance.<\/li>\n<li>sharing infectious disease statistics and trends with other entities, including the public.<\/li>\n<li>collecting child immunization and lead screening information.<\/li>\n<li>collecting and analyzing emergency room data to detect early evidence of biological threats.<\/li>\n<li>collecting hospital capacity information to allow for planning of responses in case of emergencies.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>As part of the collection and application of public health data, several challenges still exist. Some entities may simply not be aware they need to report data to other entities. A lack of resources of either the reporter or collector may also hinder reporting and sharing of data. In some parts of the world, a lack of interoperability of data interchange formats (which can be at the purely syntactic or at the semantic level) may lead to under- or non-reported public health data. Finally, variations in reporting requirements across the states, territories, and localities pose challenges, which itself may lead to variability of incoming data to public health jurisdictions, requiring greater data quality standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeePrincPrac_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeePrincPrac-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Informatics\">Informatics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Due to the complexity and variability of public health data, like health care data generally, the issue of data modeling presents a particular challenge. Flat data sets for statistical analysis were the norm; however, today's requirements of interoperability and integrated sets of data across the public health enterprise require more sophistication. The relational database is increasingly the norm in public health informatics. Designers and implementers of the many sets of data required for various public health purposes must find a workable balance between very complex and abstract data models and simplistic, <i>ad hoc<\/i> models that untrained public health practitioners come up with and feel capable of working with.\n<\/p><p>Another challenge is found in the need to extract usable public health information from the mass of available heterogeneous data. The public health informaticist is thus required to become familiar with a variety of analysis tools, ranging from business intelligence tools to produce routine or <i>ad hoc<\/i> reports, to sophisticated statistical analysis tools and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Geographic_information_system\" title=\"Geographic information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8981ab93f8ebf0730c3b38949b39ad99\">geographic information systems<\/a> (GIS) to expose the geographical dimension of public health trends.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_the_United_States\">In the United States<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"176aa9c9513251c328d864d1e724e814\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/a> (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia has played an important role in public health and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Infectious_disease_informatics\" title=\"Infectious disease informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d318bbc2e54c35364b6d9d0c26f0be5d\">infectious disease informatics<\/a>. The agency's Center for Surveillance, Epidemiology and Laboratory Services (CSELS; formerly OSELS<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACDMinsApril13_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACDMinsApril13-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDCOrgArch_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDCOrgArch-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>) and its Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance (DHIS; formerly PHITPO and PHSIPO<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACDMinsApril13_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACDMinsApril13-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDCOrgArch_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDCOrgArch-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>) has focused on advancing the state of information science in these realms, applying digital information technologies to aid in the detection and management of diseases and syndromes in individuals and populations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DHISAbout_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DHISAbout-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The CDC also created the National Electronic Disease Surveillance System (NEDSS)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DHISAbout_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DHISAbout-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, which includes a free comprehensive web and message-based reporting system called the NEDSS Base System (NBS), used for managing and transmitting reportable disease data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NBSAbout_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NBSAbout-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Since 2002, the CDC has promoted the idea of the Public Health Information Network to facilitate the transmission of data from various partners in the health care industry and elsewhere (hospitals, clinical and environmental laboratories, doctors' practices, pharmacies) to local health agencies, then to state health agencies, and then to the CDC. At each stage the entity must be capable of receiving the data, storing it, aggregating it appropriately, and transmitting it to the next level.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PHIN02_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PHIN02-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> To promote interoperability between the NBS and other informatics systems, the CDC has also encouraged the adoption of several standard vocabularies and messaging formats from the health care world. The most prominent of these are the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a> (HL7) standards for health care messaging, the LOINC system for encoding laboratory test and result information, and the Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine (SNOMED) vocabulary of health care concepts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NBSAbout_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NBSAbout-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A typical example of data transmissions to the CDC would be infectious disease data, which hospitals, labs, and doctors are legally required to report to local health agencies. The local health agencies must then report to their state public health department and the states must report in aggregate form to the CDC. Among other uses of this received data, the CDC publishes the <i>Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report<\/i> (MMWR), \"the agency\u2019s primary vehicle for scientific publication of timely, reliable, authoritative, accurate, objective, and useful public health information and recommendations.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MMWRAbout_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MMWRAbout-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some elements of this article are reused from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_health_informatics\" data-key=\"41a70f5aad91e79f7910659f4d5e3c55\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-count references-column-count-3\" style=\"-moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-YasnoffPHI-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-YasnoffPHI_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-YasnoffPHI_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Yasnoff, W.A.; O\u2019Carroll, P.W.; Koo, D. et al.&#32;(2000).&#32;\"Public Health Informatics: Improving and Transforming Public Health in the Information Age\".&#32;<i>Journal of Public Health Management and Practice<\/i>&#32;<b>6<\/b>&#32;(6): 67\u201375.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1097%2F00124784-200006060-00010\" target=\"_blank\">10.1097\/00124784-200006060-00010<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/18019962\" target=\"_blank\">18019962<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Public+Health+Informatics%3A+Improving+and+Transforming+Public+Health+in+the+Information+Age&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Public+Health+Management+and+Practice&amp;rft.aulast=Yasnoff%2C+W.A.%3B+O%E2%80%99Carroll%2C+P.W.%3B+Koo%2C+D.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Yasnoff%2C+W.A.%3B+O%E2%80%99Carroll%2C+P.W.%3B+Koo%2C+D.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=67%E2%80%9375&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1097%2F00124784-200006060-00010&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/18019962&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FriedePHI-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FriedePHI_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Friede, A.; Blum, H.L.; McDonald, M.&#32;(1995).&#32;\"Public Health Informatics: How Information-Age Technology Can Strengthen Public Health\".&#32;<i>Annual Review of Public Health<\/i>&#32;<b>16<\/b>: 239\u2013252.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1146%2Fannurev.pu.16.050195.001323\" target=\"_blank\">10.1146\/annurev.pu.16.050195.001323<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/7639873\" target=\"_blank\">7639873<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Public+Health+Informatics%3A+How+Information-Age+Technology+Can+Strengthen+Public+Health&amp;rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Public+Health&amp;rft.aulast=Friede%2C+A.%3B+Blum%2C+H.L.%3B+McDonald%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Friede%2C+A.%3B+Blum%2C+H.L.%3B+McDonald%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.pages=239%E2%80%93252&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1146%2Fannurev.pu.16.050195.001323&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/7639873&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OCarrollPHI-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-OCarrollPHI_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-OCarrollPHI_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">O'Carroll, P.W.&#32;(2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ap6uCR0Ybo4C\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Public Health Informatics and Information Systems<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;790.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780387954745<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ap6uCR0Ybo4C\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ap6uCR0Ybo4C<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Public+Health+Informatics+and+Information+Systems&amp;rft.aulast=O%27Carroll%2C+P.W.&amp;rft.au=O%27Carroll%2C+P.W.&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B790&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9780387954745&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dap6uCR0Ybo4C&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LombardoDS-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LombardoDS_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LombardoDS_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Lombardo, J.S.; Buckeridge, D.L.&#32;(2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-xI2Kl39ZzoC&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Disease Surveillance, a Public Health Priority\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Disease Surveillance: A Public Health Informatics Approach<\/i>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201340.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781118569054<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-xI2Kl39ZzoC&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-xI2Kl39ZzoC&amp;printsec=frontcover<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Disease+Surveillance%2C+a+Public+Health+Priority&amp;rft.atitle=Disease+Surveillance%3A+A+Public+Health+Informatics+Approach&amp;rft.aulast=Lombardo%2C+J.S.%3B+Buckeridge%2C+D.L.&amp;rft.au=Lombardo%2C+J.S.%3B+Buckeridge%2C+D.L.&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%9340&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9781118569054&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-xI2Kl39ZzoC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LeePrincPrac-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LeePrincPrac_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LeePrincPrac_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Krishnamurthy, R.S.; St. Louis, M.E.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FF78GCiUbwUC&pg=PA70\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 5: Informatics and the Management of Surveillance Data\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Principles and Practice of Public Health Surveillance<\/i>.&#32;Oxford University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;65\u201387.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780195372922<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FF78GCiUbwUC&pg=PA70\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FF78GCiUbwUC&amp;pg=PA70<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+5%3A+Informatics+and+the+Management+of+Surveillance+Data&amp;rft.atitle=Principles+and+Practice+of+Public+Health+Surveillance&amp;rft.aulast=Krishnamurthy%2C+R.S.%3B+St.+Louis%2C+M.E.&amp;rft.au=Krishnamurthy%2C+R.S.%3B+St.+Louis%2C+M.E.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B65%E2%80%9387&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9780195372922&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFF78GCiUbwUC%26pg%3DPA70&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ACDMinsApril13-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ACDMinsApril13_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ACDMinsApril13_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Advisory Committee to the Director&#32;(July 2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190722192037\/https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/maso\/facm\/pdfs\/ACDCDC\/20130425_CDCACD.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Advisory Committee to the Director: Record of the April 25, 2013 Meeting\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;pp. 9\u201314.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/maso\/facm\/pdfs\/ACDCDC\/20130425_CDCACD.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 22 July 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190722192037\/https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/maso\/facm\/pdfs\/ACDCDC\/20130425_CDCACD.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190722192037\/https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/maso\/facm\/pdfs\/ACDCDC\/20130425_CDCACD.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Advisory+Committee+to+the+Director%3A+Record+of+the+April+25%2C+2013+Meeting&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Advisory+Committee+to+the+Director&amp;rft.au=Advisory+Committee+to+the+Director&amp;rft.date=July+2013&amp;rft.pages=pp.+9%E2%80%9314&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20190722192037%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fmaso%2Ffacm%2Fpdfs%2FACDCDC%2F20130425_CDCACD.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDCOrgArch-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDCOrgArch_7-0\">7.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDCOrgArch_7-1\">7.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130718025323\/http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/maso\/pdf\/CDC_Official.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;27 July 2011.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/maso\/pdf\/CDC_Official.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 18 July 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130718025323\/http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/maso\/pdf\/CDC_Official.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130718025323\/http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/maso\/pdf\/CDC_Official.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services%2C+Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention+%28CDC%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=27+July+2011&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130718025323%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fmaso%2Fpdf%2FCDC_Official.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DHISAbout-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-DHISAbout_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-DHISAbout_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance&#32;(19 June 2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210704090101\/https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/csels\/dhis\/documents\/dhis-fact-sheet-508.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/csels\/dhis\/documents\/dhis-fact-sheet-508.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 04 July 2021<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210704090101\/https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/csels\/dhis\/documents\/dhis-fact-sheet-508.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210704090101\/https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/csels\/dhis\/documents\/dhis-fact-sheet-508.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Division+of+Health+Informatics+and+Surveillance&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Division+of+Health+Informatics+and+Surveillance&amp;rft.au=Division+of+Health+Informatics+and+Surveillance&amp;rft.date=19+June+2018&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20210704090101%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcsels%2Fdhis%2Fdocuments%2Fdhis-fact-sheet-508.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NBSAbout-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NBSAbout_9-0\">9.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NBSAbout_9-1\">9.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance&#32;(16 March 2017).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nndss\/about\/nedss.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS)\"<\/a>.&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nndss\/about\/nedss.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nndss\/about\/nedss.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=National+Notifiable+Diseases+Surveillance+System+%28NNDSS%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Division+of+Health+Informatics+and+Surveillance&amp;rft.au=Division+of+Health+Informatics+and+Surveillance&amp;rft.date=16+March+2017&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fnndss%2Fabout%2Fnedss.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PHIN02-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PHIN02_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111023111340\/http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/phin\/library\/archive_2002\/PHIN_Functions_Specifications_121802.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Health Information Network Functions and Specifications, Version 1.2\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;18 December 2002.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/phin\/library\/archive_2002\/PHIN_Functions_Specifications_121802.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 23 October 2011<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111023111340\/http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/phin\/library\/archive_2002\/PHIN_Functions_Specifications_121802.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111023111340\/http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/phin\/library\/archive_2002\/PHIN_Functions_Specifications_121802.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Public+Health+Information+Network+Functions+and+Specifications%2C+Version+1.2&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=18+December+2002&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20111023111340%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fphin%2Flibrary%2Farchive_2002%2FPHIN_Functions_Specifications_121802.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MMWRAbout-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MMWRAbout_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/about.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"About the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) Series\"<\/a>.&#32;Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.&#32;4 March 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/about.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/about.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+the+Morbidity+and+Mortality+Weekly+Report+%28MMWR%29+Series&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=4+March+2020&amp;rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fmmwr%2Fabout.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171619\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.480 seconds\nReal 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_informatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a4\/Drug_overdose_death_rates_by_state_per_100%2C000_people_2008_US.png"],"f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd_timestamp":1704906978,"4dd2125beb9794d0a679b921981f1ddc_type":"article","4dd2125beb9794d0a679b921981f1ddc_title":"Materials informatics","4dd2125beb9794d0a679b921981f1ddc_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Materials_informatics","4dd2125beb9794d0a679b921981f1ddc_plaintext":"\n\nMaterials informaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchMaterials informatics is a field of study that applies the principles of informatics to materials science and engineering to better understand the use, selection, development, and discovery of materials. This is an emerging field, with a goal to achieve high-speed and robust acquisition, management, analysis, and dissemination of diverse materials data.\nThis field of endeavor is not limited to some traditional understandings of the relationship between materials and information. Some more narrow interpretations include combinatorial chemistry, Process Modeling, materials property databases, materials data management and product life cycle management. Materials informatics is at the convergence of these concepts, but also transcends them and has the potential to achieve greater insights and deeper understanding by applying lessons learned from data gathered on one type of material to others. By gathering appropriate meta data, the value of each individual data point can be greatly expanded.\n\nContents \n\n1 Beyond computational methods? \n2 See also \n3 External links \n4 Notes \n5 References \n\n\n\n Beyond computational methods? \nThe concept of materials informatics is addressed by the Materials Research Society. For example, material informatics is the theme of the December 2006 issue of the MRS Bulletin. The issue was guest-edited by John Rodgers of Innovative Materials, Inc. and David Cebon of Cambridge University who describe the \"high payoff for developing methodologies that will accelerate the insertion of materials, thereby saving millions of investment dollars.\" \nThe editors focus on a limited definition of materials informatics, \"the application of computational methodologies to processing and interpreting scientific and engineering data concerning materials.\" They state that \"specialized informatics tools for data capture, management, analysis, and dissemination\" and \"advances in computing power, coupled with computational modeling and simulation and materials properties databases\" will enable such accelerated insertion of materials.\nThis view is not universally held. A broader definition goes beyond the use of computational methods to carry out the same experimentation.&#91;1&#93; An evolved view of informatics creates a framework in which a measurement or computation is not simply a data point but a step in an information-based learning process that uses the power of a collective to achieve greater efficiency in exploration. When properly organized, this framework crosses materials boundaries to uncover fundamental knowledge of the basis of physical, mechanical, and engineering properties.\nThe overarching goals of bioinformatics and systems biology may provide a useful analogy. Andrew Murray of Harvard University expresses the hope that such an approach \"will save us from the era of \"one graduate student, one gene, one PhD\".&#91;2&#93; Similarly, the goal of materials informatics is to save us from one graduate student, one alloy, one PhD. Such goals will require more than applying computational methods to the same tasks set to current students.\n\nSee also \nData mining\nExternal links \nICME community on MaterialsTechnology@TMS\nThe Material Informatics Workshop: Theory and Application\n(March 2007 JOM-e issue on M.I.)\n\nNotes \nThis article heavily reuses content from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\u2191 http:\/\/www.informaticsresearch.net\/17.html \n\n\u2191 http:\/\/www.100md.com\/html\/DirDu\/2007\/02\/17\/37\/06\/78.htm \n\n\nChapter 5: The Importance of Data [1] in Going to Extremes: Meeting the Emerging Demand for Durable Polymer Matrix Composites [2]\nMRS Bulletin: Materials Informatics, Volume 31, No. 12.[3]\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Materials_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Materials_informatics<\/a>\nCategory: InformaticsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 24 April 2014, at 20:56.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 4,687 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","4dd2125beb9794d0a679b921981f1ddc_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Materials_informatics rootpage-Materials_informatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Materials informatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Materials informatics<\/b> is a field of study that applies the principles of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">informatics<\/a> to materials science and engineering to better understand the use, selection, development, and discovery of materials. This is an emerging field, with a goal to achieve high-speed and robust acquisition, management, analysis, and dissemination of diverse materials data.\n<\/p><p>This field of endeavor is not limited to some traditional understandings of the relationship between materials and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a>. Some more narrow interpretations include combinatorial chemistry, Process Modeling, materials property databases, materials data management and product life cycle management. Materials informatics is at the convergence of these concepts, but also transcends them and has the potential to achieve greater insights and deeper understanding by applying lessons learned from data gathered on one type of material to others. By gathering appropriate data, the value of each individual data point can be greatly expanded.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Beyond_computational_methods?\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Beyond_computational_methods.3F\">Beyond computational methods?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The concept of materials informatics is addressed by the <i>Materials Research Society<\/i>. For example, material informatics is the theme of the December 2006 issue of the <i>MRS Bulletin<\/i>. The issue was guest-edited by John Rodgers of Innovative Materials, Inc. and David Cebon of Cambridge University who describe the \"high payoff for developing methodologies that will accelerate the insertion of materials, thereby saving millions of investment dollars.\" \n<\/p><p>The editors focus on a limited definition of materials informatics, \"the application of computational methodologies to processing and interpreting scientific and engineering data concerning materials.\" They state that \"specialized informatics tools for data capture, management, analysis, and dissemination\" and \"advances in computing power, coupled with computational modeling and simulation and materials properties databases\" will enable such accelerated insertion of materials.\n<\/p><p>This view is not universally held. A broader definition goes beyond the use of computational methods to carry out the same experimentation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> An evolved view of informatics creates a framework in which a measurement or computation is not simply a data point but a step in an information-based learning process that uses the power of a collective to achieve greater efficiency in exploration. When properly organized, this framework crosses materials boundaries to uncover fundamental knowledge of the basis of physical, mechanical, and engineering properties.\n<\/p><p>The overarching goals of bioinformatics and systems biology may provide a useful analogy. Andrew Murray of Harvard University expresses the hope that such an approach \"will save us from the era of \"one graduate student, one gene, one PhD\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Similarly, the goal of materials informatics is to save us from one graduate student, one alloy, one PhD. Such goals will require more than applying computational methods to the same tasks set to current students.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47\">Data mining<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/materialstechnology.tms.org\/icme\/icmeHome.asp\" target=\"_blank\">ICME community<\/a> on <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/materialstechnology.tms.org\/TECpage.asp\" target=\"_blank\">MaterialsTechnology@TMS<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tms.org\/pubs\/journals\/jom\/0703\/peurrung\/peurrung-0703.html\" target=\"_blank\">The Material Informatics Workshop: Theory and Application<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>(March 2007 JOM-e issue on M.I.)\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article heavily reuses content from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Materials_informatics\" data-key=\"020c734df58e79ebe064fad21eb0ac04\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informaticsresearch.net\/17.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.informaticsresearch.net\/17.html<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.100md.com\/html\/DirDu\/2007\/02\/17\/37\/06\/78.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.100md.com\/html\/DirDu\/2007\/02\/17\/37\/06\/78.htm<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<ul><li>Chapter 5: The Importance of Data <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nap.edu\/books\/0309097150\/html\/35.html\" target=\"_blank\">[1]<\/a> in <i>Going to Extremes: Meeting the Emerging Demand for Durable Polymer Matrix Composites<\/i> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nap.edu\/catalog\/11424.html\" target=\"_blank\">[2]<\/a><\/li>\n<li>MRS Bulletin: Materials Informatics, Volume 31, No. 12.<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mrs.org\/s_mrs\/sec_subscribe.asp?CID=7324&DID=181667\" target=\"_blank\">[3]<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171618\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.012 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.017 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 43\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 795\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:1692-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171618 and revision id 14115. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Materials_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Materials_informatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","4dd2125beb9794d0a679b921981f1ddc_images":[],"4dd2125beb9794d0a679b921981f1ddc_timestamp":1704906978,"d318bbc2e54c35364b6d9d0c26f0be5d_type":"article","d318bbc2e54c35364b6d9d0c26f0be5d_title":"Infectious disease informatics","d318bbc2e54c35364b6d9d0c26f0be5d_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Infectious_disease_informatics","d318bbc2e54c35364b6d9d0c26f0be5d_plaintext":"\n\nInfectious disease informaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search This June 2009 map shows number of swine flu cases per U.S. county. Collecting such data and clearly representing it is just one of the various challenges facing infectious disease informaticians.\nInfectious disease informatics (IDI) is a multidisciplinary field of science that focuses on \"the development of the science and technologies needed for collecting, sharing, reporting, analyzing, and visualizing infectious disease data and for providing data and decision-making support for infectious disease prevention, detection, and management.\"&#91;1&#93; The field has expanded over time from analyzing public health laboratory data for potential disease vectors to a more robust syndromic surveillance of epidemiological factors&#91;2&#93; and and to more advanced bioinformatic approaches towards microbial, biomarker, and computational research.&#91;3&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Application \n3 Informatics \n4 See also \n5 External links \n6 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nIn the late 1990s and early 2000s, infectious disease data was increasingly being collected and stored in an electronic format by laboratories of all types at local, state, national, and international levels. As this data format became more common and data transmission requirements to entities like the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) became more stringent, custom in-house infectious disease information systems were developed to better access, analyze, and report the associated data. Despite the increase in the number of these systems, some challenges remained for them in the mid-2000s: they required better interoperability among other such systems; improvements in system scalability, user interfaces, model sophistication; a more efficient reporting and alert system across organization boundaries; and a more scrutinous approach to legal issues surrounding data sharing and transmittal to and from those systems.&#91;1&#93; \nAs these challenges were overcome, IDI was clearly becoming more than an application of informatics to disease tracking and reporting. Biomedical research into and biosurveillance of infectious diseases became more sophisticated, requiring equally sophisticated informatics tools to manage, analyze, report, and share the deluge of data. Microbial genome sequence analysis, biomarker discovery, and bacterial computational models and simulations have brought new data-driven approaches to infectious disease research.&#91;3&#93; And the extraction, analysis, and interpretation of biosurveillance data and information from multiple sources requires the development of automated algorithms and improved analytical methodologies.&#91;4&#93;\n\nApplication \nInfectious disease informatics can help tackle problems and tasks such as the following&#91;3&#93;:\n\nthe optimization of developed antimicrobials\nthe improvement of vaccines\nthe discovery of biomarkers for transmissibility and clinical outcomes of infectious diseases\nthe development of research into host-pathogen interactions\nthe sequencing and comparative study of the genomes of pathogens\nthe development of computational models for and simulations of bacteria and other microbials\nthe computational analysis and mining of collected disease data\nthe improvement of antibiotic prescribing decisions\nthe automation and facilitation of surveillance data collection and processing\nInformatics \nMost any infectious disease informatics tool will require some sort of security for \"checking the integrity and authenticity of data feeds from the underlying information sources.\"&#91;1&#93; A few unique considerations must be made in IDI informatics applications, including the confidentiality of any included personal health information (PHI) and the non-binary nature of user access privileges. A public health director of a certain region may be able to contribute a dataset for analysis, but they'll have to ensure the right balance of PHI to meet local, state, and federal regulations; some data may need to be anonymized or pseudonymized. Additionally, that director may not be permitted the same granular level of access to the datasets from other regions, necessitating special stipulations in the security structure of informatics systems.&#91;1&#93;\nAnother important aspect of an infectious disease information management system is its evaluation for utility to the end user:\n\n\"Most previous infectious disease informatics research emphasizes the construction of novel or better solutions for users\u2019 information searches or analysis tasks as means to create advanced artifacts, such as models, methods, techniques, algorithms, or systems (i.e., instantiations). Again, system evaluation receives far less attention and usually takes place in an ad hoc manner. Technical advancements and novelty cannot guarantee the success of an infectious disease informatics or biodefense system; users often define its success, because a system\u2019s utilities demand both system design\/functionality and user behaviors and assessments. Any infectious disease informatics or biodefense system therefore must be thoroughly examined, and its effectiveness or utilities must be systematically evaluated.\"&#91;5&#93;\nAside from information management systems, IDI draws on numerous other information technologies, including but not limited to geographic information systems (GIS), visualization software, data mining tools, and biostatistical applications.&#91;1&#93; Open-source software projects such as Framework for Reconstructing Epidemiological Dynamics (FRED)&#91;6&#93; and Spatiotemporal Epidemiological Modeler (STEM)&#91;7&#93; are helping extend the available informatics tools available to epidemiologists, public health personnel, and other scientists working with infectious disease research.\n\nSee also \nPublic health informatics\nPublic health laboratory\nExternal links \nGlobal Infectious Disease and Epidemiology Network (GIDEON)\nNational Center for Health Statistics\nNational Committee on Vital and Health Statistics\nNational Electronic Disease Surveillance System\nNational Vital Statistics System\nProMED-mail\nPublic Health Information Network\nReferences \n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Chen, Hsinchun; Fuller, Sherrilynne S.; Friedman, Carol; Hersh, William&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Chapter 13: Infectious Disease Informatics and Outbreak Detection\".&#32;Medical Informatics: Knowledge Management and Data Mining in Biomedicine.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;359\u2013397.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780387257396.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ku0ubWDKFZgC&amp;pg=PA360 .&#32;Retrieved 11 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Chen, Hsinchun; Zeng, Daniel; Yan, Ping&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Infectious Disease Informatics: An Introduction and An Analysis Framework\".&#32;Infectious Disease Informatics: Syndromic Surveillance for Public Health and Bio-Defense.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u20138.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781441912787.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=5BdCfSxtNJMC&amp;pg=2 .&#32;Retrieved 11 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 3.2 Sintchenko, Vitali&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Informatics for Infectious Disease Research and Control\".&#32;Infectious Disease Informatics.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201326.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781441913272.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=H794Ej9GPFcC&amp;pg=PA1 .&#32;Retrieved 11 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Rolka, Henry; O'Connor, Jean&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Real-Time Public Health Biosurveillance: Systems and Policy Considerations\".&#32;Infectious Disease Informatics and Biosurveillance.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u201322.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781441968920.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=SC9nEO_13pEC&amp;pg=PA3 .&#32;Retrieved 11 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Hu, Paul Jen-Hwa; Zeng, Daniel; Chen, Hsinchun&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Chapter 19: System Evaluation and User Technology Adoption: A Case Study of BioPortal\".&#32;Infectious Disease Informatics and Biosurveillance.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;439\u2013457.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781441968920.&#32;http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=SC9nEO_13pEC&amp;pg=PA439 .&#32;Retrieved 11 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"FRED: Framework for Reconstructing Epidemiological Dynamics\".&#32;Public Health Dynamics Laboratory, University of Pittsburgh.&#32;http:\/\/fred.publichealth.pitt.edu\/ . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The Spatiotemporal Epidemiological Modeler (STEM) Project\".&#32;The Eclipse Foundation.&#32;http:\/\/www.eclipse.org\/stem\/ . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Infectious_disease_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Infectious_disease_informatics<\/a>\nCategory: InformaticsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 11 June 2014, at 19:53.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 7,392 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","d318bbc2e54c35364b6d9d0c26f0be5d_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Infectious_disease_informatics rootpage-Infectious_disease_informatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Infectious disease informatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:502px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Swine_flu_infection_exponent_by_county_June_2009.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d69424bf2d1d525932e525b687c4a97\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2c\/Swine_flu_infection_exponent_by_county_June_2009.svg\/500px-Swine_flu_infection_exponent_by_county_June_2009.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Swine_flu_infection_exponent_by_county_June_2009.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"2d69424bf2d1d525932e525b687c4a97\"><\/a><\/div>This June 2009 map shows number of swine flu cases per U.S. county. Collecting such data and clearly representing it is just one of the various challenges facing infectious disease informaticians.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Infectious disease informatics<\/b> (<b>IDI<\/b>) is a multidisciplinary field of science that focuses on \"the development of the science and technologies needed for collecting, sharing, reporting, analyzing, and visualizing infectious disease data and for providing data and decision-making support for infectious disease prevention, detection, and management.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChenMI_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChenMI-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The field has expanded over time from analyzing <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_laboratory\" title=\"Public health laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34ffb658cb79bf322c65efaad95996f5\">public health laboratory<\/a> data for potential disease vectors to a more robust syndromic surveillance of epidemiological factors<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChenIDI_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChenIDI-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and and to more advanced <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f506695fdbb26e3f314da308f8c053b\">bioinformatic<\/a> approaches towards microbial, biomarker, and computational research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SintchenkoIDI_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SintchenkoIDI-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In the late 1990s and early 2000s, infectious disease data was increasingly being collected and stored in an electronic format by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratories<\/a> of all types at local, state, national, and international levels. As this data format became more common and data transmission requirements to entities like the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"176aa9c9513251c328d864d1e724e814\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/a> (CDC) became more stringent, custom in-house infectious disease <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> systems were developed to better access, analyze, and report the associated data. Despite the increase in the number of these systems, some challenges remained for them in the mid-2000s: they required better interoperability among other such systems; improvements in system scalability, user interfaces, model sophistication; a more efficient reporting and alert system across organization boundaries; and a more scrutinous approach to legal issues surrounding data sharing and transmittal to and from those systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChenMI_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChenMI-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>As these challenges were overcome, IDI was clearly becoming more than an application of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">informatics<\/a> to disease tracking and reporting. Biomedical research into and biosurveillance of infectious diseases became more sophisticated, requiring equally sophisticated informatics tools to manage, analyze, report, and share the deluge of data. Microbial genome sequence analysis, biomarker discovery, and bacterial computational models and simulations have brought new data-driven approaches to infectious disease research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SintchenkoIDI_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SintchenkoIDI-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> And the extraction, analysis, and interpretation of biosurveillance data and information from multiple sources requires the development of automated algorithms and improved analytical methodologies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RolkaReal_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RolkaReal-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Application\">Application<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Infectious disease informatics can help tackle problems and tasks such as the following<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SintchenkoIDI_3-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SintchenkoIDI-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the optimization of developed antimicrobials<\/li>\n<li>the improvement of vaccines<\/li>\n<li>the discovery of biomarkers for transmissibility and clinical outcomes of infectious diseases<\/li>\n<li>the development of research into host-pathogen interactions<\/li>\n<li>the sequencing and comparative study of the genomes of pathogens<\/li>\n<li>the development of computational models for and simulations of bacteria and other microbials<\/li>\n<li>the computational analysis and mining of collected disease data<\/li>\n<li>the improvement of antibiotic prescribing decisions<\/li>\n<li>the automation and facilitation of surveillance data collection and processing<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Informatics\">Informatics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Most any infectious disease informatics tool will require some sort of security for \"checking the integrity and authenticity of data feeds from the underlying information sources.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChenMI_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChenMI-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> A few unique considerations must be made in IDI informatics applications, including the confidentiality of any included personal health information (PHI) and the non-binary nature of user access privileges. A public health director of a certain region may be able to contribute a dataset for analysis, but they'll have to ensure the right balance of PHI to meet local, state, and federal regulations; some data may need to be anonymized or pseudonymized. Additionally, that director may not be permitted the same granular level of access to the datasets from other regions, necessitating special stipulations in the security structure of informatics systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChenMI_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChenMI-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Another important aspect of an infectious disease information management system is its evaluation for utility to the end user:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>\"Most previous infectious disease informatics research emphasizes the construction of novel or better solutions for users\u2019 information searches or analysis tasks as means to create advanced artifacts, such as models, methods, techniques, algorithms, or systems (i.e., instantiations). Again, system evaluation receives far less attention and usually takes place in an ad hoc manner. Technical advancements and novelty cannot guarantee the success of an infectious disease informatics or biodefense system; users often define its success, because a system\u2019s utilities demand both system design\/functionality and user behaviors and assessments. Any infectious disease informatics or biodefense system therefore must be thoroughly examined, and its effectiveness or utilities must be systematically evaluated.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HuSysEval_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HuSysEval-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Aside from information management systems, IDI draws on numerous other information technologies, including but not limited to geographic information systems (GIS), visualization software, data mining tools, and biostatistical applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChenMI_1-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChenMI-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Open-source software projects such as Framework for Reconstructing Epidemiological Dynamics (FRED)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FRED_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FRED-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and Spatiotemporal Epidemiological Modeler (STEM)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STEM_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STEM-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> are helping extend the available informatics tools available to epidemiologists, public health personnel, and other scientists working with infectious disease research.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_informatics\" title=\"Public health informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd\">Public health informatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_laboratory\" title=\"Public health laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34ffb658cb79bf322c65efaad95996f5\">Public health laboratory<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gideononline.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Global Infectious Disease and Epidemiology Network<\/a> (GIDEON)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchs\/\" target=\"_blank\">National Center for Health Statistics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncvhs.hhs.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\">National Committee on Vital and Health Statistics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wwwn.cdc.gov\/nndss\/script\/nedss.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">National Electronic Disease Surveillance System<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchs\/nvss.htm\" target=\"_blank\">National Vital Statistics System<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.promedmail.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">ProMED-mail<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/phin\/\" target=\"_blank\">Public Health Information Network<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChenMI-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChenMI_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChenMI_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChenMI_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChenMI_1-3\">1.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChenMI_1-4\">1.4<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Chen, Hsinchun; Fuller, Sherrilynne S.; Friedman, Carol; Hersh, William&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ku0ubWDKFZgC&pg=PA360\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 13: Infectious Disease Informatics and Outbreak Detection\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Medical Informatics: Knowledge Management and Data Mining in Biomedicine<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;359\u2013397.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780387257396<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ku0ubWDKFZgC&pg=PA360\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ku0ubWDKFZgC&amp;pg=PA360<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 11 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+13%3A+Infectious+Disease+Informatics+and+Outbreak+Detection&amp;rft.atitle=Medical+Informatics%3A+Knowledge+Management+and+Data+Mining+in+Biomedicine&amp;rft.aulast=Chen%2C+Hsinchun%3B+Fuller%2C+Sherrilynne+S.%3B+Friedman%2C+Carol%3B+Hersh%2C+William&amp;rft.au=Chen%2C+Hsinchun%3B+Fuller%2C+Sherrilynne+S.%3B+Friedman%2C+Carol%3B+Hersh%2C+William&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B359%E2%80%93397&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9780387257396&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dku0ubWDKFZgC%26pg%3DPA360&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Infectious_disease_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChenIDI-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChenIDI_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Chen, Hsinchun; Zeng, Daniel; Yan, Ping&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=5BdCfSxtNJMC&pg=2\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Infectious Disease Informatics: An Introduction and An Analysis Framework\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Infectious Disease Informatics: Syndromic Surveillance for Public Health and Bio-Defense<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u20138.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781441912787<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=5BdCfSxtNJMC&pg=2\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=5BdCfSxtNJMC&amp;pg=2<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 11 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Infectious+Disease+Informatics%3A+An+Introduction+and+An+Analysis+Framework&amp;rft.atitle=Infectious+Disease+Informatics%3A+Syndromic+Surveillance+for+Public+Health+and+Bio-Defense&amp;rft.aulast=Chen%2C+Hsinchun%3B+Zeng%2C+Daniel%3B+Yan%2C+Ping&amp;rft.au=Chen%2C+Hsinchun%3B+Zeng%2C+Daniel%3B+Yan%2C+Ping&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B3%E2%80%938&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9781441912787&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5BdCfSxtNJMC%26pg%3D2&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Infectious_disease_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SintchenkoIDI-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SintchenkoIDI_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SintchenkoIDI_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SintchenkoIDI_3-2\">3.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Sintchenko, Vitali&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=H794Ej9GPFcC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Informatics for Infectious Disease Research and Control\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Infectious Disease Informatics<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201326.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781441913272<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=H794Ej9GPFcC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=H794Ej9GPFcC&amp;pg=PA1<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 11 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Informatics+for+Infectious+Disease+Research+and+Control&amp;rft.atitle=Infectious+Disease+Informatics&amp;rft.aulast=Sintchenko%2C+Vitali&amp;rft.au=Sintchenko%2C+Vitali&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%9326&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9781441913272&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH794Ej9GPFcC%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Infectious_disease_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RolkaReal-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RolkaReal_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Rolka, Henry; O'Connor, Jean&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=SC9nEO_13pEC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Real-Time Public Health Biosurveillance: Systems and Policy Considerations\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Infectious Disease Informatics and Biosurveillance<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u201322.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781441968920<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=SC9nEO_13pEC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=SC9nEO_13pEC&amp;pg=PA3<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 11 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Real-Time+Public+Health+Biosurveillance%3A+Systems+and+Policy+Considerations&amp;rft.atitle=Infectious+Disease+Informatics+and+Biosurveillance&amp;rft.aulast=Rolka%2C+Henry%3B+O%27Connor%2C+Jean&amp;rft.au=Rolka%2C+Henry%3B+O%27Connor%2C+Jean&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B3%E2%80%9322&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9781441968920&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSC9nEO_13pEC%26pg%3DPA3&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Infectious_disease_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HuSysEval-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HuSysEval_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Hu, Paul Jen-Hwa; Zeng, Daniel; Chen, Hsinchun&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=SC9nEO_13pEC&pg=PA439\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 19: System Evaluation and User Technology Adoption: A Case Study of BioPortal\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Infectious Disease Informatics and Biosurveillance<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;439\u2013457.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781441968920<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=SC9nEO_13pEC&pg=PA439\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=SC9nEO_13pEC&amp;pg=PA439<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 11 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+19%3A+System+Evaluation+and+User+Technology+Adoption%3A+A+Case+Study+of+BioPortal&amp;rft.atitle=Infectious+Disease+Informatics+and+Biosurveillance&amp;rft.aulast=Hu%2C+Paul+Jen-Hwa%3B+Zeng%2C+Daniel%3B+Chen%2C+Hsinchun&amp;rft.au=Hu%2C+Paul+Jen-Hwa%3B+Zeng%2C+Daniel%3B+Chen%2C+Hsinchun&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B439%E2%80%93457&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9781441968920&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSC9nEO_13pEC%26pg%3DPA439&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Infectious_disease_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FRED-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FRED_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/fred.publichealth.pitt.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"FRED: Framework for Reconstructing Epidemiological Dynamics\"<\/a>.&#32;Public Health Dynamics Laboratory, University of Pittsburgh<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/fred.publichealth.pitt.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/fred.publichealth.pitt.edu\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=FRED%3A+Framework+for+Reconstructing+Epidemiological+Dynamics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Public+Health+Dynamics+Laboratory%2C+University+of+Pittsburgh&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffred.publichealth.pitt.edu%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Infectious_disease_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-STEM-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-STEM_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.eclipse.org\/stem\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Spatiotemporal Epidemiological Modeler (STEM) Project\"<\/a>.&#32;The Eclipse Foundation<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.eclipse.org\/stem\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.eclipse.org\/stem\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Spatiotemporal+Epidemiological+Modeler+%28STEM%29+Project&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=The+Eclipse+Foundation&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eclipse.org%2Fstem%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Infectious_disease_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110012549\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.438 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.915 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4791\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 36098\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 14007\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 12926\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 76.145 1 -total\n 81.49% 62.047 7 Template:Citation\/core\n 79.60% 60.609 5 Template:Cite_book\n 19.41% 14.780 2 Template:Cite_web\n 18.29% 13.925 5 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 8.91% 6.782 12 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 5.19% 3.952 5 Template:Only_in_print\n 5.12% 3.900 10 Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:5135-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110012548 and revision id 14733. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Infectious_disease_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Infectious_disease_informatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","d318bbc2e54c35364b6d9d0c26f0be5d_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2c\/Swine_flu_infection_exponent_by_county_June_2009.svg\/1000px-Swine_flu_infection_exponent_by_county_June_2009.svg.png"],"d318bbc2e54c35364b6d9d0c26f0be5d_timestamp":1704906978,"fc0ae6a154d8896767defefdb6d14d0e_type":"article","fc0ae6a154d8896767defefdb6d14d0e_title":"Imaging informatics","fc0ae6a154d8896767defefdb6d14d0e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Imaging_informatics","fc0ae6a154d8896767defefdb6d14d0e_plaintext":"\n\nImaging informaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search This example from the late 1990s shows how data from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) could be transformed into a 3D rendering of the brain using informatics tools like the VOXEL-MAN program.\nImaging informatics (also known as radiology informatics or medical imaging informatics) involves the intersection between health informatics and bioinformatics that aims to improve the efficiency, accuracy, usability, and reliability of medical imaging services within the context of the healthcare environment.&#91;1&#93; \"Notably, medical imaging informatics addresses not only the images themselves, but encompasses the associated data to understand the context of the imaging study; to document observations; and to correlate and reach new conclusions about a disease and the course of a medical problem.\"&#91;2&#93;\nMore specifically it is devoted to the study of how information about and contained within medical images is acquired, stored, exchanged, analyzed, and enhanced throughout the medical enterprise. Medical images must be in a standard, symbolic, and reproducible format for proper acquisition and storage. Computer-related transmission protocols like TCP\/IP, HTTP, and DICOM as well as organized, sensical transaction diagrams are required for proper data exchange. And because of all those protocols and standards, software can be created and utilized to analyze, enhance, and even mine medical images for useful real-world healthcare data.&#91;3&#93;\nAs radiology is an inherently data-intensive and technology-driven specialty of medicine, radiologists have become leaders in imaging informatics. However, with the proliferation of digitized images to other fields such as cardiology, dermatology, surgery, gastroenterology, obstetrics, gynecology, and pathology, advances in imaging informatics are also being tested and applied in other areas of medicine.&#91;4&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 Diagnostic imaging modalities \n2 Application \n3 Informatics \n4 External links \n5 Notes \n6 References \n\n\n\nDiagnostic imaging modalities \nMedical images created, studied, and mined in imaging informatics come from several modalities&#91;5&#93;:\nProjection radiology utilizes X-rays to provide a grayscale image representing X-ray attenuation. The advantages of it include being fast, easy to perform, and inexpensive. Disadvantages include problems with low-contrast differentiations, image interpretation, and the use of ionizing radiation.\nFluorography utilizes a continuous low-power X-ray beam to provide a grayscale \"movie\" for real-time feedback. It has the advantage of capturing movement-based measurements for barium studies or placement of catheters. It's primary disadvantage is in the quality of the radiograph.\nComputed tomography (CT) utilizes a moving collimated X-ray beam and a series of detectors to produce a digital image based on the X-ray attenuation of tissues. It has the advantage of providing finer resolutions, especially among tissues with similar densities. Disadvantages include high costs, the propensity for high-density artifacts, and the use of high doses of ionizing radiation.\nMagnetic resonance imaging (MRI) utilizes a high-intensity magnetic field with controlled radiofrequency pulses to provide a grayscale image based on the magnetic properties of nuclei in the tissues of the body. Advantages include excellent soft tissue contrast and resolution, can image on any plane, and doesn't use ionizing radiation. Disadvantages include high costs, lengthy scan times, and an inability to show calcification. \nPositron emission tomography (PET) utilizes X-ray or gamma-ray emitting radioisotopes placed into the body, their decay measured as pulses of light using photomultiplier tubes, which is then converted into a grayscale image. This method has the advantage of producing fine targeted measurements of chemical-physiologic tissue function. The high cost and need for a cyclotron to produce the radioisotopes pose challenges to some medical facilities.\nUltrasound utilizes high-frequency sound waves from a transducer, which also receives reflected sound and converts it to an electrical signal and then a grayscale image. Ultrasound has the benefit of being low-cost, safe, and useful for analyzing soft tissues like the kidneys, liver, and pancreas. Disadvantages include its operator dependence and its inability to render quality images in obese patients.\nVisible light is used in some cases, though with limited practicality. It's most often used in the imaging of tissues in light microscopy and imaging the retina.\n\nApplication \nImaging informatics can help tackle problems and tasks such as the following&#91;1&#93;:\n\nthe creation and management of picture archiving and communication systems (PACS) and component systems\nthe embedding of medical images in electronic medical records\nthe development of radiology information systems (RIS)\nthe acquisition of images from medical devices\nthe development of image processing and enhancement software\nthe 3D visualization of medical imaging data\nthe integration of speech recognition into imaging apps for quicker reporting turnaround\nthe design of imaging facilities\nthe development of imaging vocabularies and ontologies\nthe mining of data from medical imaging databases\nthe development of DICOM, HL7, and other standards\nInformatics \nA portion of what imaging informatics does involves the technology surrounding the mentioned diagnostic imaging modalities, including transfer and storage of their digital output. PACS have began playing an important role in hospitals and other medical environments as early as the 1990s&#91;6&#93;, helping to provide affordable digital storage and distribution of medical images from numerous modalities. Another important part of imaging informatics includes the development of software to view, enhance, and analyze output from those modalities. The RIS has played an important part in that for sure, though open-source image viewing and analysis tools like dcm4che2, OsiriX, and ITK have also broadened the scope and availability of informatics tools available to technicians and researchers. Of course, interoperability among the software, PACS, RIS, and even the hospital information system (HIS) are vital and benefited by protocols and standards like DICOM and HL7.\n\nExternal links \nAmerican Board of Imaging Informatics (ABII)\nCenter for Open Bioimage Analysis (COBA)\nimagescience.org\nMedical Imaging &amp; Technology Alliance (MITA)\nMedPix\nSociety for Imaging Informatics in Medicine (SIIM)\nSociety for Imaging Science and Technology (IS&amp;T)\nNotes \nThis article reuses an element or two from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 Branstetter, B.&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Basics of Imaging Informatics\".&#32;Radiology&#32;243&#32;(3): 656\u201367.&#32;doi:10.1148\/radiol.2433060243.&#32;PMID&#160;17431128. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Bui, A.A.T.; Taira, R.K.; Kangerloo, H.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Introduction\".&#32;Medical Imaging Informatics.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u201313.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781441903853.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=3JClHj3SXjwC&amp;pg=PA3 .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Langer, S.G.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Chapter 2: Informatics Constructs\".&#32;Informatics in Medical Imaging.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;15\u201323.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781439831243.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JTYb3SZZraYC&amp;pg=PA15 .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Horii, S.C.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Chapter 4: DICOM\".&#32;Informatics in Medical Imaging.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;41\u201368.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781439831243.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JTYb3SZZraYC&amp;pg=PA41 .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Andriole, Katherine P.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Medical Imaging Modalities and Digital Images\".&#32;Practical Imaging Informatics: Foundations and Applications for PACS Professionals.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u201314.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781441904850.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Q6Hc0oMyiYYC&amp;pg=PA3 .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Huang, H. K.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Introduction\".&#32;PACS and Imaging Informatics: Basic Principles and Applications.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201330.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780470560518.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Pjjkyae_55oC&amp;pg=PA1 .&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Imaging_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Imaging_informatics<\/a>\nCategories: Imaging informaticsInformaticsMedical imagingNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 6 January 2022, at 21:27.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 15,357 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","fc0ae6a154d8896767defefdb6d14d0e_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Imaging_informatics rootpage-Imaging_informatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Imaging informatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Voxel-man-brain.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"9937c578bb33b2d420f897c3c56af558\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e0\/Voxel-man-brain.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Voxel-man-brain.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"9937c578bb33b2d420f897c3c56af558\"><\/a><\/div>This example from the late 1990s shows how data from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) could be transformed into a 3D rendering of the brain using informatics tools like the VOXEL-MAN program.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Imaging informatics<\/b> (also known as <b>radiology informatics<\/b> or <b>medical imaging informatics<\/b>) involves the intersection between <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_informatics\" title=\"Health informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4\">health informatics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f506695fdbb26e3f314da308f8c053b\">bioinformatics<\/a> that aims to improve the efficiency, accuracy, usability, and reliability of medical imaging services within the context of the healthcare environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BranstetterBasics_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BranstetterBasics-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \"Notably, medical imaging informatics addresses not only the images themselves, but encompasses the associated data to understand the context of the imaging study; to document observations; and to correlate and reach new conclusions about a disease and the course of a medical problem.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BuiMed_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BuiMed-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>More specifically it is devoted to the study of how <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> about and contained within medical images is acquired, stored, exchanged, analyzed, and enhanced throughout the medical enterprise. Medical images must be in a standard, symbolic, and reproducible format for proper acquisition and storage. Computer-related transmission protocols like TCP\/IP, HTTP, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/DICOM\" title=\"DICOM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0c7c747895286ff8785b6ed4dbc7ec0\">DICOM<\/a> as well as organized, sensical transaction diagrams are required for proper data exchange. And because of all those protocols and standards, software can be created and utilized to analyze, enhance, and even mine medical images for useful real-world healthcare data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KagadisInfoCH2_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KagadisInfoCH2-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As radiology is an inherently data-intensive and technology-driven specialty of medicine, radiologists have become leaders in imaging informatics. However, with the proliferation of digitized images to other fields such as cardiology, dermatology, surgery, gastroenterology, obstetrics, gynecology, and pathology, advances in imaging informatics are also being tested and applied in other areas of medicine.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KagadisInfoCH4_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KagadisInfoCH4-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Diagnostic_imaging_modalities\">Diagnostic imaging modalities<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Medical images created, studied, and mined in imaging informatics come from several modalities<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BranstetterPractical_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BranstetterPractical-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p><b>Projection radiology<\/b> utilizes X-rays to provide a grayscale image representing X-ray attenuation. The advantages of it include being fast, easy to perform, and inexpensive. Disadvantages include problems with low-contrast differentiations, image interpretation, and the use of ionizing radiation.\n<\/p><p><b>Fluorography<\/b> utilizes a continuous low-power X-ray beam to provide a grayscale \"movie\" for real-time feedback. It has the advantage of capturing movement-based measurements for barium studies or placement of catheters. It's primary disadvantage is in the quality of the radiograph.\n<\/p><p><b>Computed tomography<\/b> (CT) utilizes a moving collimated X-ray beam and a series of detectors to produce a digital image based on the X-ray attenuation of tissues. It has the advantage of providing finer resolutions, especially among tissues with similar densities. Disadvantages include high costs, the propensity for high-density artifacts, and the use of high doses of ionizing radiation.\n<\/p><p><b>Magnetic resonance imaging<\/b> (MRI) utilizes a high-intensity magnetic field with controlled radiofrequency pulses to provide a grayscale image based on the magnetic properties of nuclei in the tissues of the body. Advantages include excellent soft tissue contrast and resolution, can image on any plane, and doesn't use ionizing radiation. Disadvantages include high costs, lengthy scan times, and an inability to show calcification. \n<\/p><p><b>Positron emission tomography<\/b> (PET) utilizes X-ray or gamma-ray emitting radioisotopes placed into the body, their decay measured as pulses of light using photomultiplier tubes, which is then converted into a grayscale image. This method has the advantage of producing fine targeted measurements of chemical-physiologic tissue function. The high cost and need for a cyclotron to produce the radioisotopes pose challenges to some medical facilities.\n<\/p><p><b>Ultrasound<\/b> utilizes high-frequency sound waves from a transducer, which also receives reflected sound and converts it to an electrical signal and then a grayscale image. Ultrasound has the benefit of being low-cost, safe, and useful for analyzing soft tissues like the kidneys, liver, and pancreas. Disadvantages include its operator dependence and its inability to render quality images in obese patients.\n<\/p><p><b>Visible light<\/b> is used in some cases, though with limited practicality. It's most often used in the imaging of tissues in light microscopy and imaging the retina.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Application\">Application<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Imaging informatics can help tackle problems and tasks such as the following<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BranstetterBasics_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BranstetterBasics-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the creation and management of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Picture_archiving_and_communication_system\" title=\"Picture archiving and communication system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"523b73ff51fa83663dc0b1d59e6d0f05\">picture archiving and communication systems<\/a> (PACS) and component systems<\/li>\n<li>the embedding of medical images in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_medical_record\" title=\"Electronic medical record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99a695d2af23397807da0537d29d0be7\">electronic medical records<\/a><\/li>\n<li>the development of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiology_information_system\" title=\"Radiology information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62d0a667f8b27309ea38a46507cfb500\">radiology information systems<\/a> (RIS)<\/li>\n<li>the acquisition of images from medical devices<\/li>\n<li>the development of image processing and enhancement software<\/li>\n<li>the 3D visualization of medical imaging data<\/li>\n<li>the integration of speech recognition into imaging apps for quicker reporting turnaround<\/li>\n<li>the design of imaging facilities<\/li>\n<li>the development of imaging vocabularies and ontologies<\/li>\n<li>the mining of data from medical imaging databases<\/li>\n<li>the development of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/DICOM\" title=\"DICOM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0c7c747895286ff8785b6ed4dbc7ec0\">DICOM<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">HL7<\/a>, and other standards<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Informatics\">Informatics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A portion of what imaging informatics does involves the technology surrounding the mentioned diagnostic imaging modalities, including transfer and storage of their digital output. PACS have began playing an important role in hospitals and other medical environments as early as the 1990s<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HuangPACS_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HuangPACS-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, helping to provide affordable digital storage and distribution of medical images from numerous modalities. Another important part of imaging informatics includes the development of software to view, enhance, and analyze output from those modalities. The RIS has played an important part in that for sure, though open-source image viewing and analysis tools like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dcm4che2\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dcm4che2\" data-key=\"093b4f6b4053a3d7cf3def632d84a8b1\">dcm4che2<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OsiriX\" title=\"OsiriX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfde47f22774a57ce8c0c36c5dfabdb8\">OsiriX<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ITK\" title=\"ITK\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8287ad289a65c7f1c8c70694639f0688\">ITK<\/a> have also broadened the scope and availability of informatics tools available to technicians and researchers. Of course, interoperability among the software, PACS, RIS, and even the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital_information_system\" title=\"Hospital information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8385de7b1f39a39d793f8ce349b448d\">hospital information system<\/a> (HIS) are vital and benefited by protocols and standards like DICOM and HL7.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.abii.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">American Board of Imaging Informatics<\/a> (ABII)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/openbioimageanalysis.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Center for Open Bioimage Analysis<\/a> (COBA)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/imagescience.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">imagescience.org<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.medicalimaging.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Medical Imaging &amp; Technology Alliance<\/a> (MITA)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/medpix.nlm.nih.gov\/home\" target=\"_blank\">MedPix<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/siim.org\/default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Society for Imaging Informatics in Medicine<\/a> (SIIM)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.imaging.org\/site\/ist\" target=\"_blank\">Society for Imaging Science and Technology<\/a> (IS&amp;T)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article reuses an element or two from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Imaging_informatics\" data-key=\"ae9ac133c42c520b75a42af39bf77a92\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-count references-column-count-3\" style=\"-moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-BranstetterBasics-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BranstetterBasics_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BranstetterBasics_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Branstetter, B.&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Basics of Imaging Informatics\".&#32;<i>Radiology<\/i>&#32;<b>243<\/b>&#32;(3): 656\u201367.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1148%2Fradiol.2433060243\" target=\"_blank\">10.1148\/radiol.2433060243<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/17431128\" target=\"_blank\">17431128<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Basics+of+Imaging+Informatics&amp;rft.jtitle=Radiology&amp;rft.aulast=Branstetter%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Branstetter%2C+B.&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.volume=243&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=656%E2%80%9367&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1148%2Fradiol.2433060243&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/17431128&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Imaging_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BuiMed-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BuiMed_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Bui, A.A.T.; Taira, R.K.; Kangerloo, H.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=3JClHj3SXjwC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Introduction\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Medical Imaging Informatics<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u201313.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781441903853<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=3JClHj3SXjwC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=3JClHj3SXjwC&amp;pg=PA3<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction&amp;rft.atitle=Medical+Imaging+Informatics&amp;rft.aulast=Bui%2C+A.A.T.%3B+Taira%2C+R.K.%3B+Kangerloo%2C+H.&amp;rft.au=Bui%2C+A.A.T.%3B+Taira%2C+R.K.%3B+Kangerloo%2C+H.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B3%E2%80%9313&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9781441903853&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3JClHj3SXjwC%26pg%3DPA3&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Imaging_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KagadisInfoCH2-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KagadisInfoCH2_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Langer, S.G.&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JTYb3SZZraYC&pg=PA15\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Informatics Constructs\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Informatics in Medical Imaging<\/i>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;15\u201323.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781439831243<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JTYb3SZZraYC&pg=PA15\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JTYb3SZZraYC&amp;pg=PA15<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+Informatics+Constructs&amp;rft.atitle=Informatics+in+Medical+Imaging&amp;rft.aulast=Langer%2C+S.G.&amp;rft.au=Langer%2C+S.G.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B15%E2%80%9323&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781439831243&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJTYb3SZZraYC%26pg%3DPA15&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Imaging_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KagadisInfoCH4-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KagadisInfoCH4_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Horii, S.C.&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JTYb3SZZraYC&pg=PA41\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 4: DICOM\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Informatics in Medical Imaging<\/i>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;41\u201368.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781439831243<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JTYb3SZZraYC&pg=PA41\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JTYb3SZZraYC&amp;pg=PA41<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+4%3A+DICOM&amp;rft.atitle=Informatics+in+Medical+Imaging&amp;rft.aulast=Horii%2C+S.C.&amp;rft.au=Horii%2C+S.C.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B41%E2%80%9368&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781439831243&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJTYb3SZZraYC%26pg%3DPA41&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Imaging_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BranstetterPractical-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BranstetterPractical_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Andriole, Katherine P.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Q6Hc0oMyiYYC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Medical Imaging Modalities and Digital Images\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Practical Imaging Informatics: Foundations and Applications for PACS Professionals<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u201314.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781441904850<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Q6Hc0oMyiYYC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Q6Hc0oMyiYYC&amp;pg=PA3<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Medical+Imaging+Modalities+and+Digital+Images&amp;rft.atitle=Practical+Imaging+Informatics%3A+Foundations+and+Applications+for+PACS+Professionals&amp;rft.aulast=Andriole%2C+Katherine+P.&amp;rft.au=Andriole%2C+Katherine+P.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B3%E2%80%9314&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9781441904850&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ6Hc0oMyiYYC%26pg%3DPA3&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Imaging_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HuangPACS-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HuangPACS_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Huang, H. K.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Pjjkyae_55oC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Introduction\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>PACS and Imaging Informatics: Basic Principles and Applications<\/i>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201330.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780470560518<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Pjjkyae_55oC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Pjjkyae_55oC&amp;pg=PA1<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 21 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction&amp;rft.atitle=PACS+and+Imaging+Informatics%3A+Basic+Principles+and+Applications&amp;rft.aulast=Huang%2C+H.+K.&amp;rft.au=Huang%2C+H.+K.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%9330&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9780470560518&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPjjkyae_55oC%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Imaging_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171618\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.433 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.915 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4439\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 31388\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 9660\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 17\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 10817\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 93.747 1 Template:Reflist\n100.00% 93.747 1 -total\n 67.57% 63.349 6 Template:Citation\/core\n 40.45% 37.923 1 Template:Cite_journal\n 40.38% 37.856 5 Template:Cite_book\n 17.49% 16.393 7 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 7.03% 6.591 11 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 5.07% 4.750 14 Template:Hide_in_print\n 4.60% 4.310 7 Template:Only_in_print\n 3.37% 3.163 1 Template:Column-count\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:1621-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171617 and revision id 45422. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Imaging_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Imaging_informatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","fc0ae6a154d8896767defefdb6d14d0e_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e0\/Voxel-man-brain.jpg"],"fc0ae6a154d8896767defefdb6d14d0e_timestamp":1704906977,"055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4_type":"article","055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4_title":"Health informatics","055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_informatics","055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4_plaintext":"\n\nHealth informaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search Health informatics helps manage, analyze, and integrate patient data from physician to specialist and beyond.\nHealth informatics (also called health care informatics, healthcare informatics, medical informatics, nursing informatics, clinical informatics, or biomedical informatics) is a discipline at the intersection of information science, computer science, and health care. It deals with the resources, devices, and methods required to optimize the \"collection, storage, retrieval, [and] communication ... of health-related data, information, and knowledge.\"&#91;1&#93; Health informatics is applied to the areas of nursing, clinical care, dentistry, pharmacy, public health, occupational therapy, and biomedical research. Health informatics resources include not only computers but also clinical guidelines, formal medical terminologies, and information and communication systems. \nEarly names for health informatics included medical information data processing, medical information science, medical informatics&#91;2&#93;&#91;1&#93;, medical computer science, and medical computing.&#91;3&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n\n1.1 Health informatics in North America \n\n1.1.1 Argentina \n1.1.2 Brazil \n1.1.3 Canada \n1.1.4 United States \n\n\n1.2 Health informatics in Europe \n\n1.2.1 In the United Kingdom \n\n1.2.1.1 England \n1.2.1.2 Scotland \n\n\n\n\n1.3 Health informatics in Asia and Oceania \n\n1.3.1 Australia \n1.3.2 China \n1.3.3 New Zealand \n\n\n1.4 Health informatics in the Middle East \n\n1.4.1 Saudi Arabia \n\n\n\n\n2 Regulation and standards \n\n2.1 In the United States \n\n\n3 Clinical informatics \n4 Further reading \n5 See also \n6 Notes \n7 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nWorldwide use of technology in medicine began in the early 1950s with the rise of computers.&#91;4&#93; In 1949, Gustav Wager established the first professional organization for informatics in Germany.&#91;5&#93; The prehistory, history, and future of medical information and health information technology are discussed in reference.&#91;6&#93; Specialized university departments and informatics training programs began during the 1960s in France, Germany, Belgium and The Netherlands. Medical informatics research units then began to appear during the 1970s in Poland and in the U.S.&#91;5&#93;, with medical informatics conferences springing up as early as 1974.&#91;1&#93; Since then, the development of high-quality health informatics research, education, and infrastructure has been the goal of the U.S. and the European Union.&#91;5&#93;&#91;1&#93;\nBy the mid-2000s, work in the U.K. by the voluntary registration body the U.K. Council of Health Informatics Professions led to the creation of eight key constituencies within the domain of health informatics: information and communication technologies; health records; information management; knowledge management; health informatics service and project management; clinical informatics; education, training, and development; and research.&#91;7&#93; Those constituencies\u2014already based on U.K. National Health Service standards (NHS)\u2014later found their way into the NHS' Health Informatics Career Framework in a slightly modified format.&#91;8&#93; As of 2020&#91;update&#93; tens of datasets, publications, guidelines, specifications, meetings, conferences, and organizations around the world continue to shape what health informatics is today.&#91;9&#93;\n\nHealth informatics in North America \nArgentina \nSince 1996, the International Medical Informatics Association's Latin America and the Caribbean regional group has sought to develop health informatics within the region, including Argentina's Asociaci\u00f3n Argentina de Inform\u00e1tica M\u00e9dica (AAIM).&#91;10&#93;\nFrom 1997 until about 2014, the not-for-profit Buenos Aires Biomedical Informatics Group also represented the interests of a broad range of clinical and non-clinical professionals working within the health informatics sphere. The group strove to promote informatics technology and related content within the research and health administration spheres, especially those relating to the biomedical field.&#91;11&#93;\n\nBrazil \n\"In 1968 the Pan American Health Organization set up the Regional Library of Medicine and Health Sciences (BIREME) in the Paulista Medical School in S\u00e3o Paulo under an agreement with the Government of Brazil.\"&#91;12&#93; The library also made possible access to the MEDLINE and MEDLARS systems&#91;13&#93;, and it would eventually go on to become the \"hub of the Latin American network of biomedical and health information.\"&#91;12&#93;\nIn 1986, the Brazilian Society of Health Informatics (Sociedade Brasileira de Inform\u00e1tica em Sa\u00fade) was founded to better expand the use of informatics technology within the country. The same year saw the first Brazilian Congress of Health Informatics held, and the first Brazilian Journal of Health Informatics was published.&#91;14&#93;\nSince 1996, the International Medical Informatics Association's Latin America and the Caribbean regional group has sought to develop health informatics within the region, including Brazil's Sociedade Brasileira de Inform\u00e1tica em Sa\u00fade (SBIS).&#91;10&#93;\n\nCanada \nHealth Informatics projects in Canada are implemented provincially, with different provinces creating different systems. A national, federally-funded, not-for-profit organization called Canada Health Infoway was created in 2001 to foster the development and adoption of electronic health records across Canada. In 2013, there were 380 health informatics projects under way in Canadian hospitals, health-care facilities, pharmacies, and laboratories, with an investment value of $2.1 billion since its inception.&#91;15&#93; Canada Health Infoway expected to see those projects finally come to completion by the 2019\u20132020 fiscal year.&#91;16&#93;\nProvincial and territorial programs have included the following: \n\neHealth Ontario was created as an Ontario provincial government agency in September 2008. It has been plagued by delays, and its CEO was fired over a multi-million dollar contract scandal in 2009.&#91;17&#93;\nAlberta Netcare Portal was created in 2006 by the Government of Alberta. The Netcare portal is used daily by thousands of clinicians. It provides access to demographic data, prescribed\/dispensed drugs, known allergies\/intolerances, immunizations, laboratory test results, diagnostic imaging reports, the diabetes registry and other medical reports. Netcare interface capabilities are being included in electronic medical record products which are being funded by the provincial government.&#91;18&#93;\nUnited States \nEven though the idea of using computers in medicine sprouted as technology advanced in the early twentieth century, it was not until the 1950s that informatics made a realistic impact in the United States.&#91;4&#93; Robert Ledley led the charge in the 1950s with his early use of medical computation in his dental projects at the United States National Bureau of Standards.&#91;19&#93;\nBy the mid-1950s expert systems such as MYCIN and INTERNIST-I were developed, and the National Library of Medicine started using even the even more advanced MEDLINE and MEDLARS systems by 1965. Around this same time a flurry of activity occurred. At the University of Utah, Dr. Homer R. Warner, one of the fathers of medical informatics&#91;20&#93;, was already offering graduate-level classes in medical computer applications. Meanwhile Neil Pappalardo, Curtis Marble, and Robert Greenes were developing the Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System (MUMPS) in Octo Barnett's Laboratory of Computer Science at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston.&#91;21&#93;&#91;22&#93; Yet due to its advanced nature, fragmented use across multiple entities, and inherent difficulty in extracting and analyzing data from the database, development of healthcare and laboratory systems on MUMPS was sporadic at best.&#91;23&#93; \nBy the 1980s, however, the advent of Structured Query Language (SQL), relational database management systems (RDBMS), and Health Level 7 (HL7) allowed software developers to expand the functionality and interoperability of health informatics systems, including the application of business analytics and business intelligence techniques to clinical data.&#91;24&#93; By the early 2010s, web-based and database-centric internet applications of laboratory informatics software had further changed the way researchers and technicians interact with data, with web-driven data formatting technologies like Extensible Markup Language (XML) making interoperability of health and laboratory informatics software a much-needed reality.&#91;25&#93; SaaS and cloud computing technologies have further changed how informatics systems are implemented in the U.S and worldwide, while at the same time raising new questions about security and stability.&#91;21&#93;\n\nHealth informatics in Europe \nThe European Union's Member States are committed to sharing their best practices and experiences to create a European eHealth Area, thereby improving access to and quality health care at the same time as stimulating growth in a promising new industrial sector. The associated European eHealth programs play a fundamental role in the European Union's strategy. Work on this initiative involves a collaborative approach among several parts of the Commission services.&#91;26&#93; Additionally, the not-for-profit European Institute for Health Records or EuroRec has promoted the use of high quality electronic health record systems in the European Union since its foundation in late 2002.&#91;27&#93;&#91;28&#93;\nepSOS (European Patients - Smart Open Services) represented another key European initiative to \"build and evaluate a service infrastructure that demonstrates cross-border interoperability between electronic health record systems in Europe.\"&#91;29&#93; Co-funded by the European Commission Competitiveness and Innovation Programme since 2008, the initiative\u2014which finish on June 31, 2014\u2014was devised with the vision of giving patients in Europe the opportunity to use cross-border electronic medical record services for healthcare-related activities in participating epSOS pilot countries.&#91;29&#93; A follow-up letter at the end of the project highlighted how it had encompassed \"25 countries and about 50 beneficiaries,\" achieving the \"development of a solid basis for the eprescription and patient summary services, considering: governance, use cases, data content, semantics, specifications, architecture, testing mechanisms, etc.\"&#91;30&#93;\n\nIn the United Kingdom \nThe U.K. health informatics community has long played a key role in international activity, joining Technical Committee Four (TC 4) of the International Federation of Information Processing in 1968&#91;31&#93;, which eventually became the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA) in 1979.&#91;32&#93;&#91;33&#93; In 1978, the Medical Specialist Group of the British Computer Society organized the first European Federation for Medical Informatics (EFMI) Medical Informatics Europe (MIE) conference in Cambridge.&#91;33&#93;\nIn 2002, the idea of a profession of health informatics across the U.K. was first implemented as the U.K. Council for Health Informatics Professions (UKCHIP), which has a formal Code of Professional Conduct, standards for expressing competences which are used for entry, confirmation of fitness to practice, re-grading and personal development. Consistent standards express competences of health informatics professionals in both domain-specific and generic informatics professional areas. The consistency is intended to apply in operational care delivery organizations, academia, and the commercial service and solution providers.&#91;7&#93; \nThe broad history of health informatics in the U.K. has been captured in the 2008 book U.K. Health Computing&#160;: Recollections and Reflections by Glyn M. Hayes and Denise E. Barnett. The book describes the early development of health informatics in the country as \"unorganized and idiosyncratic.\"\n\nEngland \nIn 2002, the National Health Service (NHS) in England contracted several vendors for a national health informatics system called the National Programme for IT or \"NPfIT.\" By 2010, however, the project drastically behind schedule, forcing a wide consultation to be launched as part of a wider \"Liberating the NHS\" plan. \"Following three reports on the National Programme by both the National Audit Office and this Committee, and a review by the Major Projects Authority, the Government announced in September 2011 that it would dismantle the National Programme but keep the component parts in place with separate management and accountability structures.\"&#91;34&#93; The program was officially dismantled in September 2013, officially dubbed \"one of the worst and most expensive contracting fiascos in the history of the public sector.\"&#91;34&#93; \n\nScotland \nIn 1984, Scotland saw the implementation of the General Practice Administration System (GPASS), developed and controlled by NHS Scotland.&#91;35&#93; It was provided free to all general practitioners in Scotland. However, an agreement was reached in 2008 to shut down the electronic system due to \"a series of problems and critical reports.\"&#91;36&#93; The system was formally shut down in August 2012, with all practices having moved to new systems called EMIS and INPS.\n\nHealth informatics in Asia and Oceania \nIn Asia, Australia, and New Zealand, the regional group called the Asia Pacific Association for Medical Informatics (APAMI) was established in 1993 and now consists of more than 15 member regions in the Asia Pacific Region.&#91;37&#93;\n\nAustralia \nFounded in 2002, the Australasian College of Health Informatics (ACHI) was a professional association for health informatics in the Asia-Pacific region. It represented the interests of a broad range of clinical and non-clinical professionals working within the health informatics sphere through a commitment to quality, standards, and ethical practice.&#91;38&#93; ACHI was also a sponsor of the e-Journal for Health Informatics&#91;39&#93;, an indexed and peer-reviewed professional journal. ACHI had also supported the Australian Health Informatics Education Council (AHIEC) since its founding in 2009.&#91;40&#93;\nAlthough many health informatics organizations have been active in Australia, the Health Informatics Society of Australia (HISA) was generally regarded as the major umbrella group and a member of the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA). Nursing informaticians were the driving force behind the formation of HISA, with the membership coming from many parts of the informatics spectrum, from students to corporate affiliates. HISA had a number of branches (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia) as well as special interest groups such as nursing (NIA), pathology, aged and community care, industry, and medical imaging.&#91;41&#93;\nIn February 2020, ACHI and HISA announced that they had formally agreed to merge to form the Australsian Institute of Digital Health (AIDH). \"Australasia\u2019s leading organisations for health informatics and digital health ACHI and HISA were formed 25+ years ago in a different world. Imagine the challenges, the foresight and forward thinking required then to see the potential future of healthcare.\"&#91;38&#93; The new AIDH cited two primary factors for the merger: \"meeting demand for education, training, professional pathways, certification and leadership development across digital health\" and meeting the need for \"a single unified voice from digital health leaders and experts at a time when consumers were looking for informed opinion, advice and guidance.\"&#91;42&#93;\n\nChina \nIn Hong Kong a computerized patient record system called the Clinical Management System (CMS) has been developed by the Hospital Authority since 1994. This system has been deployed at all the sites of the Authority (more than 40 hospitals and 120 clinics) and is used by some 79,000 staff on a daily basis.&#91;43&#93; The comprehensive records of seven million patients are available online in the Electronic Patient Record (ePR), with data integrated from all sites. Since 2004, radiology image viewing has been added to the ePR, with radiography images from any HA site being available as part of the ePR.\nThe Hong Kong Hospital Authority placed particular attention to the governance of clinical systems development, with input from hundreds of clinicians being incorporated through a structured process. The health informatics section of the Hong Kong Hospital Authority has held a close relationship with the information technology department and clinicians to develop healthcare systems for the organization to support the service to all public hospitals and clinics in the region.&#91;44&#93;\nThe Hong Kong Society of Medical Informatics (HKSMI) was established in 1987 to promote the use of information technology in healthcare. The eHealth Consortium has been formed to bring together clinicians from both the private and public sectors, medical informatics professionals, and the IT industry to further promote IT in healthcare in Hong Kong.&#91;45&#93;\n\nNew Zealand \nHealth Informatics has been taught at several New Zealand universities since the early 2000s. The most mature and established is the Otago program, which has been offered since the mid-1990s.&#91;46&#93; Also notable is Health Informatics New Zealand (HINZ), the national organization that advocates for health informatics. HINZ organizes a conference every year and also publishes the online journal Healthcare Informatics Review Online.&#91;47&#93;\n\nHealth informatics in the Middle East \nSaudi Arabia \nThe Saudi Association for Health Information (SAHI) was established in 2006 to work under direct supervision of King Saud University for Health Sciences to practice public activities, develop theoretical and applicable knowledge, and provide scientific and applicable studies.&#91;48&#93;\n\nRegulation and standards \nThe international standards on the subject are covered by ICS 35.240.80&#91;49&#93;, in which ISO 27799:2016 is one of the core components.&#91;50&#93;\n\nIn the United States \nIn 2004 the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) formed the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONCHIT). The mission of this office is widespread adoption of interoperable electronic health records (EHRs) in the U.S. within 10 years.\nThe Certification Commission for Healthcare Information Technology (CCHIT), a private nonprofit group, was funded in 2005 by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to develop a set of standards for electronic health records (EHR) and supporting networks, and certify vendors who meet them. In July, 2006 CCHIT released its first list of 22 certified ambulatory EHR products, in two different announcements.&#91;51&#93;\n\nClinical informatics \nWhile health informatics and clinical informatics are often considered the same, some make a distinction between the two. The American Medical Informatics Association, for example, states clinical informatics is concerned with the use of information in health care by clinicians.&#91;52&#93; By extension, clinical informaticians analyze, design, implement, and evaluate information and communication systems that enhance individual and population health outcomes, improve patient care, and strengthen the clinician-patient relationship.\nClinical informaticians use their knowledge of patient care combined with their understanding of informatics concepts, methods, and health informatics tools to:\n\nassess information and knowledge needs of health care professionals and patients\ncharacterize, evaluate, and refine clinical processes\ndevelop, implement, and refine clinical decision support systems\nlead or participate in the procurement, customization, development, implementation, management, evaluation, and continuous improvement of clinical information systems\nClinicians collaborate with other health care and information technology professionals to develop health informatics tools which promote patient care that is safe, efficient, effective, timely, patient-centered, and equitable.\n\nFurther reading \nDe Moor, Georges J. E.&#160;; McDonald, Clement J.; van Goor, J. M. Noothoven, ed.&#32;(1993).&#32;Progress in Standardization in Health Care Informatics.&#32;IOS Press.&#32;pp.&#160;215.&#32;ISBN&#160;9051991142.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=DHzOJaNaOYkC . &#160; \nHovenga, Evelyn J. S., ed.&#32;(2010).&#32;Health Informatics: An Overview.&#32;IOS Press.&#32;ISBN&#160;1607500922.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=eckD3fSrPagC . &#160; \nHoyt, Robert E.; Bailey, Nora; Yoshihashi, Ann, ed.&#32;(2012).&#32;Health Informatics: Practical Guide For Healthcare And Information Technology Professionals.&#32;Lulu Enterprises Incorporated.&#32;pp.&#160;492.&#32;ISBN&#160;1105437558.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6bqruAAACAAJ . &#160; \nHoyt, R.E.; Hersh, W.R.&#32;(2018).&#32;Health Informatics: Practical Guide&#32;(7th ed.).&#32;Informatics Education.&#32;pp.&#160;488.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781387827503.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=UnxeDwAAQBAJ . &#160; \nSee also \nInformatics (academic field)\nCategory:Health informatics\nHospital information system\nLaboratory information system\nNotes \nSome elements of this article are reused from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Hovenga, E.J.S., ed.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Chapter 2: Health Informatics - An Introduction\".&#32;Health Informatics: An Overview.&#32;IOS Press.&#32;p.&#160;9\u201315.&#32;ISBN&#160;1607500922.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=eckD3fSrPagC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Blum, B.I.&#32;(1990).&#32;\"Medical Informatics\".&#32;In&#32;Kent, A.; Williams, J.G..&#32;Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology.&#32;22.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;p.&#160;205\u2013224.&#32;ISBN&#160;0824722728.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=L7NOABDqaMcC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Dayyani, B.&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Knowledge Informatics: A New Academic Discipline Underpinning Knowledge-based Organisations and Contributing to the Transformation from the Information Age to the Knowledge Age\".&#32;In&#32;Griffiths, P..&#32;Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Intellectual Capital and Knowledge Management.&#32;Academic Conferences Limited.&#32;p.&#160;127\u2013138.&#32;ISBN&#160;1905305362.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hD4I12296jYC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 \"The History of Health Informatics\".&#32;Health Informatics Guide - The History of Health Informatics.&#32;University of Illinois at Chicago.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 26 November 2012.&#32;http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121126102550\/http:\/\/healthinformatics.uic.edu\/history-of-health-informatics\/ .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 5.2 \"NYU Graduate Training Program in Biomedical Informatics (BMI): A Brief History of Biomedical Informatics as a Discipline\".&#32;www.nyuinformatics.org.&#32;NYU Langone Medical Center.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 23 March 2010.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100323111213\/http:\/\/www.nyuinformatics.org\/education\/degree-programs .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Robson,&#32;B.&#59;&#32;Baek,&#32;O. K.&#32;(2009).&#32;The engines of Hippocrates: From the Dawn of Medicine to Medical and Pharmaceutical Informatics.&#32;Hoboken, NJ:&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780470289532. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 \"UK Council for Health Informatics Professions (UKCHIP): Mapped Registration Requirements\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;UKCHIP.&#32;26 September 2006.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 28 February 2007.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070228020800\/http:\/\/www.ukchip.man.ac.uk\/Library\/Policies&amp;Standards\/registrationstandardsoct06 .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"About the Health Informatics Career Framework (HICF)\".&#32;National Health Service.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 28 March 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160328115710\/https:\/\/www.hicf.org.uk\/AboutHICF.aspx .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"HSRIC: Health Informatics\".&#32;U.S. National Library of Medicine.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 22 January 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200122062539\/https:\/\/hsric.nlm.nih.gov\/hsric_public\/topic\/informatics\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 10.0 10.1 \"IMIA LAC: Regional Federation of Health Informatics for Latin America and the Caribbean\".&#32;International Medical Informatics Association.&#32;https:\/\/imia-medinfo.org\/wp\/imia-lac-regional-federation-of-health-informatics-for-latin-america-and-the-caribbean\/ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Grupo de Inform\u00e1tica Biom\u00e9dica de Buenos Aires - GIBBA\".&#32;GIBBA.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 01 February 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140201044226\/http:\/\/www.gibba.org.ar\/GIBBAWEB2009\/ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 12.0 12.1 Sonis, A.&#32;(1981).&#32;\"The Latin American network of biomedical and health information: Experience and future development\".&#32;Educaci\u00f3n M\u00e9dica y Salud&#32;15&#32;(4): 474\u2013493.&#32;PMID&#160;7030712. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Garcia, M.L.A.&#32;(1987).&#32;\"Brazil, The Organization Of Scientific and Technological Information In\".&#32;In&#32;Kent, A..&#32;Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science.&#32;43.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;38\u201347.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=sFqds9V6heMC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Hist\u00f3ria da SBIS por Lincoln Moura (2002)\".&#32;Sociedade Brasileira de Inform\u00e1tica em Sa\u00fade.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 20 March 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200320213023\/http:\/\/www.sbis.org.br\/historia-da-sbis-por-lincoln-moura?showall=1 .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Canada Health Infoway Annual Report 2012\u201313\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Canada Health Infoway.&#32;26 July 2013.&#32;p. 9.&#32;https:\/\/www.infoway-inforoute.ca\/en\/component\/edocman\/1686-annual-report-2012-2013\/view-document?Itemid=101 .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Canada Health Infoway Annual Report 2018\u201319\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Canada Health Infoway.&#32;31 March 2019.&#32;p. 21.&#32;https:\/\/www.infoway-inforoute.ca\/en\/component\/edocman\/3726-annual-report-2018-2019\/view-document?Itemid=101 .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Head of eHealth Ontario is fired amid contracts scandal, gets big package\".&#32;CBC News.&#32;07 June 2009.&#32;https:\/\/www.cbc.ca\/news\/canada\/head-of-ehealth-ontario-is-fired-amid-contracts-scandal-gets-big-package-1.797216 .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n\n\u2191 \"Alberta Netcare: The History of the EHR\".&#32;Government of Alberta.&#32;https:\/\/www.albertanetcare.ca\/History.htm .&#32;Retrieved 30 October 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sittig, D.F.; Ash, J.S.; Ledley, R.S.&#32;(2006).&#32;\"The Story Behind the Development of the First Whole-body Computerized Tomography Scanner as Told by Robert S. Ledley\".&#32;Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association&#32;13&#32;(5): 465\u20139.&#32;doi:10.1197\/jamia.M2127.&#32;PMC&#160;1561796.&#32;PMID&#160;16799115.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=1561796 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Patton, G.A., Gardner, R.M.&#32;(1999).&#32;\"Medical Informatics Education: The University of Utah Experience\".&#32;Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association&#32;6&#32;(6): 457\u201365.&#32;PMC&#160;61389.&#32;PMID&#160;10579604.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=61389 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 21.0 21.1 Park, S.L; Pantanowitz, L.; Sharma, G.; Parwani, A.V.&#32;(2012).&#32;\"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\".&#32;Advances in Anatomic Pathology&#32;19&#32;(2): 81\u201396.&#32;doi:10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787.&#32;PMID&#160;22313836. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Reilly, E.D.&#32;(2003).&#32;Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology.&#32;Greenwood Publishing Group.&#32;p.&#160;161.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781573565219.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JTYPKxug49IC .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Blum, B.I.; Duncan, K.A.&#32;(1990).&#32;A History of Medical Informatics.&#32;ACM Press.&#32;pp.&#160;141\u201353.&#32;ISBN&#160;0201501287.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/A_History_of_medical_informatics.html?id=AR5rAAAAMAAJ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sinard, J.H.&#32;(2006).&#32;Practical Pathology Informatics: Demstifying Informatics for the Practicing Anatomic Pathologist.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;393.&#32;ISBN&#160;0387280588.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=WerUyK618fcC .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Kumar, S.; Aldrich, K.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Overcoming barriers to electronic medical record (EMR) implementation in the US healthcare system: A comparative study\".&#32;Health Informatics Journal&#32;16&#32;(4).&#32;doi:10.1177\/1460458210380523. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Shaping Europe's Digital Future: Research and Innovation in eHealth\".&#32;European Commission.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 03 November 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201103052623\/https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/digital-single-market\/en\/research-and-innovation-ehealth .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Electronic Health Records for Europe\".&#32;European Space Agency.&#32;30 March 2005.&#32;https:\/\/www.esa.int\/SPECIALS\/Telemedicine_Alliance\/SEMWC7SMD6E_0.html .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Mennerat, F.&#32;(10 October 2006).&#32;\"The EuroRec Institute: Structure, Activities and New Services\".&#32;SlidePlayer.&#32;EuroRec.&#32;https:\/\/slideplayer.com\/slide\/10421896\/ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 29.0 29.1 \"About epSOS\".&#32;European Commission.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 16 January 2018.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180116073447\/http:\/\/www.epsos.eu\/home\/about-epsos.html .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Cross-border health project epSOS: What has it achieved?\".&#32;European Commission.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 27 March 2019.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190327112520\/https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/digital-single-market\/en\/news\/cross-border-health-project-epsos-what-has-it-achieved .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Zemanek, H.; Brunnstein, K.&#32;(31 March 2011).&#32;\"Chart 0: IFIP at a Glance\".&#32;A Quarter Century of IFIP.&#32;IFIP.&#32;http:\/\/www.ifip.org\/50th_anni\/Chart0.htm .&#32;Retrieved 31 October 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Nedkov, P.&#32;(2002).&#32;Rosenfeld, J.L..&#32;ed.&#32;\"The IFIP Presidents\".&#32;IFIP Newsletter&#32;19&#32;(1\u20133): 7.&#32;http:\/\/www.ifip.org\/newsletters\/News2002\/News_Sep_2002.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 33.0 33.1 Dezelic, G.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"After Three Decades of Medical Informatics Europe Congresses\".&#32;In&#32;Adlassnig, K.-P. (ed.).&#32;Medical Informatics in a United and Healthy Europe.&#32;IOS Press.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u20137.&#32;ISBN&#160;1607500442.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pGHWtG5_xIgC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 34.0 34.1 \"MPs publish report on the dismantled National Programme for IT in the NHS\".&#32;U.K. Parliament.&#32;18 September 2013.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 21 September 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130921171844\/https:\/\/www.parliament.uk\/business\/committees\/committees-a-z\/commons-select\/public-accounts-committee\/news\/npfit-report\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Scotland\u2019s doctors welcome review of GPASS\".&#32;BMA Scotland.&#32;11 June 2002.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 01 November 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131101185822\/http:\/\/web.bma.org.uk\/pressrel.nsf\/wlu\/GGRT-5AZK3T .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Todd, R.&#32;(20 August 2012).&#32;\"Scotland's GPASS is no more\".&#32;EHealth Insider.&#32;EHealth Media Limited.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 19 March 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130319115435\/http:\/\/www.ehi.co.uk\/news\/ehi\/8005\/scotland's-gpass-is-no-more .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"About APAMI\".&#32;Asia Pacific Association of Medical Informatics.&#32;https:\/\/www.apami.org\/about-apami\/ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 38.0 38.1 \"Australasian College of Health Informatics\".&#32;ACHI.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 20 March 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200320223619\/https:\/\/www.achi.org.au\/ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"eJHI - Journal Sponsorship\".&#32;eJHI.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 11 April 2018.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180411031005\/http:\/\/www.ejhi.net\/ojs\/index.php\/ejhi\/about\/journalSponsorship .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Australian Health Informatics Education Council\".&#32;AHIEC.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 13 November 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131113083536\/http:\/\/www.ahiec.org.au\/ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"About HISA\".&#32;Health Informatics Society of Australia.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 28 November 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131128161833\/http:\/\/www.hisa.org.au\/?about .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"How the institute was formed\".&#32;Australasian Institute of Digital Health.&#32;February 2020.&#32;https:\/\/digitalhealth.org.au\/about\/the-story\/ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Introduction\".&#32;Hong Kong Hospital Authority.&#32;31 March 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.ha.org.hk\/visitor\/ha_visitor_index.asp?Content_ID=10008&amp;Lang=ENG&amp;Dimension=100&amp;Parent_ID=10004 .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Hong Kong Hospital Authority and Health Informatics Section\".&#32;Hong Kong Hospital Authority.&#32;November 2007.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 29 August 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120829213043\/http:\/\/www3.ha.org.hk\/hi\/Welcome.html .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"eHealth Consortium\".&#32;IPROA.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 20 March 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200320230409\/http:\/\/www.iproa.org\/index.php\/en-GB\/other-projects\/227-ehealth-consortium.html .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Karolyn Kerr&#59;&#32;Cullen, R.; Duke, J.; Holt, A. et al.&#32;(November 2006).&#32;\"Health Informatics Capability Development In New Zealand - A Report to the Tertiary Education Commission\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;National Steering Committee for Health Informatics Education in New Zealand.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 04 July 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140704133906\/http:\/\/homepages.mcs.vuw.ac.nz\/~peterk\/healthinformatics\/tec-hi-report-06.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"About HINZ\".&#32;Health Informatics New Zealand.&#32;https:\/\/www.hinz.org.nz\/page\/AboutHINZ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Who we are\".&#32;Saudi Association for Health Informatics.&#32;http:\/\/www.sahi.org.sa\/?page_id=2296 .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"35.240.80: IT applications in health care technology\".&#32;ISO.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/ics\/35.240.80\/x\/ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Segovia, A.J.&#32;(13 June 2016).&#32;\"How ISO 27001 and ISO 27799 complement each other in health organizations\".&#32;Advisera Expert Solutions Ltd.&#32;https:\/\/advisera.com\/27001academy\/blog\/2016\/06\/13\/how-iso-27001-and-iso-27799-complement-each-other-in-health-organizations\/ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Certification Commission for Healthcare Information Technology&#32;(18 July 2006).&#32;\"CCHIT Announces First Certified Electronic Health Record Products\".&#32;Virtual Medical Worlds.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 26 May 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120526040832\/http:\/\/www.hoise.com\/vmw\/06\/articles\/vmw\/LV-VM-08-06-22.html .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Gardner, R.M.; Overhage J.M.; Steen, E.B. et al.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Core content for the subspecialty of clinical informatics\".&#32;Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association&#32;16&#32;(2): 153\u20137.&#32;doi:10.1197\/jamia.M3045.&#32;PMC&#160;2649328.&#32;PMID&#160;19074296.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=2649328 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_informatics<\/a>\nCategories: Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2020All articles containing potentially dated statementsInformaticsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 6 January 2022, at 21:02.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 125,591 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Health_informatics rootpage-Health_informatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Health informatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:362px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Doctor_review_brain_images.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"76e3f41757c618e87fedbb3ec1415e20\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0b\/Doctor_review_brain_images.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"360\" height=\"286\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Doctor_review_brain_images.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"76e3f41757c618e87fedbb3ec1415e20\"><\/a><\/div>Health informatics helps manage, analyze, and integrate patient data from physician to specialist and beyond.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Health informatics<\/b> (also called <b>health care informatics<\/b>, <b>healthcare informatics<\/b>, <b>medical informatics<\/b>, <b>nursing informatics<\/b>, <b>clinical informatics<\/b>, or <b>biomedical informatics<\/b>) is a discipline at the intersection of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_science\" title=\"Information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a12cc8f9ac7d44a9fe314ee1778d0024\">information science<\/a>, computer science, and health care. It deals with the resources, devices, and methods required to optimize the \"collection, storage, retrieval, [and] communication ... of health-related data, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a>, and knowledge.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hovenga1_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hovenga1-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Health informatics is applied to the areas of nursing, clinical care, dentistry, pharmacy, public health, occupational therapy, and biomedical research. Health informatics resources include not only computers but also clinical guidelines, formal medical terminologies, and information and communication systems. \n<\/p><p>Early names for health informatics included medical information data processing, medical information science, medical informatics<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EncyCompSci_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EncyCompSci-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hovenga1_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hovenga1-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, medical computer science, and medical computing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3rdKnoMan_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3rdKnoMan-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Worldwide use of technology in medicine began in the early 1950s with the rise of computers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-univ_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-univ-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In 1949, Gustav Wager established the first professional organization for informatics in Germany.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nyu_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nyu-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The prehistory, history, and future of medical information and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_information_technology\" title=\"Health information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c8ef822470559f757db89f3fa234cc0\">health information technology<\/a> are discussed in reference.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Robson_first_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Robson_first-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Specialized university departments and informatics training programs began during the 1960s in France, Germany, Belgium and The Netherlands. Medical informatics research units then began to appear during the 1970s in Poland and in the U.S.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nyu_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nyu-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, with medical informatics conferences springing up as early as 1974.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hovenga1_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hovenga1-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Since then, the development of high-quality health informatics research, education, and infrastructure has been the goal of the U.S. and the European Union.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nyu_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nyu-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hovenga1_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hovenga1-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By the mid-2000s, work in the U.K. by the voluntary registration body the U.K. Council of Health Informatics Professions led to the creation of eight key constituencies within the domain of health informatics: information and communication technologies; health records; information management; knowledge management; health informatics service and project management; clinical informatics; education, training, and development; and research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8HIConst_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8HIConst-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Those constituencies\u2014already based on U.K. National Health Service standards (NHS)\u2014later found their way into the NHS' Health Informatics Career Framework in a slightly modified format.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HICF_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HICF-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As of 2020<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup> tens of datasets, publications, guidelines, specifications, meetings, conferences, and organizations around the world continue to shape what health informatics is today.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HSRIC_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HSRIC-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Health_informatics_in_North_America\">Health informatics in North America<\/span><\/h3>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Argentina\">Argentina<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Since 1996, the International Medical Informatics Association's Latin America and the Caribbean regional group has sought to develop health informatics within the region, including Argentina's Asociaci\u00f3n Argentina de Inform\u00e1tica M\u00e9dica (AAIM).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IMIA_LAC_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IMIA_LAC-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>From 1997 until about 2014, the not-for-profit Buenos Aires Biomedical Informatics Group also represented the interests of a broad range of clinical and non-clinical professionals working within the health informatics sphere. The group strove to promote informatics technology and related content within the research and health administration spheres, especially those relating to the biomedical field.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GIBBA_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GIBBA-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Brazil\">Brazil<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>\"In 1968 the Pan American Health Organization set up the Regional Library of Medicine and Health Sciences (BIREME) in the Paulista Medical School in S\u00e3o Paulo under an agreement with the Government of Brazil.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LatAmerNet_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LatAmerNet-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The library also made possible access to the MEDLINE and MEDLARS systems<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EnLiInfo43_8_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EnLiInfo43_8-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, and it would eventually go on to become the \"hub of the Latin American network of biomedical and health information.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LatAmerNet_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LatAmerNet-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 1986, the Brazilian Society of Health Informatics (Sociedade Brasileira de Inform\u00e1tica em Sa\u00fade) was founded to better expand the use of informatics technology within the country. The same year saw the first Brazilian Congress of Health Informatics held, and the first <i>Brazilian Journal of Health Informatics<\/i> was published.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SBISHist_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SBISHist-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Since 1996, the International Medical Informatics Association's Latin America and the Caribbean regional group has sought to develop health informatics within the region, including Brazil's Sociedade Brasileira de Inform\u00e1tica em Sa\u00fade (SBIS).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IMIA_LAC_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IMIA_LAC-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Canada\">Canada<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Health Informatics projects in Canada are implemented provincially, with different provinces creating different systems. A national, federally-funded, not-for-profit organization called Canada Health Infoway was created in 2001 to foster the development and adoption of electronic health records across Canada. In 2013, there were 380 health informatics projects under way in Canadian <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital\" title=\"Hospital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f070c66d8123fe91063594befebdff\">hospitals<\/a>, health-care facilities, pharmacies, and laboratories, with an investment value of $2.1 billion since its inception.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CHIReport12-13_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CHIReport12-13-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Canada Health Infoway expected to see those projects finally come to completion by the 2019\u20132020 fiscal year.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CHIReport18-19_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CHIReport18-19-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Provincial and territorial programs have included the following: \n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>eHealth Ontario<\/b> was created as an Ontario provincial government agency in September 2008. It has been plagued by delays, and its CEO was fired over a multi-million dollar contract scandal in 2009.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><b>Alberta Netcare<\/b> Portal was created in 2006 by the Government of Alberta. The Netcare portal is used daily by thousands of clinicians. It provides access to demographic data, prescribed\/dispensed drugs, known allergies\/intolerances, immunizations, laboratory test results, diagnostic imaging reports, the diabetes registry and other medical reports. Netcare interface capabilities are being included in electronic medical record products which are being funded by the provincial government.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetcareHist_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetcareHist-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"United_States\">United States<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Even though the idea of using computers in medicine sprouted as technology advanced in the early twentieth century, it was not until the 1950s that informatics made a realistic impact in the United States.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-univ_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-univ-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Robert Ledley led the charge in the 1950s with his early use of medical computation in his dental projects at the United States National Bureau of Standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ledley_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ledley-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By the mid-1950s expert systems such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/MYCIN\" title=\"MYCIN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ea15fec1c33edc9b5f1b300bd6f51f9\">MYCIN<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/INTERNIST-I\" title=\"INTERNIST-I\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab2f56ea93f9b33dc53239f9d13a064d\">INTERNIST-I<\/a> were developed, and the National Library of Medicine started using even the even more advanced MEDLINE and MEDLARS systems by 1965. Around this same time a flurry of activity occurred. At the University of Utah, Dr. Homer R. Warner, one of the fathers of medical informatics<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MedInfoEd_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MedInfoEd-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, was already offering graduate-level classes in medical computer applications. Meanwhile Neil Pappalardo, Curtis Marble, and Robert Greenes were developing the Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System (MUMPS) in Octo Barnett's Laboratory of Computer Science at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APLISReview_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APLISReview-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MileCompSci_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MileCompSci-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Yet due to its advanced nature, fragmented use across multiple entities, and inherent difficulty in extracting and analyzing data from the database, development of healthcare and laboratory systems on MUMPS was sporadic at best.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HistMedInfo_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HistMedInfo-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>By the 1980s, however, the advent of Structured Query Language (SQL), relational database management systems (RDBMS), and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a> (HL7) allowed software developers to expand the functionality and interoperability of health informatics systems, including the application of business analytics and business intelligence techniques to clinical data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PractPathInfo_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PractPathInfo-24\">&#91;24&#93;<\/a><\/sup> By the early 2010s, web-based and database-centric internet applications of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> software had further changed the way researchers and technicians interact with data, with web-driven data formatting technologies like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Extensible_Markup_Language\" title=\"Extensible Markup Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7c17028e7fb39d8b39c6d31504411a8\">Extensible Markup Language<\/a> (XML) making interoperability of health and laboratory informatics software a much-needed reality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OverBarEMR_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OverBarEMR-25\">&#91;25&#93;<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">SaaS<\/a> and cloud computing technologies have further changed how informatics systems are implemented in the U.S and worldwide, while at the same time raising new questions about security and stability.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APLISReview_21-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APLISReview-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Health_informatics_in_Europe\">Health informatics in Europe<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The European Union's Member States are committed to sharing their best practices and experiences to create a European eHealth Area, thereby improving access to and quality health care at the same time as stimulating growth in a promising new industrial sector. The associated European eHealth programs play a fundamental role in the European Union's strategy. Work on this initiative involves a collaborative approach among several parts of the Commission services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ResearchIneHealth_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ResearchIneHealth-26\">&#91;26&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, the not-for-profit European Institute for Health Records or EuroRec has promoted the use of high quality <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_health_record\" title=\"Electronic health record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255\">electronic health record<\/a> systems in the European Union since its foundation in late 2002.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EHREuro_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EHREuro-27\">&#91;27&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EuroRecPPT_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EuroRecPPT-28\">&#91;28&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>epSOS (European Patients - Smart Open Services) represented another key European initiative to \"build and evaluate a service infrastructure that demonstrates cross-border interoperability between electronic health record systems in Europe.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-epSOSAbout_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-epSOSAbout-29\">&#91;29&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Co-funded by the European Commission Competitiveness and Innovation Programme since 2008, the initiative\u2014which finish on June 31, 2014\u2014was devised with the vision of giving patients in Europe the opportunity to use cross-border <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_medical_record\" title=\"Electronic medical record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99a695d2af23397807da0537d29d0be7\">electronic medical record<\/a> services for healthcare-related activities in participating epSOS pilot countries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-epSOSAbout_29-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-epSOSAbout-29\">&#91;29&#93;<\/a><\/sup> A follow-up letter at the end of the project highlighted how it had encompassed \"25 countries and about 50 beneficiaries,\" achieving the \"development of a solid basis for the eprescription and patient summary services, considering: governance, use cases, data content, semantics, specifications, architecture, testing mechanisms, etc.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EUCross14_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EUCross14-30\">&#91;30&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_the_United_Kingdom\">In the United Kingdom<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The U.K. health informatics community has long played a key role in international activity, joining Technical Committee Four (TC 4) of the International Federation of Information Processing in 1968<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IFIP50Chart_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IFIP50Chart-31\">&#91;31&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, which eventually became the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA) in 1979.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IFIPNL2002_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IFIPNL2002-32\">&#91;32&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MIEuro_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MIEuro-33\">&#91;33&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In 1978, the Medical Specialist Group of the British Computer Society organized the first European Federation for Medical Informatics (EFMI) Medical Informatics Europe (MIE) conference in Cambridge.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MIEuro_33-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MIEuro-33\">&#91;33&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2002, the idea of a profession of health informatics across the U.K. was first implemented as the U.K. Council for Health Informatics Professions (UKCHIP), which has a formal Code of Professional Conduct, standards for expressing competences which are used for entry, confirmation of fitness to practice, re-grading and personal development. Consistent standards express competences of health informatics professionals in both domain-specific and generic informatics professional areas. The consistency is intended to apply in operational care delivery organizations, academia, and the commercial service and solution providers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8HIConst_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8HIConst-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>The broad history of health informatics in the U.K. has been captured in the 2008 book <i>U.K. Health Computing&#160;: Recollections and Reflections<\/i> by Glyn M. Hayes and Denise E. Barnett. The book describes the early development of health informatics in the country as \"unorganized and idiosyncratic.\"\n<\/p>\n<h5><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"England\">England<\/span><\/h5>\n<p>In 2002, the National Health Service (NHS) in England contracted several vendors for a national health informatics system called the National Programme for IT or \"NPfIT.\" By 2010, however, the project drastically behind schedule, forcing a wide consultation to be launched as part of a wider \"Liberating the NHS\" plan. \"Following three reports on the National Programme by both the National Audit Office and this Committee, and a review by the Major Projects Authority, the Government announced in September 2011 that it would dismantle the National Programme but keep the component parts in place with separate management and accountability structures.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DismantleNPfIT_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DismantleNPfIT-34\">&#91;34&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The program was officially dismantled in September 2013, officially dubbed \"one of the worst and most expensive contracting fiascos in the history of the public sector.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DismantleNPfIT_34-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DismantleNPfIT-34\">&#91;34&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n<h5><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scotland\">Scotland<\/span><\/h5>\n<p>In 1984, Scotland saw the implementation of the General Practice Administration System (GPASS), developed and controlled by NHS Scotland.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BMAGPASS_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BMAGPASS-35\">&#91;35&#93;<\/a><\/sup> It was provided free to all general practitioners in Scotland. However, an agreement was reached in 2008 to shut down the electronic system due to \"a series of problems and critical reports.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GPASSNoMo_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GPASSNoMo-36\">&#91;36&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The system was formally shut down in August 2012, with all practices having moved to new systems called EMIS and INPS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Health_informatics_in_Asia_and_Oceania\">Health informatics in Asia and Oceania<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In Asia, Australia, and New Zealand, the regional group called the Asia Pacific Association for Medical Informatics (APAMI) was established in 1993 and now consists of more than 15 member regions in the Asia Pacific Region.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APAMIAbout_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APAMIAbout-37\">&#91;37&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Australia\">Australia<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Founded in 2002, the Australasian College of Health Informatics (ACHI) was a professional association for health informatics in the Asia-Pacific region. It represented the interests of a broad range of clinical and non-clinical professionals working within the health informatics sphere through a commitment to quality, standards, and ethical practice.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACHI_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACHI-38\">&#91;38&#93;<\/a><\/sup> ACHI was also a sponsor of the <i>e-Journal for Health Informatics<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eJSpons_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eJSpons-39\">&#91;39&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, an indexed and peer-reviewed professional journal. ACHI had also supported the Australian Health Informatics Education Council (AHIEC) since its founding in 2009.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AHIEC_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AHIEC-40\">&#91;40&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Although many health informatics organizations have been active in Australia, the Health Informatics Society of Australia (HISA) was generally regarded as the major umbrella group and a member of the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA). Nursing informaticians were the driving force behind the formation of HISA, with the membership coming from many parts of the informatics spectrum, from students to corporate affiliates. HISA had a number of branches (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia) as well as special interest groups such as nursing (NIA), pathology, aged and community care, industry, and medical imaging.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HISAAbout_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HISAAbout-41\">&#91;41&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In February 2020, ACHI and HISA announced that they had formally agreed to merge to form the Australsian Institute of Digital Health (AIDH). \"Australasia\u2019s leading organisations for health informatics and digital health ACHI and HISA were formed 25+ years ago in a different world. Imagine the challenges, the foresight and forward thinking required then to see the potential future of healthcare.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACHI_38-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACHI-38\">&#91;38&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The new AIDH cited two primary factors for the merger: \"meeting demand for education, training, professional pathways, certification and leadership development across digital health\" and meeting the need for \"a single unified voice from digital health leaders and experts at a time when consumers were looking for informed opinion, advice and guidance.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIDHHowThe20_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIDHHowThe20-42\">&#91;42&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"China\">China<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In Hong Kong a computerized patient record system called the Clinical Management System (CMS) has been developed by the Hospital Authority since 1994. This system has been deployed at all the sites of the Authority (more than 40 hospitals and 120 clinics) and is used by some 79,000 staff on a daily basis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HKHAIntro_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HKHAIntro-43\">&#91;43&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The comprehensive records of seven million patients are available online in the Electronic Patient Record (ePR), with data integrated from all sites. Since 2004, radiology image viewing has been added to the ePR, with radiography images from any HA site being available as part of the ePR.\n<\/p><p>The Hong Kong Hospital Authority placed particular attention to the governance of clinical systems development, with input from hundreds of clinicians being incorporated through a structured process. The health informatics section of the Hong Kong Hospital Authority has held a close relationship with the information technology department and clinicians to develop healthcare systems for the organization to support the service to all public hospitals and clinics in the region.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HKHosp_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HKHosp-44\">&#91;44&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The Hong Kong Society of Medical Informatics (HKSMI) was established in 1987 to promote the use of information technology in healthcare. The eHealth Consortium has been formed to bring together clinicians from both the private and public sectors, medical informatics professionals, and the IT industry to further promote IT in healthcare in Hong Kong.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IPROA_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IPROA-45\">&#91;45&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"New_Zealand\">New Zealand<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Health Informatics has been taught at several New Zealand universities since the early 2000s. The most mature and established is the Otago program, which has been offered since the mid-1990s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HINZRepo_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HINZRepo-46\">&#91;46&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Also notable is Health Informatics New Zealand (HINZ), the national organization that advocates for health informatics. HINZ organizes a conference every year and also publishes the online journal <i>Healthcare Informatics Review Online<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HINZAbout_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HINZAbout-47\">&#91;47&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Health_informatics_in_the_Middle_East\">Health informatics in the Middle East<\/span><\/h3>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Saudi_Arabia\">Saudi Arabia<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The Saudi Association for Health Information (SAHI) was established in 2006 to work under direct supervision of King Saud University for Health Sciences to practice public activities, develop theoretical and applicable knowledge, and provide scientific and applicable studies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SAHIObj_48-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SAHIObj-48\">&#91;48&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regulation_and_standards\">Regulation and standards<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The international standards on the subject are covered by ICS 35.240.80<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-itah_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-itah-49\">&#91;49&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, in which ISO 27799:2016 is one of the core components.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-isosm_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-isosm-50\">&#91;50&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_the_United_States\">In the United States<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 2004 the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services\" title=\"United States Department of Health and Human Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efa106bcbb93039b1a6c3c596daedec3\">U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<\/a> (HHS) formed the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONCHIT). The mission of this office is widespread adoption of interoperable electronic health records (EHRs) in the U.S. within 10 years.\n<\/p><p>The Certification Commission for Healthcare Information Technology (CCHIT), a private nonprofit group, was funded in 2005 by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to develop a set of standards for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_health_record\" title=\"Electronic health record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255\">electronic health records<\/a> (EHR) and supporting networks, and certify vendors who meet them. In July, 2006 CCHIT released its first list of 22 certified ambulatory EHR products, in two different announcements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HOISE_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HOISE-51\">&#91;51&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Clinical_informatics\">Clinical informatics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>While health informatics and clinical informatics are often considered the same, some make a distinction between the two. The American Medical Informatics Association, for example, states clinical informatics is concerned with the use of information in health care by clinicians.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AMIACore_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AMIACore-52\">&#91;52&#93;<\/a><\/sup> By extension, clinical informaticians analyze, design, implement, and evaluate information and communication systems that enhance individual and population health outcomes, improve patient care, and strengthen the clinician-patient relationship.\n<\/p><p>Clinical informaticians use their knowledge of patient care combined with their understanding of informatics concepts, methods, and health informatics tools to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>assess information and knowledge needs of health care professionals and patients<\/li>\n<li>characterize, evaluate, and refine clinical processes<\/li>\n<li>develop, implement, and refine clinical decision support systems<\/li>\n<li>lead or participate in the procurement, customization, development, implementation, management, evaluation, and continuous improvement of clinical information systems<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Clinicians collaborate with other health care and information technology professionals to develop health informatics tools which promote patient care that is safe, efficient, effective, timely, patient-centered, and equitable.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">De Moor, Georges J. E.&#160;; McDonald, Clement J.; van Goor, J. M. Noothoven, ed.&#32;(1993).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=DHzOJaNaOYkC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Progress in Standardization in Health Care Informatics<\/i><\/a>.&#32;IOS Press.&#32;pp.&#160;215.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9051991142<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=DHzOJaNaOYkC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=DHzOJaNaOYkC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Progress+in+Standardization+in+Health+Care+Informatics&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B215&amp;rft.pub=IOS+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9051991142&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDHzOJaNaOYkC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Hovenga, Evelyn J. S., ed.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=eckD3fSrPagC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Health Informatics: An Overview<\/i><\/a>.&#32;IOS Press.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1607500922<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=eckD3fSrPagC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=eckD3fSrPagC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Health+Informatics%3A+An+Overview&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pub=IOS+Press&amp;rft.isbn=1607500922&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeckD3fSrPagC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Hoyt, Robert E.; Bailey, Nora; Yoshihashi, Ann, ed.&#32;(2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6bqruAAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Health Informatics: Practical Guide For Healthcare And Information Technology Professionals<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Lulu Enterprises Incorporated.&#32;pp.&#160;492.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1105437558<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6bqruAAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6bqruAAACAAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Health+Informatics%3A+Practical+Guide+For+Healthcare+And+Information+Technology+Professionals&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B492&amp;rft.pub=Lulu+Enterprises+Incorporated&amp;rft.isbn=1105437558&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6bqruAAACAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Hoyt, R.E.; Hersh, W.R.&#32;(2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=UnxeDwAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Health Informatics: Practical Guide<\/i><\/a>&#32;(7th ed.).&#32;Informatics Education.&#32;pp.&#160;488.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781387827503<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=UnxeDwAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=UnxeDwAAQBAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Health+Informatics%3A+Practical+Guide&amp;rft.aulast=Hoyt%2C+R.E.%3B+Hersh%2C+W.R.&amp;rft.au=Hoyt%2C+R.E.%3B+Hersh%2C+W.R.&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B488&amp;rft.edition=7th&amp;rft.pub=Informatics+Education&amp;rft.isbn=9781387827503&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUnxeDwAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">Informatics (academic field)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Category:Health_informatics\" title=\"Category:Health informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fc2f9ed457bbcb4f0213eb3ba5ed3ed\">Category:Health informatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital_information_system\" title=\"Hospital information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8385de7b1f39a39d793f8ce349b448d\">Hospital information system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">Laboratory information system<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some elements of this article are reused from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_informatics\" data-key=\"9b8de7b7fc05dd5665a05f35e572bcec\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-count references-column-count-3\" style=\"-moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Hovenga1-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hovenga1_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hovenga1_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hovenga1_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hovenga1_1-3\">1.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Hovenga, E.J.S., ed.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=eckD3fSrPagC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Health Informatics - An Introduction\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health Informatics: An Overview<\/i>.&#32;IOS Press.&#32;p.&#160;9\u201315.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1607500922<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=eckD3fSrPagC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=eckD3fSrPagC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+Health+Informatics+-+An+Introduction&amp;rft.atitle=Health+Informatics%3A+An+Overview&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B9%E2%80%9315&amp;rft.pub=IOS+Press&amp;rft.isbn=1607500922&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeckD3fSrPagC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EncyCompSci-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EncyCompSci_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Blum, B.I.&#32;(1990).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=L7NOABDqaMcC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Medical Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;In&#32;Kent, A.; Williams, J.G..&#32;<i>Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology<\/i>.&#32;<b>22<\/b>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;p.&#160;205\u2013224.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0824722728<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=L7NOABDqaMcC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=L7NOABDqaMcC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Medical+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=Encyclopedia+of+Computer+Science+and+Technology&amp;rft.aulast=Blum%2C+B.I.&amp;rft.au=Blum%2C+B.I.&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B205%E2%80%93224&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=0824722728&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL7NOABDqaMcC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3rdKnoMan-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-3rdKnoMan_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Dayyani, B.&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hD4I12296jYC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Knowledge Informatics: A New Academic Discipline Underpinning Knowledge-based Organisations and Contributing to the Transformation from the Information Age to the Knowledge Age\"<\/a>.&#32;In&#32;Griffiths, P..&#32;<i>Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Intellectual Capital and Knowledge Management<\/i>.&#32;Academic Conferences Limited.&#32;p.&#160;127\u2013138.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1905305362<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hD4I12296jYC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hD4I12296jYC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Knowledge+Informatics%3A+A+New+Academic+Discipline+Underpinning+Knowledge-based+Organisations+and+Contributing+to+the+Transformation+from+the+Information+Age+to+the+Knowledge+Age&amp;rft.atitle=Proceedings+of+the+3rd+International+Conference+on+Intellectual+Capital+and+Knowledge+Management&amp;rft.aulast=Dayyani%2C+B.&amp;rft.au=Dayyani%2C+B.&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B127%E2%80%93138&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Conferences+Limited&amp;rft.isbn=1905305362&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhD4I12296jYC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-univ-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-univ_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-univ_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121126102550\/http:\/\/healthinformatics.uic.edu\/history-of-health-informatics\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The History of Health Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health Informatics Guide - The History of Health Informatics<\/i>.&#32;University of Illinois at Chicago.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/healthinformatics.uic.edu\/history-of-health-informatics\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 26 November 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121126102550\/http:\/\/healthinformatics.uic.edu\/history-of-health-informatics\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121126102550\/http:\/\/healthinformatics.uic.edu\/history-of-health-informatics\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+History+of+Health+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=Health+Informatics+Guide+-+The+History+of+Health+Informatics&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+at+Chicago&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20121126102550%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fhealthinformatics.uic.edu%2Fhistory-of-health-informatics%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-nyu-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-nyu_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-nyu_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-nyu_5-2\">5.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100323111213\/http:\/\/www.nyuinformatics.org\/education\/degree-programs\" target=\"_blank\">\"NYU Graduate Training Program in Biomedical Informatics (BMI): A Brief History of Biomedical Informatics as a Discipline\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>www.nyuinformatics.org<\/i>.&#32;NYU Langone Medical Center.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nyuinformatics.org\/education\/degree-programs\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 23 March 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100323111213\/http:\/\/www.nyuinformatics.org\/education\/degree-programs\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100323111213\/http:\/\/www.nyuinformatics.org\/education\/degree-programs<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=NYU+Graduate+Training+Program+in+Biomedical+Informatics+%28BMI%29%3A+A+Brief+History+of+Biomedical+Informatics+as+a+Discipline&amp;rft.atitle=www.nyuinformatics.org&amp;rft.pub=NYU+Langone+Medical+Center&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20100323111213%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.nyuinformatics.org%2Feducation%2Fdegree-programs&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Robson_first-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Robson_first_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Robson,&#32;B.&#59;&#32;Baek,&#32;O. K.&#32;(2009).&#32;<i>The engines of Hippocrates: From the Dawn of Medicine to Medical and Pharmaceutical Informatics<\/i>.&#32;Hoboken, NJ:&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780470289532.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+engines+of+Hippocrates%3A+From+the+Dawn+of+Medicine+to+Medical+and+Pharmaceutical+Informatics&amp;rft.aulast=Robson&amp;rft.aufirst=B.&amp;rft.au=Robson%2C%26%2332%3BB.&amp;rft.au=Baek%2C%26%2332%3BO.+K.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9780470289532&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8HIConst-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-8HIConst_7-0\">7.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-8HIConst_7-1\">7.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070228020800\/http:\/\/www.ukchip.man.ac.uk\/Library\/Policies&Standards\/registrationstandardsoct06\" target=\"_blank\">\"UK Council for Health Informatics Professions (UKCHIP): Mapped Registration Requirements\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;UKCHIP.&#32;26 September 2006.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ukchip.man.ac.uk\/Library\/Policies&Standards\/registrationstandardsoct06\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 February 2007<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070228020800\/http:\/\/www.ukchip.man.ac.uk\/Library\/Policies&Standards\/registrationstandardsoct06\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070228020800\/http:\/\/www.ukchip.man.ac.uk\/Library\/Policies&amp;Standards\/registrationstandardsoct06<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=UK+Council+for+Health+Informatics+Professions+%28UKCHIP%29%3A+Mapped+Registration+Requirements&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=26+September+2006&amp;rft.pub=UKCHIP&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20070228020800%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ukchip.man.ac.uk%2FLibrary%2FPolicies%26Standards%2Fregistrationstandardsoct06&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HICF-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HICF_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160328115710\/https:\/\/www.hicf.org.uk\/AboutHICF.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"About the Health Informatics Career Framework (HICF)\"<\/a>.&#32;National Health Service.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hicf.org.uk\/AboutHICF.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 March 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160328115710\/https:\/\/www.hicf.org.uk\/AboutHICF.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160328115710\/https:\/\/www.hicf.org.uk\/AboutHICF.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+the+Health+Informatics+Career+Framework+%28HICF%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=National+Health+Service&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160328115710%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.hicf.org.uk%2FAboutHICF.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HSRIC-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HSRIC_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200122062539\/https:\/\/hsric.nlm.nih.gov\/hsric_public\/topic\/informatics\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"HSRIC: Health Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;U.S. National Library of Medicine.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hsric.nlm.nih.gov\/hsric_public\/topic\/informatics\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 22 January 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200122062539\/https:\/\/hsric.nlm.nih.gov\/hsric_public\/topic\/informatics\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200122062539\/https:\/\/hsric.nlm.nih.gov\/hsric_public\/topic\/informatics\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=HSRIC%3A+Health+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.S.+National+Library+of+Medicine&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200122062539%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fhsric.nlm.nih.gov%2Fhsric_public%2Ftopic%2Finformatics%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IMIA_LAC-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-IMIA_LAC_10-0\">10.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-IMIA_LAC_10-1\">10.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/imia-medinfo.org\/wp\/imia-lac-regional-federation-of-health-informatics-for-latin-america-and-the-caribbean\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"IMIA LAC: Regional Federation of Health Informatics for Latin America and the Caribbean\"<\/a>.&#32;International Medical Informatics Association<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/imia-medinfo.org\/wp\/imia-lac-regional-federation-of-health-informatics-for-latin-america-and-the-caribbean\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/imia-medinfo.org\/wp\/imia-lac-regional-federation-of-health-informatics-for-latin-america-and-the-caribbean\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=IMIA+LAC%3A+Regional+Federation+of+Health+Informatics+for+Latin+America+and+the+Caribbean&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Medical+Informatics+Association&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimia-medinfo.org%2Fwp%2Fimia-lac-regional-federation-of-health-informatics-for-latin-america-and-the-caribbean%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GIBBA-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GIBBA_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140201044226\/http:\/\/www.gibba.org.ar\/GIBBAWEB2009\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Grupo de Inform\u00e1tica Biom\u00e9dica de Buenos Aires - GIBBA\"<\/a>.&#32;GIBBA.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gibba.org.ar\/GIBBAWEB2009\/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 01 February 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140201044226\/http:\/\/www.gibba.org.ar\/GIBBAWEB2009\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140201044226\/http:\/\/www.gibba.org.ar\/GIBBAWEB2009\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Grupo+de+Inform%C3%A1tica+Biom%C3%A9dica+de+Buenos+Aires+-+GIBBA&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=GIBBA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140201044226%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.gibba.org.ar%2FGIBBAWEB2009%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LatAmerNet-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LatAmerNet_12-0\">12.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LatAmerNet_12-1\">12.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Sonis, A.&#32;(1981).&#32;\"The Latin American network of biomedical and health information: Experience and future development\".&#32;<i>Educaci\u00f3n M\u00e9dica y Salud<\/i>&#32;<b>15<\/b>&#32;(4): 474\u2013493.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/7030712\" target=\"_blank\">7030712<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+Latin+American+network+of+biomedical+and+health+information%3A+Experience+and+future+development&amp;rft.jtitle=Educaci%C3%B3n+M%C3%A9dica+y+Salud&amp;rft.aulast=Sonis%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Sonis%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=1981&amp;rft.volume=15&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=474%E2%80%93493&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/7030712&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EnLiInfo43_8-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EnLiInfo43_8_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Garcia, M.L.A.&#32;(1987).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=sFqds9V6heMC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Brazil, The Organization Of Scientific and Technological Information In\"<\/a>.&#32;In&#32;Kent, A..&#32;<i>Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science<\/i>.&#32;<b>43<\/b>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;38\u201347<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=sFqds9V6heMC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=sFqds9V6heMC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Brazil%2C+The+Organization+Of+Scientific+and+Technological+Information+In&amp;rft.atitle=Encyclopedia+of+Library+and+Information+Science&amp;rft.aulast=Garcia%2C+M.L.A.&amp;rft.au=Garcia%2C+M.L.A.&amp;rft.date=1987&amp;rft.volume=43&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B38%E2%80%9347&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsFqds9V6heMC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SBISHist-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SBISHist_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200320213023\/http:\/\/www.sbis.org.br\/historia-da-sbis-por-lincoln-moura?showall=1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hist\u00f3ria da SBIS por Lincoln Moura (2002)\"<\/a>.&#32;Sociedade Brasileira de Inform\u00e1tica em Sa\u00fade.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sbis.org.br\/historia-da-sbis-por-lincoln-moura?showall=1\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 20 March 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200320213023\/http:\/\/www.sbis.org.br\/historia-da-sbis-por-lincoln-moura?showall=1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200320213023\/http:\/\/www.sbis.org.br\/historia-da-sbis-por-lincoln-moura?showall=1<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Hist%C3%B3ria+da+SBIS+por+Lincoln+Moura+%282002%29&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Sociedade+Brasileira+de+Inform%C3%A1tica+em+Sa%C3%BAde&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200320213023%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbis.org.br%2Fhistoria-da-sbis-por-lincoln-moura%3Fshowall%3D1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CHIReport12-13-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CHIReport12-13_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoway-inforoute.ca\/en\/component\/edocman\/1686-annual-report-2012-2013\/view-document?Itemid=101\" target=\"_blank\">\"Canada Health Infoway Annual Report 2012\u201313\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Canada Health Infoway.&#32;26 July 2013.&#32;p. 9<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoway-inforoute.ca\/en\/component\/edocman\/1686-annual-report-2012-2013\/view-document?Itemid=101\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.infoway-inforoute.ca\/en\/component\/edocman\/1686-annual-report-2012-2013\/view-document?Itemid=101<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Canada+Health+Infoway+Annual+Report+2012%E2%80%9313&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=26+July+2013&amp;rft.pages=p.+9&amp;rft.pub=Canada+Health+Infoway&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoway-inforoute.ca%2Fen%2Fcomponent%2Fedocman%2F1686-annual-report-2012-2013%2Fview-document%3FItemid%3D101&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CHIReport18-19-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CHIReport18-19_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoway-inforoute.ca\/en\/component\/edocman\/3726-annual-report-2018-2019\/view-document?Itemid=101\" target=\"_blank\">\"Canada Health Infoway Annual Report 2018\u201319\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Canada Health Infoway.&#32;31 March 2019.&#32;p. 21<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoway-inforoute.ca\/en\/component\/edocman\/3726-annual-report-2018-2019\/view-document?Itemid=101\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.infoway-inforoute.ca\/en\/component\/edocman\/3726-annual-report-2018-2019\/view-document?Itemid=101<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Canada+Health+Infoway+Annual+Report+2018%E2%80%9319&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=31+March+2019&amp;rft.pages=p.+21&amp;rft.pub=Canada+Health+Infoway&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoway-inforoute.ca%2Fen%2Fcomponent%2Fedocman%2F3726-annual-report-2018-2019%2Fview-document%3FItemid%3D101&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cbc.ca\/news\/canada\/head-of-ehealth-ontario-is-fired-amid-contracts-scandal-gets-big-package-1.797216\" target=\"_blank\">\"Head of eHealth Ontario is fired amid contracts scandal, gets big package\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>CBC News<\/i>.&#32;07 June 2009<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cbc.ca\/news\/canada\/head-of-ehealth-ontario-is-fired-amid-contracts-scandal-gets-big-package-1.797216\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cbc.ca\/news\/canada\/head-of-ehealth-ontario-is-fired-amid-contracts-scandal-gets-big-package-1.797216<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Head+of+eHealth+Ontario+is+fired+amid+contracts+scandal%2C+gets+big+package&amp;rft.jtitle=CBC+News&amp;rft.date=07+June+2009&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fcanada%2Fhead-of-ehealth-ontario-is-fired-amid-contracts-scandal-gets-big-package-1.797216&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NetcareHist-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NetcareHist_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.albertanetcare.ca\/History.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Alberta Netcare: The History of the EHR\"<\/a>.&#32;Government of Alberta<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.albertanetcare.ca\/History.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.albertanetcare.ca\/History.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 30 October 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Alberta+Netcare%3A+The+History+of+the+EHR&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Government+of+Alberta&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.albertanetcare.ca%2FHistory.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Ledley-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Ledley_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Sittig, D.F.; Ash, J.S.; Ledley, R.S.&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1561796\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Story Behind the Development of the First Whole-body Computerized Tomography Scanner as Told by Robert S. Ledley\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association<\/i>&#32;<b>13<\/b>&#32;(5): 465\u20139.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1197%2Fjamia.M2127\" target=\"_blank\">10.1197\/jamia.M2127<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/1561796\/\" target=\"_blank\">1561796<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/16799115\" target=\"_blank\">16799115<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1561796\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=1561796<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+Story+Behind+the+Development+of+the+First+Whole-body+Computerized+Tomography+Scanner+as+Told+by+Robert+S.+Ledley&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Medical+Informatics+Association&amp;rft.aulast=Sittig%2C+D.F.%3B+Ash%2C+J.S.%3B+Ledley%2C+R.S.&amp;rft.au=Sittig%2C+D.F.%3B+Ash%2C+J.S.%3B+Ledley%2C+R.S.&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=465%E2%80%939&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1197%2Fjamia.M2127&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/1561796&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/16799115&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3D1561796&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MedInfoEd-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MedInfoEd_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Patton, G.A., Gardner, R.M.&#32;(1999).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=61389\" target=\"_blank\">\"Medical Informatics Education: The University of Utah Experience\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association<\/i>&#32;<b>6<\/b>&#32;(6): 457\u201365.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/61389\/\" target=\"_blank\">61389<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/10579604\" target=\"_blank\">10579604<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=61389\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=61389<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Medical+Informatics+Education%3A+The+University+of+Utah+Experience&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Medical+Informatics+Association&amp;rft.aulast=Patton%2C+G.A.%2C+Gardner%2C+R.M.&amp;rft.au=Patton%2C+G.A.%2C+Gardner%2C+R.M.&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.volume=6&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=457%E2%80%9365&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/61389&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/10579604&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3D61389&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-APLISReview-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-APLISReview_21-0\">21.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-APLISReview_21-1\">21.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Park, S.L; Pantanowitz, L.; Sharma, G.; Parwani, A.V.&#32;(2012).&#32;\"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\".&#32;<i>Advances in Anatomic Pathology<\/i>&#32;<b>19<\/b>&#32;(2): 81\u201396.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787\" target=\"_blank\">10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/22313836\" target=\"_blank\">22313836<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Anatomic+Pathology+Laboratory+Information+Systems%3A+A+Review&amp;rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Anatomic+Pathology&amp;rft.aulast=Park%2C+S.L%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Sharma%2C+G.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&amp;rft.au=Park%2C+S.L%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Sharma%2C+G.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=81%E2%80%9396&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/22313836&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MileCompSci-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MileCompSci_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Reilly, E.D.&#32;(2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JTYPKxug49IC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Greenwood Publishing Group.&#32;p.&#160;161.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781573565219<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JTYPKxug49IC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JTYPKxug49IC<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Milestones+in+Computer+Science+and+Information+Technology&amp;rft.aulast=Reilly%2C+E.D.&amp;rft.au=Reilly%2C+E.D.&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B161&amp;rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&amp;rft.isbn=9781573565219&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJTYPKxug49IC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HistMedInfo-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HistMedInfo_23-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Blum, B.I.; Duncan, K.A.&#32;(1990).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/A_History_of_medical_informatics.html?id=AR5rAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A History of Medical Informatics<\/i><\/a>.&#32;ACM Press.&#32;pp.&#160;141\u201353.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0201501287<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/A_History_of_medical_informatics.html?id=AR5rAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/A_History_of_medical_informatics.html?id=AR5rAAAAMAAJ<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+History+of+Medical+Informatics&amp;rft.aulast=Blum%2C+B.I.%3B+Duncan%2C+K.A.&amp;rft.au=Blum%2C+B.I.%3B+Duncan%2C+K.A.&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B141%E2%80%9353&amp;rft.pub=ACM+Press&amp;rft.isbn=0201501287&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FA_History_of_medical_informatics.html%3Fid%3DAR5rAAAAMAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PractPathInfo-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PractPathInfo_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Sinard, J.H.&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=WerUyK618fcC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Practical Pathology Informatics: Demstifying Informatics for the Practicing Anatomic Pathologist<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;393.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0387280588<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=WerUyK618fcC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=WerUyK618fcC<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Practical+Pathology+Informatics%3A+Demstifying+Informatics+for+the+Practicing+Anatomic+Pathologist&amp;rft.aulast=Sinard%2C+J.H.&amp;rft.au=Sinard%2C+J.H.&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B393&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=0387280588&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWerUyK618fcC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OverBarEMR-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OverBarEMR_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kumar, S.; Aldrich, K.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Overcoming barriers to electronic medical record (EMR) implementation in the US healthcare system: A comparative study\".&#32;<i>Health Informatics Journal<\/i>&#32;<b>16<\/b>&#32;(4).&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1177%2F1460458210380523\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/1460458210380523<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Overcoming+barriers+to+electronic+medical+record+%28EMR%29+implementation+in+the+US+healthcare+system%3A+A+comparative+study&amp;rft.jtitle=Health+Informatics+Journal&amp;rft.aulast=Kumar%2C+S.%3B+Aldrich%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Kumar%2C+S.%3B+Aldrich%2C+K.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1177%2F1460458210380523&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ResearchIneHealth-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ResearchIneHealth_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201103052623\/https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/digital-single-market\/en\/research-and-innovation-ehealth\" target=\"_blank\">\"Shaping Europe's Digital Future: Research and Innovation in eHealth\"<\/a>.&#32;European Commission.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/digital-single-market\/en\/research-and-innovation-ehealth\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 03 November 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201103052623\/https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/digital-single-market\/en\/research-and-innovation-ehealth\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20201103052623\/https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/digital-single-market\/en\/research-and-innovation-ehealth<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Shaping+Europe%27s+Digital+Future%3A+Research+and+Innovation+in+eHealth&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=European+Commission&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20201103052623%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fdigital-single-market%2Fen%2Fresearch-and-innovation-ehealth&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EHREuro-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EHREuro_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.esa.int\/SPECIALS\/Telemedicine_Alliance\/SEMWC7SMD6E_0.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Health Records for Europe\"<\/a>.&#32;European Space Agency.&#32;30 March 2005<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.esa.int\/SPECIALS\/Telemedicine_Alliance\/SEMWC7SMD6E_0.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.esa.int\/SPECIALS\/Telemedicine_Alliance\/SEMWC7SMD6E_0.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Electronic+Health+Records+for+Europe&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=30+March+2005&amp;rft.pub=European+Space+Agency&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esa.int%2FSPECIALS%2FTelemedicine_Alliance%2FSEMWC7SMD6E_0.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EuroRecPPT-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EuroRecPPT_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Mennerat, F.&#32;(10 October 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/slideplayer.com\/slide\/10421896\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The EuroRec Institute: Structure, Activities and New Services\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>SlidePlayer<\/i>.&#32;EuroRec<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/slideplayer.com\/slide\/10421896\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/slideplayer.com\/slide\/10421896\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+EuroRec+Institute%3A+Structure%2C+Activities+and+New+Services&amp;rft.atitle=SlidePlayer&amp;rft.aulast=Mennerat%2C+F.&amp;rft.au=Mennerat%2C+F.&amp;rft.date=10+October+2006&amp;rft.pub=EuroRec&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fslideplayer.com%2Fslide%2F10421896%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-epSOSAbout-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-epSOSAbout_29-0\">29.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-epSOSAbout_29-1\">29.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180116073447\/http:\/\/www.epsos.eu\/home\/about-epsos.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"About epSOS\"<\/a>.&#32;European Commission.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epsos.eu\/home\/about-epsos.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 16 January 2018<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180116073447\/http:\/\/www.epsos.eu\/home\/about-epsos.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180116073447\/http:\/\/www.epsos.eu\/home\/about-epsos.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+epSOS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=European+Commission&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20180116073447%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epsos.eu%2Fhome%2Fabout-epsos.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EUCross14-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EUCross14_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190327112520\/https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/digital-single-market\/en\/news\/cross-border-health-project-epsos-what-has-it-achieved\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cross-border health project epSOS: What has it achieved?\"<\/a>.&#32;European Commission.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/digital-single-market\/en\/news\/cross-border-health-project-epsos-what-has-it-achieved\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 27 March 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190327112520\/https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/digital-single-market\/en\/news\/cross-border-health-project-epsos-what-has-it-achieved\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190327112520\/https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/digital-single-market\/en\/news\/cross-border-health-project-epsos-what-has-it-achieved<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cross-border+health+project+epSOS%3A+What+has+it+achieved%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=European+Commission&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20190327112520%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fdigital-single-market%2Fen%2Fnews%2Fcross-border-health-project-epsos-what-has-it-achieved&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IFIP50Chart-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-IFIP50Chart_31-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Zemanek, H.; Brunnstein, K.&#32;(31 March 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ifip.org\/50th_anni\/Chart0.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chart 0: IFIP at a Glance\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>A Quarter Century of IFIP<\/i>.&#32;IFIP<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ifip.org\/50th_anni\/Chart0.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ifip.org\/50th_anni\/Chart0.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 31 October 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chart+0%3A+IFIP+at+a+Glance&amp;rft.atitle=A+Quarter+Century+of+IFIP&amp;rft.aulast=Zemanek%2C+H.%3B+Brunnstein%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Zemanek%2C+H.%3B+Brunnstein%2C+K.&amp;rft.date=31+March+2011&amp;rft.pub=IFIP&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ifip.org%2F50th_anni%2FChart0.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IFIPNL2002-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-IFIPNL2002_32-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Nedkov, P.&#32;(2002).&#32;Rosenfeld, J.L..&#32;ed.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ifip.org\/newsletters\/News2002\/News_Sep_2002.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The IFIP Presidents\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>IFIP Newsletter<\/i>&#32;<b>19<\/b>&#32;(1\u20133): 7<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ifip.org\/newsletters\/News2002\/News_Sep_2002.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ifip.org\/newsletters\/News2002\/News_Sep_2002.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+IFIP+Presidents&amp;rft.jtitle=IFIP+Newsletter&amp;rft.aulast=Nedkov%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Nedkov%2C+P.&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=1%E2%80%933&amp;rft.pages=7&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ifip.org%2Fnewsletters%2FNews2002%2FNews_Sep_2002.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MIEuro-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MIEuro_33-0\">33.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MIEuro_33-1\">33.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Dezelic, G.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pGHWtG5_xIgC\" target=\"_blank\">\"After Three Decades of Medical Informatics Europe Congresses\"<\/a>.&#32;In&#32;Adlassnig, K.-P. (ed.).&#32;<i>Medical Informatics in a United and Healthy Europe<\/i>.&#32;IOS Press.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u20137.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1607500442<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pGHWtG5_xIgC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pGHWtG5_xIgC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=After+Three+Decades+of+Medical+Informatics+Europe+Congresses&amp;rft.atitle=Medical+Informatics+in+a+United+and+Healthy+Europe&amp;rft.aulast=Dezelic%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Dezelic%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B3%E2%80%937&amp;rft.pub=IOS+Press&amp;rft.isbn=1607500442&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpGHWtG5_xIgC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DismantleNPfIT-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-DismantleNPfIT_34-0\">34.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-DismantleNPfIT_34-1\">34.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130921171844\/https:\/\/www.parliament.uk\/business\/committees\/committees-a-z\/commons-select\/public-accounts-committee\/news\/npfit-report\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"MPs publish report on the dismantled National Programme for IT in the NHS\"<\/a>.&#32;U.K. Parliament.&#32;18 September 2013.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.parliament.uk\/business\/committees\/committees-a-z\/commons-select\/public-accounts-committee\/news\/npfit-report\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 21 September 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130921171844\/https:\/\/www.parliament.uk\/business\/committees\/committees-a-z\/commons-select\/public-accounts-committee\/news\/npfit-report\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130921171844\/https:\/\/www.parliament.uk\/business\/committees\/committees-a-z\/commons-select\/public-accounts-committee\/news\/npfit-report\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=MPs+publish+report+on+the+dismantled+National+Programme+for+IT+in+the+NHS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=18+September+2013&amp;rft.pub=U.K.+Parliament&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130921171844%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.parliament.uk%2Fbusiness%2Fcommittees%2Fcommittees-a-z%2Fcommons-select%2Fpublic-accounts-committee%2Fnews%2Fnpfit-report%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BMAGPASS-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BMAGPASS_35-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131101185822\/http:\/\/web.bma.org.uk\/pressrel.nsf\/wlu\/GGRT-5AZK3T\" target=\"_blank\">\"Scotland\u2019s doctors welcome review of GPASS\"<\/a>.&#32;BMA Scotland.&#32;11 June 2002.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.bma.org.uk\/pressrel.nsf\/wlu\/GGRT-5AZK3T\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 01 November 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131101185822\/http:\/\/web.bma.org.uk\/pressrel.nsf\/wlu\/GGRT-5AZK3T\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131101185822\/http:\/\/web.bma.org.uk\/pressrel.nsf\/wlu\/GGRT-5AZK3T<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Scotland%E2%80%99s+doctors+welcome+review+of+GPASS&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=11+June+2002&amp;rft.pub=BMA+Scotland&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20131101185822%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fweb.bma.org.uk%2Fpressrel.nsf%2Fwlu%2FGGRT-5AZK3T&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GPASSNoMo-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GPASSNoMo_36-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Todd, R.&#32;(20 August 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130319115435\/http:\/\/www.ehi.co.uk\/news\/ehi\/8005\/scotland's-gpass-is-no-more\" target=\"_blank\">\"Scotland's GPASS is no more\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>EHealth Insider<\/i>.&#32;EHealth Media Limited.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ehi.co.uk\/news\/ehi\/8005\/scotland's-gpass-is-no-more\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 19 March 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130319115435\/http:\/\/www.ehi.co.uk\/news\/ehi\/8005\/scotland's-gpass-is-no-more\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130319115435\/http:\/\/www.ehi.co.uk\/news\/ehi\/8005\/scotland's-gpass-is-no-more<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Scotland%27s+GPASS+is+no+more&amp;rft.atitle=EHealth+Insider&amp;rft.aulast=Todd%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Todd%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=20+August+2012&amp;rft.pub=EHealth+Media+Limited&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130319115435%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ehi.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fehi%2F8005%2Fscotland%27s-gpass-is-no-more&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-APAMIAbout-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-APAMIAbout_37-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.apami.org\/about-apami\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"About APAMI\"<\/a>.&#32;Asia Pacific Association of Medical Informatics<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.apami.org\/about-apami\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.apami.org\/about-apami\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+APAMI&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Asia+Pacific+Association+of+Medical+Informatics&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.apami.org%2Fabout-apami%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ACHI-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ACHI_38-0\">38.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ACHI_38-1\">38.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200320223619\/https:\/\/www.achi.org.au\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Australasian College of Health Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;ACHI.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.achi.org.au\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 20 March 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200320223619\/https:\/\/www.achi.org.au\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200320223619\/https:\/\/www.achi.org.au\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Australasian+College+of+Health+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ACHI&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200320223619%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.achi.org.au%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-eJSpons-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-eJSpons_39-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180411031005\/http:\/\/www.ejhi.net\/ojs\/index.php\/ejhi\/about\/journalSponsorship\" target=\"_blank\">\"eJHI - Journal Sponsorship\"<\/a>.&#32;eJHI.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ejhi.net\/ojs\/index.php\/ejhi\/about\/journalSponsorship\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 11 April 2018<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180411031005\/http:\/\/www.ejhi.net\/ojs\/index.php\/ejhi\/about\/journalSponsorship\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180411031005\/http:\/\/www.ejhi.net\/ojs\/index.php\/ejhi\/about\/journalSponsorship<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=eJHI+-+Journal+Sponsorship&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=eJHI&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20180411031005%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ejhi.net%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fejhi%2Fabout%2FjournalSponsorship&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AHIEC-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AHIEC_40-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131113083536\/http:\/\/www.ahiec.org.au\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Australian Health Informatics Education Council\"<\/a>.&#32;AHIEC.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ahiec.org.au\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 13 November 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131113083536\/http:\/\/www.ahiec.org.au\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131113083536\/http:\/\/www.ahiec.org.au\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Australian+Health+Informatics+Education+Council&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=AHIEC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20131113083536%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahiec.org.au%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HISAAbout-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HISAAbout_41-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131128161833\/http:\/\/www.hisa.org.au\/?about\" target=\"_blank\">\"About HISA\"<\/a>.&#32;Health Informatics Society of Australia.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hisa.org.au\/?about\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 November 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131128161833\/http:\/\/www.hisa.org.au\/?about\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131128161833\/http:\/\/www.hisa.org.au\/?about<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+HISA&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Health+Informatics+Society+of+Australia&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20131128161833%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.hisa.org.au%2F%3Fabout&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AIDHHowThe20-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIDHHowThe20_42-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/digitalhealth.org.au\/about\/the-story\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How the institute was formed\"<\/a>.&#32;Australasian Institute of Digital Health.&#32;February 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/digitalhealth.org.au\/about\/the-story\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/digitalhealth.org.au\/about\/the-story\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+the+institute+was+formed&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=February+2020&amp;rft.pub=Australasian+Institute+of+Digital+Health&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalhealth.org.au%2Fabout%2Fthe-story%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HKHAIntro-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HKHAIntro_43-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ha.org.hk\/visitor\/ha_visitor_index.asp?Content_ID=10008&Lang=ENG&Dimension=100&Parent_ID=10004\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introduction\"<\/a>.&#32;Hong Kong Hospital Authority.&#32;31 March 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ha.org.hk\/visitor\/ha_visitor_index.asp?Content_ID=10008&Lang=ENG&Dimension=100&Parent_ID=10004\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ha.org.hk\/visitor\/ha_visitor_index.asp?Content_ID=10008&amp;Lang=ENG&amp;Dimension=100&amp;Parent_ID=10004<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=31+March+2019&amp;rft.pub=Hong+Kong+Hospital+Authority&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ha.org.hk%2Fvisitor%2Fha_visitor_index.asp%3FContent_ID%3D10008%26Lang%3DENG%26Dimension%3D100%26Parent_ID%3D10004&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HKHosp-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HKHosp_44-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120829213043\/http:\/\/www3.ha.org.hk\/hi\/Welcome.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hong Kong Hospital Authority and Health Informatics Section\"<\/a>.&#32;Hong Kong Hospital Authority.&#32;November 2007.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www3.ha.org.hk\/hi\/Welcome.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 29 August 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120829213043\/http:\/\/www3.ha.org.hk\/hi\/Welcome.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120829213043\/http:\/\/www3.ha.org.hk\/hi\/Welcome.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Hong+Kong+Hospital+Authority+and+Health+Informatics+Section&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=November+2007&amp;rft.pub=Hong+Kong+Hospital+Authority&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120829213043%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww3.ha.org.hk%2Fhi%2FWelcome.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IPROA-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-IPROA_45-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200320230409\/http:\/\/www.iproa.org\/index.php\/en-GB\/other-projects\/227-ehealth-consortium.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"eHealth Consortium\"<\/a>.&#32;IPROA.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iproa.org\/index.php\/en-GB\/other-projects\/227-ehealth-consortium.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 20 March 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200320230409\/http:\/\/www.iproa.org\/index.php\/en-GB\/other-projects\/227-ehealth-consortium.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200320230409\/http:\/\/www.iproa.org\/index.php\/en-GB\/other-projects\/227-ehealth-consortium.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=eHealth+Consortium&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=IPROA&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200320230409%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.iproa.org%2Findex.php%2Fen-GB%2Fother-projects%2F227-ehealth-consortium.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HINZRepo-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HINZRepo_46-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Karolyn Kerr&#59;&#32;Cullen, R.; Duke, J.; Holt, A. et al.&#32;(November 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140704133906\/http:\/\/homepages.mcs.vuw.ac.nz\/~peterk\/healthinformatics\/tec-hi-report-06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Health Informatics Capability Development In New Zealand - A Report to the Tertiary Education Commission\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;National Steering Committee for Health Informatics Education in New Zealand.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/homepages.mcs.vuw.ac.nz\/~peterk\/healthinformatics\/tec-hi-report-06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 04 July 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140704133906\/http:\/\/homepages.mcs.vuw.ac.nz\/~peterk\/healthinformatics\/tec-hi-report-06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140704133906\/http:\/\/homepages.mcs.vuw.ac.nz\/~peterk\/healthinformatics\/tec-hi-report-06.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Health+Informatics+Capability+Development+In+New+Zealand+-+A+Report+to+the+Tertiary+Education+Commission&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Karolyn+Kerr&amp;rft.au=Karolyn+Kerr&amp;rft.date=November+2006&amp;rft.pub=National+Steering+Committee+for+Health+Informatics+Education+in+New+Zealand&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140704133906%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fhomepages.mcs.vuw.ac.nz%2F%7Epeterk%2Fhealthinformatics%2Ftec-hi-report-06.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HINZAbout-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HINZAbout_47-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hinz.org.nz\/page\/AboutHINZ\" target=\"_blank\">\"About HINZ\"<\/a>.&#32;Health Informatics New Zealand<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hinz.org.nz\/page\/AboutHINZ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.hinz.org.nz\/page\/AboutHINZ<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+HINZ&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Health+Informatics+New+Zealand&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hinz.org.nz%2Fpage%2FAboutHINZ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SAHIObj-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SAHIObj_48-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sahi.org.sa\/?page_id=2296\" target=\"_blank\">\"Who we are\"<\/a>.&#32;Saudi Association for Health Informatics<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sahi.org.sa\/?page_id=2296\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.sahi.org.sa\/?page_id=2296<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Who+we+are&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Saudi+Association+for+Health+Informatics&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sahi.org.sa%2F%3Fpage_id%3D2296&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-itah-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-itah_49-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/ics\/35.240.80\/x\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"35.240.80: IT applications in health care technology\"<\/a>.&#32;ISO<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/ics\/35.240.80\/x\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/ics\/35.240.80\/x\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=35.240.80%3A+IT+applications+in+health+care+technology&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ISO&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fics%2F35.240.80%2Fx%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-isosm-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-isosm_50-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Segovia, A.J.&#32;(13 June 2016).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/advisera.com\/27001academy\/blog\/2016\/06\/13\/how-iso-27001-and-iso-27799-complement-each-other-in-health-organizations\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How ISO 27001 and ISO 27799 complement each other in health organizations\"<\/a>.&#32;Advisera Expert Solutions Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/advisera.com\/27001academy\/blog\/2016\/06\/13\/how-iso-27001-and-iso-27799-complement-each-other-in-health-organizations\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/advisera.com\/27001academy\/blog\/2016\/06\/13\/how-iso-27001-and-iso-27799-complement-each-other-in-health-organizations\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+ISO+27001+and+ISO+27799+complement+each+other+in+health+organizations&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Segovia%2C+A.J.&amp;rft.au=Segovia%2C+A.J.&amp;rft.date=13+June+2016&amp;rft.pub=Advisera+Expert+Solutions+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fadvisera.com%2F27001academy%2Fblog%2F2016%2F06%2F13%2Fhow-iso-27001-and-iso-27799-complement-each-other-in-health-organizations%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HOISE-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HOISE_51-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Certification Commission for Healthcare Information Technology&#32;(18 July 2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120526040832\/http:\/\/www.hoise.com\/vmw\/06\/articles\/vmw\/LV-VM-08-06-22.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"CCHIT Announces First Certified Electronic Health Record Products\"<\/a>.&#32;Virtual Medical Worlds.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hoise.com\/vmw\/06\/articles\/vmw\/LV-VM-08-06-22.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 26 May 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120526040832\/http:\/\/www.hoise.com\/vmw\/06\/articles\/vmw\/LV-VM-08-06-22.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120526040832\/http:\/\/www.hoise.com\/vmw\/06\/articles\/vmw\/LV-VM-08-06-22.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=CCHIT+Announces+First+Certified+Electronic+Health+Record+Products&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Certification+Commission+for+Healthcare+Information+Technology&amp;rft.au=Certification+Commission+for+Healthcare+Information+Technology&amp;rft.date=18+July+2006&amp;rft.pub=Virtual+Medical+Worlds&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120526040832%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.hoise.com%2Fvmw%2F06%2Farticles%2Fvmw%2FLV-VM-08-06-22.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AMIACore-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AMIACore_52-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Gardner, R.M.; Overhage J.M.; Steen, E.B. et al.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2649328\" target=\"_blank\">\"Core content for the subspecialty of clinical informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association<\/i>&#32;<b>16<\/b>&#32;(2): 153\u20137.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1197%2Fjamia.M3045\" target=\"_blank\">10.1197\/jamia.M3045<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/2649328\/\" target=\"_blank\">2649328<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/19074296\" target=\"_blank\">19074296<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2649328\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=2649328<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Core+content+for+the+subspecialty+of+clinical+informatics&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Medical+Informatics+Association&amp;rft.aulast=Gardner%2C+R.M.%3B+Overhage+J.M.%3B+Steen%2C+E.B.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Gardner%2C+R.M.%3B+Overhage+J.M.%3B+Steen%2C+E.B.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=153%E2%80%937&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1197%2Fjamia.M3045&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/2649328&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/19074296&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3D2649328&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110060409\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.887 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.373 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 38157\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 270064\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 119518\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 20\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 84910\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 515.998 1 -total\n 80.94% 417.666 1 Template:Reflist\n 71.48% 368.850 56 Template:Citation\/core\n 47.11% 243.091 35 Template:Cite_web\n 20.99% 108.331 13 Template:Cite_book\n 10.41% 53.733 7 Template:Cite_journal\n 6.87% 35.459 15 Template:Date\n 4.54% 23.438 87 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 4.40% 22.711 1 Template:As_of\n 3.87% 19.951 24 Template:Citation\/identifier\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:1613-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110060408 and revision id 45421. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_informatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0b\/Doctor_review_brain_images.jpg"],"055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4_timestamp":1704906977,"304bd6698e9a01cab6157ba518743ff1_type":"article","304bd6698e9a01cab6157ba518743ff1_title":"Genome informatics","304bd6698e9a01cab6157ba518743ff1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Genome_informatics","304bd6698e9a01cab6157ba518743ff1_plaintext":"\n\nGenome informaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search The cost of genome sequencing has drastically decreased thanks to the Human Genome Project and associated pushes to further genome informatics.Genome informatics is a field of computational molecular biology and branch of informatics that uses computers, software, and computational solution techniques to make observations, resolve problems, and manage data related to the genomic function of DNA sequences, comparison of gene structures, determination of the tertiary structure of all proteins, and other molecular biological activities.&#91;1&#93;\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Application \n3 Informatics \n4 Further reading \n5 External links \n\n5.1 Conferences \n5.2 Databases \n\n\n6 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nA collaboration between the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health brought the Human Genome Project formally into existence on October 1, 1990. The project sought to identify all human genes and determine the related DNA sequences while also improving storage and analysis computing tools. Only two months later, on December 3\u20134, 1990, the first annual Genome Informatics Workshop (GIW) was hosted in Tokyo, Japan.&#91;2&#93; (The name of the event changed with the twelfth meeting in 2001 to the International Conference on Genome Informatics.&#91;3&#93;) While not the first major discussion about applying informatics to genomic research and data management, the Human Genome Project was arguably one of the biggest catalysts for the initial advancement of genome informatics.&#91;4&#93; In the early 1990s researchers were faced with many challenges, including the question \"Can genome informatics keep up with the technology?\" Charles Cantor of the Center for Advanced Biotechnology thought that that technology development itself would not hinder the emerging field of genome informatics, but he saw the interface between human and computers to be problematic, particularly for the Human Genome Project.&#91;5&#93; Interest in informatics tools went beyond researching the human genome, however. In June 1994, the Mouse Genome Informatics Group released version 1.0 of the Mouse Genome Database that included \"easy-to-use query options and tools for display, analysis, and reporting\" of genomic data.&#91;6&#93;\nAs genomic and proteomic informatics tools and technologies continued to advance from 1995 to 2005, the costs associated with DNA sequencing decreased fifty-fold; advances in technology were expected to improve analysis, design, and system integration and reduce the cost even further.&#91;7&#93; Those cost benefits were realized into 2015, with primary challenges shifting to \"organizing this data, maintaining it in a way that is accessible and easy to use for researchers around the world, 24 hours a day.\"&#91;8&#93;\nTechnology had made genomics and proteomics analysis so accessible that term \"big data\" began being used in relation to it and other types of data management in the 2010s.&#91;8&#93;&#91;9&#93; In January 2015, IBM was reportedly helping molecular profiling company Caris Life Sciences make sense of its genomics data. The company was generating \"more data per patient through its genomic sequencing than any other lab in the United States \u2014 with more than half a terabyte of information being generated on a daily basis for individual patient samples.\"&#91;10&#93;\nFuture genome informatics concerns will likely include taking genomic data analysis to phenotyping to patient care and considering the ethics of genomic data collection, storage, and analysis.&#91;11&#93;\n\nApplication \nGenome informatics can help tackle problems and tasks such as the following&#91;1&#93;:\n\nanalyzing DNA sequences\nrecognizing genes and proteins and predicting their structures\npredicting the biochemical function of new genes or fragments\nextracting information from \"families of homologous sequences and their structures\"\ndetecting and classifying near and distant family relations of genes\nmolecular profiling\nInformatics \nThe informatics side of genomics has largely focused on analytical tools and methodologies. DNA-microarray and sequencing technology helped researchers for the Human Genome Project analyze and understand thousands of genes and their expressions. By 2000, artificial neural networks were being theorized as a possible informatics tools to aid with data analysis and the problem of \"high dimensionality\" of the outputted data; by 2014 artificial neural networks were being proposed for cancer genomic research.&#91;1&#93;&#91;12&#93;\nAside from creating better algorithms, sequencing tools, and analysis tools, the informatics side of genomics research also involves the development and implementation of public and private genomics databases, which often include data display, analysis, and reporting tools to apply to the contained data. These databases can range in size from small, single-purpose data repositories to multi-terabyte, multi-server installations accessed by tens of thousands of people a month.&#91;8&#93;\n\nFurther reading \nWu, C. H.; McLarty, J. W.&#32;(2012).&#32;Neural Networks and Genome Informatics.&#32;1&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;Elsevier.&#32;pp.&#160;220.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780080537375.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NcpGMdbP4BkC&amp;pg=PA3 . &#160; \nExternal links \nConferences \nCold Spring Harbor Laboratory Conference on Genome Informatics (U.S.)\nGenome Informatics Conference (U.K.)\nInternational Conference on Genome Informatics (Japan)\nDatabases \nVEuPathDB\nMouse Genome Informatics\nA list of global genomics databases and analysis tools can be found hosted by the Health Sciences Library System, University of Pittsburgh.\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 Wu, C. H.; McLarty, J. W.&#32;(2012).&#32;Neural Networks and Genome Informatics.&#32;1&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;Elsevier.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u20134.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780080537375.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NcpGMdbP4BkC&amp;pg=PA3 .&#32;Retrieved 14 January 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Genome Informatics Vol. 1 (1990)\".&#32;Genome Informatics.&#32;Japanese Society for Bioinformatics.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 20 September 2015.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150920193122\/http:\/\/www.jsbi.org\/journal1\/gi01\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"GIW International Conference on Genome Informatics\".&#32;University of Tokyo.&#32;http:\/\/giw.hgc.jp\/ .&#32;Retrieved 14 January 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Robbins, Robert J.; Benton, David; Snoddy, Jay&#32;(November\/December 1995).&#32;\"Informatics and the Human Genome Project\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine&#32;14&#32;(6): 694\u2013701.&#32;doi:10.1109\/51.473262.&#32;http:\/\/www.esp.org\/ieee-2.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 15 January 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Cantor, Charles R.; Suhai, S\u00e1ndor (Ed.)&#32;(1994).&#32;\"Can Computational Science Keep Up With Evolving Technology for Genome Mapping and Sequencing?\".&#32;Computational Methods in Genome Research.&#32;Springer Science &amp; Business Media.&#32;pp.&#160;227.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780306447129.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=xfqwBzmAM_kC&amp;pg=PA1 .&#32;Retrieved 15 January 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Chronology of MGI Database Releases\".&#32;The Jackson Laboratory.&#32;30 December 2014.&#32;http:\/\/www.informatics.jax.org\/mgihome\/other\/mgicron.shtml .&#32;Retrieved 15 January 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Alterovitz, Gil; Benson, Roseann; Ramoni, Marco F.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Preface\".&#32;Automation in Proteomics and Genomics: An Engineering Case-Based Approach.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;ix\u2013xi.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780470741177.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=OEYHLzTsEtwC&amp;pg=PR9 .&#32;Retrieved 15 January 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 8.2 Flurry, Alan&#32;(18 December 2014).&#32;\"Building on big data, UPenn and UGA awarded $23.4 million pathogen genomics database contract\".&#32;UGA Today.&#32;University of Georgia Office of Public Affairs.&#32;https:\/\/news.uga.edu\/upenn-uga-23-million-pathogen-genomics-database-contract-1214\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Bresnick, Jennifer&#32;(9 January 2015).&#32;\"Big Data Analytics Research Projects Target Cancer, Genomics\".&#32;Health IT Analytics.&#32;Xtelligent Media, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/healthitanalytics.com\/news\/big-data-analytics-research-projects-target-cancer-genomics\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Taft, Darryl K.&#32;(9 January 2015).&#32;\"How IBM Teams Up With Partners to Address the Data Deluge\".&#32;eWeek.&#32;QuinStreet, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.eweek.com\/database\/how-ibm-teams-up-with-partners-to-address-the-data-deluge\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Lorica, Ben&#32;(15 January 2015).&#32;\"A brief look at data science\u2019s past and future\".&#32;O'Reilly Radar.&#32;O'Reilly Media, Inc.&#32;http:\/\/radar.oreilly.com\/2015\/01\/a-brief-look-at-data-sciences-past-and-future.html .&#32;Retrieved 15 January 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Oustimov, Andrew; Vu, Vincent&#32;(June 2014).&#32;\"Artificial neural networks in the cancer genomics frontier\".&#32;Translational Cancer Research&#32;3&#32;(3): 191\u2013201.&#32;doi:10.3978\/j.issn.2218-676X.2014.05.01. &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Genome_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Genome_informatics<\/a>\nCategories: GenomicsInformaticsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 20 September 2022, at 15:05.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 17,673 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","304bd6698e9a01cab6157ba518743ff1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Genome_informatics rootpage-Genome_informatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Genome informatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:552px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Genome_sequencing_costs_2011.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"941318de54ccaf7b7c99c153dffb621c\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c3\/Genome_sequencing_costs_2011.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Genome_sequencing_costs_2011.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"941318de54ccaf7b7c99c153dffb621c\"><\/a><\/div>The cost of genome sequencing has drastically decreased thanks to the Human Genome Project and associated pushes to further genome informatics.<\/div><\/div><\/div><p><b>Genome informatics<\/b> is a field of computational molecular biology and branch of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">informatics<\/a> that uses computers, software, and computational solution techniques to make observations, resolve problems, and manage data related to the genomic function of DNA sequences, comparison of gene structures, determination of the tertiary structure of all proteins, and other molecular biological activities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WuNeural_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WuNeural-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A collaboration between the U.S. Department of Energy and the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/National_Institutes_of_Health\" title=\"National Institutes of Health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5c215c48e73ae58b0695dc2af951cd0\">National Institutes of Health<\/a> brought the Human Genome Project formally into existence on October 1, 1990. The project sought to identify all human genes and determine the related DNA sequences while also improving storage and analysis computing tools. Only two months later, on December 3\u20134, 1990, the first annual Genome Informatics Workshop (GIW) was hosted in Tokyo, Japan.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GIW1_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GIW1-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> (The name of the event changed with the twelfth meeting in 2001 to the International Conference on Genome Informatics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GIW11_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GIW11-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>) While not the first major discussion about applying informatics to genomic research and data management, the Human Genome Project was arguably one of the biggest catalysts for the initial advancement of genome informatics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HGPandInfo_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HGPandInfo-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In the early 1990s researchers were faced with many challenges, including the question \"Can genome informatics keep up with the technology?\" Charles Cantor of the Center for Advanced Biotechnology thought that that technology development itself would not hinder the emerging field of genome informatics, but he saw the interface between human and computers to be problematic, particularly for the Human Genome Project.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CantorCompMeth_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CantorCompMeth-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Interest in informatics tools went beyond researching the human genome, however. In June 1994, the Mouse Genome Informatics Group released version 1.0 of the Mouse Genome Database that included \"easy-to-use query options and tools for display, analysis, and reporting\" of genomic data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MDG1_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MDG1-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As genomic and proteomic informatics tools and technologies continued to advance from 1995 to 2005, the costs associated with DNA sequencing decreased fifty-fold; advances in technology were expected to improve analysis, design, and system integration and reduce the cost even further.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GilAuto_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GilAuto-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Those cost benefits were realized into 2015, with primary challenges shifting to \"organizing this data, maintaining it in a way that is accessible and easy to use for researchers around the world, 24 hours a day.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FlurryBD_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FlurryBD-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Technology had made genomics and proteomics analysis so accessible that term \"big data\" began being used in relation to it and other types of data management in the 2010s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FlurryBD_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FlurryBD-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BresnickBD_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BresnickBD-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> In January 2015, IBM was reportedly helping molecular profiling company Caris Life Sciences make sense of its genomics data. The company was generating \"more data per patient through its genomic sequencing than any other lab in the United States \u2014 with more than half a terabyte of information being generated on a daily basis for individual patient samples.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eWeekCaris_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eWeekCaris-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Future genome informatics concerns will likely include taking genomic data analysis to phenotyping to patient care and considering the ethics of genomic data collection, storage, and analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LoricaBD_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LoricaBD-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Application\">Application<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Genome informatics can help tackle problems and tasks such as the following<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WuNeural_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WuNeural-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>analyzing DNA sequences<\/li>\n<li>recognizing genes and proteins and predicting their structures<\/li>\n<li>predicting the biochemical function of new genes or fragments<\/li>\n<li>extracting information from \"families of homologous sequences and their structures\"<\/li>\n<li>detecting and classifying near and distant family relations of genes<\/li>\n<li>molecular profiling<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Informatics\">Informatics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The informatics side of genomics has largely focused on analytical tools and methodologies. DNA-microarray and sequencing technology helped researchers for the Human Genome Project analyze and understand thousands of genes and their expressions. By 2000, artificial neural networks were being theorized as a possible informatics tools to aid with data analysis and the problem of \"high dimensionality\" of the outputted data; by 2014 artificial neural networks were being proposed for cancer genomic research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WuNeural_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WuNeural-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Oustimov_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Oustimov-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Aside from creating better algorithms, sequencing tools, and analysis tools, the informatics side of genomics research also involves the development and implementation of public and private genomics databases, which often include data display, analysis, and reporting tools to apply to the contained data. These databases can range in size from small, single-purpose data repositories to multi-terabyte, multi-server installations accessed by tens of thousands of people a month.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FlurryBD_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FlurryBD-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Wu, C. H.; McLarty, J. W.&#32;(2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NcpGMdbP4BkC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Neural Networks and Genome Informatics<\/i><\/a>.&#32;<b>1<\/b>&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;Elsevier.&#32;pp.&#160;220.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780080537375<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NcpGMdbP4BkC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NcpGMdbP4BkC&amp;pg=PA3<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Neural+Networks+and+Genome+Informatics&amp;rft.aulast=Wu%2C+C.+H.%3B+McLarty%2C+J.+W.&amp;rft.au=Wu%2C+C.+H.%3B+McLarty%2C+J.+W.&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B220&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.isbn=9780080537375&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNcpGMdbP4BkC%26pg%3DPA3&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Genome_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Conferences\">Conferences<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/meetings.cshl.edu\/meetings.aspx?meet=info&year=21\" target=\"_blank\">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Conference on Genome Informatics<\/a> (U.S.)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/coursesandconferences.wellcomeconnectingscience.org\/our-events\/conferences\/\" target=\"_blank\">Genome Informatics Conference<\/a> (U.K.)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jsbi.org\/en\/giw\/\" target=\"_blank\">International Conference on Genome Informatics<\/a> (Japan)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Databases\">Databases<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/veupathdb.org\/veupathdb\/app\" target=\"_blank\">VEuPathDB<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informatics.jax.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Mouse Genome Informatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li>A list of global <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hsls.pitt.edu\/obrc\/index.php?page=genomics\" target=\"_blank\">genomics databases and analysis tools<\/a> can be found hosted by the Health Sciences Library System, University of Pittsburgh.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-WuNeural-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-WuNeural_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-WuNeural_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-WuNeural_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Wu, C. H.; McLarty, J. W.&#32;(2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NcpGMdbP4BkC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Neural Networks and Genome Informatics<\/i><\/a>.&#32;<b>1<\/b>&#32;(2nd ed.).&#32;Elsevier.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u20134.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780080537375<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NcpGMdbP4BkC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NcpGMdbP4BkC&amp;pg=PA3<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 January 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Neural+Networks+and+Genome+Informatics&amp;rft.aulast=Wu%2C+C.+H.%3B+McLarty%2C+J.+W.&amp;rft.au=Wu%2C+C.+H.%3B+McLarty%2C+J.+W.&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%934&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.isbn=9780080537375&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNcpGMdbP4BkC%26pg%3DPA3&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Genome_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GIW1-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GIW1_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150920193122\/http:\/\/www.jsbi.org\/journal1\/gi01\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Genome Informatics Vol. 1 (1990)\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Genome Informatics<\/i>.&#32;Japanese Society for Bioinformatics.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jsbi.org\/journal1\/gi01\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 20 September 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150920193122\/http:\/\/www.jsbi.org\/journal1\/gi01\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150920193122\/http:\/\/www.jsbi.org\/journal1\/gi01\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Genome+Informatics+Vol.+1+%281990%29&amp;rft.atitle=Genome+Informatics&amp;rft.pub=Japanese+Society+for+Bioinformatics&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150920193122%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.jsbi.org%2Fjournal1%2Fgi01%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Genome_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GIW11-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GIW11_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/giw.hgc.jp\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"GIW International Conference on Genome Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;University of Tokyo<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/giw.hgc.jp\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/giw.hgc.jp\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 14 January 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=GIW+International+Conference+on+Genome+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Tokyo&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgiw.hgc.jp%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Genome_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HGPandInfo-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HGPandInfo_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Robbins, Robert J.; Benton, David; Snoddy, Jay&#32;(November\/December 1995).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.esp.org\/ieee-2.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Informatics and the Human Genome Project\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine<\/i>&#32;<b>14<\/b>&#32;(6): 694\u2013701.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1109%2F51.473262\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/51.473262<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.esp.org\/ieee-2.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.esp.org\/ieee-2.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 January 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Informatics+and+the+Human+Genome+Project&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Engineering+in+Medicine+and+Biology+Magazine&amp;rft.aulast=Robbins%2C+Robert+J.%3B+Benton%2C+David%3B+Snoddy%2C+Jay&amp;rft.au=Robbins%2C+Robert+J.%3B+Benton%2C+David%3B+Snoddy%2C+Jay&amp;rft.date=November%2FDecember+1995&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=694%E2%80%93701&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1109%2F51.473262&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esp.org%2Fieee-2.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Genome_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CantorCompMeth-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CantorCompMeth_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Cantor, Charles R.; Suhai, S\u00e1ndor (Ed.)&#32;(1994).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=xfqwBzmAM_kC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Can Computational Science Keep Up With Evolving Technology for Genome Mapping and Sequencing?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Computational Methods in Genome Research<\/i>.&#32;Springer Science &amp; Business Media.&#32;pp.&#160;227.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780306447129<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=xfqwBzmAM_kC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=xfqwBzmAM_kC&amp;pg=PA1<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 January 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Can+Computational+Science+Keep+Up+With+Evolving+Technology+for+Genome+Mapping+and+Sequencing%3F&amp;rft.atitle=Computational+Methods+in+Genome+Research&amp;rft.aulast=Cantor%2C+Charles+R.%3B+Suhai%2C+S%C3%A1ndor+%28Ed.%29&amp;rft.au=Cantor%2C+Charles+R.%3B+Suhai%2C+S%C3%A1ndor+%28Ed.%29&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B227&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&amp;rft.isbn=9780306447129&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxfqwBzmAM_kC%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Genome_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MDG1-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MDG1_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informatics.jax.org\/mgihome\/other\/mgicron.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chronology of MGI Database Releases\"<\/a>.&#32;The Jackson Laboratory.&#32;30 December 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informatics.jax.org\/mgihome\/other\/mgicron.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.informatics.jax.org\/mgihome\/other\/mgicron.shtml<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 January 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chronology+of+MGI+Database+Releases&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=30+December+2014&amp;rft.pub=The+Jackson+Laboratory&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.jax.org%2Fmgihome%2Fother%2Fmgicron.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Genome_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GilAuto-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GilAuto_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Alterovitz, Gil; Benson, Roseann; Ramoni, Marco F.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=OEYHLzTsEtwC&pg=PR9\" target=\"_blank\">\"Preface\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Automation in Proteomics and Genomics: An Engineering Case-Based Approach<\/i>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;ix\u2013xi.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780470741177<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=OEYHLzTsEtwC&pg=PR9\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=OEYHLzTsEtwC&amp;pg=PR9<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 January 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Preface&amp;rft.atitle=Automation+in+Proteomics+and+Genomics%3A+An+Engineering+Case-Based+Approach&amp;rft.aulast=Alterovitz%2C+Gil%3B+Benson%2C+Roseann%3B+Ramoni%2C+Marco+F.&amp;rft.au=Alterovitz%2C+Gil%3B+Benson%2C+Roseann%3B+Ramoni%2C+Marco+F.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3Bix%E2%80%93xi&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9780470741177&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOEYHLzTsEtwC%26pg%3DPR9&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Genome_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FlurryBD-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FlurryBD_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FlurryBD_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FlurryBD_8-2\">8.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Flurry, Alan&#32;(18 December 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/news.uga.edu\/upenn-uga-23-million-pathogen-genomics-database-contract-1214\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Building on big data, UPenn and UGA awarded $23.4 million pathogen genomics database contract\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>UGA Today<\/i>.&#32;University of Georgia Office of Public Affairs<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/news.uga.edu\/upenn-uga-23-million-pathogen-genomics-database-contract-1214\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/news.uga.edu\/upenn-uga-23-million-pathogen-genomics-database-contract-1214\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Building+on+big+data%2C+UPenn+and+UGA+awarded+%2423.4+million+pathogen+genomics+database+contract&amp;rft.atitle=UGA+Today&amp;rft.aulast=Flurry%2C+Alan&amp;rft.au=Flurry%2C+Alan&amp;rft.date=18+December+2014&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Office+of+Public+Affairs&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.uga.edu%2Fupenn-uga-23-million-pathogen-genomics-database-contract-1214%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Genome_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BresnickBD-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BresnickBD_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Bresnick, Jennifer&#32;(9 January 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/healthitanalytics.com\/news\/big-data-analytics-research-projects-target-cancer-genomics\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Big Data Analytics Research Projects Target Cancer, Genomics\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Health IT Analytics<\/i>.&#32;Xtelligent Media, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/healthitanalytics.com\/news\/big-data-analytics-research-projects-target-cancer-genomics\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/healthitanalytics.com\/news\/big-data-analytics-research-projects-target-cancer-genomics\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Big+Data+Analytics+Research+Projects+Target+Cancer%2C+Genomics&amp;rft.atitle=Health+IT+Analytics&amp;rft.aulast=Bresnick%2C+Jennifer&amp;rft.au=Bresnick%2C+Jennifer&amp;rft.date=9+January+2015&amp;rft.pub=Xtelligent+Media%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhealthitanalytics.com%2Fnews%2Fbig-data-analytics-research-projects-target-cancer-genomics%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Genome_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-eWeekCaris-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-eWeekCaris_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Taft, Darryl K.&#32;(9 January 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.eweek.com\/database\/how-ibm-teams-up-with-partners-to-address-the-data-deluge\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How IBM Teams Up With Partners to Address the Data Deluge\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>eWeek<\/i>.&#32;QuinStreet, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.eweek.com\/database\/how-ibm-teams-up-with-partners-to-address-the-data-deluge\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.eweek.com\/database\/how-ibm-teams-up-with-partners-to-address-the-data-deluge\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=How+IBM+Teams+Up+With+Partners+to+Address+the+Data+Deluge&amp;rft.atitle=eWeek&amp;rft.aulast=Taft%2C+Darryl+K.&amp;rft.au=Taft%2C+Darryl+K.&amp;rft.date=9+January+2015&amp;rft.pub=QuinStreet%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eweek.com%2Fdatabase%2Fhow-ibm-teams-up-with-partners-to-address-the-data-deluge%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Genome_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LoricaBD-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LoricaBD_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Lorica, Ben&#32;(15 January 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/radar.oreilly.com\/2015\/01\/a-brief-look-at-data-sciences-past-and-future.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A brief look at data science\u2019s past and future\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>O'Reilly Radar<\/i>.&#32;O'Reilly Media, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/radar.oreilly.com\/2015\/01\/a-brief-look-at-data-sciences-past-and-future.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/radar.oreilly.com\/2015\/01\/a-brief-look-at-data-sciences-past-and-future.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 15 January 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=A+brief+look+at+data+science%E2%80%99s+past+and+future&amp;rft.atitle=O%27Reilly+Radar&amp;rft.aulast=Lorica%2C+Ben&amp;rft.au=Lorica%2C+Ben&amp;rft.date=15+January+2015&amp;rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fradar.oreilly.com%2F2015%2F01%2Fa-brief-look-at-data-sciences-past-and-future.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Genome_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Oustimov-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Oustimov_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Oustimov, Andrew; Vu, Vincent&#32;(June 2014).&#32;\"Artificial neural networks in the cancer genomics frontier\".&#32;<i>Translational Cancer Research<\/i>&#32;<b>3<\/b>&#32;(3): 191\u2013201.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3978%2Fj.issn.2218-676X.2014.05.01\" target=\"_blank\">10.3978\/j.issn.2218-676X.2014.05.01<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Artificial+neural+networks+in+the+cancer+genomics+frontier&amp;rft.jtitle=Translational+Cancer+Research&amp;rft.aulast=Oustimov%2C+Andrew%3B+Vu%2C+Vincent&amp;rft.au=Oustimov%2C+Andrew%3B+Vu%2C+Vincent&amp;rft.date=June+2014&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=191%E2%80%93201&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.3978%2Fj.issn.2218-676X.2014.05.01&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Genome_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110162524\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.764 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.278 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 9210\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 64215\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 24529\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Genome_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Genome_informatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","304bd6698e9a01cab6157ba518743ff1_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c3\/Genome_sequencing_costs_2011.jpg"],"304bd6698e9a01cab6157ba518743ff1_timestamp":1704906977,"8f0d09dd24612a7abc14e2875017c4c9_type":"article","8f0d09dd24612a7abc14e2875017c4c9_title":"Environmental informatics","8f0d09dd24612a7abc14e2875017c4c9_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_informatics","8f0d09dd24612a7abc14e2875017c4c9_plaintext":"\n\nEnvironmental informaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search Publicly available data sets and informatics tools like open-source SAGA GIS enable the creation of environmental models and images such as this.\nEnvironmental informatics (EI) is a developing field of science that applies information processing, management, and sharing strategies to the interdisciplinary field of environmental science.&#91;1&#93; Applications include the integration of information and knowledge, the application of computational intelligence to environmental data, and the identification of the environmental impacts of information technology. EI helps scientists define information processing requirements, analyze real-world problems, and solve those problems using informatics methodologies and tools.&#91;2&#93;\nAs EI has continued to evolve, several other definitions have been offered over the years:\n\n\"an emerging field centering around the development of standards and protocols, both technical and institutional, for sharing and integrating environmental data and information.\"&#91;3&#93; - Biosphere Data Project, University of California - Berkeley, 2004\nthe application of \"[r]esearch and system development focusing on the environmental sciences relating to the creation, collection, storage, processing, modelling, interpretation, display and dissemination of data and information.\"&#91;4&#93; - Natural Environment Research Council, 2014\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Application \n\n2.1 Ecoinformatics \n\n\n3 Further reading \n4 External links \n5 Notes \n6 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nEnvironmental informatics emerged roughly around the late 1980s in Central Europe.&#91;2&#93; For example, in 1986 Germany's Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Informatik (Society for Computer Science) created the technical committee Informatik im Umweltschutz (Computer Science in Environmental Protection) dedicated to \"the whole spectrum of subjects related to informatics in environmental protection.\"&#91;5&#93; The group is still active as of 2019, having hosted its thirty-third International Conference on Informatics for Environmental Protection.&#91;6&#93; Since Informatik im Umweltschutz's inception, other groups there and in other regions of the world were created, including The International Environmetrics Society (TIES, founded in 1989&#91;7&#93;) and the International Environmental Modelling and Software Society (iEMSs, founded in 2000&#91;8&#93;), as well as conferences like the International Symposium on Environmental Software Systems (ISESS, founded in 1995&#91;9&#93;).\n\nApplication \nEnvironmental informatics can help tackle problems and tasks such as the following&#91;10&#93;&#91;11&#93;:\n\nthe acquisition and application of remote sensing data from optical, thermal infrared, and microwave instruments targeting the atmosphere, vegetation, and the ocean\nthe estimation of aerosol load in the atmosphere\nthe gauging of influence of trace gases, aerosol, and clouds on the weather and climate\nthe analysis of geographical features for urban and regional development\nthe modeling and assessment of ecological environments\nthe development and optimization of mathematical algorithms for environmental modeling\nEcoinformatics \nClosely related to EI is the concept of ecological informatics or \"ecoinformatics,\" which essentially takes environmental informatics and adds the consideration of anthropogenic activity trends. Ecoinformatics aims to facilitate environmental research and management by developing ways to access, manage, and integrate databases of environmental information and develop new algorithms enabling different environmental datasets to be combined to test ecological hypotheses.&#91;12&#93;&#91;13&#93;&#91;14&#93;\n\nFurther reading \nRecknagel, F.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Chapter 3: Ecological Informatics: Current Scope and Feature Areas\".&#32;In&#32;J\u00f8rgensen, S.E.; Chon, T.S..&#32;Handbook of Ecological Modelling and Informatics.&#32;WIT Press.&#32;pp.&#160;41\u201347.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781845642075.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XzEKlNhnUHUC&amp;pg=PA41 . &#160; \nVoigt, Kristina&#32;(July 2008).&#32;\"Environmental Informatics, Environmetrics, Chemoinformatics, Chemometrics: Integration or Separation!?\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;International Congress on Environmental Modelling and Software.&#32;Proceedings of the iEMSs Fourth Biennial Meeting.&#32;3: 1594\u20131601.&#32;ISBN&#160;9788476530740.&#32;https:\/\/former.iemss.org\/pmwiki\/fields\/iemss2008\/uploads\/Main\/S18-01-Voigt_et_al-IEMSS2008.pdf . &#160; \nExternal links \nData Observation Network for Earth (DataONE)\necoinformatics.org - Online Resource for Managing Ecological Data and Information\nEcological Data Wiki\nEcological Informatics: An International Journal on Ecoinformatics and Computational Ecology\nFrontiers in Environmental Informatics and Remote Sensing\nInformatik f\u00fcr Umweltschutz, nachhaltige Entwicklung und Risikomanagement (formerly Informatik im Umweltschutz)\nInternational Environmental Modelling and Software Society (iEMSs)\nInternational Society for Environmental Information Sciences (ISEIS)\nJournal of Environmental Informatics\nThe International Environmetrics Society (TIES)\nNotes \nThis article reuses a couple of elements from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Hilty, L.M.; Page, B.; Radermacher, F.J.; Riekert, W.F.&#32;(1995).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Environmental Informatics as a New Discipline of Applied Computer Science\".&#32;In&#32;Avouris, N.M.; Page, B..&#32;Environmental Informatics.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201311.&#32;doi:10.1007\/978-94-017-1443-3.&#32;ISBN&#160;9789048145386. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 Page, B.; Wohlgemuth, V.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Advances in Environmental Informatics: Integration of Discrete Event Simulation Methodology with ecological Material Flow Analysis for Modelling eco-efficient Systems\".&#32;Procedia Environmental Sciences&#32;2: 696\u2013705.&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.proenv.2010.10.079. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Kada, K.; Lussier, S..&#32;\"Biosphere Data Project - What is Environmental Informatics?\".&#32;University of California - Berkeley.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 11 December 2004.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20041211010311\/http:\/\/dream.sims.berkeley.edu\/biosphere\/eimore.html .&#32;Retrieved 03 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"NERC - Research areas - Tools, technology &amp; methods\".&#32;Natural Environment Research Council.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 25 September 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200925122955\/https:\/\/nerc.ukri.org\/funding\/application\/howtoapply\/topics\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2021 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Geiger, Werner&#32;(22 April 1996).&#32;\"General Information about the Technical Committee 'Computer Science in Environmental Protection'\".&#32;Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Informatik e.V.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 26 July 1997.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19970726002709\/http:\/\/www.iai.fzk.de\/Fachgruppe\/GI\/allgemeines.eng.html .&#32;Retrieved 03 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"EnviroInfo 2019\".&#32;University of Oldenburg.&#32;https:\/\/enviroinfo2019.org\/ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"TIES - History\".&#32;The International Environmetrics Society.&#32;19 September 2013.&#32;http:\/\/www.environmetrics.org\/history.html .&#32;Retrieved 03 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"iEMSs - Medalists, Fellows and ECREs\".&#32;International Environmental Modelling and Software Society.&#32;19 June 2008.&#32;https:\/\/www.iemss.org\/awards\/medallists-fellows-and-ecres\/ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISESS \u2013 International Symposium on Environmental Software Systems\".&#32;International Environmental Modelling and Software Society.&#32;7 November 2013.&#32;https:\/\/www.iemss.org\/thread\/isess-international-symposium-on-environmental-software-systems\/ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Kokhanovsky, A.&#32;(2014).&#32;\"Grand challenges in environmental informatics\".&#32;Frontiers in Environmental Science&#32;1&#32;(5).&#32;doi:10.3389\/fenvs.2013.00005. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Journal of Environmental Informatics\".&#32;International Society for Environmental Information Sciences.&#32;http:\/\/www.jeionline.org\/index.php?journal=mys .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Cracknell, A.P.; Krapivin, V.F.&#32;(2008).&#32;Global Climatology and Ecodynamics: Anthropogenic Changes to Planet Earth.&#32;Springer.&#32;p.&#160;449.&#32;ISBN&#160;9783540782094.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=k2aVFcrCi90C&amp;pg=PA449 .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Kondratyev, K.Y.; Krapivin, V.F.; Phillipe, G.W.&#32;(2002).&#32;\"Chapter 2: The Basic Principles of Global Ecoinformatics\".&#32;Global Environmental Change: Modelling and Monitoring.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;27\u201362.&#32;ISBN&#160;9783540433736.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=n04HU6f5FDYC&amp;pg=PA27 .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Recknagel, F.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Chapter 3: Ecological Informatics: Current Scope and Feature Areas\".&#32;In&#32;J\u00f8rgensen, S.E.; Chon, T.S..&#32;Handbook of Ecological Modelling and Informatics.&#32;WIT Press.&#32;pp.&#160;41\u201347.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781845642075.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XzEKlNhnUHUC&amp;pg=PA41 .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_informatics<\/a>\nCategory: InformaticsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 January 2022, at 17:42.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 15,936 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","8f0d09dd24612a7abc14e2875017c4c9_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Environmental_informatics rootpage-Environmental_informatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Environmental informatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:462px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:SSTm.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca8282e564f7bf43d8ff4f67c83ba15f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/06\/SSTm.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:SSTm.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"ca8282e564f7bf43d8ff4f67c83ba15f\"><\/a><\/div>Publicly available data sets and informatics tools like open-source <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/saga-gis.org\/en\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">SAGA GIS<\/a> enable the creation of environmental models and images such as this.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Environmental informatics<\/b> (<b>EI<\/b>) is a developing field of science that applies <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> processing, management, and sharing strategies to the interdisciplinary field of environmental science.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HiltyEI_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HiltyEI-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Applications include the integration of information and knowledge, the application of computational intelligence to environmental data, and the identification of the environmental impacts of information technology. EI helps scientists define information processing requirements, analyze real-world problems, and solve those problems using informatics methodologies and tools.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PageAdvances_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PageAdvances-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As EI has continued to evolve, several other definitions have been offered over the years:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>\"an emerging field centering around the development of standards and protocols, both technical and institutional, for sharing and integrating environmental data and information.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BDPArch_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BDPArch-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> - <i>Biosphere Data Project, University of California - Berkeley, 2004<\/i><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>the application of \"[r]esearch and system development focusing on the environmental sciences relating to the creation, collection, storage, processing, modelling, interpretation, display and dissemination of data and information.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NERCResearch_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NERCResearch-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> - <i>Natural Environment Research Council, 2014<\/i><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Environmental informatics emerged roughly around the late 1980s in Central Europe.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PageAdvances_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PageAdvances-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> For example, in 1986 Germany's <i>Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Informatik<\/i> (Society for Computer Science) created the technical committee <i>Informatik im Umweltschutz<\/i> (Computer Science in Environmental Protection) dedicated to \"the whole spectrum of subjects related to informatics in environmental protection.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IUArch_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IUArch-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The group is still active as of 2019, having hosted its thirty-third International Conference on Informatics for Environmental Protection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EI14_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EI14-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Since <i>Informatik im Umweltschutz'<\/i>s inception, other groups there and in other regions of the world were created, including The International Environmetrics Society (TIES, founded in 1989<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TIESHist_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TIESHist-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>) and the International Environmental Modelling and Software Society (iEMSs, founded in 2000<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-iEMSsHist_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-iEMSsHist-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>), as well as conferences like the International Symposium on Environmental Software Systems (ISESS, founded in 1995<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISESSabout_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISESSabout-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>).\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Application\">Application<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Environmental informatics can help tackle problems and tasks such as the following<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KokhGrand_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KokhGrand-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JEIAbout_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JEIAbout-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the acquisition and application of remote sensing data from optical, thermal infrared, and microwave instruments targeting the atmosphere, vegetation, and the ocean<\/li>\n<li>the estimation of aerosol load in the atmosphere<\/li>\n<li>the gauging of influence of trace gases, aerosol, and clouds on the weather and climate<\/li>\n<li>the analysis of geographical features for urban and regional development<\/li>\n<li>the modeling and assessment of ecological environments<\/li>\n<li>the development and optimization of mathematical algorithms for environmental modeling<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ecoinformatics\">Ecoinformatics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Closely related to EI is the concept of ecological informatics or \"ecoinformatics,\" which essentially takes environmental informatics and adds the consideration of anthropogenic activity trends. Ecoinformatics aims to facilitate environmental research and management by developing ways to access, manage, and integrate databases of environmental information and develop new algorithms enabling different environmental datasets to be combined to test ecological hypotheses.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CracknellGlobal_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CracknellGlobal-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KondratyevGlobal_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KondratyevGlobal-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReckHandbook_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReckHandbook-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Recknagel, F.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XzEKlNhnUHUC&pg=PA41\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 3: Ecological Informatics: Current Scope and Feature Areas\"<\/a>.&#32;In&#32;J\u00f8rgensen, S.E.; Chon, T.S..&#32;<i>Handbook of Ecological Modelling and Informatics<\/i>.&#32;WIT Press.&#32;pp.&#160;41\u201347.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781845642075<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XzEKlNhnUHUC&pg=PA41\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XzEKlNhnUHUC&amp;pg=PA41<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+3%3A+Ecological+Informatics%3A+Current+Scope+and+Feature+Areas&amp;rft.atitle=Handbook+of+Ecological+Modelling+and+Informatics&amp;rft.aulast=Recknagel%2C+F.&amp;rft.au=Recknagel%2C+F.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B41%E2%80%9347&amp;rft.pub=WIT+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781845642075&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXzEKlNhnUHUC%26pg%3DPA41&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation Journal\">Voigt, Kristina&#32;(July 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/former.iemss.org\/pmwiki\/fields\/iemss2008\/uploads\/Main\/S18-01-Voigt_et_al-IEMSS2008.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Environmental Informatics, Environmetrics, Chemoinformatics, Chemometrics: Integration or Separation!?\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>International Congress on Environmental Modelling and Software<\/i>.&#32;Proceedings of the iEMSs Fourth Biennial Meeting.&#32;<b>3<\/b>: 1594\u20131601.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9788476530740<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/former.iemss.org\/pmwiki\/fields\/iemss2008\/uploads\/Main\/S18-01-Voigt_et_al-IEMSS2008.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/former.iemss.org\/pmwiki\/fields\/iemss2008\/uploads\/Main\/S18-01-Voigt_et_al-IEMSS2008.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Environmental+Informatics%2C+Environmetrics%2C+Chemoinformatics%2C+Chemometrics%3A+Integration+or+Separation%21%3F&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Congress+on+Environmental+Modelling+and+Software&amp;rft.aulast=Voigt%2C+Kristina&amp;rft.au=Voigt%2C+Kristina&amp;rft.date=July+2008&amp;rft.series=Proceedings+of+the+iEMSs+Fourth+Biennial+Meeting.&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.pages=1594%E2%80%931601&amp;rft.isbn=9788476530740&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fformer.iemss.org%2Fpmwiki%2Ffields%2Fiemss2008%2Fuploads%2FMain%2FS18-01-Voigt_et_al-IEMSS2008.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dataone.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Data Observation Network for Earth<\/a> (DataONE)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecoinformatics.org\" target=\"_blank\">ecoinformatics.org - Online Resource for Managing Ecological Data and Information<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ecologicaldata.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Ecological Data Wiki<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/journal\/ecological-informatics\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Ecological Informatics<\/i>: An International Journal on Ecoinformatics and Computational Ecology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/journals\/all\/sections\/environmental-informatics-and-remote-sensing\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Frontiers in Environmental Informatics and Remote Sensing<\/i><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/enviroinfo.eu\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Informatik f\u00fcr Umweltschutz, nachhaltige Entwicklung und Risikomanagement<\/i><\/a> (formerly <i>Informatik im Umweltschutz<\/i>)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iemss.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">International Environmental Modelling and Software Society<\/a> (iEMSs)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iseis.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">International Society for Environmental Information Sciences<\/a> (ISEIS)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jeionline.org\/index.php?journal=mys\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Journal of Environmental Informatics<\/i><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.environmetrics.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">The International Environmetrics Society<\/a> (TIES)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article reuses a couple of elements from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_informatics\" data-key=\"a6a774844a3952d2cd2e20bda48cdea1\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HiltyEI-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HiltyEI_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Hilty, L.M.; Page, B.; Radermacher, F.J.; Riekert, W.F.&#32;(1995).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Environmental Informatics as a New Discipline of Applied Computer Science\".&#32;In&#32;Avouris, N.M.; Page, B..&#32;<i>Environmental Informatics<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201311.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-94-017-1443-3\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-94-017-1443-3<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9789048145386.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Environmental+Informatics+as+a+New+Discipline+of+Applied+Computer+Science&amp;rft.atitle=Environmental+Informatics&amp;rft.aulast=Hilty%2C+L.M.%3B+Page%2C+B.%3B+Radermacher%2C+F.J.%3B+Riekert%2C+W.F.&amp;rft.au=Hilty%2C+L.M.%3B+Page%2C+B.%3B+Radermacher%2C+F.J.%3B+Riekert%2C+W.F.&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%9311&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1007%2F978-94-017-1443-3&amp;rft.isbn=9789048145386&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PageAdvances-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PageAdvances_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PageAdvances_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Page, B.; Wohlgemuth, V.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Advances in Environmental Informatics: Integration of Discrete Event Simulation Methodology with ecological Material Flow Analysis for Modelling eco-efficient Systems\".&#32;<i>Procedia Environmental Sciences<\/i>&#32;<b>2<\/b>: 696\u2013705.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.proenv.2010.10.079\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.proenv.2010.10.079<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Advances+in+Environmental+Informatics%3A+Integration+of+Discrete+Event+Simulation+Methodology+with+ecological+Material+Flow+Analysis+for+Modelling+eco-efficient+Systems&amp;rft.jtitle=Procedia+Environmental+Sciences&amp;rft.aulast=Page%2C+B.%3B+Wohlgemuth%2C+V.&amp;rft.au=Page%2C+B.%3B+Wohlgemuth%2C+V.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.volume=2&amp;rft.pages=696%E2%80%93705&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.proenv.2010.10.079&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BDPArch-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BDPArch_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Kada, K.; Lussier, S..&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20041211010311\/http:\/\/dream.sims.berkeley.edu\/biosphere\/eimore.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Biosphere Data Project - What is Environmental Informatics?\"<\/a>.&#32;University of California - Berkeley.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dream.sims.berkeley.edu\/biosphere\/eimore.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 11 December 2004<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20041211010311\/http:\/\/dream.sims.berkeley.edu\/biosphere\/eimore.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20041211010311\/http:\/\/dream.sims.berkeley.edu\/biosphere\/eimore.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 03 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Biosphere+Data+Project+-+What+is+Environmental+Informatics%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Kada%2C+K.%3B+Lussier%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Kada%2C+K.%3B+Lussier%2C+S.&amp;rft.pub=University+of+California+-+Berkeley&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20041211010311%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fdream.sims.berkeley.edu%2Fbiosphere%2Feimore.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NERCResearch-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NERCResearch_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200925122955\/https:\/\/nerc.ukri.org\/funding\/application\/howtoapply\/topics\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"NERC - Research areas - Tools, technology &amp; methods\"<\/a>.&#32;Natural Environment Research Council.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/nerc.ukri.org\/funding\/application\/howtoapply\/topics\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 25 September 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200925122955\/https:\/\/nerc.ukri.org\/funding\/application\/howtoapply\/topics\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200925122955\/https:\/\/nerc.ukri.org\/funding\/application\/howtoapply\/topics\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2021<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=NERC+-+Research+areas+-+Tools%2C+technology+%26+methods&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Natural+Environment+Research+Council&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200925122955%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fnerc.ukri.org%2Ffunding%2Fapplication%2Fhowtoapply%2Ftopics%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IUArch-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-IUArch_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Geiger, Werner&#32;(22 April 1996).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19970726002709\/http:\/\/www.iai.fzk.de\/Fachgruppe\/GI\/allgemeines.eng.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"General Information about the Technical Committee 'Computer Science in Environmental Protection'\"<\/a>.&#32;Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Informatik e.V.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iai.fzk.de\/Fachgruppe\/GI\/allgemeines.eng.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 26 July 1997<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19970726002709\/http:\/\/www.iai.fzk.de\/Fachgruppe\/GI\/allgemeines.eng.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19970726002709\/http:\/\/www.iai.fzk.de\/Fachgruppe\/GI\/allgemeines.eng.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 03 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=General+Information+about+the+Technical+Committee+%27Computer+Science+in+Environmental+Protection%27&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Geiger%2C+Werner&amp;rft.au=Geiger%2C+Werner&amp;rft.date=22+April+1996&amp;rft.pub=Gesellschaft+f%C3%BCr+Informatik+e.V&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F19970726002709%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.iai.fzk.de%2FFachgruppe%2FGI%2Fallgemeines.eng.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EI14-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EI14_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/enviroinfo2019.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"EnviroInfo 2019\"<\/a>.&#32;University of Oldenburg<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/enviroinfo2019.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/enviroinfo2019.org\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=EnviroInfo+2019&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Oldenburg&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenviroinfo2019.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TIESHist-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TIESHist_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.environmetrics.org\/history.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"TIES - History\"<\/a>.&#32;The International Environmetrics Society.&#32;19 September 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.environmetrics.org\/history.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.environmetrics.org\/history.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 03 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=TIES+-+History&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=19+September+2013&amp;rft.pub=The+International+Environmetrics+Society&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.environmetrics.org%2Fhistory.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-iEMSsHist-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-iEMSsHist_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iemss.org\/awards\/medallists-fellows-and-ecres\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"iEMSs - Medalists, Fellows and ECREs\"<\/a>.&#32;International Environmental Modelling and Software Society.&#32;19 June 2008<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iemss.org\/awards\/medallists-fellows-and-ecres\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iemss.org\/awards\/medallists-fellows-and-ecres\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=iEMSs+-+Medalists%2C+Fellows+and+ECREs&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=19+June+2008&amp;rft.pub=International+Environmental+Modelling+and+Software+Society&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iemss.org%2Fawards%2Fmedallists-fellows-and-ecres%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISESSabout-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISESSabout_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iemss.org\/thread\/isess-international-symposium-on-environmental-software-systems\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISESS \u2013 International Symposium on Environmental Software Systems\"<\/a>.&#32;International Environmental Modelling and Software Society.&#32;7 November 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iemss.org\/thread\/isess-international-symposium-on-environmental-software-systems\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iemss.org\/thread\/isess-international-symposium-on-environmental-software-systems\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISESS+%E2%80%93+International+Symposium+on+Environmental+Software+Systems&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=7+November+2013&amp;rft.pub=International+Environmental+Modelling+and+Software+Society&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iemss.org%2Fthread%2Fisess-international-symposium-on-environmental-software-systems%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KokhGrand-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KokhGrand_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kokhanovsky, A.&#32;(2014).&#32;\"Grand challenges in environmental informatics\".&#32;<i>Frontiers in Environmental Science<\/i>&#32;<b>1<\/b>&#32;(5).&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3389%2Ffenvs.2013.00005\" target=\"_blank\">10.3389\/fenvs.2013.00005<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Grand+challenges+in+environmental+informatics&amp;rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Environmental+Science&amp;rft.aulast=Kokhanovsky%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Kokhanovsky%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.3389%2Ffenvs.2013.00005&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JEIAbout-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-JEIAbout_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jeionline.org\/index.php?journal=mys\" target=\"_blank\">\"Journal of Environmental Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;International Society for Environmental Information Sciences<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jeionline.org\/index.php?journal=mys\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.jeionline.org\/index.php?journal=mys<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Journal+of+Environmental+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Society+for+Environmental+Information+Sciences&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jeionline.org%2Findex.php%3Fjournal%3Dmys&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CracknellGlobal-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CracknellGlobal_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Cracknell, A.P.; Krapivin, V.F.&#32;(2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=k2aVFcrCi90C&pg=PA449\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Global Climatology and Ecodynamics: Anthropogenic Changes to Planet Earth<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Springer.&#32;p.&#160;449.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9783540782094<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=k2aVFcrCi90C&pg=PA449\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=k2aVFcrCi90C&amp;pg=PA449<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Global+Climatology+and+Ecodynamics%3A+Anthropogenic+Changes+to+Planet+Earth&amp;rft.aulast=Cracknell%2C+A.P.%3B+Krapivin%2C+V.F.&amp;rft.au=Cracknell%2C+A.P.%3B+Krapivin%2C+V.F.&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B449&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9783540782094&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk2aVFcrCi90C%26pg%3DPA449&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KondratyevGlobal-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KondratyevGlobal_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Kondratyev, K.Y.; Krapivin, V.F.; Phillipe, G.W.&#32;(2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=n04HU6f5FDYC&pg=PA27\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: The Basic Principles of Global Ecoinformatics\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Global Environmental Change: Modelling and Monitoring<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;27\u201362.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9783540433736<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=n04HU6f5FDYC&pg=PA27\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=n04HU6f5FDYC&amp;pg=PA27<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+The+Basic+Principles+of+Global+Ecoinformatics&amp;rft.atitle=Global+Environmental+Change%3A+Modelling+and+Monitoring&amp;rft.aulast=Kondratyev%2C+K.Y.%3B+Krapivin%2C+V.F.%3B+Phillipe%2C+G.W.&amp;rft.au=Kondratyev%2C+K.Y.%3B+Krapivin%2C+V.F.%3B+Phillipe%2C+G.W.&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B27%E2%80%9362&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9783540433736&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn04HU6f5FDYC%26pg%3DPA27&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ReckHandbook-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ReckHandbook_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Recknagel, F.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XzEKlNhnUHUC&pg=PA41\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 3: Ecological Informatics: Current Scope and Feature Areas\"<\/a>.&#32;In&#32;J\u00f8rgensen, S.E.; Chon, T.S..&#32;<i>Handbook of Ecological Modelling and Informatics<\/i>.&#32;WIT Press.&#32;pp.&#160;41\u201347.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781845642075<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XzEKlNhnUHUC&pg=PA41\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=XzEKlNhnUHUC&amp;pg=PA41<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+3%3A+Ecological+Informatics%3A+Current+Scope+and+Feature+Areas&amp;rft.atitle=Handbook+of+Ecological+Modelling+and+Informatics&amp;rft.aulast=Recknagel%2C+F.&amp;rft.au=Recknagel%2C+F.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B41%E2%80%9347&amp;rft.pub=WIT+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9781845642075&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXzEKlNhnUHUC%26pg%3DPA41&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Environmental_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171617\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.497 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.965 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 11091\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 78342\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 32588\/2097152 bytes\nHighest 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_informatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","8f0d09dd24612a7abc14e2875017c4c9_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/06\/SSTm.png"],"8f0d09dd24612a7abc14e2875017c4c9_timestamp":1704906976,"f351334854570f46a1227e6e952840c1_type":"article","f351334854570f46a1227e6e952840c1_title":"Chemical informatics","f351334854570f46a1227e6e952840c1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chemical_informatics","f351334854570f46a1227e6e952840c1_plaintext":"\n\nChemical informaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search The Jmol open-source Java viewer for chemical 3D structures is an example of a software application that may be used in the field of chemical informatics.\nChemical informatics (more commonly known as chemoinformatics and cheminformatics) is the use of computer and informational techniques applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. While the field has roughly been around around since the 1990s, the rise in high-throughput screening (a scientific experimentation method primarily used in drug discovery) and combinatorial chemistry (a method of synthesizing a large number of compounds in a single process), as well as increases in computing power and data storage sizes, have increased interest in the field in the twenty-first century.&#91;1&#93; \nOutside of pharmaceutical research, other applications of chemical informatics include the area of topology, chemical graph theory, and mining the chemical space. It can also be applied to data analysis for the paper, pulp, and dye industries.&#91;2&#93;&#91;1&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Application \n\n2.1 Storage and retrieval \n2.2 Representation \n2.3 Virtual libraries \n2.4 Virtual screening \n2.5 Quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) \n\n\n3 See also \n4 External links \n5 Notes \n6 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nThe 1960s saw the introduction of databases for the storage and retrieval of chemical structures, as well as three-dimensional molecular modeling methods, laying the groundwork for future generations to improve computational methods of chemical and molecular analysis.&#91;2&#93;\nThe term \"chemoinformatics\" was defined by F.K. Brown&#91;3&#93;&#91;4&#93; in 1998 as such: \n\n\nChemoinformatics is the mixing of those information resources to transform data into information and information into knowledge for the intended purpose of making better decisions faster in the area of drug lead identification and optimization.\n\n\nSince then, both the \"chem\" and \"chemo\" spellings have been used. European academia has seemingly settled on the term \"chemoinformatics\" for many of its research and teaching workshops.&#91;5&#93; Other entities like the Journal of Cheminformatics and Slovak company Molinspiration have trended towards \"cheminformatics.\"&#91;6&#93;&#91;7&#93;\n\nApplication \nStorage and retrieval \nThe primary application of chemical informatics is in the storage and retrieval of both structured and unstructured information relating to chemical structures, molecular models and other chemical data. Efficiently querying and retrieving that stored information extends into other realms of computer science like data mining and machine learning. Other forms of data querying include graph, molecule, sequence, and tree mining.&#91;8&#93;\n\nRepresentation \nThe in silico representation of chemical structures uses specialized formats such as the XML-based Chemical Markup Language or Simplified Molecular-Input Line-Entry System (SMILES) specifications. These representations are often used for storage in large chemical databases. While some formats are suited for visual representations in two or three dimensions, others are more suited for studying physical interactions, modeling, and docking studies.&#91;8&#93;\n\nVirtual libraries \nStored chemical data can pertain to both real and virtual molecules. Virtual libraries of such molecules and compounds may be generated in various ways to explore chemical space and hypothesize novel compounds with desired properties. The Fragment Optimized Growth (FOG) algorithm, for example, was developed to \"grow\" novel classes of compounds like drugs, natural products, and diversity-oriented synthetic products from a training database of existing compounds.&#91;9&#93;&#91;10&#93;\n\nVirtual screening \nIn contrast to high-throughput screening, virtual screening involves computationally screening in silico libraries of compounds, by means of various methods such as docking, to identify members likely to possess desired properties such as biological activity against a given target. In some cases, combinatorial chemistry is used in the development of the library to increase the efficiency in mining the chemical space. More commonly, a diverse library of small molecules or natural products is screened.&#91;1&#93;\n\n Quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) \nThis is the calculation of quantitative structure-activity relationship and quantitative structure property relationship values, used to predict the activity of compounds from their structures. In this context there is also a strong relationship to chemometrics, the science of extracting information from chemical systems by data-driven means. Chemical expert systems are also relevant since they represent parts of chemical knowledge as an in silico representation.&#91;1&#93;\n\nSee also \nBioinformatics\nData analysis\nExternal links \nCambridge Healthtech Institute Cheminformatics\/ Chemoinformatics Glossary &amp; Taxonomy\nIndiana Cheminformatics Education Portal (Archived)\nThe Blue Obelisk Project\nThe Chemical Structure Association Trust\nThe eCheminfo Network and Community of Practice\nThe UK-QSAR and ChemoInformatics Group\nNotes \nThis article reuses portions of content from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Leach, A.R.; Gillet, V.J.&#32;(2007).&#32;An Introduction to Chemoinformatics.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;256.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781402062902.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=4z7Q87HgBdwC&amp;printsec=frontcover .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 Gasteiger, J. (ed.)&#160;; Engel, T. (ed.)&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Introduction\".&#32;Chemoinformatics: A Textbook.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201314.&#32;ISBN&#160;9783527606504.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=LCD-1vHBHIAC&amp;printsec=frontcover .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Brown, F.K.&#32;(1998).&#32;\"Chapter 35. Chemoinformatics: What is it and how does it impact drug discovery\".&#32;Annual Reports in Medicinal Chemistry&#32;33: 375\u2013384.&#32;doi:10.1016\/S0065-7743(08)61100-8. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Brown, F.&#32;(May 2005).&#32;\"Editorial Opinion: Chemoinformatics \u2013 A ten year update\".&#32;Current Opinion in Drug Discovery &amp; Development&#32;8&#32;(3): 298\u2013302.&#32;PMID&#160;15892243. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Conferences - Ch\u00e9moinformatique Strasbourg\".&#32;Laboratoire de Ch\u00e9moinformatique, University of Strasbourg.&#32;http:\/\/infochim.u-strasbg.fr\/spip.php?rubrique11 .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Cheminformatics or Chemoinformatics?\".&#32;Molinspiration Cheminformatics.&#32;December 2009.&#32;https:\/\/www.molinspiration.com\/chemoinformatics.html .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"About Journal of Cheminformatics\".&#32;BioMed Central Ltd.&#32;https:\/\/jcheminf.biomedcentral.com\/ .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 Gasteiger, J. (ed.)&#160;; Engel, T. (ed.)&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Chapter 2: Representation of Chemical Compounds\".&#32;Chemoinformatics: A Textbook.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;15\u2013157.&#32;ISBN&#160;9783527606504.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=LCD-1vHBHIAC&amp;printsec=frontcover .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Kutchukian, P.S.; Lou, D.; Shakhnovich, E.I.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"FOG: Fragment Optimized Growth Algorithm for the de Novo Generation of Molecules Occupying Druglike Chemical Space\".&#32;Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling&#32;49&#32;(7): 1630\u20131642.&#32;doi:10.1021\/ci9000458.&#32;PMID&#160;19527020. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Kutchukian, P.S.; Virtanen, S.I.; Lounkine, E. et al.&#32;(2013).&#32;\"Chapter 13: Construction of Drug-Like Compounds by Markov Chains\".&#32;De novo Molecular Design.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;ISBN&#160;9783527677009.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1QFRAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA311 .&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chemical_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chemical_informatics<\/a>\nCategories: Chemical industryInformaticsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 17 September 2022, at 16:46.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 16,266 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","f351334854570f46a1227e6e952840c1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Chemical_informatics rootpage-Chemical_informatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Chemical informatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Jmol1.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"900af9ce7bd83ae90da7eece6bcb9014\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/1c\/Jmol1.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Jmol1.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"900af9ce7bd83ae90da7eece6bcb9014\"><\/a><\/div>The Jmol open-source Java viewer for chemical 3D structures is an example of a software application that may be used in the field of chemical informatics.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Chemical informatics<\/b> (more commonly known as <b>chemoinformatics<\/b> and <b>cheminformatics<\/b>) is the use of computer and informational techniques applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. While the field has roughly been around around since the 1990s, the rise in high-throughput screening (a scientific experimentation method primarily used in drug discovery) and combinatorial chemistry (a method of synthesizing a large number of compounds in a single process), as well as increases in computing power and data storage sizes, have increased interest in the field in the twenty-first century.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeachIntroChem_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeachIntroChem-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Outside of pharmaceutical research, other applications of chemical informatics include the area of topology, chemical graph theory, and mining the chemical space. It can also be applied to data analysis for the paper, pulp, and dye industries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gasteiger2006_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gasteiger2006-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeachIntroChem_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeachIntroChem-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The 1960s saw the introduction of databases for the storage and retrieval of chemical structures, as well as three-dimensional molecular modeling methods, laying the groundwork for future generations to improve computational methods of chemical and molecular analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gasteiger2006_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gasteiger2006-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The term \"chemoinformatics\" was defined by F.K. Brown<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Brown1998_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Brown1998-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> in 1998 as such: \n<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p>Chemoinformatics is the mixing of those <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> resources to transform data into information and information into knowledge for the intended purpose of making better decisions faster in the area of drug lead identification and optimization.\n<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Since then, both the \"chem\" and \"chemo\" spellings have been used. European academia has seemingly settled on the term \"chemoinformatics\" for many of its research and teaching workshops.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Obernai_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Obernai-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Other entities like the <i>Journal of Cheminformatics<\/i> and Slovak company Molinspiration have trended towards \"cheminformatics.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MolChem_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MolChem-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JournChem_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JournChem-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Application\">Application<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Storage_and_retrieval\">Storage and retrieval<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The primary application of chemical informatics is in the storage and retrieval of both structured and unstructured information relating to chemical structures, molecular models and other chemical data. Efficiently querying and retrieving that stored information extends into other realms of computer science like data mining and machine learning. Other forms of data querying include graph, molecule, sequence, and tree mining.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gasteiger2006Ch2_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gasteiger2006Ch2-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Representation\">Representation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <i>in silico<\/i> representation of chemical structures uses specialized formats such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/XML\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"XML\" data-key=\"fda82e3b4db7e4b2856b016933a1d2d1\">XML<\/a>-based Chemical Markup Language or Simplified Molecular-Input Line-Entry System (SMILES) specifications. These representations are often used for storage in large chemical databases. While some formats are suited for visual representations in two or three dimensions, others are more suited for studying physical interactions, modeling, and docking studies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gasteiger2006Ch2_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gasteiger2006Ch2-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Virtual_libraries\">Virtual libraries<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Stored chemical data can pertain to both real and virtual molecules. Virtual libraries of such molecules and compounds may be generated in various ways to explore chemical space and hypothesize novel compounds with desired properties. The Fragment Optimized Growth (FOG) algorithm, for example, was developed to \"grow\" novel classes of compounds like drugs, natural products, and diversity-oriented synthetic products from a training database of existing compounds.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KutchFOG_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KutchFOG-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchneiderDeNovo_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchneiderDeNovo-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Virtual_screening\">Virtual screening<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In contrast to high-throughput screening, virtual screening involves computationally screening <i>in silico<\/i> libraries of compounds, by means of various methods such as docking, to identify members likely to possess desired properties such as biological activity against a given target. In some cases, combinatorial chemistry is used in the development of the library to increase the efficiency in mining the chemical space. More commonly, a diverse library of small molecules or natural products is screened.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeachIntroChem_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeachIntroChem-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Quantitative_structure-activity_relationship_(QSAR)\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quantitative_structure-activity_relationship_.28QSAR.29\">Quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This is the calculation of quantitative structure-activity relationship and quantitative structure property relationship values, used to predict the activity of compounds from their structures. In this context there is also a strong relationship to chemometrics, the science of extracting information from chemical systems by data-driven means. Chemical expert systems are also relevant since they represent parts of chemical knowledge as an <i>in silico<\/i> representation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeachIntroChem_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeachIntroChem-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f506695fdbb26e3f314da308f8c053b\">Bioinformatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1\">Data analysis<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.genomicglossaries.com\/content\/chemoinformatics_gloss.asp\" target=\"_blank\">Cambridge Healthtech Institute Cheminformatics\/ Chemoinformatics Glossary &amp; Taxonomy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170928055641\/http:\/\/icep.wikispaces.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Indiana Cheminformatics Education Portal<\/a> (Archived)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blueobelisk.github.io\/\" target=\"_blank\">The Blue Obelisk Project<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/csa-trust.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">The Chemical Structure Association Trust<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.echeminfo.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">The eCheminfo Network and Community of Practice<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ukqsar.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">The UK-QSAR and ChemoInformatics Group<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article reuses portions of content from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cheminformatics\" data-key=\"2c23d43efab9d8b91d88fac55cfcad92\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-LeachIntroChem-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LeachIntroChem_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LeachIntroChem_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LeachIntroChem_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LeachIntroChem_1-3\">1.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Leach, A.R.; Gillet, V.J.&#32;(2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=4z7Q87HgBdwC&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\"><i>An Introduction to Chemoinformatics<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;256.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781402062902<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=4z7Q87HgBdwC&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=4z7Q87HgBdwC&amp;printsec=frontcover<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Chemoinformatics&amp;rft.aulast=Leach%2C+A.R.%3B+Gillet%2C+V.J.&amp;rft.au=Leach%2C+A.R.%3B+Gillet%2C+V.J.&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B256&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9781402062902&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4z7Q87HgBdwC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chemical_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Gasteiger2006-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Gasteiger2006_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Gasteiger2006_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Gasteiger, J. (ed.)&#160;; Engel, T. (ed.)&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=LCD-1vHBHIAC&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Introduction\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Chemoinformatics: A Textbook<\/i>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201314.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9783527606504<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=LCD-1vHBHIAC&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=LCD-1vHBHIAC&amp;printsec=frontcover<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction&amp;rft.atitle=Chemoinformatics%3A+A+Textbook&amp;rft.aulast=Gasteiger%2C+J.+%28ed.%29+%3B+Engel%2C+T.+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.au=Gasteiger%2C+J.+%28ed.%29+%3B+Engel%2C+T.+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%9314&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9783527606504&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLCD-1vHBHIAC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chemical_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Brown1998-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Brown1998_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Brown, F.K.&#32;(1998).&#32;\"Chapter 35. Chemoinformatics: What is it and how does it impact drug discovery\".&#32;<i>Annual Reports in Medicinal Chemistry<\/i>&#32;<b>33<\/b>: 375\u2013384.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0065-7743%2808%2961100-8\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/S0065-7743(08)61100-8<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+35.+Chemoinformatics%3A+What+is+it+and+how+does+it+impact+drug+discovery&amp;rft.jtitle=Annual+Reports+in+Medicinal+Chemistry&amp;rft.aulast=Brown%2C+F.K.&amp;rft.au=Brown%2C+F.K.&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.pages=375%E2%80%93384&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2FS0065-7743%2808%2961100-8&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chemical_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Brown, F.&#32;(May 2005).&#32;\"Editorial Opinion: Chemoinformatics \u2013 A ten year update\".&#32;<i>Current Opinion in Drug Discovery &amp; Development<\/i>&#32;<b>8<\/b>&#32;(3): 298\u2013302.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/15892243\" target=\"_blank\">15892243<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Editorial+Opinion%3A+Chemoinformatics+%E2%80%93+A+ten+year+update&amp;rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Drug+Discovery+%26+Development&amp;rft.aulast=Brown%2C+F.&amp;rft.au=Brown%2C+F.&amp;rft.date=May+2005&amp;rft.volume=8&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=298%E2%80%93302&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/15892243&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chemical_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Obernai-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Obernai_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/infochim.u-strasbg.fr\/spip.php?rubrique11\" target=\"_blank\">\"Conferences - Ch\u00e9moinformatique Strasbourg\"<\/a>.&#32;Laboratoire de Ch\u00e9moinformatique, University of Strasbourg<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/infochim.u-strasbg.fr\/spip.php?rubrique11\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/infochim.u-strasbg.fr\/spip.php?rubrique11<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Conferences+-+Ch%C3%A9moinformatique+Strasbourg&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Laboratoire+de+Ch%C3%A9moinformatique%2C+University+of+Strasbourg&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finfochim.u-strasbg.fr%2Fspip.php%3Frubrique11&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chemical_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MolChem-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MolChem_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.molinspiration.com\/chemoinformatics.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cheminformatics or Chemoinformatics?\"<\/a>.&#32;Molinspiration Cheminformatics.&#32;December 2009<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.molinspiration.com\/chemoinformatics.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.molinspiration.com\/chemoinformatics.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cheminformatics+or+Chemoinformatics%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=December+2009&amp;rft.pub=Molinspiration+Cheminformatics&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.molinspiration.com%2Fchemoinformatics.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chemical_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JournChem-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-JournChem_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/jcheminf.biomedcentral.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"About <i>Journal of Cheminformatics<\/i>\"<\/a>.&#32;BioMed Central Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/jcheminf.biomedcentral.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/jcheminf.biomedcentral.com\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+%27%27Journal+of+Cheminformatics%27%27&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=BioMed+Central+Ltd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjcheminf.biomedcentral.com%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chemical_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Gasteiger2006Ch2-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Gasteiger2006Ch2_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Gasteiger2006Ch2_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Gasteiger, J. (ed.)&#160;; Engel, T. (ed.)&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=LCD-1vHBHIAC&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Representation of Chemical Compounds\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Chemoinformatics: A Textbook<\/i>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;pp.&#160;15\u2013157.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9783527606504<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=LCD-1vHBHIAC&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=LCD-1vHBHIAC&amp;printsec=frontcover<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+Representation+of+Chemical+Compounds&amp;rft.atitle=Chemoinformatics%3A+A+Textbook&amp;rft.aulast=Gasteiger%2C+J.+%28ed.%29+%3B+Engel%2C+T.+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.au=Gasteiger%2C+J.+%28ed.%29+%3B+Engel%2C+T.+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B15%E2%80%93157&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9783527606504&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLCD-1vHBHIAC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chemical_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KutchFOG-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KutchFOG_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kutchukian, P.S.; Lou, D.; Shakhnovich, E.I.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"FOG: Fragment Optimized Growth Algorithm for the de Novo Generation of Molecules Occupying Druglike Chemical Space\".&#32;<i>Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling<\/i>&#32;<b>49<\/b>&#32;(7): 1630\u20131642.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1021%2Fci9000458\" target=\"_blank\">10.1021\/ci9000458<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/19527020\" target=\"_blank\">19527020<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=FOG%3A+Fragment+Optimized+Growth+Algorithm+for+the+de+Novo+Generation+of+Molecules+Occupying+Druglike+Chemical+Space&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Information+and+Modeling&amp;rft.aulast=Kutchukian%2C+P.S.%3B+Lou%2C+D.%3B+Shakhnovich%2C+E.I.&amp;rft.au=Kutchukian%2C+P.S.%3B+Lou%2C+D.%3B+Shakhnovich%2C+E.I.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.volume=49&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=1630%E2%80%931642&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1021%2Fci9000458&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/19527020&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chemical_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchneiderDeNovo-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchneiderDeNovo_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Kutchukian, P.S.; Virtanen, S.I.; Lounkine, E. et al.&#32;(2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1QFRAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA311\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 13: Construction of Drug-Like Compounds by Markov Chains\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>De novo Molecular Design<\/i>.&#32;John Wiley &amp; Sons.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9783527677009<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1QFRAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA311\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1QFRAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA311<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 20 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+13%3A+Construction+of+Drug-Like+Compounds+by+Markov+Chains&amp;rft.atitle=De+novo+Molecular+Design&amp;rft.aulast=Kutchukian%2C+P.S.%3B+Virtanen%2C+S.I.%3B+Lounkine%2C+E.+et+al.&amp;rft.au=Kutchukian%2C+P.S.%3B+Virtanen%2C+S.I.%3B+Lounkine%2C+E.+et+al.&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.isbn=9783527677009&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1QFRAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA311&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chemical_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171130\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.624 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.110 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6890\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 45943\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 15590\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 16716\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 173.624 1 Template:Reflist\n100.00% 173.624 1 -total\n 66.92% 116.184 10 Template:Citation\/core\n 41.74% 72.467 4 Template:Cite_book\n 23.44% 40.705 3 Template:Cite_web\n 18.55% 32.207 3 Template:Cite_journal\n 12.63% 21.932 8 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 6.98% 12.116 1 Template:Date\n 5.39% 9.351 13 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 3.69% 6.412 16 Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:1504-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110171129 and revision id 49237. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chemical_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chemical_informatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","f351334854570f46a1227e6e952840c1_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/1c\/Jmol1.png"],"f351334854570f46a1227e6e952840c1_timestamp":1704906976,"b665bf61e7903152714531827699ad0d_type":"article","b665bf61e7903152714531827699ad0d_title":"Cancer informatics","b665bf61e7903152714531827699ad0d_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cancer_informatics","b665bf61e7903152714531827699ad0d_plaintext":"\n\nCancer informaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchCancer informatics is a multidisciplinary field of science that \"deals with the resources, devices, and methods required to optimize the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information in cancer\" research and treatment.&#91;1&#93; Like many other fields of science, researchers in cancer biology have seen a dramatic increase in the amount of clinical and research data, in particular with genomic and molecular cancer data. While this data can benefit researchers' understanding of cancer behavior and development of better therapies, new and improved data management and analysis tools are needed. Cancer informatics attempts to provide those tools \"that interconnect research, clinical activities, and data in an organized and efficient manner, with as broad a database as possible.\"&#91;2&#93; For many, the coupling of cancer informatics and other bioinformatics tools with computational modeling and statistical analysis will accelerate the goal of making cancer a more treatable if not curable disease.&#91;3&#93;\nContents \n\n1 Application \n2 Cancer informatics around the world \n\n2.1 In the United States \n2.2 In other parts of the world \n\n\n3 Cancer informatics projects, organizations, and events \n4 External links \n5 References \n\n\n\nApplication \nCancer informatics can help tackle problems and tasks such as the following&#91;3&#93;&#91;4&#93;:\n\nthe development of computational diagnosis, prognosis, and predictive models\nthe development of standards for the entry, annotation, and sharing of clinical cancer data\nthe management and distribution of annotated molecular data for further research\nthe analysis of an individual tumor to determine its molecular phenotype\nthe development of a treatment plan based on a tumor's molecular phenotype\nthe tracking of the aberrations that drive a particular cancer's growth\nCancer informatics around the world \nIn the United States \nIn the U.S., the field of cancer informatics became much more noticeable with the late 1990s push by the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) director Richard D. Klausner to create \"a Cancer Informatics Infrastructure (CII) to enable the cancer research enterprise and to link it to the delivery of cancer care.\"&#91;5&#93; Klausner saw clinical trials as one of the key components of cancer research. Given their value to researchers, he recognized clinical trials would require improved efficiency and openness as well as a new way of openly linking interested parties to the associated trial data via an information management system. Such a system would need to not only manage clinical trial data but also provide tools to turn such data into meaningful information.&#91;5&#93; \nIn the spring of 2004, the NCI began funding the caBIG initiative, which sought to connect U.S. biomedical cancer researchers using technology known as grid computing. The program, led by the Center for Bioinformatics and Information Technology (CBIIT), began with a three-year pilot phase. The pilot phase concluded in March 2007, and 56 NCI-designated cancer centers started a trial.&#91;6&#93; The project was furthered still with the development of software and standards to support project goals. By 2011, the NCI concluded the original goals of the caBIG initiative were worthy of pursuing, but the program had become bloated and off-course. This led to the April 2012 creation of a new National Cancer Informatics Program (NCIP) that would act as the spiritual successor of caBIG, integrating some of its informatics programs and ceasing development on others.&#91;7&#93;&#91;8&#93; As of March 2020&#91;update&#93; the NCIP was still being enacted, funding and developing projects related to cancer genomics data management, creating a software sharing hub, and releasing code under the open-source model.\n\nIn other parts of the world \nIn 2008, Greek bioinformatician Manolis Tsiknakis discussed the state of cancer informatics in Europe at the 8th IEEE International Conference on BioInformatics and BioEngineering.&#91;9&#93; He noted developments such as the Advancing Clinico Genomic Trials on Cancer (ACGT) program, which was originally envisaged as \"a unified technological infrastructure which will facilitate the seamless and secure access and analysis of multi-level clinical and genomic data enriched with high-performing knowledge discovery operations and services in support of multi-centric, post-genomic clinical trials.\"&#91;9&#93; (The ACGT program was eventually halted at the end of July 2010.&#91;10&#93;&#91;11&#93;) Tsiknakis also referenced the development of the multi-disciplinary myGrid project in the United Kingdom, a funded effort to help others with the challenges of eScience until at least 2016.&#91;12&#93;\nThe United States' National Cancer Institute has also played a role in broadening cancer informatics beyond the U.S. Through its Request for Proposals for Pilot Collaborations with Low- and Mid-Income Countries (LMICs) program, the NCI has funded the development of cancer informatics infrastructure in countries like El Salvador and Honduras.&#91;13&#93;\n\n Cancer informatics projects, organizations, and events \nExamples of cancer informatics projects, organizations, and events include:\n\nCancer Genome Atlas: an NCI-funded initiative \"to generate comprehensive, multi-dimensional maps of the key genomic changes in major types and subtypes of cancer\"\nCancer Informatics for Cancer Centers (CI4CC): a non-profit \"intended to provide a focused national forum for engagement of senior cancer informatics leaders, primarily aimed at academic cancer centers anywhere in the world, but with a special emphasis on all 70 NCI-funded cancer centers\"\nCancerLinQ: driven by the American Society of Clinical Oncology, this program aims to assemble \"vast amounts of usable, searchable, real-world cancer information into a powerful database\"\neScience Lab: formerly myGrid, a U.K. initiative to develop informatics software for scientists, including cancer researchers\nInformatics Technology for Cancer Research (ITCR) Tools: an NCI initiative to manage and expand on the cancer informatics tools and infrastructure of the NCI's extramural divisions\nInnovation in Cancer Informatics Summit: a conference on cancer informatics innovation\nExternal links \nCancer Informatics journal\nJCO Clinical Cancer Informatics journal\nNational Cancer Informatics Program at GitHub\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Cancer Informatics\".&#32;National Cancer Registrars Association.&#32;https:\/\/www.ncra-usa.org\/Education\/Informatics .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Nass, S.J.; Wizemann, T. (eds.)&#32;(2012).&#32;\"Chapter 2: Overview of the Cancer Informatics Landscape\".&#32;Informatics Needs and Challenges in Cancer Research: Workshop Summary.&#32;National Academies Press.&#32;pp.&#160;7\u201330.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780309259484.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qWuJAco_5R8C&amp;pg=PA7 .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 Ochs, M.F.; Casagrande, J.T.; Davuluri, R.V.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Biomedical Informatics for Cancer Research: Introduction\".&#32;Biomedical Informatics for Cancer Research.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u201316.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781441957122.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Ej8J_BZFON4C&amp;printsec=frontcover .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Salem, A.-B.M.&#32;(2013).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Machine Learning Applications in Cancer Informatics\".&#32;Advances in Intelligent Analysis of Medical Data and Decision Support Systems.&#32;Studies in Computational Intelligence.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201314.&#32;ISBN&#160;9783319000282.&#32;https:\/\/link.springer.com\/chapter\/10.1007%2F978-3-319-00029-9_1 .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 Klausner, R.D.; Silva, J.S. (ed.)&#32;(2002).&#32;\"Foreward\".&#32;Cancer Informatics: Essential Technologies for Clinical Trials.&#32;Health Informatics.&#32;pp.&#160;vii\u2013x.&#32;ISBN&#160;9781461265474.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=DhNSheaOeDEC .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"An Assessment of the Impact of the NCI CaBIG\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;National Cancer Institute.&#32;March 2011.&#32;https:\/\/deainfo.nci.nih.gov\/advisory\/bsa\/archive\/bsa0311\/caBIGfinalReport.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Where is caBIG Going?\".&#32;CDISC.&#32;9 July 2012.&#32;https:\/\/www.cdisc.org\/where-cabig-going%3F .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Komatsoulis, G.A.&#32;(April 2012).&#32;\"National Cancer Informatics Program Launch Meeting\".&#32;National Cancer Institute.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 16 February 2013.&#32;http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130216034021\/https:\/\/cabig.nci.nih.gov\/NCIP-launch-meeting .&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 9.0 9.1 Tsiknakis, M.&#32;(2008).&#32;\"The European cancer informatics landscape: Challenges for the biomedical informatics community\".&#32;8th IEEE International Conference on BioInformatics and BioEngineering, 2008: 1\u20137.&#32;doi:10.1109\/BIBE.2008.4696649. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Advancing Clinico-Genomic Trials on Cancer: Open Grid Services for Improving Medical Knowledge Discovery\".&#32;CORDIS.&#32;Publications Office of the European Union.&#32;7 October 2014.&#32;https:\/\/cordis.europa.eu\/project\/id\/026996 .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ACGT: Advancing Clinico Genomic Trials\".&#32;European Commission Information Society and Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 07 January 2011.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110107201922\/http:\/\/eu-acgt.org\/ .&#32;Retrieved 12 January 2015 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"myGrid: About us\".&#32;myGrid.&#32;http:\/\/www.mygrid.org.uk\/about-us\/ .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Trimble, T.&#32;(23 June 2014).&#32;\"2013 Awardees: Request for Proposals for Pilot Collaborations with Low- and Mid-Income Countries (LMICs) in Global Cancer Research or Global Health Research at NCI-Designated Cancer Centers\".&#32;National Cancer Institute.&#32;https:\/\/www.cancer.gov\/about-nci\/organization\/cgh\/blog\/2014\/2013-cgh-awardees .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cancer_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cancer_informatics<\/a>\nCategories: Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2020All articles containing potentially dated statementsInformaticsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 6 January 2022, at 19:54.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 8,520 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","b665bf61e7903152714531827699ad0d_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Cancer_informatics rootpage-Cancer_informatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Cancer informatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:In-Silico-Gene-Prioritization-by-Integrating-Multiple-Data-Sources-pone.0021137.g005.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d71ee86f0553ee2531b0c8b70680520\"><img alt=\"In-Silico-Gene-Prioritization-by-Integrating-Multiple-Data-Sources-pone.0021137.g005.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/95\/In-Silico-Gene-Prioritization-by-Integrating-Multiple-Data-Sources-pone.0021137.g005.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><\/div><p><b>Cancer informatics<\/b> is a multidisciplinary field of science that \"deals with the resources, devices, and methods required to optimize the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> in cancer\" research and treatment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NCRACancerInfo_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NCRACancerInfo-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Like many other fields of science, researchers in cancer biology have seen a dramatic increase in the amount of clinical and research data, in particular with genomic and molecular cancer data. While this data can benefit researchers' understanding of cancer behavior and development of better therapies, new and improved <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management\" title=\"Information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73\">data management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1\">analysis<\/a> tools are needed. Cancer informatics attempts to provide those tools \"that interconnect research, clinical activities, and data in an organized and efficient manner, with as broad a database as possible.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NassInfo_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NassInfo-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> For many, the coupling of cancer informatics and other <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f506695fdbb26e3f314da308f8c053b\">bioinformatics<\/a> tools with computational modeling and statistical analysis will accelerate the goal of making cancer a more treatable if not curable disease.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OchsBio_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OchsBio-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Application\">Application<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Cancer informatics can help tackle problems and tasks such as the following<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OchsBio_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OchsBio-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SalemMachine_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SalemMachine-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the development of computational diagnosis, prognosis, and predictive models<\/li>\n<li>the development of standards for the entry, annotation, and sharing of clinical cancer data<\/li>\n<li>the management and distribution of annotated molecular data for further research<\/li>\n<li>the analysis of an individual tumor to determine its molecular phenotype<\/li>\n<li>the development of a treatment plan based on a tumor's molecular phenotype<\/li>\n<li>the tracking of the aberrations that drive a particular cancer's growth<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cancer_informatics_around_the_world\">Cancer informatics around the world<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_the_United_States\">In the United States<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the U.S., the field of cancer informatics became much more noticeable with the late 1990s push by the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/National_Cancer_Institute\" title=\"National Cancer Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"281916a9fbd28f1e14ba3a07ff64abc8\">National Cancer Institute<\/a>'s (NCI's) director Richard D. Klausner to create \"a Cancer Informatics Infrastructure (CII) to enable the cancer research enterprise and to link it to the delivery of cancer care.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SilvaCI_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SilvaCI-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Klausner saw clinical trials as one of the key components of cancer research. Given their value to researchers, he recognized clinical trials would require improved efficiency and openness as well as a new way of openly linking interested parties to the associated trial data via an information management system. Such a system would need to not only manage clinical trial data but also provide tools to turn such data into meaningful information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SilvaCI_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SilvaCI-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>In the spring of 2004, the NCI began funding the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/CaBIG\" title=\"CaBIG\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b76b9ff777b474d664ccd6b028d3407c\">caBIG<\/a> initiative, which sought to connect U.S. biomedical cancer researchers using technology known as grid computing. The program, led by the Center for Bioinformatics and Information Technology (CBIIT), began with a three-year pilot phase. The pilot phase concluded in March 2007, and 56 NCI-designated cancer centers started a trial.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AssImpcaBIG_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AssImpcaBIG-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The project was furthered still with the development of software and standards to support project goals. By 2011, the NCI concluded the original goals of the caBIG initiative were worthy of pursuing, but the program had become bloated and off-course. This led to the April 2012 creation of a new National Cancer Informatics Program (NCIP) that would act as the spiritual successor of caBIG, integrating some of its informatics programs and ceasing development on others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDISCcaBIG_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDISCcaBIG-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NCIPCreationArch_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NCIPCreationArch-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As of March 2020<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup> the NCIP was still being enacted, funding and developing projects related to cancer genomics data management, creating a software sharing hub, and releasing code under the open-source model.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_other_parts_of_the_world\">In other parts of the world<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 2008, Greek bioinformatician Manolis Tsiknakis discussed the state of cancer informatics in Europe at the 8th IEEE International Conference on BioInformatics and BioEngineering.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ManoCIEurope_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ManoCIEurope-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> He noted developments such as the Advancing Clinico Genomic Trials on Cancer (ACGT) program, which was originally envisaged as \"a unified technological infrastructure which will facilitate the seamless and secure access and analysis of multi-level clinical and genomic data enriched with high-performing knowledge discovery operations and services in support of multi-centric, post-genomic clinical trials.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ManoCIEurope_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ManoCIEurope-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> (The ACGT program was eventually halted at the end of July 2010.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACGTCordis_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACGTCordis-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACGTArch1_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACGTArch1-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>) Tsiknakis also referenced the development of the multi-disciplinary myGrid project in the United Kingdom, a funded effort to help others with the challenges of eScience until at least 2016.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-myGridAbout_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-myGridAbout-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The United States' National Cancer Institute has also played a role in broadening cancer informatics beyond the U.S. Through its Request for Proposals for Pilot Collaborations with Low- and Mid-Income Countries (LMICs) program, the NCI has funded the development of cancer informatics infrastructure in countries like El Salvador and Honduras.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CGHAwards_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CGHAwards-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Cancer_informatics_projects,_organizations,_and_events\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cancer_informatics_projects.2C_organizations.2C_and_events\">Cancer informatics projects, organizations, and events<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Examples of cancer informatics projects, organizations, and events include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cancer.gov\/about-nci\/organization\/ccg\/research\/structural-genomics\/tcga\" target=\"_blank\">Cancer Genome Atlas<\/a>: an NCI-funded initiative \"to generate comprehensive, multi-dimensional maps of the key genomic changes in major types and subtypes of cancer\"<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ci4cc.org\/about\" target=\"_blank\">Cancer Informatics for Cancer Centers<\/a> (CI4CC): a non-profit \"intended to provide a focused national forum for engagement of senior cancer informatics leaders, primarily aimed at academic cancer centers anywhere in the world, but with a special emphasis on all 70 NCI-funded cancer centers\"<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cancerlinq.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">CancerLinQ<\/a>: driven by the American Society of Clinical Oncology, this program aims to assemble \"vast amounts of usable, searchable, real-world cancer information into a powerful database\"<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/esciencelab.org.uk\/\" target=\"_blank\">eScience Lab<\/a>: formerly <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mygrid.org.uk\/about-us\/\" target=\"_blank\">myGrid<\/a>, a U.K. initiative to develop informatics software for scientists, including cancer researchers<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/datascience.cancer.gov\/resources\/ITCR-tools\" target=\"_blank\">Informatics Technology for Cancer Research (ITCR) Tools<\/a>: an NCI initiative to manage and expand on the cancer informatics tools and infrastructure of the NCI's extramural divisions<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/the-ici-fund.org\/events\/summit-2019\" target=\"_blank\">Innovation in Cancer Informatics Summit<\/a>: a conference on cancer informatics innovation<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/us.sagepub.com\/en-us\/nam\/cancer-informatics\/journal202627\" target=\"_blank\">Cancer Informatics<\/a> journal<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ascopubs.org\/journal\/cci\" target=\"_blank\">JCO Clinical Cancer Informatics<\/a> journal<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/github.com\/ncip\" target=\"_blank\">National Cancer Informatics Program<\/a> at GitHub<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-NCRACancerInfo-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NCRACancerInfo_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncra-usa.org\/Education\/Informatics\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cancer Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;National Cancer Registrars Association<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncra-usa.org\/Education\/Informatics\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ncra-usa.org\/Education\/Informatics<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Cancer+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=National+Cancer+Registrars+Association&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncra-usa.org%2FEducation%2FInformatics&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cancer_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NassInfo-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NassInfo_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Nass, S.J.; Wizemann, T. (eds.)&#32;(2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qWuJAco_5R8C&pg=PA7\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Overview of the Cancer Informatics Landscape\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Informatics Needs and Challenges in Cancer Research: Workshop Summary<\/i>.&#32;National Academies Press.&#32;pp.&#160;7\u201330.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780309259484<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qWuJAco_5R8C&pg=PA7\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qWuJAco_5R8C&amp;pg=PA7<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+Overview+of+the+Cancer+Informatics+Landscape&amp;rft.atitle=Informatics+Needs+and+Challenges+in+Cancer+Research%3A+Workshop+Summary&amp;rft.aulast=Nass%2C+S.J.%3B+Wizemann%2C+T.+%28eds.%29&amp;rft.au=Nass%2C+S.J.%3B+Wizemann%2C+T.+%28eds.%29&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B7%E2%80%9330&amp;rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&amp;rft.isbn=9780309259484&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqWuJAco_5R8C%26pg%3DPA7&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cancer_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OchsBio-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-OchsBio_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-OchsBio_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Ochs, M.F.; Casagrande, J.T.; Davuluri, R.V.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Ej8J_BZFON4C&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Biomedical Informatics for Cancer Research: Introduction\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Biomedical Informatics for Cancer Research<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u201316.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781441957122<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Ej8J_BZFON4C&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Ej8J_BZFON4C&amp;printsec=frontcover<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Biomedical+Informatics+for+Cancer+Research%3A+Introduction&amp;rft.atitle=Biomedical+Informatics+for+Cancer+Research&amp;rft.aulast=Ochs%2C+M.F.%3B+Casagrande%2C+J.T.%3B+Davuluri%2C+R.V.&amp;rft.au=Ochs%2C+M.F.%3B+Casagrande%2C+J.T.%3B+Davuluri%2C+R.V.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B3%E2%80%9316&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9781441957122&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEj8J_BZFON4C%26printsec%3Dfrontcover&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cancer_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SalemMachine-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SalemMachine_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Salem, A.-B.M.&#32;(2013).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/chapter\/10.1007%2F978-3-319-00029-9_1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Machine Learning Applications in Cancer Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Advances in Intelligent Analysis of Medical Data and Decision Support Systems<\/i>.&#32;Studies in Computational Intelligence.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201314.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9783319000282<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/chapter\/10.1007%2F978-3-319-00029-9_1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/link.springer.com\/chapter\/10.1007%2F978-3-319-00029-9_1<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Machine+Learning+Applications+in+Cancer+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=Advances+in+Intelligent+Analysis+of+Medical+Data+and+Decision+Support+Systems&amp;rft.aulast=Salem%2C+A.-B.M.&amp;rft.au=Salem%2C+A.-B.M.&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.series=Studies+in+Computational+Intelligence&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%9314&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9783319000282&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%252F978-3-319-00029-9_1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cancer_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SilvaCI-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SilvaCI_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SilvaCI_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Klausner, R.D.; Silva, J.S. (ed.)&#32;(2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=DhNSheaOeDEC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Foreward\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Cancer Informatics: Essential Technologies for Clinical Trials<\/i>.&#32;Health Informatics.&#32;pp.&#160;vii\u2013x.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9781461265474<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=DhNSheaOeDEC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=DhNSheaOeDEC<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Foreward&amp;rft.atitle=Cancer+Informatics%3A+Essential+Technologies+for+Clinical+Trials&amp;rft.aulast=Klausner%2C+R.D.%3B+Silva%2C+J.S.+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.au=Klausner%2C+R.D.%3B+Silva%2C+J.S.+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.series=Health+Informatics&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3Bvii%E2%80%93x&amp;rft.isbn=9781461265474&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDhNSheaOeDEC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cancer_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AssImpcaBIG-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AssImpcaBIG_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/deainfo.nci.nih.gov\/advisory\/bsa\/archive\/bsa0311\/caBIGfinalReport.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"An Assessment of the Impact of the NCI CaBIG\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;National Cancer Institute.&#32;March 2011<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/deainfo.nci.nih.gov\/advisory\/bsa\/archive\/bsa0311\/caBIGfinalReport.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/deainfo.nci.nih.gov\/advisory\/bsa\/archive\/bsa0311\/caBIGfinalReport.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=An+Assessment+of+the+Impact+of+the+NCI+CaBIG&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=March+2011&amp;rft.pub=National+Cancer+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeainfo.nci.nih.gov%2Fadvisory%2Fbsa%2Farchive%2Fbsa0311%2FcaBIGfinalReport.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cancer_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDISCcaBIG-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDISCcaBIG_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdisc.org\/where-cabig-going%3F\" target=\"_blank\">\"Where is caBIG Going?\"<\/a>.&#32;CDISC.&#32;9 July 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cdisc.org\/where-cabig-going%3F\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cdisc.org\/where-cabig-going%3F<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Where+is+caBIG+Going%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=9+July+2012&amp;rft.pub=CDISC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdisc.org%2Fwhere-cabig-going%253F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cancer_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NCIPCreationArch-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NCIPCreationArch_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Komatsoulis, G.A.&#32;(April 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130216034021\/https:\/\/cabig.nci.nih.gov\/NCIP-launch-meeting\" target=\"_blank\">\"National Cancer Informatics Program Launch Meeting\"<\/a>.&#32;National Cancer Institute.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cabig.nci.nih.gov\/NCIP-launch-meeting\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 16 February 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130216034021\/https:\/\/cabig.nci.nih.gov\/NCIP-launch-meeting\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130216034021\/https:\/\/cabig.nci.nih.gov\/NCIP-launch-meeting<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 08 May 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=National+Cancer+Informatics+Program+Launch+Meeting&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Komatsoulis%2C+G.A.&amp;rft.au=Komatsoulis%2C+G.A.&amp;rft.date=April+2012&amp;rft.pub=National+Cancer+Institute&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130216034021%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fcabig.nci.nih.gov%2FNCIP-launch-meeting&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cancer_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ManoCIEurope-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ManoCIEurope_9-0\">9.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ManoCIEurope_9-1\">9.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Tsiknakis, M.&#32;(2008).&#32;\"The European cancer informatics landscape: Challenges for the biomedical informatics community\".&#32;<i>8th IEEE International Conference on BioInformatics and BioEngineering, 2008<\/i>: 1\u20137.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1109%2FBIBE.2008.4696649\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/BIBE.2008.4696649<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+European+cancer+informatics+landscape%3A+Challenges+for+the+biomedical+informatics+community&amp;rft.jtitle=8th+IEEE+International+Conference+on+BioInformatics+and+BioEngineering%2C+2008&amp;rft.aulast=Tsiknakis%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Tsiknakis%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.pages=1%E2%80%937&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1109%2FBIBE.2008.4696649&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cancer_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ACGTCordis-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ACGTCordis_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cordis.europa.eu\/project\/id\/026996\" target=\"_blank\">\"Advancing Clinico-Genomic Trials on Cancer: Open Grid Services for Improving Medical Knowledge Discovery\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>CORDIS<\/i>.&#32;Publications Office of the European Union.&#32;7 October 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cordis.europa.eu\/project\/id\/026996\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cordis.europa.eu\/project\/id\/026996<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Advancing+Clinico-Genomic+Trials+on+Cancer%3A+Open+Grid+Services+for+Improving+Medical+Knowledge+Discovery&amp;rft.atitle=CORDIS&amp;rft.date=7+October+2014&amp;rft.pub=Publications+Office+of+the+European+Union&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcordis.europa.eu%2Fproject%2Fid%2F026996&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cancer_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ACGTArch1-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ACGTArch1_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110107201922\/http:\/\/eu-acgt.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ACGT: Advancing Clinico Genomic Trials\"<\/a>.&#32;European Commission Information Society and Media.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eu-acgt.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 07 January 2011<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110107201922\/http:\/\/eu-acgt.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110107201922\/http:\/\/eu-acgt.org\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 12 January 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ACGT%3A+Advancing+Clinico+Genomic+Trials&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=European+Commission+Information+Society+and+Media&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20110107201922%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Feu-acgt.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cancer_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-myGridAbout-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-myGridAbout_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mygrid.org.uk\/about-us\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"myGrid: About us\"<\/a>.&#32;myGrid<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mygrid.org.uk\/about-us\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.mygrid.org.uk\/about-us\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=myGrid%3A+About+us&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=myGrid&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mygrid.org.uk%2Fabout-us%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cancer_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CGHAwards-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CGHAwards_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Trimble, T.&#32;(23 June 2014).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cancer.gov\/about-nci\/organization\/cgh\/blog\/2014\/2013-cgh-awardees\" target=\"_blank\">\"2013 Awardees: Request for Proposals for Pilot Collaborations with Low- and Mid-Income Countries (LMICs) in Global Cancer Research or Global Health Research at NCI-Designated Cancer Centers\"<\/a>.&#32;National Cancer Institute<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cancer.gov\/about-nci\/organization\/cgh\/blog\/2014\/2013-cgh-awardees\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cancer.gov\/about-nci\/organization\/cgh\/blog\/2014\/2013-cgh-awardees<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=2013+Awardees%3A+Request+for+Proposals+for+Pilot+Collaborations+with+Low-+and+Mid-Income+Countries+%28LMICs%29+in+Global+Cancer+Research+or+Global+Health+Research+at+NCI-Designated+Cancer+Centers&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Trimble%2C+T.&amp;rft.au=Trimble%2C+T.&amp;rft.date=23+June+2014&amp;rft.pub=National+Cancer+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancer.gov%2Fabout-nci%2Forganization%2Fcgh%2Fblog%2F2014%2F2013-cgh-awardees&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cancer_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110141034\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.182 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.212 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cancer_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cancer_informatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","b665bf61e7903152714531827699ad0d_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/95\/In-Silico-Gene-Prioritization-by-Integrating-Multiple-Data-Sources-pone.0021137.g005.jpg"],"b665bf61e7903152714531827699ad0d_timestamp":1704906976,"8f506695fdbb26e3f314da308f8c053b_type":"article","8f506695fdbb26e3f314da308f8c053b_title":"Bioinformatics","8f506695fdbb26e3f314da308f8c053b_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bioinformatics","8f506695fdbb26e3f314da308f8c053b_plaintext":"\n\nBioinformaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search Female laboratory technician sitting at computer that displays a microarray; DNA microarray technology aids in gene expression analysis and other bioinformatics functions.\nBioinformatics is the application of computer science and information technology to the field of biology, with a primary goal of understanding biological processes. What sets it apart from other approaches, however, is its focus on developing and applying computationally intensive techniques (e.g., pattern recognition, data mining, machine learning algorithms, and visualization) to achieve this goal. Major research efforts in the field include sequence alignment, gene finding, genome assembly, drug design, drug discovery, protein structure alignment, protein structure prediction, prediction of gene expression and protein\u2013protein interactions, genome-wide association studies, and the modeling of evolution.&#91;1&#93;&#91;2&#93;\nThe term \"bioinformatics\" was coined by Paulien Hogeweg and Ben Hesper in 1978 for \"the study of informatic processes in biotic systems.\"&#91;3&#93;&#91;4&#93; Its primary use since at least the late 1980s has been in genomics and genetics, particularly in those areas of genomics involving large-scale DNA sequencing. However, rapid developments in genomic, molecular research, and information technologies have combined to produce a tremendous amount of information related to molecular and other types of biology. Bioinformatics now entails the creation and advancement of databases, algorithms, computational, and statistical techniques and theory to solve formal and practical problems arising from the management and analysis of biological data.\nCommon activities in bioinformatics include mapping and analyzing DNA and protein sequences, aligning different DNA and protein sequences to compare them, and creating and viewing 3-D models of protein structures.\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Bioinformatics vs. computational biology \n3 Major research areas \n\n3.1 Sequence analysis \n3.2 Gene expression analysis \n3.3 Regulation analysis \n3.4 Protein expression analysis \n3.5 Cancer mutation analysis \n3.6 Genome annotation \n3.7 Comparative and computational genomics \n3.8 Biological systems modeling \n3.9 Computational evolutionary biology \n3.10 Literature analysis \n\n\n4 Structural bioinformatic approaches \n\n4.1 Prediction of protein structure \n4.2 Molecular Interaction \n\n4.2.1 Docking algorithms \n\n\n\n\n5 Software and tools \n\n5.1 Open source bioinformatics software \n5.2 Web services in bioinformatics \n\n\n6 Further reading \n7 External links \n8 Notes \n9 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nArguably one of the first \"bioinformatics\" projects\u2014though the concept didn't yet exist\u2014involved the 1965 creation and maintenance of a protein sequence database called the Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure by Margaret O. Dayhoff, Richard V. Eck, and Robert S. Ledley. The work grew out of their \"biochemical investigation of the relations between the structures and function of proteins and the theoretical attempt to decipher the genetic code.\"&#91;2&#93;&#91;5&#93; Six years later, the Brookhaven National Laboratory and the Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre jointly created the Protein Data Bank, intended as a public database of three-dimensional protein structures. \nThe work at Brookhaven would go on to influence others in the field to contribute, with 23 structures contributed in 1976, breaking 5,000 by the end of 1996 and 40,000 in 2006.&#91;2&#93;&#91;6&#93; The significant growth in contributions was fueled by several events, including: Peter Y. Chou and Gerald D. Fasman's 1974 creation (and later, refinement) of a protein structure prediction algorithm&#91;7&#93;&#91;8&#93;&#91;9&#93;; David J. Lipman and William R. Pearson's 1985 development (and later, refinement) of FASTP (later FASTA)&#91;10&#93;&#91;11&#93; as well as Stephen Altschul and company's 1990 development and refinement of BLAST&#91;12&#93;, both database sequence searching algorithms and programs; and the formal start of the Human Genome Project in 1990.&#91;2&#93;\nA flurry of genome studies went on to produce unprecedented amounts of biological data, creating a sudden demand for rapid and efficient computational tools to manage and analyze the data. \"The development of these computational tools depended on knowledge generated from a wide range of disciplines including mathematics, statistics, computer science, information technology, and molecular biology.\"&#91;2&#93; The merger of these disciplines largely went on to form what is now known as bioinformatics.\n\nBioinformatics vs. computational biology \nIn order to study how normal cellular activities are altered in different disease states, biological data must be combined to form a comprehensive picture of these activities. Therefore, the field of bioinformatics has evolved such that the most pressing task now involves the analysis and interpretation of various types of data, including nucleotide and amino acid sequences, protein domains, and protein structures. However, the related field of computational biology differs slightly from bioinformatics. Jin Xiong, author of Essential Bioinformatics, describes the differences between the two as such&#91;2&#93;:\n\n\nBioinformatics is limited to sequence, structural, and functional analysis of genes and genomes and their corresponding products and is often considered computational molecular biology. However, computational biology encompasses all biological areas that involve computation. For example, mathematical modeling of ecosystems, population dynamics, application of the game theory in behavioral studies, and phylogenetic construction using fossil records all employ computational tools, but do not necessarily involve biological macromolecules.\nMajor research areas \nSequence analysis \nSince the Phage \u03a6-X174 was sequenced in 1977,&#91;13&#93; the DNA sequences of thousands of organisms have been decoded and stored in databases. This sequence information is analyzed to determine genes that encode polypeptides (proteins), RNA genes, regulatory sequences, structural motifs, and repetitive sequences. A comparison of genes within a species or between different species can show similarities between protein functions, or relations between species (the use of molecular systematics to construct phylogenetic trees). With the growing amount of data, it long ago became impractical to analyze DNA sequences manually. Today, computer programs such as BLAST are used daily to search sequences from more than 260,000 organisms, containing over 190 billion nucleotides.&#91;14&#93; These programs can compensate for mutations (exchanged, deleted, or inserted bases) in the DNA sequence, to identify sequences that are related, but not identical. A variant of this sequence alignment is used in the sequencing process itself. The so-called shotgun sequencing technique\u2014which was used, for example, by The Institute for Genomic Research to sequence the first bacterial genome, Haemophilus influenzae&#91;15&#93;\u2014does not produce entire chromosomes, but instead generates the sequences of many thousands of small DNA fragments (ranging from 35 to 900 nucleotides long, depending on the sequencing technology). The ends of these fragments overlap and, when aligned properly by a genome assembly program, can be used to reconstruct the complete genome. Shotgun sequencing yields sequence data quickly, but the task of assembling the fragments can be quite complicated for larger genomes. For a genome as large as the human genome, it may take many days of CPU time on large-memory, multiprocessor computers to assemble the fragments, and the resulting assembly will usually contain numerous gaps that have to be filled in later. Shotgun sequencing is the method of choice for virtually all genomes sequenced today, and genome assembly algorithms are a critical area of bioinformatics research.\nAnother aspect of bioinformatics in sequence analysis is annotation, which involves computational gene finding to search for protein-coding genes, RNA genes, and other functional sequences within a genome. Not all of the nucleotides within a genome are part of genes. Within the genome of higher organisms, large parts of the DNA do not serve any obvious purpose. This so-called junk DNA may, however, contain unrecognized functional elements. Bioinformatics helps to bridge the gap between genome and proteome projects, as in the use of DNA sequences for protein identification.\n\nGene expression analysis \nThe expression of many genes can be determined by measuring mRNA levels with multiple techniques including microarrays, expressed cDNA sequence tag (EST) sequencing, serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) tag sequencing, massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS), RNA-Seq (also known as \"Whole Transcriptome Shotgun Sequencing\" (WTSS)), or various applications of multiplexed in-situ hybridization. All of these techniques are extremely noise-prone and\/or subject to bias in the biological measurement, and a major research area in computational biology involves developing statistical tools to separate signal from noise in high-throughput gene expression studies.&#91;16&#93;&#91;17&#93; Such studies are often used to determine the genes implicated in a disorder: one might compare microarray data from cancerous epithelial cells to data from non-cancerous cells to determine the transcripts that are up-regulated and down-regulated in a particular population of cancer cells.\n\nRegulation analysis \nRegulation is the complex orchestration of events starting with an extracellular signal such as a hormone and leading to an increase or decrease in the activity of one or more proteins. Bioinformatics techniques have been applied to explore various steps in this process. For example, promoter analysis involves the identification and study of sequence motifs in the DNA surrounding the coding region of a gene. These motifs influence the extent to which that region is transcribed into mRNA. Expression data can be used to infer gene regulation: one might compare microarray data from a wide variety of states of an organism to form hypotheses about the genes involved in each state. In a single-cell organism, one might compare stages of the cell cycle, along with various stress conditions (heat shock, starvation, etc.). One can then apply clustering algorithms to that expression data to determine which genes are co-expressed. For example, the upstream regions (promoters) of co-expressed genes can be searched for over-represented regulatory elements.&#91;17&#93;\n\nProtein expression analysis \nProtein microarrays and high-throughput mass spectrometry can provide a snapshot of the proteins present in a biological sample. Bioinformatics is very much involved in making sense of protein microarray and mass spectrometry data; the former approach faces similar problems as with microarrays targeted at mRNA, the latter involves the problem of matching large amounts of mass data against predicted masses from protein sequence databases, and the complicated statistical analysis of samples where multiple, but incomplete peptides from each protein are detected.&#91;18&#93;\n\nCancer mutation analysis \nIn cancer, the genomes of affected cells are rearranged in complex or even unpredictable ways. Massive sequencing efforts are used to identify previously unknown point mutations in a variety of genes in cancer. Bioinformaticians continue to produce specialized automated systems to manage the sheer volume of sequence data produced, and they create new algorithms and software to compare the sequencing results to the growing collection of human genome sequences and germline polymorphisms. New physical detection technologies are employed, such as oligonucleotide microarrays to identify chromosomal gains and losses (called comparative genomic hybridization), and single-nucleotide polymorphism arrays to detect known point mutations.&#91;19&#93; These detection methods simultaneously measure several hundred thousand sites throughout the genome, and when used in high-throughput to measure thousands of samples, generate terabytes of data per experiment. The data is often found to contain considerable variability, or noise, and thus hidden Markov model and change-point analysis methods are being developed to infer real copy number changes.\n\nGenome annotation \nIn the context of genomics, annotation is the process of marking the genes and other biological features in a DNA sequence. The first genome annotation software system was designed in 1995 by Dr. Owen White, who was part of the team at The Institute for Genomic Research that sequenced and analyzed the first genome of a free-living organism to be decoded, the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae. Dr. White built a software system to find the genes (places in the DNA sequence that encode a protein), the transfer RNA, and other features, and to make initial assignments of function to those genes.&#91;15&#93; Most current genome annotation systems work similarly, but the programs available for analysis of genomic DNA are constantly changing and improving.\n\nComparative and computational genomics \nThe core of comparative genome analysis is the establishment of the correspondence between genes (orthology analysis) or other genomic features in different organisms. It is these intergenomic maps that make it possible to trace the evolutionary processes responsible for the divergence of two genomes. A multitude of evolutionary events acting at various organizational levels shape genome evolution. At the lowest level, point mutations affect individual nucleotides. At a higher level, large chromosomal segments undergo duplication, lateral transfer, inversion, transposition, deletion and insertion. Ultimately, whole genomes are involved in processes of hybridization, polyploidization and endosymbiosis, often leading to rapid speciation. The complexity of genome evolution poses many exciting challenges to developers of mathematical models and algorithms, who have recourse to a spectra of algorithmic, statistical, and mathematical techniques. Examples range from exact, heuristics, fixed-parameter, and approximation algorithms for problems based on parsimony models to Markov Chain Monte Carlo algorithms for Bayesian analysis of problems based on probabilistic models.&#91;20&#93;\n\nBiological systems modeling \nSystems biology involves the use of computer simulations of cellular subsystems (such as the networks of metabolites and enzymes which comprise metabolism, signal transduction pathways, and gene regulatory networks) to both analyze and visualize the complex connections of these cellular processes. Artificial life or virtual evolution attempts to understand evolutionary processes via the computer simulation of simple (artificial) life forms.\n\nComputational evolutionary biology \nEvolutionary biology is the study of the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time. Informatics has assisted evolutionary biologists in several key ways, enabling researchers to&#91;21&#93;:\n\ntrace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their DNA, rather than through physical taxonomy or physiological observations alone.\ncompare entire genomes, which permits the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as gene duplication, horizontal gene transfer, and the prediction of factors important in bacterial speciation.\nbuild complex computational models of populations to predict the outcome of the system over time.\ntrack and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organisms.\nThe area of research within computer science that uses genetic algorithms is sometimes confused with computational evolutionary biology, but the two areas are not necessarily related.\n\nLiterature analysis \nThe sheer amount of published literature makes it virtually impossible to read every paper, resulting in disjointed subfields of research. Literature analysis aims to employ computational and statistical linguistics to mine this growing library of text resources. For example:\n\nabbreviation recognition - identify the long-form and abbreviation of biological terms\nnamed entity recognition - recognizing biological terms such as gene names\nprotein-protein interaction - identify which proteins interact with which proteins from text\nThe area of research uses statistics and computational linguistics, and is substantially influenced by them.\n\nStructural bioinformatic approaches \nPrediction of protein structure \n The idealized evolution of a gene lines is shown from a common ancestor in an ancestral population, descending to three populations labeled A, B, and C. There are two speciation events, each occurring at the junctions shown as an upside down Y. There are also two gene-duplication events, depicted by a horizontal bar.\nProtein structure prediction is another important application of bioinformatics. The amino acid sequence of a protein, the so-called primary structure, can be easily determined from the sequence on the gene that codes for it. In the vast majority of cases, this primary structure uniquely determines a structure in its native environment. (Of course, there are exceptions, such as the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (a.k.a. Mad Cow Disease) prion.) Knowledge of this structure is vital in understanding the function of the protein. For lack of better terms, structural information is usually classified as one of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure. A viable general solution to such predictions remains an open problem. As of now, most efforts have been directed towards heuristics that work most of the time.&#91;20&#93;\nOne of the key ideas in bioinformatics is the notion of homology. In the genomic branch of bioinformatics, homology is used to predict the function of a gene: if the sequence of gene A, whose function is known, is homologous to the sequence of gene B, whose function is unknown, one could infer that B may share A's function. In the structural branch of bioinformatics, homology is used to determine which parts of a protein are important in structure formation and interaction with other proteins. In a technique called homology modeling, this information is used to predict the structure of a protein once the structure of a homologous protein is known. This currently remains the only way to predict protein structures reliably.&#91;20&#93;\nOne example of this is the similar protein homology between hemoglobin in humans and the hemoglobin in legumes (leghemoglobin). Both serve the same purpose of transporting oxygen in the organism. Though both of these proteins have completely different amino acid sequences, their protein structures are virtually identical, which reflects their near identical purposes.\n\nMolecular Interaction \nEfficient software is available today for studying interactions among proteins, ligands, and peptides. Types of interactions most often encountered in the field include protein\u2013ligand (including drug), protein\u2013protein and protein\u2013peptide.\nMolecular dynamic simulation of movement of atoms about rotatable bonds is the fundamental principle behind computational algorithms, termed docking algorithms for studying molecular interactions.\n\nDocking algorithms \nIn the last two decades, tens of thousands of protein three-dimensional structures have been determined by X-ray crystallography and protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (protein NMR). One central question for the biological scientist is whether it is practical to predict possible protein\u2013protein interactions only based on these 3D shapes, without doing protein\u2013protein interaction experiments.&#91;20&#93; A variety of methods have been developed to tackle the protein\u2013protein docking problem, though it seems that there is still much work to be done in this field.\n\nSoftware and tools \nSoftware tools for bioinformatics range from simple command-line tools to more complex graphical programs and standalone web-services available from various bioinformatics companies or public institutions.\n\nOpen source bioinformatics software \nMany free and open-source bioinformatics software tools have existed since the 1980s.&#91;22&#93; The combination of a continued need for new algorithms for the analysis of emerging types of biological readouts, the potential for innovative in silico experiments, and freely available open code bases have helped to create opportunities for all research groups to contribute to both bioinformatics and the range of open-source software available, regardless of their funding arrangements. In order to maintain this tradition and create further opportunities, the non-profit Open Bioinformatics Foundation have supported the annual Bioinformatics Open Source Conference (BOSC) since 2000.&#91;23&#93;\n\nWeb services in bioinformatics \nSOAP and REST-based interfaces have been developed for a wide variety of bioinformatics applications, allowing an application running on one computer in one part of the world to use algorithms, data, and computing resources on servers in other parts of the world. The main advantages derive from the fact that end users do not have to deal with software and database maintenance overheads.\nBasic bioinformatics services are classified by the European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI) into numerous categories, including ontologies, structures, gene expression, proteins, etc. The availability of these service-oriented bioinformatics resources demonstrate the applicability of web-based bioinformatics solutions, and range from a collection of standalone tools with a common data format under a single, standalone, or web-based interface, to integrative, distributed, and extensible bioinformatics workflow management systems.&#91;24&#93;\n\nFurther reading \nJones, N.C.; Pevzner, P.A.&#32;(2004).&#32;An Introduction to Bioinformatics Algorithms.&#32;MIT Press.&#32;pp.&#160;435.&#32;ISBN&#160;0262101068.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=p_qzpkNVcUwC . &#160; \nLesk, A.&#32;(2008).&#32;Introduction to Bioinformatics&#32;(3rd ed.).&#32;OUP Oxford.&#32;pp.&#160;474.&#32;ISBN&#160;0199208042.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=et5qQgAACAAJ . &#160; \nXiong, J.&#32;(2006).&#32;Essential Bioinformatics.&#32;Cambridge University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;339.&#32;ISBN&#160;113945062X.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AFsu7_goA8kC . &#160; \n\r\n\n\nExternal links \nThe Bioinformatics Organization\nEMBnet\nOpen Bioinformatics Foundation\nNotes \nSome elements of this article are reused from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Polanski, Andrzej&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Introduction\".&#32;Bioinformatics.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u20139.&#32;ISBN&#160;3540241663.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=oZbR3GEdmVMC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Xiong, Jin&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Chapter 1: Introduction\".&#32;Essential Bioinformatics.&#32;Cambridge University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u20139.&#32;ISBN&#160;113945062X.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AFsu7_goA8kC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Hogeweg, Pauline&#32;(September 1978).&#32;\"Simulating the growth of cellular forms\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Simulation&#32;31&#32;(3): 90\u201396.&#32;doi:10.1177\/003754977803100305.&#32;https:\/\/tbb.bio.uu.nl\/pdf\/Hogeweg78.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Hogeweg, P.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"The Roots of Bioinformatics in Theoretical Biology\".&#32;PLOS Computational Biology&#32;7&#32;(3).&#32;doi:10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1002021.&#32;PMID&#160;21483479. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Strasser, B.J.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Collecting, Comparing, and Computing Sequences: The Making of Margaret O. Dayhoff\u2019s Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure, 1954\u20131965\".&#32;Journal of the History of Biology&#32;43&#32;(4): 623\u2013660.&#32;doi:10.1007\/s10739-009-9221-0.&#32;PMID&#160;20665074. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Berman, H.M.&#32;(January 2008).&#32;\"The Protein Data Bank: a historical perspective\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Acta crystallographica. Section A, Foundations of crystallography&#32;64&#32;(1): 88\u201395.&#32;PMID&#160;18156675.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 25 February 2016.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160225014129\/http:\/\/www.ebi.ac.uk\/msd\/embo08\/pdf\/pdb_history.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Chou, Peter Y,; Fasman, Gerald D.&#32;(1974).&#32;\"Prediction of protein conformation\".&#32;Biochemistry&#32;13&#32;(2): 222\u2013245.&#32;doi:10.1021\/bi00699a002.&#32;PMID&#160;4358940. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Chou, Peter Y,; Fasman, Gerald D.&#32;(1978).&#32;\"Empirical predictions of protein conformation\".&#32;Annu Rev Biochem&#32;47: 251\u2013276.&#32;doi:10.1146\/annurev.bi.47.070178.001343.&#32;PMID&#160;354496. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Chou, Peter Y,; Fasman, Gerald D.&#32;(1978).&#32;\"Prediction of the secondary structure of proteins from their amino acid sequence\".&#32;Adv Enzymol Relat Areas Mol Biol&#32;47: 45\u2013148.&#32;PMID&#160;364941. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Lipman, David J.; Pearson, William R.&#32;(1985).&#32;\"Rapid and sensitive protein similarity searches\".&#32;Science&#32;227&#32;(4693): 1435\u201341.&#32;doi:10.1126\/science.2983426.&#32;PMID&#160;2983426. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Lipman, David J.; Pearson, William R.&#32;(1988).&#32;\"Improved tools for biological sequence comparison\".&#32;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America&#32;85&#32;(8): 2444\u20138.&#32;doi:10.1073\/pnas.85.8.2444.&#32;PMC&#160;280013.&#32;PMID&#160;3162770.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=280013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Altschul, Stephen; Gish, Warren; Miller, Webb; Myers, Eugene; Lipman, David&#32;(1990).&#32;\"Basic local alignment search tool\".&#32;Journal of Molecular Biology&#32;215&#32;(3): 403\u2013410.&#32;doi:10.1016\/S0022-2836(05)80360-2.&#32;PMID&#160;2231712. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Sanger, F.; Air, G.M.; Barrell, B.G.; Brown, N.L.; Coulson, A.R.; Fiddes, C.A.; Hutchison, C.A.,; Slocombe, P.M.; Smith, M.&#32;(February 1977).&#32;\"Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA\".&#32;Nature&#32;265&#32;(5596): 687\u201395.&#32;doi:10.1038\/265687a0.&#32;PMID&#160;870828. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Benson, D.A.; Karsch-Mizrachi, I.; Lipman, D.J.; Ostell, J.; Wheeler, D.L.&#32;(January 2008).&#32;\"GenBank\".&#32;Nucleic Acids Res.&#32;36&#32;(Database issue): D25\u201330.&#32;doi:10.1093\/nar\/gkm929.&#32;PMC&#160;2238942.&#32;PMID&#160;18073190.&#32;http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=2238942 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 15.0 15.1 Fleischmann, R.D.; Adams, M.D.; White, O.; Clayton, R.A.; Kirkness, E.F.; Kerlavage, A.R.; Bult, C.J.; Tomb, J.F.; Dougherty, B.A.; Merrick, J.M.&#32;(July 1995).&#32;\"Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of Haemophilus influenzae Rd\".&#32;Science&#32;269&#32;(5223): 496\u2013512.&#32;doi:10.1126\/science.7542800.&#32;PMID&#160;7542800. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Zhang, Aidong&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of Molecular Biology\".&#32;Advanced Analysis of Gene Expression Microarray Data.&#32;World Scientific.&#32;pp.&#160;13\u201330.&#32;ISBN&#160;9812566457.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6QLCJQ25VUwC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 17.0 17.1 Ginsberg, S.D.; Mirnies, K.; Hemby, Scott E. (ed.); Bahn, Sabine (ed.)&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Chapter 2: Functional genomic methodologies\".&#32;Functional Genomics and Proteomics in the Clinical Neurosciences.&#32;Elsevier.&#32;pp.&#160;15\u201340.&#32;ISBN&#160;0080465633.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6FcXuAvjFqYC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Tannu, N.S.; Hemby, Scott E.; Bahn, Sabine (ed.)&#32;(2006).&#32;\"Chapter 3: Methods for proteomics in neuroscience\".&#32;Functional Genomics and Proteomics in the Clinical Neurosciences.&#32;Elsevier.&#32;pp.&#160;41\u201382.&#32;ISBN&#160;0080465633.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6FcXuAvjFqYC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Kim, Il-Jin; Kang, Hio Chung; Park, Jae-Gahb; Hardiman, Gary (ed.)&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Chapter 16: Development of an Oligonucleotide Microarray for Mutational Analysis Using Single or Multiple Sample Hybridization\".&#32;Microarray Innovations: Technology and Experimentation.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;244\u2013257.&#32;ISBN&#160;1420094513.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=88KBSMq3ClgC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Mushegian, Arcady R.&#32;(2010).&#32;Foundations of Comparative Genomics.&#32;Academic Press.&#32;pp.&#160;280.&#32;ISBN&#160;0080546099.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cbKW-WCLSfAC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Fogel, Gary B.; Corne, David W.;&#32;(2003).&#32;\"Chapter 2: An Introduction to Evolutionary Computation for Biologists\".&#32;Evolutionary Computation in Bioinformatics.&#32;Morgan Kaufmann.&#32;pp.&#160;19\u201338.&#32;ISBN&#160;1558607978.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Jtj7NpO9F_gC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Open Bioinformatics Foundation: Projects\".&#32;Open Bioinformatics Foundation.&#32;https:\/\/www.open-bio.org\/wiki\/Projects .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Open Bioinformatics Foundation: BOSC\".&#32;Open Bioinformatics Foundation.&#32;https:\/\/www.open-bio.org\/events\/bosc\/ .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Welcome to EMBL-EBI\".&#32;EMBL-EBI.&#32;https:\/\/www.ebi.ac.uk\/about .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bioinformatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bioinformatics<\/a>\nCategories: InformaticsLife sciences industryNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 17 September 2022, at 19:29.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 58,824 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","8f506695fdbb26e3f314da308f8c053b_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Bioinformatics rootpage-Bioinformatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Bioinformatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Computer_with_microarray.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5343e6e42063b30f888fab63f5b3929\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0a\/Computer_with_microarray.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Computer_with_microarray.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"f5343e6e42063b30f888fab63f5b3929\"><\/a><\/div>Female laboratory technician sitting at computer that displays a microarray; DNA microarray technology aids in gene expression analysis and other bioinformatics functions.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Bioinformatics<\/b> is the application of computer science and information technology to the field of biology, with a primary goal of understanding biological processes. What sets it apart from other approaches, however, is its focus on developing and applying computationally intensive techniques (e.g., pattern recognition, data mining, machine learning algorithms, and visualization) to achieve this goal. Major research efforts in the field include sequence alignment, gene finding, genome assembly, drug design, drug discovery, protein structure alignment, protein structure prediction, prediction of gene expression and protein\u2013protein interactions, genome-wide association studies, and the modeling of evolution.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BioInfoPolanski_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BioInfoPolanski-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EssBioInfo_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EssBioInfo-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The term \"bioinformatics\" was coined by Paulien Hogeweg and Ben Hesper in 1978 for \"the study of informatic processes in biotic systems.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SimGrowth_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SimGrowth-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RootsBio_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RootsBio-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Its primary use since at least the late 1980s has been in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Genomics\" title=\"Genomics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a82dabf51cf9510dd00c5a03396c44\">genomics<\/a> and genetics, particularly in those areas of genomics involving large-scale <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/DNA_sequencing\" title=\"DNA sequencing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ff86b38049c37e30858efd13bd00925\">DNA sequencing<\/a>. However, rapid developments in genomic, molecular research, and information technologies have combined to produce a tremendous amount of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> related to molecular and other types of biology. Bioinformatics now entails the creation and advancement of databases, algorithms, computational, and statistical techniques and theory to solve formal and practical problems arising from the management and analysis of biological data.\n<\/p><p>Common activities in bioinformatics include mapping and analyzing DNA and protein sequences, aligning different DNA and protein sequences to compare them, and creating and viewing 3-D models of protein structures.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Arguably one of the first \"bioinformatics\" projects\u2014though the concept didn't yet exist\u2014involved the 1965 creation and maintenance of a protein sequence database called the <i>Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure<\/i> by Margaret O. Dayhoff, Richard V. Eck, and Robert S. Ledley. The work grew out of their \"biochemical investigation of the relations between the structures and function of proteins and the theoretical attempt to decipher the genetic code.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EssBioInfo_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EssBioInfo-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CCCAtlas_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CCCAtlas-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Six years later, the Brookhaven National Laboratory and the Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre jointly created the Protein Data Bank, intended as a public database of three-dimensional protein structures. \n<\/p><p>The work at Brookhaven would go on to influence others in the field to contribute, with 23 structures contributed in 1976, breaking 5,000 by the end of 1996 and 40,000 in 2006.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EssBioInfo_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EssBioInfo-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PDBHist_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PDBHist-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The significant growth in contributions was fueled by several events, including: Peter Y. Chou and Gerald D. Fasman's 1974 creation (and later, refinement) of a protein structure prediction algorithm<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChouPred1_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChouPred1-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChouPred2_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChouPred2-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChouPred3_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChouPred3-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>; David J. Lipman and William R. Pearson's 1985 development (and later, refinement) of FASTP (later FASTA)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RapSenProt_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RapSenProt-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ImpToolBio_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ImpToolBio-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup> as well as Stephen Altschul and company's 1990 development and refinement of BLAST<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BLAST_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BLAST-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, both database sequence searching algorithms and programs; and the formal start of the Human Genome Project in 1990.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EssBioInfo_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EssBioInfo-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A flurry of genome studies went on to produce unprecedented amounts of biological data, creating a sudden demand for rapid and efficient computational tools to manage and analyze the data. \"The development of these computational tools depended on knowledge generated from a wide range of disciplines including mathematics, statistics, computer science, information technology, and molecular biology.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EssBioInfo_2-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EssBioInfo-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The merger of these disciplines largely went on to form what is now known as bioinformatics.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bioinformatics_vs._computational_biology\">Bioinformatics vs. computational biology<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In order to study how normal cellular activities are altered in different disease states, biological data must be combined to form a comprehensive picture of these activities. Therefore, the field of bioinformatics has evolved such that the most pressing task now involves the analysis and interpretation of various types of data, including nucleotide and amino acid sequences, protein domains, and protein structures. However, the related field of computational biology differs slightly from bioinformatics. Jin Xiong, author of <i>Essential Bioinformatics<\/i>, describes the differences between the two as such<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EssBioInfo_2-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EssBioInfo-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>\nBioinformatics is limited to sequence, structural, and functional analysis of genes and genomes and their corresponding products and is often considered computational molecular biology. However, computational biology encompasses all biological areas that involve computation. For example, mathematical modeling of ecosystems, population dynamics, application of the game theory in behavioral studies, and phylogenetic construction using fossil records all employ computational tools, but do not necessarily involve biological macromolecules.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Major_research_areas\">Major research areas<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sequence_analysis\">Sequence analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Since the Phage \u03a6-X174 was sequenced in 1977,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-pmid870828_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid870828-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup> the DNA sequences of thousands of organisms have been decoded and stored in databases. This sequence information is analyzed to determine genes that encode polypeptides (proteins), RNA genes, regulatory sequences, structural motifs, and repetitive sequences. A comparison of genes within a species or between different species can show similarities between protein functions, or relations between species (the use of molecular systematics to construct phylogenetic trees). With the growing amount of data, it long ago became impractical to analyze DNA sequences manually. Today, computer programs such as BLAST are used daily to search sequences from more than 260,000 organisms, containing over 190 billion nucleotides.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-pmid18073190_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid18073190-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> These programs can compensate for mutations (exchanged, deleted, or inserted bases) in the DNA sequence, to identify sequences that are related, but not identical. A variant of this sequence alignment is used in the sequencing process itself. The so-called shotgun sequencing technique\u2014which was used, for example, by The Institute for Genomic Research to sequence the first bacterial genome, <i>Haemophilus influenzae<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-pmid7542800_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid7542800-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\u2014does not produce entire chromosomes, but instead generates the sequences of many thousands of small DNA fragments (ranging from 35 to 900 nucleotides long, depending on the sequencing technology). The ends of these fragments overlap and, when aligned properly by a genome assembly program, can be used to reconstruct the complete genome. Shotgun sequencing yields sequence data quickly, but the task of assembling the fragments can be quite complicated for larger genomes. For a genome as large as the human genome, it may take many days of CPU time on large-memory, multiprocessor computers to assemble the fragments, and the resulting assembly will usually contain numerous gaps that have to be filled in later. Shotgun sequencing is the method of choice for virtually all genomes sequenced today, and genome assembly algorithms are a critical area of bioinformatics research.\n<\/p><p>Another aspect of bioinformatics in sequence analysis is annotation, which involves computational gene finding to search for protein-coding genes, RNA genes, and other functional sequences within a genome. Not all of the nucleotides within a genome are part of genes. Within the genome of higher organisms, large parts of the DNA do not serve any obvious purpose. This so-called junk DNA may, however, contain unrecognized functional elements. Bioinformatics helps to bridge the gap between genome and proteome projects, as in the use of DNA sequences for protein identification.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Gene_expression_analysis\">Gene expression analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The expression of many genes can be determined by measuring mRNA levels with multiple techniques including microarrays, expressed cDNA sequence tag (EST) sequencing, serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) tag sequencing, massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS), RNA-Seq (also known as \"Whole Transcriptome Shotgun Sequencing\" (WTSS)), or various applications of multiplexed in-situ hybridization. All of these techniques are extremely noise-prone and\/or subject to bias in the biological measurement, and a major research area in computational biology involves developing statistical tools to separate signal from noise in high-throughput gene expression studies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AdvancedAnGene_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AdvancedAnGene-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FuncGeneProtC2_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FuncGeneProtC2-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Such studies are often used to determine the genes implicated in a disorder: one might compare microarray data from cancerous epithelial cells to data from non-cancerous cells to determine the transcripts that are up-regulated and down-regulated in a particular population of cancer cells.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regulation_analysis\">Regulation analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Regulation is the complex orchestration of events starting with an extracellular signal such as a hormone and leading to an increase or decrease in the activity of one or more proteins. Bioinformatics techniques have been applied to explore various steps in this process. For example, promoter analysis involves the identification and study of sequence motifs in the DNA surrounding the coding region of a gene. These motifs influence the extent to which that region is transcribed into mRNA. Expression data can be used to infer gene regulation: one might compare microarray data from a wide variety of states of an organism to form hypotheses about the genes involved in each state. In a single-cell organism, one might compare stages of the cell cycle, along with various stress conditions (heat shock, starvation, etc.). One can then apply clustering algorithms to that expression data to determine which genes are co-expressed. For example, the upstream regions (promoters) of co-expressed genes can be searched for over-represented regulatory elements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FuncGeneProtC2_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FuncGeneProtC2-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Protein_expression_analysis\">Protein expression analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Protein microarrays and high-throughput mass spectrometry can provide a snapshot of the proteins present in a biological sample. Bioinformatics is very much involved in making sense of protein microarray and mass spectrometry data; the former approach faces similar problems as with microarrays targeted at mRNA, the latter involves the problem of matching large amounts of mass data against predicted masses from protein sequence databases, and the complicated statistical analysis of samples where multiple, but incomplete peptides from each protein are detected.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FuncGeneProtC3_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FuncGeneProtC3-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cancer_mutation_analysis\">Cancer mutation analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In cancer, the genomes of affected cells are rearranged in complex or even unpredictable ways. Massive sequencing efforts are used to identify previously unknown point mutations in a variety of genes in cancer. Bioinformaticians continue to produce specialized automated systems to manage the sheer volume of sequence data produced, and they create new algorithms and software to compare the sequencing results to the growing collection of human genome sequences and germline polymorphisms. New physical detection technologies are employed, such as oligonucleotide microarrays to identify chromosomal gains and losses (called comparative genomic hybridization), and single-nucleotide polymorphism arrays to detect known <i>point mutations<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MicroInnovC16_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MicroInnovC16-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup> These detection methods simultaneously measure several hundred thousand sites throughout the genome, and when used in high-throughput to measure thousands of samples, generate terabytes of data per experiment. The data is often found to contain considerable variability, or noise, and thus hidden Markov model and change-point analysis methods are being developed to infer real copy number changes.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Genome_annotation\">Genome annotation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the context of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Genomics\" title=\"Genomics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a82dabf51cf9510dd00c5a03396c44\">genomics<\/a>, annotation is the process of marking the genes and other biological features in a DNA sequence. The first genome annotation software system was designed in 1995 by Dr. Owen White, who was part of the team at The Institute for Genomic Research that sequenced and analyzed the first genome of a free-living organism to be decoded, the bacterium <i>Haemophilus influenzae<\/i>. Dr. White built a software system to find the genes (places in the DNA sequence that encode a protein), the transfer RNA, and other features, and to make initial assignments of function to those genes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-pmid7542800_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pmid7542800-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Most current genome annotation systems work similarly, but the programs available for analysis of genomic DNA are constantly changing and improving.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Comparative_and_computational_genomics\">Comparative and computational genomics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The core of comparative genome analysis is the establishment of the correspondence between genes (orthology analysis) or other genomic features in different organisms. It is these intergenomic maps that make it possible to trace the evolutionary processes responsible for the divergence of two genomes. A multitude of evolutionary events acting at various organizational levels shape genome evolution. At the lowest level, point mutations affect individual nucleotides. At a higher level, large chromosomal segments undergo duplication, lateral transfer, inversion, transposition, deletion and insertion. Ultimately, whole genomes are involved in processes of hybridization, polyploidization and endosymbiosis, often leading to rapid speciation. The complexity of genome evolution poses many exciting challenges to developers of mathematical models and algorithms, who have recourse to a spectra of algorithmic, statistical, and mathematical techniques. Examples range from exact, heuristics, fixed-parameter, and approximation algorithms for problems based on parsimony models to Markov Chain Monte Carlo algorithms for Bayesian analysis of problems based on probabilistic models.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FoundCompGeno_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FoundCompGeno-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Biological_systems_modeling\">Biological systems modeling<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Systems biology involves the use of computer simulations of cellular subsystems (such as the networks of metabolites and enzymes which comprise metabolism, signal transduction pathways, and gene regulatory networks) to both analyze and visualize the complex connections of these cellular processes. Artificial life or virtual evolution attempts to understand evolutionary processes via the computer simulation of simple (artificial) life forms.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Computational_evolutionary_biology\">Computational evolutionary biology<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Evolutionary biology is the study of the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time. Informatics has assisted evolutionary biologists in several key ways, enabling researchers to<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EvCompBio_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EvCompBio-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>trace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their DNA, rather than through physical taxonomy or physiological observations alone.<\/li>\n<li>compare entire genomes, which permits the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as gene duplication, horizontal gene transfer, and the prediction of factors important in bacterial speciation.<\/li>\n<li>build complex computational models of populations to predict the outcome of the system over time.<\/li>\n<li>track and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organisms.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The area of research within computer science that uses genetic algorithms is sometimes confused with computational evolutionary biology, but the two areas are not necessarily related.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Literature_analysis\">Literature analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The sheer amount of published literature makes it virtually impossible to read every paper, resulting in disjointed subfields of research. Literature analysis aims to employ computational and statistical linguistics to mine this growing library of text resources. For example:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>abbreviation recognition - identify the long-form and abbreviation of biological terms<\/li>\n<li>named entity recognition - recognizing biological terms such as gene names<\/li>\n<li>protein-protein interaction - identify which proteins interact with which proteins from text<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The area of research uses statistics and computational linguistics, and is substantially influenced by them.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structural_bioinformatic_approaches\">Structural bioinformatic approaches<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Prediction_of_protein_structure\">Prediction of protein structure<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:262px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Gene-homology.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"512f1c9e5579e6d4409668820bc642c7\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/4e\/Gene-homology.svg\/260px-Gene-homology.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"260\" height=\"218\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Gene-homology.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"512f1c9e5579e6d4409668820bc642c7\"><\/a><\/div>The idealized evolution of a gene lines is shown from a common ancestor in an ancestral population, descending to three populations labeled A, B, and C. There are two speciation events, each occurring at the junctions shown as an upside down Y. There are also two gene-duplication events, depicted by a horizontal bar.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Protein structure prediction is another important application of bioinformatics. The amino acid sequence of a protein, the so-called primary structure, can be easily determined from the sequence on the gene that codes for it. In the vast majority of cases, this primary structure uniquely determines a structure in its native environment. (Of course, there are exceptions, such as the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (a.k.a. Mad Cow Disease) prion.) Knowledge of this structure is vital in understanding the function of the protein. For lack of better terms, structural information is usually classified as one of <i>secondary<\/i>, <i>tertiary<\/i>, and <i>quaternary<\/i> structure. A viable general solution to such predictions remains an open problem. As of now, most efforts have been directed towards heuristics that work most of the time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FoundCompGeno_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FoundCompGeno-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>One of the key ideas in bioinformatics is the notion of homology. In the genomic branch of bioinformatics, homology is used to predict the function of a gene: if the sequence of gene <i>A<\/i>, whose function is known, is homologous to the sequence of gene <i>B,<\/i> whose function is unknown, one could infer that B may share A's function. In the structural branch of bioinformatics, homology is used to determine which parts of a protein are important in structure formation and interaction with other proteins. In a technique called homology modeling, this information is used to predict the structure of a protein once the structure of a homologous protein is known. This currently remains the only way to predict protein structures reliably.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FoundCompGeno_20-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FoundCompGeno-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>One example of this is the similar protein homology between hemoglobin in humans and the hemoglobin in legumes (leghemoglobin). Both serve the same purpose of transporting oxygen in the organism. Though both of these proteins have completely different amino acid sequences, their protein structures are virtually identical, which reflects their near identical purposes.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Molecular_Interaction\">Molecular Interaction<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Efficient software is available today for studying interactions among proteins, ligands, and peptides. Types of interactions most often encountered in the field include protein\u2013ligand (including drug), protein\u2013protein and protein\u2013peptide.\n<\/p><p>Molecular dynamic simulation of movement of atoms about rotatable bonds is the fundamental principle behind computational algorithms, termed <b>docking algorithms<\/b> for studying molecular interactions.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Docking_algorithms\">Docking algorithms<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In the last two decades, tens of thousands of protein three-dimensional structures have been determined by X-ray crystallography and protein <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy\" title=\"Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a05c6a4eb8775761248c099371cdb82f\">nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy<\/a> (protein NMR). One central question for the biological scientist is whether it is practical to predict possible protein\u2013protein interactions only based on these 3D shapes, without doing protein\u2013protein interaction experiments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FoundCompGeno_20-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FoundCompGeno-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup> A variety of methods have been developed to tackle the protein\u2013protein docking problem, though it seems that there is still much work to be done in this field.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Software_and_tools\">Software and tools<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Software tools for bioinformatics range from simple command-line tools to more complex graphical programs and standalone web-services available from various bioinformatics companies or public institutions.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Open_source_bioinformatics_software\">Open source bioinformatics software<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Many free and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Category:Bioinformatics_software_(open_source)\" title=\"Category:Bioinformatics software (open source)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34832256008ec9c046e7b34e70576ce4\">open-source bioinformatics software<\/a> tools have existed since the 1980s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OBF-Main_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OBF-Main-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The combination of a continued need for new algorithms for the analysis of emerging types of biological readouts, the potential for innovative <i>in silico<\/i> experiments, and freely available open code bases have helped to create opportunities for all research groups to contribute to both bioinformatics and the range of open-source software available, regardless of their funding arrangements. In order to maintain this tradition and create further opportunities, the non-profit Open Bioinformatics Foundation have supported the annual Bioinformatics Open Source Conference (BOSC) since 2000.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OBF-bosc_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OBF-bosc-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Web_services_in_bioinformatics\">Web services in bioinformatics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>SOAP and REST-based interfaces have been developed for a wide variety of bioinformatics applications, allowing an application running on one computer in one part of the world to use algorithms, data, and computing resources on servers in other parts of the world. The main advantages derive from the fact that end users do not have to deal with software and database maintenance overheads.\n<\/p><p>Basic bioinformatics services are classified by the European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI) into numerous categories, including ontologies, structures, gene expression, proteins, etc. The availability of these service-oriented bioinformatics resources demonstrate the applicability of web-based bioinformatics solutions, and range from a collection of standalone tools with a common data format under a single, standalone, or web-based interface, to integrative, distributed, and extensible bioinformatics workflow management systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EBIAbout_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EBIAbout-24\">&#91;24&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Jones, N.C.; Pevzner, P.A.&#32;(2004).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=p_qzpkNVcUwC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>An Introduction to Bioinformatics Algorithms<\/i><\/a>.&#32;MIT Press.&#32;pp.&#160;435.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0262101068<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=p_qzpkNVcUwC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=p_qzpkNVcUwC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Bioinformatics+Algorithms&amp;rft.aulast=Jones%2C+N.C.%3B+Pevzner%2C+P.A.&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+N.C.%3B+Pevzner%2C+P.A.&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B435&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.isbn=0262101068&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp_qzpkNVcUwC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Lesk, A.&#32;(2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=et5qQgAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Bioinformatics<\/i><\/a>&#32;(3rd ed.).&#32;OUP Oxford.&#32;pp.&#160;474.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0199208042<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=et5qQgAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=et5qQgAACAAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Bioinformatics&amp;rft.aulast=Lesk%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Lesk%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B474&amp;rft.edition=3rd&amp;rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&amp;rft.isbn=0199208042&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Det5qQgAACAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Xiong, J.&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AFsu7_goA8kC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Essential Bioinformatics<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Cambridge University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;339.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;113945062X<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AFsu7_goA8kC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AFsu7_goA8kC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Essential+Bioinformatics&amp;rft.aulast=Xiong%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Xiong%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B339&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.isbn=113945062X&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAFsu7_goA8kC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bioinformatics.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">The Bioinformatics Organization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.embnet.org\/wp\/\" target=\"_blank\">EMBnet<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.open-bio.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Open Bioinformatics Foundation<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some elements of this article are reused from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\" data-key=\"01737c6289ef7671d2c932a51babe26b\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-BioInfoPolanski-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BioInfoPolanski_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Polanski, Andrzej&#32;(2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=oZbR3GEdmVMC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Introduction\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Bioinformatics<\/i>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u20139.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;3540241663<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=oZbR3GEdmVMC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=oZbR3GEdmVMC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction&amp;rft.atitle=Bioinformatics&amp;rft.aulast=Polanski%2C+Andrzej&amp;rft.au=Polanski%2C+Andrzej&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%939&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=3540241663&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoZbR3GEdmVMC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EssBioInfo-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-EssBioInfo_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-EssBioInfo_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-EssBioInfo_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-EssBioInfo_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-EssBioInfo_2-4\">2.4<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-EssBioInfo_2-5\">2.5<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Xiong, Jin&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AFsu7_goA8kC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Introduction\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Essential Bioinformatics<\/i>.&#32;Cambridge University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;3\u20139.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;113945062X<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AFsu7_goA8kC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AFsu7_goA8kC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction&amp;rft.atitle=Essential+Bioinformatics&amp;rft.aulast=Xiong%2C+Jin&amp;rft.au=Xiong%2C+Jin&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B3%E2%80%939&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.isbn=113945062X&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAFsu7_goA8kC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SimGrowth-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SimGrowth_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Hogeweg, Pauline&#32;(September 1978).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/tbb.bio.uu.nl\/pdf\/Hogeweg78.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Simulating the growth of cellular forms\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Simulation<\/i>&#32;<b>31<\/b>&#32;(3): 90\u201396.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1177%2F003754977803100305\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/003754977803100305<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/tbb.bio.uu.nl\/pdf\/Hogeweg78.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/tbb.bio.uu.nl\/pdf\/Hogeweg78.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Simulating+the+growth+of+cellular+forms&amp;rft.jtitle=Simulation&amp;rft.aulast=Hogeweg%2C+Pauline&amp;rft.au=Hogeweg%2C+Pauline&amp;rft.date=September+1978&amp;rft.volume=31&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=90%E2%80%9396&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1177%2F003754977803100305&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftbb.bio.uu.nl%2Fpdf%2FHogeweg78.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RootsBio-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RootsBio_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Hogeweg, P.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"The Roots of Bioinformatics in Theoretical Biology\".&#32;<i>PLOS Computational Biology<\/i>&#32;<b>7<\/b>&#32;(3).&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1002021\" target=\"_blank\">10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1002021<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/21483479\" target=\"_blank\">21483479<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+Roots+of+Bioinformatics+in+Theoretical+Biology&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+Computational+Biology&amp;rft.aulast=Hogeweg%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Hogeweg%2C+P.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1002021&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/21483479&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CCCAtlas-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CCCAtlas_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Strasser, B.J.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Collecting, Comparing, and Computing Sequences: The Making of Margaret O. Dayhoff\u2019s <i>Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure<\/i>, 1954\u20131965\".&#32;<i>Journal of the History of Biology<\/i>&#32;<b>43<\/b>&#32;(4): 623\u2013660.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10739-009-9221-0\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s10739-009-9221-0<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/20665074\" target=\"_blank\">20665074<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Collecting%2C+Comparing%2C+and+Computing+Sequences%3A+The+Making+of+Margaret+O.+Dayhoff%E2%80%99s+%27%27Atlas+of+Protein+Sequence+and+Structure%27%27%2C+1954%E2%80%931965&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Biology&amp;rft.aulast=Strasser%2C+B.J.&amp;rft.au=Strasser%2C+B.J.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.volume=43&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=623%E2%80%93660&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1007%2Fs10739-009-9221-0&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/20665074&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PDBHist-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PDBHist_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Berman, H.M.&#32;(January 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160225014129\/http:\/\/www.ebi.ac.uk\/msd\/embo08\/pdf\/pdb_history.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Protein Data Bank: a historical perspective\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Acta crystallographica. Section A, Foundations of crystallography<\/i>&#32;<b>64<\/b>&#32;(1): 88\u201395.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/18156675\" target=\"_blank\">18156675<\/a>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ebi.ac.uk\/msd\/embo08\/pdf\/pdb_history.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 25 February 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160225014129\/http:\/\/www.ebi.ac.uk\/msd\/embo08\/pdf\/pdb_history.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160225014129\/http:\/\/www.ebi.ac.uk\/msd\/embo08\/pdf\/pdb_history.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+Protein+Data+Bank%3A+a+historical+perspective&amp;rft.jtitle=Acta+crystallographica.+Section+A%2C+Foundations+of+crystallography&amp;rft.aulast=Berman%2C+H.M.&amp;rft.au=Berman%2C+H.M.&amp;rft.date=January+2008&amp;rft.volume=64&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=88%E2%80%9395&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/18156675&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160225014129%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ebi.ac.uk%2Fmsd%2Fembo08%2Fpdf%2Fpdb_history.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChouPred1-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChouPred1_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Chou, Peter Y,; Fasman, Gerald D.&#32;(1974).&#32;\"Prediction of protein conformation\".&#32;<i>Biochemistry<\/i>&#32;<b>13<\/b>&#32;(2): 222\u2013245.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1021%2Fbi00699a002\" target=\"_blank\">10.1021\/bi00699a002<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/4358940\" target=\"_blank\">4358940<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Prediction+of+protein+conformation&amp;rft.jtitle=Biochemistry&amp;rft.aulast=Chou%2C+Peter+Y%2C%3B+Fasman%2C+Gerald+D.&amp;rft.au=Chou%2C+Peter+Y%2C%3B+Fasman%2C+Gerald+D.&amp;rft.date=1974&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=222%E2%80%93245&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1021%2Fbi00699a002&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/4358940&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChouPred2-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChouPred2_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Chou, Peter Y,; Fasman, Gerald D.&#32;(1978).&#32;\"Empirical predictions of protein conformation\".&#32;<i>Annu Rev Biochem<\/i>&#32;<b>47<\/b>: 251\u2013276.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1146%2Fannurev.bi.47.070178.001343\" target=\"_blank\">10.1146\/annurev.bi.47.070178.001343<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/354496\" target=\"_blank\">354496<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Empirical+predictions+of+protein+conformation&amp;rft.jtitle=Annu+Rev+Biochem&amp;rft.aulast=Chou%2C+Peter+Y%2C%3B+Fasman%2C+Gerald+D.&amp;rft.au=Chou%2C+Peter+Y%2C%3B+Fasman%2C+Gerald+D.&amp;rft.date=1978&amp;rft.volume=47&amp;rft.pages=251%E2%80%93276&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1146%2Fannurev.bi.47.070178.001343&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/354496&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChouPred3-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChouPred3_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Chou, Peter Y,; Fasman, Gerald D.&#32;(1978).&#32;\"Prediction of the secondary structure of proteins from their amino acid sequence\".&#32;<i>Adv Enzymol Relat Areas Mol Biol<\/i>&#32;<b>47<\/b>: 45\u2013148.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/364941\" target=\"_blank\">364941<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Prediction+of+the+secondary+structure+of+proteins+from+their+amino+acid+sequence&amp;rft.jtitle=Adv+Enzymol+Relat+Areas+Mol+Biol&amp;rft.aulast=Chou%2C+Peter+Y%2C%3B+Fasman%2C+Gerald+D.&amp;rft.au=Chou%2C+Peter+Y%2C%3B+Fasman%2C+Gerald+D.&amp;rft.date=1978&amp;rft.volume=47&amp;rft.pages=45%E2%80%93148&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/364941&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RapSenProt-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RapSenProt_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Lipman, David J.; Pearson, William R.&#32;(1985).&#32;\"Rapid and sensitive protein similarity searches\".&#32;<i>Science<\/i>&#32;<b>227<\/b>&#32;(4693): 1435\u201341.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.2983426\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.2983426<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/2983426\" target=\"_blank\">2983426<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Rapid+and+sensitive+protein+similarity+searches&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.aulast=Lipman%2C+David+J.%3B+Pearson%2C+William+R.&amp;rft.au=Lipman%2C+David+J.%3B+Pearson%2C+William+R.&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.volume=227&amp;rft.issue=4693&amp;rft.pages=1435%E2%80%9341&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1126%2Fscience.2983426&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/2983426&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ImpToolBio-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ImpToolBio_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Lipman, David J.; Pearson, William R.&#32;(1988).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=280013\" target=\"_blank\">\"Improved tools for biological sequence comparison\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America<\/i>&#32;<b>85<\/b>&#32;(8): 2444\u20138.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1073%2Fpnas.85.8.2444\" target=\"_blank\">10.1073\/pnas.85.8.2444<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/280013\/\" target=\"_blank\">280013<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/3162770\" target=\"_blank\">3162770<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=280013\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=280013<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Improved+tools+for+biological+sequence+comparison&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&amp;rft.aulast=Lipman%2C+David+J.%3B+Pearson%2C+William+R.&amp;rft.au=Lipman%2C+David+J.%3B+Pearson%2C+William+R.&amp;rft.date=1988&amp;rft.volume=85&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=2444%E2%80%938&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1073%2Fpnas.85.8.2444&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/280013&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/3162770&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3D280013&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BLAST-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BLAST_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Altschul, Stephen; Gish, Warren; Miller, Webb; Myers, Eugene; Lipman, David&#32;(1990).&#32;\"Basic local alignment search tool\".&#32;<i>Journal of Molecular Biology<\/i>&#32;<b>215<\/b>&#32;(3): 403\u2013410.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0022-2836%2805%2980360-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/S0022-2836(05)80360-2<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/2231712\" target=\"_blank\">2231712<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Basic+local+alignment+search+tool&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&amp;rft.aulast=Altschul%2C+Stephen%3B+Gish%2C+Warren%3B+Miller%2C+Webb%3B+Myers%2C+Eugene%3B+Lipman%2C+David&amp;rft.au=Altschul%2C+Stephen%3B+Gish%2C+Warren%3B+Miller%2C+Webb%3B+Myers%2C+Eugene%3B+Lipman%2C+David&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.volume=215&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=403%E2%80%93410&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2FS0022-2836%2805%2980360-2&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/2231712&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid870828-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid870828_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Sanger, F.; Air, G.M.; Barrell, B.G.; Brown, N.L.; Coulson, A.R.; Fiddes, C.A.; Hutchison, C.A.,; Slocombe, P.M.; Smith, M.&#32;(February 1977).&#32;\"Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA\".&#32;<i>Nature<\/i>&#32;<b>265<\/b>&#32;(5596): 687\u201395.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1038%2F265687a0\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/265687a0<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/870828\" target=\"_blank\">870828<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Nucleotide+sequence+of+bacteriophage+phi+X174+DNA&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.aulast=Sanger%2C+F.%3B+Air%2C+G.M.%3B+Barrell%2C+B.G.%3B+Brown%2C+N.L.%3B+Coulson%2C+A.R.%3B+Fiddes%2C+C.A.%3B+Hutchison%2C+C.A.%2C%3B+Slocombe%2C+P.M.%3B+Smith%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.%3B+Air%2C+G.M.%3B+Barrell%2C+B.G.%3B+Brown%2C+N.L.%3B+Coulson%2C+A.R.%3B+Fiddes%2C+C.A.%3B+Hutchison%2C+C.A.%2C%3B+Slocombe%2C+P.M.%3B+Smith%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=February+1977&amp;rft.volume=265&amp;rft.issue=5596&amp;rft.pages=687%E2%80%9395&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1038%2F265687a0&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/870828&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid18073190-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid18073190_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Benson, D.A.; Karsch-Mizrachi, I.; Lipman, D.J.; Ostell, J.; Wheeler, D.L.&#32;(January 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2238942\" target=\"_blank\">\"GenBank\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Nucleic Acids Res.<\/i>&#32;<b>36<\/b>&#32;(Database issue): D25\u201330.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093%2Fnar%2Fgkm929\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/nar\/gkm929<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/2238942\/\" target=\"_blank\">2238942<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/18073190\" target=\"_blank\">18073190<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2238942\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=2238942<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=GenBank&amp;rft.jtitle=Nucleic+Acids+Res.&amp;rft.aulast=Benson%2C+D.A.%3B+Karsch-Mizrachi%2C+I.%3B+Lipman%2C+D.J.%3B+Ostell%2C+J.%3B+Wheeler%2C+D.L.&amp;rft.au=Benson%2C+D.A.%3B+Karsch-Mizrachi%2C+I.%3B+Lipman%2C+D.J.%3B+Ostell%2C+J.%3B+Wheeler%2C+D.L.&amp;rft.date=January+2008&amp;rft.volume=36&amp;rft.issue=Database+issue&amp;rft.pages=D25%E2%80%9330&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1093%2Fnar%2Fgkm929&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/2238942&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/18073190&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3D2238942&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pmid7542800-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid7542800_15-0\">15.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-pmid7542800_15-1\">15.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Fleischmann, R.D.; Adams, M.D.; White, O.; Clayton, R.A.; Kirkness, E.F.; Kerlavage, A.R.; Bult, C.J.; Tomb, J.F.; Dougherty, B.A.; Merrick, J.M.&#32;(July 1995).&#32;\"Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of Haemophilus influenzae Rd\".&#32;<i>Science<\/i>&#32;<b>269<\/b>&#32;(5223): 496\u2013512.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.7542800\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.7542800<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/7542800\" target=\"_blank\">7542800<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Whole-genome+random+sequencing+and+assembly+of+Haemophilus+influenzae+Rd&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.aulast=Fleischmann%2C+R.D.%3B+Adams%2C+M.D.%3B+White%2C+O.%3B+Clayton%2C+R.A.%3B+Kirkness%2C+E.F.%3B+Kerlavage%2C+A.R.%3B+Bult%2C+C.J.%3B+Tomb%2C+J.F.%3B+Dougherty%2C+B.A.%3B+Merrick%2C+J.M.&amp;rft.au=Fleischmann%2C+R.D.%3B+Adams%2C+M.D.%3B+White%2C+O.%3B+Clayton%2C+R.A.%3B+Kirkness%2C+E.F.%3B+Kerlavage%2C+A.R.%3B+Bult%2C+C.J.%3B+Tomb%2C+J.F.%3B+Dougherty%2C+B.A.%3B+Merrick%2C+J.M.&amp;rft.date=July+1995&amp;rft.volume=269&amp;rft.issue=5223&amp;rft.pages=496%E2%80%93512&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1126%2Fscience.7542800&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/7542800&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AdvancedAnGene-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AdvancedAnGene_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Zhang, Aidong&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6QLCJQ25VUwC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of Molecular Biology\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Advanced Analysis of Gene Expression Microarray Data<\/i>.&#32;World Scientific.&#32;pp.&#160;13\u201330.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9812566457<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6QLCJQ25VUwC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6QLCJQ25VUwC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+Basic+Concepts+of+Molecular+Biology&amp;rft.atitle=Advanced+Analysis+of+Gene+Expression+Microarray+Data&amp;rft.aulast=Zhang%2C+Aidong&amp;rft.au=Zhang%2C+Aidong&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B13%E2%80%9330&amp;rft.pub=World+Scientific&amp;rft.isbn=9812566457&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6QLCJQ25VUwC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FuncGeneProtC2-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FuncGeneProtC2_17-0\">17.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FuncGeneProtC2_17-1\">17.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Ginsberg, S.D.; Mirnies, K.; Hemby, Scott E. (ed.); Bahn, Sabine (ed.)&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6FcXuAvjFqYC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Functional genomic methodologies\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Functional Genomics and Proteomics in the Clinical Neurosciences<\/i>.&#32;Elsevier.&#32;pp.&#160;15\u201340.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0080465633<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6FcXuAvjFqYC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6FcXuAvjFqYC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+Functional+genomic+methodologies&amp;rft.atitle=Functional+Genomics+and+Proteomics+in+the+Clinical+Neurosciences&amp;rft.aulast=Ginsberg%2C+S.D.%3B+Mirnies%2C+K.%3B+Hemby%2C+Scott+E.+%28ed.%29%3B+Bahn%2C+Sabine+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.au=Ginsberg%2C+S.D.%3B+Mirnies%2C+K.%3B+Hemby%2C+Scott+E.+%28ed.%29%3B+Bahn%2C+Sabine+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B15%E2%80%9340&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.isbn=0080465633&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6FcXuAvjFqYC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FuncGeneProtC3-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FuncGeneProtC3_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Tannu, N.S.; Hemby, Scott E.; Bahn, Sabine (ed.)&#32;(2006).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6FcXuAvjFqYC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 3: Methods for proteomics in neuroscience\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Functional Genomics and Proteomics in the Clinical Neurosciences<\/i>.&#32;Elsevier.&#32;pp.&#160;41\u201382.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0080465633<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6FcXuAvjFqYC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6FcXuAvjFqYC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+3%3A+Methods+for+proteomics+in+neuroscience&amp;rft.atitle=Functional+Genomics+and+Proteomics+in+the+Clinical+Neurosciences&amp;rft.aulast=Tannu%2C+N.S.%3B+Hemby%2C+Scott+E.%3B+Bahn%2C+Sabine+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.au=Tannu%2C+N.S.%3B+Hemby%2C+Scott+E.%3B+Bahn%2C+Sabine+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B41%E2%80%9382&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.isbn=0080465633&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6FcXuAvjFqYC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MicroInnovC16-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MicroInnovC16_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Kim, Il-Jin; Kang, Hio Chung; Park, Jae-Gahb; Hardiman, Gary (ed.)&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=88KBSMq3ClgC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 16: Development of an Oligonucleotide Microarray for Mutational Analysis Using Single or Multiple Sample Hybridization\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Microarray Innovations: Technology and Experimentation<\/i>.&#32;CRC Press.&#32;pp.&#160;244\u2013257.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1420094513<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=88KBSMq3ClgC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=88KBSMq3ClgC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+16%3A+Development+of+an+Oligonucleotide+Microarray+for+Mutational+Analysis+Using+Single+or+Multiple+Sample+Hybridization&amp;rft.atitle=Microarray+Innovations%3A+Technology+and+Experimentation&amp;rft.aulast=Kim%2C+Il-Jin%3B+Kang%2C+Hio+Chung%3B+Park%2C+Jae-Gahb%3B+Hardiman%2C+Gary+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.au=Kim%2C+Il-Jin%3B+Kang%2C+Hio+Chung%3B+Park%2C+Jae-Gahb%3B+Hardiman%2C+Gary+%28ed.%29&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B244%E2%80%93257&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.isbn=1420094513&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D88KBSMq3ClgC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FoundCompGeno-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FoundCompGeno_20-0\">20.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FoundCompGeno_20-1\">20.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FoundCompGeno_20-2\">20.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FoundCompGeno_20-3\">20.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Mushegian, Arcady R.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cbKW-WCLSfAC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Foundations of Comparative Genomics<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Academic Press.&#32;pp.&#160;280.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0080546099<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cbKW-WCLSfAC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cbKW-WCLSfAC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Comparative+Genomics&amp;rft.aulast=Mushegian%2C+Arcady+R.&amp;rft.au=Mushegian%2C+Arcady+R.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B280&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.isbn=0080546099&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcbKW-WCLSfAC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EvCompBio-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EvCompBio_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Fogel, Gary B.; Corne, David W.;&#32;(2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Jtj7NpO9F_gC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: An Introduction to Evolutionary Computation for Biologists\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Evolutionary Computation in Bioinformatics<\/i>.&#32;Morgan Kaufmann.&#32;pp.&#160;19\u201338.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1558607978<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Jtj7NpO9F_gC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Jtj7NpO9F_gC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+An+Introduction+to+Evolutionary+Computation+for+Biologists&amp;rft.atitle=Evolutionary+Computation+in+Bioinformatics&amp;rft.aulast=Fogel%2C+Gary+B.%3B+Corne%2C+David+W.%3B&amp;rft.au=Fogel%2C+Gary+B.%3B+Corne%2C+David+W.%3B&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B19%E2%80%9338&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.isbn=1558607978&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJtj7NpO9F_gC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OBF-Main-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OBF-Main_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.open-bio.org\/wiki\/Projects\" target=\"_blank\">\"Open Bioinformatics Foundation: Projects\"<\/a>.&#32;Open Bioinformatics Foundation<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.open-bio.org\/wiki\/Projects\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.open-bio.org\/wiki\/Projects<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Open+Bioinformatics+Foundation%3A+Projects&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Open+Bioinformatics+Foundation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.open-bio.org%2Fwiki%2FProjects&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OBF-bosc-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OBF-bosc_23-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.open-bio.org\/events\/bosc\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Open Bioinformatics Foundation: BOSC\"<\/a>.&#32;Open Bioinformatics Foundation<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.open-bio.org\/events\/bosc\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.open-bio.org\/events\/bosc\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Open+Bioinformatics+Foundation%3A+BOSC&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Open+Bioinformatics+Foundation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.open-bio.org%2Fevents%2Fbosc%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EBIAbout-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EBIAbout_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ebi.ac.uk\/about\" target=\"_blank\">\"Welcome to EMBL-EBI\"<\/a>.&#32;EMBL-EBI<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ebi.ac.uk\/about\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ebi.ac.uk\/about<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Welcome+to+EMBL-EBI&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=EMBL-EBI&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ebi.ac.uk%2Fabout&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Bioinformatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110091321\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bioinformatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bioinformatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","8f506695fdbb26e3f314da308f8c053b_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0a\/Computer_with_microarray.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/4e\/Gene-homology.svg\/520px-Gene-homology.svg.png"],"8f506695fdbb26e3f314da308f8c053b_timestamp":1704906976,"e1fc3c3cb12287ecf307f488d3cd2357_type":"article","e1fc3c3cb12287ecf307f488d3cd2357_title":"Biodiversity informatics","e1fc3c3cb12287ecf307f488d3cd2357_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biodiversity_informatics","e1fc3c3cb12287ecf307f488d3cd2357_plaintext":"\n\nBiodiversity informaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search Graphical representations of prehistoric biodiversity data like this are slowly becoming easier with the advancement of biodiversity informatics standards and tools.\nBiodiversity informatics is the application of informatics techniques to biodiversity information for improved management, presentation, discovery, exploration, and analysis. It typically builds on a foundation of taxonomic, biogeographic, and synecologic information stored in digital form, which, with the application of modern computer techniques, can yield new ways to view and analyze existing information, as well as predictive models for information that does not yet exist.&#91;1&#93;\nBiodiversity informatics has also been described by others as \"the creation, integration, analysis, and understanding of information regarding biological diversity\"&#91;2&#93; and a field of science \"that brings information science and technologies to bear on the data and information generated by the study of organisms, their genes, and their interactions.\"&#91;3&#93; \n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Application \n3 Informatics \n4 Further reading \n5 External links \n6 Notes \n7 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nAccording to correspondence reproduced by Walter Berendsohn&#91;4&#93;, the term \"biodiversity informatics\" was coined by John Whiting in 1992 to cover the activities of an entity known as the Canadian Biodiversity Informatics Consortium (CBIC), a group involved with fusing basic biodiversity information with environmental economics and geospatial information. Subsequently it appears to have lost at least some connection with the geospatial world, becoming more closely associated with the computerized management of biodiversity information.&#91;5&#93; However, modern efforts to document global biodiversity patterns and processes using georeferencing and other geoinformatics tools have re-emphasized some of the original spirit of the CBIC.&#91;6&#93;\nBiodiversity informatics itself likely grew from the construction of the first computerized taxonomic databases in the early 1970s, progressing through the subsequent development of distributed search tools towards the late 1990s, including Species Analyst, the North American Biodiversity Information Network (NABIN), and CONABIO.&#91;7&#93; Other contributions came in the form of a variety of niche modeling tools and algorithms to process digitized biodiversity data from the mid-1980s onwards.&#91;8&#93;\nThe U.S. journal Science devoted a special issue to \"Bioinformatics for Biodiversity\" in September 2000&#91;9&#93;, the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) was officially formed in 2001&#91;10&#93;, the journal Biodiversity Informatics commenced publication in 2004, and several international conferences brought together biodiversity researchers during the twenty-first century.&#91;3&#93;&#91;11&#93;\n\nApplication \nBiodiversity informatics can help tackle problems and tasks such as the following&#91;3&#93;&#91;12&#93;&#91;13&#93;:\n\nthe tracking of invasive species\nthe creation of new biodiversity mapping, infrastructure, and species identification models\nthe development of new modeling and data integration tools\nthe creation of global registries for the resources that are basic to biodiversity informatics\nthe construction of a solid global taxonomic infrastructure\nthe creation of ontologies for biodiversity data\nthe creation of a single-consensus classification system\nthe development of algorithms to cope with variant representations of identifiers such as species names and authorities\nthe transition of content in taxonomic databases to a machine-readable and -queryable format\nInformatics \nProviding online, coherent, standardized digital access to the vast collection of disparate primary biodiversity data is a task at the heart of regional and global biodiversity data networks. Secondary sources of biodiversity data, including relevant scientific literature, can be potentially parsed by specialized information retrieval algorithms to extract the relevant primary biodiversity information that is reported therein, sometimes in summary form, but more frequently as primary observations in narrative or tabular form.&#91;1&#93; The Biodiversity Heritage Library is an example of this, aiming to digitize substantial portions of the out-of-copyright taxonomic literature, which is then subjected to OCR (optical character recognition) so as to be amenable to further processing.&#91;14&#93;\nLike other data-related disciplines, biodiversity informatics benefits from the adoption of appropriate standards and protocols in order to support machine-machine transmission and interoperability of information within its particular domain. Examples of relevant standards include&#91;1&#93;:\n\nDarwin Core XML, an XML schema for specimen- and observation-based biodiversity data\nTaxonomic Concept Transfer Schema, a schema for taxonomic information providers to exchange information with other such providers\nStructured Descriptive Data, a standard for the capture, transport, caching and archiving of descriptive data\nAccess to Biological Collection Data, a standard for access to and exchange of data about specimens and observations\nTDWG Access Protocol for Information Retrieval (TAPIR), a request and response protocol for accessing structured biodiversity data\nFurther reading \nOECD Megascience Forum Working Group on Biological Informatics&#32;(January 1999).&#32;\"Final Report of the OECD Megascience Forum Working Group on Biological Informatics, January 1999\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;OECD.&#32;pp. 1\u201374.&#32;http:\/\/www.oecd.org\/science\/sci-tech\/2105199.pdf . &#160; \nCanhos, V. P.; Souza, S.; Giovanni, R.; Canhos, D. A. L.&#32;(2004).&#32;\"Global Biodiversity Informatics: Setting the Scene for a \"New World\" of Ecological Modeling\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Biodiversity Informatics&#32;1: 1\u201313.&#32;https:\/\/journals.ku.edu\/index.php\/jbi\/article\/viewFile\/3\/1 . &#160; \nSober\u00f3n, J.; Peterson, A. T.&#32;(March 2004).&#32;\"Biodiversity Informatics: Managing and Applying Primary Biodiversity Data\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London&#32;B359: 689\u2013698.&#32;doi:10.1098\/rstb.2003.1439.&#32;http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1693343\/pdf\/15253354.pdf . &#160; \nChapman, A. D.&#32;(2005).&#32;Uses of Primary Species-Occurrence Data.&#32;Copenhagen:&#32;Global Biodiversity Information Facility.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u2013106.&#32;http:\/\/www.gbif.org\/resources\/2834 . &#160; \nJohnson, N. F.&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Biodiversity Informatics\".&#32;Annual Review of Entomology&#32;52: 421\u2013438.&#32;doi:10.1146\/annurev.ento.52.110405.091259.&#32;PMID&#160;16956323.&#32;http:\/\/arjournals.annualreviews.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1146\/annurev.ento.52.110405.091259 . &#160; \nSarkar, I. N.&#32;(August 2007).&#32;\"Biodiversity Informatics: Organizing and Linking Information Across the Spectrum of Life\".&#32;Briefings in Bioinformatics&#32;8&#32;(5): 347\u2013357.&#32;doi:10.1093\/bib\/bbm037.&#32;PMID&#160;17704120.&#32;http:\/\/bib.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/8\/5\/347.full . &#160; \n\r\n\n\nExternal links \nBiodiversity Heritage Library\nBiodiversity Informatics open-access journal\nBiodiversity Informatics at BMC Bioinformatics\nBiodiversity Information Projects of the World\nBiodiversity Information Standards\nCatalogue of Life\nEncyclopedia of Life\nZooKeys open-access journal\nNotes \nThis article reuses some content from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 Berendsohn, W. G.; G\u00fcntsch, A.; Hoffmann, N.; Kohlbecker, A.; Luther, K.; M\u00fcller, A.&#32;(November 2011).&#32;\"Biodiversity information platforms: From standards to interoperability\".&#32;ZooKeys&#32;(150): 71\u201387.&#32;doi:10.3897\/zookeys.150.2166.&#32;PMC&#160;3234432.&#32;http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3234432\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Biodiversity Informatics\".&#32;University of Kansas Libraries.&#32;https:\/\/journals.ku.edu\/index.php\/jbi .&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 3.2 \"e-Biosphere '09: International Conference on Biodiversity Informatics\".&#32;Smithsonian Institution.&#32;2009.&#32;http:\/\/www.e-biosphere09.org\/ .&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 G\u00fcntsch, Anton; Berendsohn, Walter&#32;(18 August 2010).&#32;\"\"Biodiversity Informatics\", The Term\".&#32;Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum Berlin-Dahlem.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 11 May 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130511091435\/http:\/\/www.bgbm.org\/BioDivInf\/TheTerm.htm .&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Bisby, Frank A.&#32;(September 2000).&#32;\"The Quiet Revolution: Biodiversity Informatics and the Internet\".&#32;Science&#32;289&#32;(5488): 2309\u20132312.&#32;doi:10.1126\/science.289.5488.2309.&#32;PMID&#160;11009408.&#32;http:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/content\/289\/5488\/2309.abstract .&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Guralnick, R. P.&#32;(January 2009).&#32;\"Biodiversity Informatics: Automated Approaches for Documenting Global Biodiversity Patterns and Processes\".&#32;Bioinformatics&#32;25&#32;(4): 421\u2013428.&#32;doi:10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btn659.&#32;PMID&#160;19129210.&#32;http:\/\/bioinformatics.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/25\/4\/421.full . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Krishtalka, L.; Humphrey, P. S.&#32;(2000).&#32;\"Can Natural History Museums Capture the Future?\".&#32;BioScience&#32;50&#32;(7): 611\u2013617.&#32;doi:10.1641\/0006-3568(2000)050[0611:CNHMCT]2.0.CO;2.&#32;http:\/\/bioscience.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/50\/7\/611.full .&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Peterson, A. T.; Vieglais, D.&#32;(May 2001).&#32;\"Predicting Species Invasions Using Ecological Niche Modeling: New Approaches from Bioinformatics Attack a Pressing Problem\".&#32;BioScience&#32;51&#32;(5): 363\u2013371.&#32;doi:10.1641\/0006-3568(2001)051[0363:PSIUEN]2.0.CO;2.&#32;http:\/\/www.cria.org.br\/eventos\/mfmpe\/19_20jun2002_docs\/BioScience%202001.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Bioinformatics for Biodiversity\".&#32;Science&#32;289&#32;(5488): 2229\u20132440.&#32;September 2000.&#32;http:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/content\/289\/5488.toc .&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"What is GBIF?\".&#32;GBIF.&#32;http:\/\/www.gbif.org\/whatisgbif .&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Biodiversity Informatics Horizons 2013\".&#32;LifeWatch.&#32;2013.&#32;http:\/\/conference.lifewatch.unisalento.it\/index.php\/EBIC\/index\/index .&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"e-Biosphere 09 Planning Workshop - Resolution\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Smithsonian Institution.&#32;5 June 2009.&#32;http:\/\/www.e-biosphere09.org\/assets\/files\/workshop\/Resolution.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Gordon, Dennis P.&#32;(May 2009).&#32;\"Towards a management hierarchy (classification) for the Catalogue of Life\".&#32;Catalogue of Life.&#32;http:\/\/www.catalogueoflife.org\/col\/info\/hierarchy .&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Biodiversity Heritage Library - About\".&#32;Tangient LLC.&#32;18 June 2014.&#32;http:\/\/biodivlib.wikispaces.com\/About .&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biodiversity_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biodiversity_informatics<\/a>\nCategory: InformaticsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 22 August 2014, at 16:39.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 14,475 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","e1fc3c3cb12287ecf307f488d3cd2357_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Biodiversity_informatics rootpage-Biodiversity_informatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Biodiversity informatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:502px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"410fc4ad09da3f57e7349175406e54b7\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a5\/Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"410fc4ad09da3f57e7349175406e54b7\"><\/a><\/div>Graphical representations of prehistoric biodiversity data like this are slowly becoming easier with the advancement of biodiversity informatics standards and tools.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Biodiversity informatics<\/b> is the application of informatics techniques to biodiversity <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> for improved management, presentation, discovery, exploration, and analysis. It typically builds on a foundation of taxonomic, biogeographic, and synecologic information stored in digital form, which, with the application of modern computer techniques, can yield new ways to view and analyze existing information, as well as predictive models for information that does not yet exist.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BerendsohnBio_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BerendsohnBio-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Biodiversity informatics has also been described by others as \"the creation, integration, analysis, and understanding of information regarding biological diversity\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BIJournal_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BIJournal-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and a field of science \"that brings information science and technologies to bear on the data and information generated by the study of organisms, their genes, and their interactions.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eBiosphere_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eBiosphere-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>According to correspondence reproduced by Walter Berendsohn<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BITheTerm_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BITheTerm-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, the term \"biodiversity informatics\" was coined by John Whiting in 1992 to cover the activities of an entity known as the Canadian Biodiversity Informatics Consortium (CBIC), a group involved with fusing basic biodiversity information with environmental economics and geospatial information. Subsequently it appears to have lost at least some connection with the geospatial world, becoming more closely associated with the computerized management of biodiversity information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BisbyRevo_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BisbyRevo-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, modern efforts to document global biodiversity patterns and processes using georeferencing and other <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Geoinformatics\" title=\"Geoinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2dc37de467d4af308f4b02d8e2ba12d1\">geoinformatics<\/a> tools have re-emphasized some of the original spirit of the CBIC.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GuralnickBio_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GuralnickBio-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Biodiversity informatics itself likely grew from the construction of the first computerized taxonomic databases in the early 1970s, progressing through the subsequent development of distributed search tools towards the late 1990s, including Species Analyst, the North American Biodiversity Information Network (NABIN), and CONABIO.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KrishtalkaCan_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KrishtalkaCan-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Other contributions came in the form of a variety of niche modeling tools and algorithms to process digitized biodiversity data from the mid-1980s onwards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PetersonPredict_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PetersonPredict-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The U.S. journal <i>Science<\/i> devoted a special issue to \"Bioinformatics for Biodiversity\" in September 2000<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ScienceBI_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ScienceBI-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) was officially formed in 2001<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GBIFAbout_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GBIFAbout-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, the journal <i>Biodiversity Informatics<\/i> commenced publication in 2004, and several international conferences brought together biodiversity researchers during the twenty-first century.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eBiosphere_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eBiosphere-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EBIC_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EBIC-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Application\">Application<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Biodiversity informatics can help tackle problems and tasks such as the following<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eBiosphere_3-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eBiosphere-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eBio09Reso_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eBio09Reso-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GordonHier_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GordonHier-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the tracking of invasive species<\/li>\n<li>the creation of new biodiversity mapping, infrastructure, and species identification models<\/li>\n<li>the development of new modeling and data integration tools<\/li>\n<li>the creation of global registries for the resources that are basic to biodiversity informatics<\/li>\n<li>the construction of a solid global taxonomic infrastructure<\/li>\n<li>the creation of ontologies for biodiversity data<\/li>\n<li>the creation of a single-consensus classification system<\/li>\n<li>the development of algorithms to cope with variant representations of identifiers such as species names and authorities<\/li>\n<li>the transition of content in taxonomic databases to a machine-readable and -queryable format<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Informatics\">Informatics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Providing online, coherent, standardized digital access to the vast collection of disparate primary biodiversity data is a task at the heart of regional and global biodiversity data networks. Secondary sources of biodiversity data, including relevant scientific literature, can be potentially parsed by specialized information retrieval algorithms to extract the relevant primary biodiversity information that is reported therein, sometimes in summary form, but more frequently as primary observations in narrative or tabular form.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BerendsohnBio_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BerendsohnBio-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The Biodiversity Heritage Library is an example of this, aiming to digitize substantial portions of the out-of-copyright taxonomic literature, which is then subjected to OCR (optical character recognition) so as to be amenable to further processing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BHLAbout_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BHLAbout-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Like other data-related disciplines, biodiversity informatics benefits from the adoption of appropriate standards and protocols in order to support machine-machine transmission and interoperability of information within its particular domain. Examples of relevant standards include<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BerendsohnBio_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BerendsohnBio-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/rs.tdwg.org\/dwc\/terms\/guides\/xml\/\" target=\"_blank\">Darwin Core XML<\/a>, an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Extensible_Markup_Language\" title=\"Extensible Markup Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7c17028e7fb39d8b39c6d31504411a8\">XML<\/a> schema for specimen- and observation-based biodiversity data<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tdwg.org\/standards\/117\/\" target=\"_blank\">Taxonomic Concept Transfer Schema<\/a>, a schema for taxonomic information providers to exchange information with other such providers<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tdwg.org\/standards\/116\/\" target=\"_blank\">Structured Descriptive Data<\/a>, a standard for the capture, transport, caching and archiving of descriptive data<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tdwg.org\/standards\/115\/\" target=\"_blank\">Access to Biological Collection Data<\/a>, a standard for access to and exchange of data about specimens and observations<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tdwg.org\/standards\/449\/\" target=\"_blank\">TDWG Access Protocol for Information Retrieval<\/a> (TAPIR), a request and response protocol for accessing structured biodiversity data<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">OECD Megascience Forum Working Group on Biological Informatics&#32;(January 1999).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.oecd.org\/science\/sci-tech\/2105199.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Final Report of the OECD Megascience Forum Working Group on Biological Informatics, January 1999\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;OECD.&#32;pp. 1\u201374<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.oecd.org\/science\/sci-tech\/2105199.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.oecd.org\/science\/sci-tech\/2105199.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Final+Report+of+the+OECD+Megascience+Forum+Working+Group+on+Biological+Informatics%2C+January+1999&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=OECD+Megascience+Forum+Working+Group+on+Biological+Informatics&amp;rft.au=OECD+Megascience+Forum+Working+Group+on+Biological+Informatics&amp;rft.date=January+1999&amp;rft.pages=pp.+1%E2%80%9374&amp;rft.pub=OECD&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd.org%2Fscience%2Fsci-tech%2F2105199.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation Journal\">Canhos, V. P.; Souza, S.; Giovanni, R.; Canhos, D. A. L.&#32;(2004).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/journals.ku.edu\/index.php\/jbi\/article\/viewFile\/3\/1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Global Biodiversity Informatics: Setting the Scene for a \"New World\" of Ecological Modeling\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Biodiversity Informatics<\/i>&#32;<b>1<\/b>: 1\u201313<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/journals.ku.edu\/index.php\/jbi\/article\/viewFile\/3\/1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/journals.ku.edu\/index.php\/jbi\/article\/viewFile\/3\/1<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Global+Biodiversity+Informatics%3A+Setting+the+Scene+for+a+%22New+World%22+of+Ecological+Modeling&amp;rft.jtitle=Biodiversity+Informatics&amp;rft.aulast=Canhos%2C+V.+P.%3B+Souza%2C+S.%3B+Giovanni%2C+R.%3B+Canhos%2C+D.+A.+L.&amp;rft.au=Canhos%2C+V.+P.%3B+Souza%2C+S.%3B+Giovanni%2C+R.%3B+Canhos%2C+D.+A.+L.&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.pages=1%E2%80%9313&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.ku.edu%2Findex.php%2Fjbi%2Farticle%2FviewFile%2F3%2F1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation Journal\">Sober\u00f3n, J.; Peterson, A. T.&#32;(March 2004).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1693343\/pdf\/15253354.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Biodiversity Informatics: Managing and Applying Primary Biodiversity Data\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London<\/i>&#32;<b>B359<\/b>: 689\u2013698.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1098%2Frstb.2003.1439\" target=\"_blank\">10.1098\/rstb.2003.1439<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1693343\/pdf\/15253354.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1693343\/pdf\/15253354.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Biodiversity+Informatics%3A+Managing+and+Applying+Primary+Biodiversity+Data&amp;rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&amp;rft.aulast=Sober%C3%B3n%2C+J.%3B+Peterson%2C+A.+T.&amp;rft.au=Sober%C3%B3n%2C+J.%3B+Peterson%2C+A.+T.&amp;rft.date=March+2004&amp;rft.volume=B359&amp;rft.pages=689%E2%80%93698&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1098%2Frstb.2003.1439&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1693343%2Fpdf%2F15253354.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Chapman, A. D.&#32;(2005).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gbif.org\/resources\/2834\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Uses of Primary Species-Occurrence Data<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Copenhagen:&#32;Global Biodiversity Information Facility.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u2013106<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gbif.org\/resources\/2834\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.gbif.org\/resources\/2834<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Uses+of+Primary+Species-Occurrence+Data&amp;rft.aulast=Chapman%2C+A.+D.&amp;rft.au=Chapman%2C+A.+D.&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%93106&amp;rft.place=Copenhagen&amp;rft.pub=Global+Biodiversity+Information+Facility&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gbif.org%2Fresources%2F2834&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation Journal\">Johnson, N. F.&#32;(2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/arjournals.annualreviews.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1146\/annurev.ento.52.110405.091259\" target=\"_blank\">\"Biodiversity Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Annual Review of Entomology<\/i>&#32;<b>52<\/b>: 421\u2013438.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1146%2Fannurev.ento.52.110405.091259\" target=\"_blank\">10.1146\/annurev.ento.52.110405.091259<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/16956323\" target=\"_blank\">16956323<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/arjournals.annualreviews.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1146\/annurev.ento.52.110405.091259\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/arjournals.annualreviews.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1146\/annurev.ento.52.110405.091259<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Biodiversity+Informatics&amp;rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Entomology&amp;rft.aulast=Johnson%2C+N.+F.&amp;rft.au=Johnson%2C+N.+F.&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.volume=52&amp;rft.pages=421%E2%80%93438&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1146%2Fannurev.ento.52.110405.091259&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/16956323&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farjournals.annualreviews.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ento.52.110405.091259&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation Journal\">Sarkar, I. N.&#32;(August 2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/bib.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/8\/5\/347.full\" target=\"_blank\">\"Biodiversity Informatics: Organizing and Linking Information Across the Spectrum of Life\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Briefings in Bioinformatics<\/i>&#32;<b>8<\/b>&#32;(5): 347\u2013357.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093%2Fbib%2Fbbm037\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/bib\/bbm037<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/17704120\" target=\"_blank\">17704120<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/bib.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/8\/5\/347.full\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/bib.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/8\/5\/347.full<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Biodiversity+Informatics%3A+Organizing+and+Linking+Information+Across+the+Spectrum+of+Life&amp;rft.jtitle=Briefings+in+Bioinformatics&amp;rft.aulast=Sarkar%2C+I.+N.&amp;rft.au=Sarkar%2C+I.+N.&amp;rft.date=August+2007&amp;rft.volume=8&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=347%E2%80%93357&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1093%2Fbib%2Fbbm037&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/17704120&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbib.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcontent%2F8%2F5%2F347.full&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.biodiversitylibrary.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Biodiversity Heritage Library<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.ku.edu\/index.php\/jbi\" target=\"_blank\">Biodiversity Informatics<\/a> open-access journal<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.biomedcentral.com\/bmcbioinformatics\/supplements\/10\/S14\" target=\"_blank\">Biodiversity Informatics at BMC Bioinformatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tdwg.org\/biodiv-projects\" target=\"_blank\">Biodiversity Information Projects of the World<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tdwg.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Biodiversity Information Standards<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.catalogueoflife.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Catalogue of Life<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eol.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Encyclopedia of Life<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pensoftonline.net\/zookeys\" target=\"_blank\">ZooKeys<\/a> open-access journal<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article reuses some content from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biodiversity_informatics\" data-key=\"8748fd89f80c093cfc26f1507c5baf5b\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-BerendsohnBio-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BerendsohnBio_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BerendsohnBio_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BerendsohnBio_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Berendsohn, W. G.; G\u00fcntsch, A.; Hoffmann, N.; Kohlbecker, A.; Luther, K.; M\u00fcller, A.&#32;(November 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3234432\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Biodiversity information platforms: From standards to interoperability\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ZooKeys<\/i>&#32;(150): 71\u201387.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3897%2Fzookeys.150.2166\" target=\"_blank\">10.3897\/zookeys.150.2166<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/3234432\/\" target=\"_blank\">3234432<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3234432\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3234432\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Biodiversity+information+platforms%3A+From+standards+to+interoperability&amp;rft.jtitle=ZooKeys&amp;rft.aulast=Berendsohn%2C+W.+G.%3B+G%C3%BCntsch%2C+A.%3B+Hoffmann%2C+N.%3B+Kohlbecker%2C+A.%3B+Luther%2C+K.%3B+M%C3%BCller%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Berendsohn%2C+W.+G.%3B+G%C3%BCntsch%2C+A.%3B+Hoffmann%2C+N.%3B+Kohlbecker%2C+A.%3B+Luther%2C+K.%3B+M%C3%BCller%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=November+2011&amp;rft.issue=150&amp;rft.pages=71%E2%80%9387&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.3897%2Fzookeys.150.2166&amp;rft_id=info:pmc\/3234432&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3234432%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BIJournal-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BIJournal_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/journals.ku.edu\/index.php\/jbi\" target=\"_blank\">\"Biodiversity Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;University of Kansas Libraries<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/journals.ku.edu\/index.php\/jbi\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/journals.ku.edu\/index.php\/jbi<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Biodiversity+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Kansas+Libraries&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.ku.edu%2Findex.php%2Fjbi&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-eBiosphere-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-eBiosphere_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-eBiosphere_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-eBiosphere_3-2\">3.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.e-biosphere09.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"e-Biosphere '09: International Conference on Biodiversity Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;Smithsonian Institution.&#32;2009<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.e-biosphere09.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.e-biosphere09.org\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=e-Biosphere+%2709%3A+International+Conference+on+Biodiversity+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.e-biosphere09.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BITheTerm-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BITheTerm_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">G\u00fcntsch, Anton; 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P.&#32;(January 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/bioinformatics.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/25\/4\/421.full\" target=\"_blank\">\"Biodiversity Informatics: Automated Approaches for Documenting Global Biodiversity Patterns and Processes\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Bioinformatics<\/i>&#32;<b>25<\/b>&#32;(4): 421\u2013428.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1093%2Fbioinformatics%2Fbtn659\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btn659<\/a>.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/19129210\" target=\"_blank\">19129210<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/bioinformatics.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/25\/4\/421.full\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/bioinformatics.oxfordjournals.org\/content\/25\/4\/421.full<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Biodiversity+Informatics%3A+Automated+Approaches+for+Documenting+Global+Biodiversity+Patterns+and+Processes&amp;rft.jtitle=Bioinformatics&amp;rft.aulast=Guralnick%2C+R.+P.&amp;rft.au=Guralnick%2C+R.+P.&amp;rft.date=January+2009&amp;rft.volume=25&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=421%E2%80%93428&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1093%2Fbioinformatics%2Fbtn659&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/19129210&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbioinformatics.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcontent%2F25%2F4%2F421.full&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KrishtalkaCan-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KrishtalkaCan_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Krishtalka, L.; Humphrey, P. 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id=\"cite_note-ScienceBI-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ScienceBI_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/content\/289\/5488.toc\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bioinformatics for Biodiversity\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Science<\/i>&#32;<b>289<\/b>&#32;(5488): 2229\u20132440.&#32;September 2000<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/content\/289\/5488.toc\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/content\/289\/5488.toc<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Bioinformatics+for+Biodiversity&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.date=September+2000&amp;rft.volume=289&amp;rft.issue=5488&amp;rft.pages=2229%E2%80%932440&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcontent%2F289%2F5488.toc&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GBIFAbout-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GBIFAbout_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gbif.org\/whatisgbif\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is GBIF?\"<\/a>.&#32;GBIF<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gbif.org\/whatisgbif\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.gbif.org\/whatisgbif<\/a><\/span><span 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href=\"http:\/\/conference.lifewatch.unisalento.it\/index.php\/EBIC\/index\/index\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/conference.lifewatch.unisalento.it\/index.php\/EBIC\/index\/index<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Biodiversity+Informatics+Horizons+2013&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.pub=LifeWatch&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconference.lifewatch.unisalento.it%2Findex.php%2FEBIC%2Findex%2Findex&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-eBio09Reso-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-eBio09Reso_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.e-biosphere09.org\/assets\/files\/workshop\/Resolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"e-Biosphere 09 Planning Workshop - Resolution\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Smithsonian Institution.&#32;5 June 2009<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.e-biosphere09.org\/assets\/files\/workshop\/Resolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.e-biosphere09.org\/assets\/files\/workshop\/Resolution.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=e-Biosphere+09+Planning+Workshop+-+Resolution&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=5+June+2009&amp;rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.e-biosphere09.org%2Fassets%2Ffiles%2Fworkshop%2FResolution.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GordonHier-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GordonHier_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Gordon, Dennis P.&#32;(May 2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.catalogueoflife.org\/col\/info\/hierarchy\" target=\"_blank\">\"Towards a management hierarchy (classification) for the Catalogue of Life\"<\/a>.&#32;Catalogue of Life<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.catalogueoflife.org\/col\/info\/hierarchy\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.catalogueoflife.org\/col\/info\/hierarchy<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Towards+a+management+hierarchy+%28classification%29+for+the+Catalogue+of+Life&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Gordon%2C+Dennis+P.&amp;rft.au=Gordon%2C+Dennis+P.&amp;rft.date=May+2009&amp;rft.pub=Catalogue+of+Life&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catalogueoflife.org%2Fcol%2Finfo%2Fhierarchy&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BHLAbout-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BHLAbout_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/biodivlib.wikispaces.com\/About\" target=\"_blank\">\"Biodiversity Heritage Library - About\"<\/a>.&#32;Tangient LLC.&#32;18 June 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/biodivlib.wikispaces.com\/About\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/biodivlib.wikispaces.com\/About<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 18 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Biodiversity+Heritage+Library+-+About&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=18+June+2014&amp;rft.pub=Tangient+LLC&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiodivlib.wikispaces.com%2FAbout&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Biodiversity_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110110121\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.932 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.423 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 13853\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 98172\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 34477\/2097152 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biodiversity_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biodiversity_informatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","e1fc3c3cb12287ecf307f488d3cd2357_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a5\/Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.png"],"e1fc3c3cb12287ecf307f488d3cd2357_timestamp":1704906975,"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301_type":"article","00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301_title":"Laboratory informatics","00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics","00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301_plaintext":"\n\nLaboratory informaticsFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search A Bio-Rad thermal cycler as an example of a laboratory device that measures, processes, and sends informationLaboratory informatics is the specialized application of information through a platform of instruments, software, and data management tools that allow scientific data to be captured, migrated, processed, and interpreted for immediate use, as well as stored, managed, and shared to support future research, development, and lab testing efforts while maximizing the efficiency of laboratory operations.&#91;1&#93;&#91;2&#93;\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Sub-elements in laboratory informatics \n\n2.1 Additional considerations in laboratory informatics \n\n\n3 Technology of laboratory informatics \n4 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nThe term \"laboratory informatics\" has been in use at least since the early 1980s&#91;3&#93;&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93; and has expanded in meaning since then. Before the advent of computer technology, information management played an important role in laboratories and research efforts of all sorts. And while today the process of information management continues to be important, laboratory informatics tends to focus more on the technology associated with that information management process.&#91;6&#93;\nThe field itself is one which has seen significant growth as demand for fast and efficient electronic data exchange has boomed. A rapid series of technological developments have made laboratory equipment less static and more interactive, allowing large networks of integrated lab devices, computers, and telecommunications equipment to log, analyze, and distribute data. This has progressively enabled scientific research projects to move from a localized model to a more global model, one that allows \"involved researchers to spend less time collecting data or waiting for information to arrive from another location, which in turn allows them to focus more on the work at hand and makes their research both faster and more efficient.\"&#91;7&#93; Tangentially, more robust and scalable data management systems have been developed to help laboratories stay competitive. Today, this often means adopting laboratory automation solutions that are capable of being developed and deployed in an agile fashion.&#91;8&#93;&#91;9&#93; Additionally, the rapid rate of change in the technological (e.g., cloud-computing, big data) and environmental needs (e.g., more automated workflows) of researchers\u2014coupled with growing competition\u2014has led to a variety of related efforts, such as conferences and trade shows, to assist directors, managers, and researchers in better keeping up with the industry.&#91;10&#93;\nAs of May 2019&#91;update&#93;, market researchers such as Research and Markets have estimated the global market for laboratory informatics applications will reach $3.8 billion (U.S.) by 2024, up from roughly $2.6 billion in 2019. \"The increasing need for laboratory automation; development of integrated lab informatics solutions; need to comply with regulatory requirements; and the growing demand in biobanks\/biorepositories, academic research institutes, and CROs are the major factors driving the growth of the laboratory informatics market,\" says Research and Markets.&#91;11&#93;\n\nSub-elements in laboratory informatics \nLaboratory informatics is often modeled as a central component or hub for other branching elements of the field. However, looking at the architecture in this fashion oversimplifies the field of laboratory informatics and risks giving the false appearance that branched elements of the field have greater importance than others. Instead, a multi-layered, non-hierarchical model of these elements that places an emphasis on an individual laboratory's identified business needs may be more appropriate.&#91;2&#93; A cottage industry of businesses and consultants has developed from this philosophy, helping laboratories map their informatics needs to their corporate strategy.&#91;12&#93;\nYet it's difficult to deny the existence of branching elements of laboratory informatics. Many scientific pursuits require a laboratory, from medicine to astrophysics. This has led to special \"sub-applications\" of informatics to more specialized laboratories. Genome informatics developed as genetics laboratories sought more efficient ways to manage the large amounts of data being acquired from experiments and research. As scientists continue their pursuit of unlocking the secrets of the brain, neuroinformatics and its associated technology has developed to aid those researchers in their endeavors. And as hydrologists tackle the issues of equitable and efficient use of water for many different purposes, hydroinformatics and computational hydraulics have emerged. \nThese sub-applications of laboratory informatics are also discussed in ASTM International's ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics. Updated in mid-2018, the standard not only covers applications of informatics to general laboratories but also to environmental, life science, medical, industrial, and public sector labs. The update brought with it new insights into laboratory informatics tools and how to integrate them into laboratory workflow, and with other hardware and software. And though relatively in their infancy in laboratory application, the revision added content about the application of the internet of things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and smart objects to the laboratory.&#91;13&#93;&#91;14&#93;\n\nAdditional considerations in laboratory informatics \nThe actual processes that involve information management in the laboratory should not be overlooked. Laboratories are usually required to meet regulatory requirements that dictate what data should be managed; when it should be collected and stored; how it should be collected, used, and stored; where it should be housed; and who has access to it.&#91;15&#93;&#91;16&#93; This type of regulation has, of course, had an impact on the development of software in general&#91;17&#93;&#91;18&#93;, including laboratory informatics applications. Developers of these applications must take into account&#91;13&#93;:\n\naudit trail implementation\nauthentication protocols\nconfiguration management\ndata backup\ndata integrity\nelectronic signature implementation\nencryption\ninformation privacy\nnetwork security\nThese and other considerations are discussed in standards such as ASTM E1578-18&#91;13&#93; and ISO\/IEC 17025.&#91;19&#93;\n\nTechnology of laboratory informatics \nImportant hardware and software systems that play a role in laboratory informatics include but are not limited to:\n\nChromatography data systems (CDS)\nElectronic laboratory notebooks (ELN)\nEnterprise content management applications (ECM)\nEnterprise resource planning applications (ERP)\nLaboratory execution systems (LES)\nLaboratory information management systems (LIMS)\nLaboratory information systems (LIS)\nManufacturing enterprise systems (MES)\nProcess analytical technology (PAT)\nScientific data management systems (SDMS)\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Metrick, G.&#32;(21 July 2008).&#32;\"Informatics Are Really, Really, Really Important\".&#32;Lab Manager Magazine.&#32;https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/computing-and-automation\/laboratory-informatics-20964 .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 Wood, S.&#32;(September 2007).&#32;\"Comprehensive Laboratory Informatics: A Multilayer Approach\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;American Laboratory.&#32;pp. 3.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 25 August 2017.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 25 August 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Section 36: Health Economics and Hospital Management\".&#32;Excerpta Medica&#32;19&#32;(1): 72, 534.&#32;1983.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z4GaAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=%22laboratory+informatics%22&amp;dq=%22laboratory+informatics%22&amp;hl=en . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Research\".&#32;New Scientist&#32;(New Science Publications)&#32;109: 66.&#32;1986.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=uyceAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=%22laboratory+informatics%22&amp;dq=%22laboratory+informatics%22&amp;hl=en . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Introduction\".&#32;Informatics in Pathology&#32;(Grune &amp; Stratton)&#32;1&#32;(1): 1.&#32;1986.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=PbNYAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=%22laboratory+informatics%22&amp;dq=%22laboratory+informatics%22&amp;hl=en . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Cowan, D., ed.&#32;(2002).&#32;Informatics for the Clinical Laboratory: A Practical Guide&#32;(1st ed.).&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;9.&#32;ISBN&#160;9780387244495.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=OKqGfr6xgFkC&amp;pg=PA9 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;virtualinformatics.com.&#32;9 April 2011.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 25 April 2015.&#32;http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150425070143\/http:\/\/virtualinformatics.com\/content\/Laboratory_informatics.htm .&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2017 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Krasovec, E.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"LIMS Get Agile\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;International Clinical Trials&#32;Spring 2009: 32, 34.&#32;https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/lims-get-agile.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Agile Development in Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;CSols, Inc..&#32;5 December 2019.&#32;https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/agile-development-in-laboratory-informatics\/ .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Metrick, G.&#32;(8 December 2010).&#32;\"Trends in Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;Lab Manager Magazine.&#32;https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/laboratory-technology\/trends-in-laboratory-informatics-19119 .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Research and Markets&#32;(14 March 2019).&#32;\"$3.8 Bn Laboratory Informatics Market - Global Forecasts to 2024: Growing Demand in Biobanks\/Biorepositories, Academic Research Institutes, and CROs\".&#32;PR Newswire.&#32;https:\/\/www.prnewswire.com\/news-releases\/3-8-bn-laboratory-informatics-market---global-forecasts-to-2024-growing-demand-in-biobanksbiorepositories-academic-research-institutes-and-cros-300848731.html .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Laboratory Informatics Strategy\".&#32;Labvantage Solutions, Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 13 February 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130213132659\/http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/services\/laboratory-strategy.aspx .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 13.0 13.1 13.2 \"ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\".&#32;ASTM International.&#32;https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Jones, J.&#32;(2018).&#32;\"ASTM 1578 (Scope &amp; Elements of Laboratory Informatics)\".&#32;MindMeister.&#32;https:\/\/cdn2.mindmeister.com\/943721819\/astm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics?fullscreen=1 .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Matsushita, H.; Miyachi, H.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Compliance with laboratory requirements regarding the secondary use of clinical specimens and laboratory data\".&#32;Rinsho Byori&#32;57&#32;(7): 678\u201382.&#32;PMID&#160;19708538. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Poosa, S.&#32;(November 2015).&#32;\"An Explanation of Laboratory Governing Bodies, Regulations, and Applicable Laws\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;BC Solutions, LLC.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 19 March 2020.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200319213139\/http:\/\/www.bcsolutionsrfn.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/explanation-of-laboratory-governing-bodies-regulations-and-applicable-laws.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Hamou-Lhadj, A.&#32;(2010).&#32;\"Regulatory Compliance and its Impact on Software Development\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Proceedings from the First Workshop on Law Compliancy Issues in Organisational Systems and Strategies (iComply10): 1\u20135.&#32;https:\/\/www.semanticscholar.org\/paper\/Regulatory-Compliance-and-its-Impact-on-Software-Hamou-Lhadj\/033e3f4cb88026804d1de861b6e1944d652cbd74?p2df . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Miri, M.; Foomany, F.H.; Mohammed, N.&#32;(2018).&#32;\"Complying With GDPR: An Agile Case Study\".&#32;ISACA Journal&#32;2: 1\u20137.&#32;https:\/\/www.isaca.org\/resources\/isaca-journal\/issues\/2018\/volume-2\/complying-with-gdpr-an-agile-case-study . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017(en) - General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories\".&#32;ISO Online Browsing Platform (OBP).&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;2017.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en .&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics<\/a>\nCategories: Articles containing potentially dated statements from May 2019All articles containing potentially dated statementsInformaticsLaboratory informaticsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 6 January 2022, at 16:36.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 90,254 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_informatics rootpage-Laboratory_informatics skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory informatics<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:PCR_machine.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"a18037afd579be75ff32e578e8b2b5c2\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/8e\/PCR_machine.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:PCR_machine.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"a18037afd579be75ff32e578e8b2b5c2\"><\/a><\/div>A Bio-Rad thermal cycler as an example of a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> device that measures, processes, and sends information<\/div><\/div><\/div><p><b>Laboratory informatics<\/b> is the specialized application of information through a platform of instruments, software, and data management tools that allow scientific data to be captured, migrated, processed, and interpreted for immediate use, as well as stored, managed, and shared to support future research, development, and lab testing efforts while maximizing the efficiency of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> operations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LM08Informatics_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LM08Informatics-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIPaper_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIPaper-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The term \"laboratory <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">informatics<\/a>\" has been in use at least since the early 1980s<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ExcerptaMedica_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ExcerptaMedica-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NewSciLI_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NewSciLI-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-InfoPath_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-InfoPath-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and has expanded in meaning since then. Before the advent of computer technology, information management played an important role in laboratories and research efforts of all sorts. And while today the process of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management\" title=\"Information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73\">information management<\/a> continues to be important, laboratory informatics tends to focus more on the technology associated with that information management process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-InfoClinLab_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-InfoClinLab-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The field itself is one which has seen significant growth as demand for fast and efficient electronic data exchange has boomed. A rapid series of technological developments have made laboratory equipment less static and more interactive, allowing large networks of integrated lab devices, computers, and telecommunications equipment to log, analyze, and distribute data. This has progressively enabled scientific research projects to move from a localized model to a more global model, one that allows \"involved researchers to spend less time collecting data or waiting for information to arrive from another location, which in turn allows them to focus more on the work at hand and makes their research both faster and more efficient.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VI_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VI-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Tangentially, more robust and scalable data management systems have been developed to help laboratories stay competitive. Today, this often means adopting laboratory automation solutions that are capable of being developed and deployed in an agile fashion.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KrasovecLIMS09_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KrasovecLIMS09-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CSolsAgile19_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CSolsAgile19-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, the rapid rate of change in the technological (e.g., cloud-computing, big data) and environmental needs (e.g., more automated workflows) of researchers\u2014coupled with growing competition\u2014has led to a variety of related efforts, such as conferences and trade shows, to assist directors, managers, and researchers in better keeping up with the industry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MetrickTrends10_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MetrickTrends10-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As of May 2019<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, market researchers such as Research and Markets have estimated the global market for laboratory informatics applications will reach $3.8 billion (U.S.) by 2024, up from roughly $2.6 billion in 2019. \"The increasing need for laboratory automation; development of integrated lab informatics solutions; need to comply with regulatory requirements; and the growing demand in biobanks\/biorepositories, academic research institutes, and CROs are the major factors driving the growth of the laboratory informatics market,\" says Research and Markets.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PRN3.8Bn19_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PRN3.8Bn19-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sub-elements_in_laboratory_informatics\">Sub-elements in laboratory informatics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Laboratory informatics is often modeled as a central component or hub for other branching elements of the field. However, looking at the architecture in this fashion oversimplifies the field of laboratory informatics and risks giving the false appearance that branched elements of the field have greater importance than others. Instead, a multi-layered, non-hierarchical model of these elements that places an emphasis on an individual laboratory's identified business needs may be more appropriate.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIPaper_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIPaper-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> A cottage industry of businesses and consultants has developed from this philosophy, helping laboratories map their informatics needs to their corporate strategy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Yet it's difficult to deny the existence of branching elements of laboratory informatics. Many scientific pursuits require a laboratory, from medicine to astrophysics. This has led to special \"sub-applications\" of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Informatics\" data-key=\"ea0ff624ac3a644c35d2b51d39047bdf\">informatics<\/a> to more specialized laboratories. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Genome_informatics\" title=\"Genome informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"304bd6698e9a01cab6157ba518743ff1\">Genome informatics<\/a> developed as genetics laboratories sought more efficient ways to manage the large amounts of data being acquired from experiments and research. As scientists continue their pursuit of unlocking the secrets of the brain, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Neuroinformatics\" title=\"Neuroinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4944aa70b984d0a743d4e9de46416311\">neuroinformatics<\/a> and its associated technology has developed to aid those researchers in their endeavors. And as hydrologists tackle the issues of equitable and efficient use of water for many different purposes, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hydroinformatics\" title=\"Hydroinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3b7d8debd442917861657ad876c1982\">hydroinformatics<\/a> and computational hydraulics have emerged. \n<\/p><p>These sub-applications of laboratory informatics are also discussed in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM International<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578\" title=\"ASTM E1578\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061\">ASTM E1578-18<\/a> Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics. Updated in mid-2018, the standard not only covers applications of informatics to general laboratories but also to environmental, life science, medical, industrial, and public sector labs. The update brought with it new insights into laboratory informatics tools and how to integrate them into laboratory <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a>, and with other hardware and software. And though relatively in their infancy in laboratory application, the revision added content about the application of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things\" title=\"Internet of things\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f\">internet of things<\/a> (IoT), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (AI), and smart objects to the laboratory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JonesASTME1578_18_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JonesASTME1578_18-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Additional_considerations_in_laboratory_informatics\">Additional considerations in laboratory informatics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The actual processes that involve information management in the laboratory should not be overlooked. Laboratories are usually required to meet regulatory requirements that dictate what data should be managed; when it should be collected and stored; how it should be collected, used, and stored; where it should be housed; and who has access to it.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MatsushitaCompl09_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MatsushitaCompl09-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PoosaAnExpl15_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PoosaAnExpl15-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This type of regulation has, of course, had an impact on the development of software in general<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hamou-LhadjRegulatory10_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hamou-LhadjRegulatory10-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MiriComply18_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MiriComply18-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, including laboratory informatics applications. Developers of these applications must take into account<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0\">audit trail implementation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication_protocol\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Authentication protocol\" data-key=\"b2f4b11b654738080ae16a4a5ad15f99\">authentication protocols<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Configuration_management\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikipedia:Configuration management\" data-key=\"0c9f634bcce1231b1a7f52d4d90c10b2\">configuration management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Backup\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde\">data backup<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167\">data integrity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature\" title=\"Electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4\">electronic signature implementation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1\">encryption<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_privacy\" title=\"Information privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782\">information privacy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Network_security\" title=\"Network security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3\">network security<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>These and other considerations are discussed in standards such as ASTM E1578-18<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_13-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO17025Peak_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO17025Peak-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technology_of_laboratory_informatics\">Technology of laboratory informatics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Important hardware and software systems that play a role in laboratory informatics include but are not limited to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_system\" title=\"Chromatography data system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a424bb889d8507b7e8912f2faf2570c6\">Chromatography data systems<\/a> (CDS)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">Electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a> (ELN)<\/li>\n<li>Enterprise content management applications (ECM)<\/li>\n<li>Enterprise resource planning applications (ERP)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\" title=\"Laboratory execution system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a\">Laboratory execution systems<\/a> (LES)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">Laboratory information management systems<\/a> (LIMS)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">Laboratory information systems<\/a> (LIS)<\/li>\n<li>Manufacturing enterprise systems (MES)<\/li>\n<li>Process analytical technology (PAT)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">Scientific data management systems<\/a> (SDMS)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-LM08Informatics-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LM08Informatics_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Metrick, G.&#32;(21 July 2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/computing-and-automation\/laboratory-informatics-20964\" target=\"_blank\">\"Informatics Are Really, Really, Really Important\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Lab Manager Magazine<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/computing-and-automation\/laboratory-informatics-20964\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/computing-and-automation\/laboratory-informatics-20964<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Informatics+Are+Really%2C+Really%2C+Really+Important&amp;rft.atitle=Lab+Manager+Magazine&amp;rft.aulast=Metrick%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Metrick%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=21+July+2008&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labmanager.com%2Fcomputing-and-automation%2Flaboratory-informatics-20964&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIPaper-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIPaper_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIPaper_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wood, S.&#32;(September 2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comprehensive Laboratory Informatics: A Multilayer Approach\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>American Laboratory<\/i>.&#32;pp. 3.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 25 August 2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 25 August 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Comprehensive+Laboratory+Informatics%3A+A+Multilayer+Approach&amp;rft.atitle=American+Laboratory&amp;rft.aulast=Wood%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Wood%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=September+2007&amp;rft.pages=pp.+3&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170825181932%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.it.uu.se%2Fedu%2Fcourse%2Fhomepage%2Flims%2Fvt12%2FComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ExcerptaMedica-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ExcerptaMedica_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z4GaAAAAIAAJ&q=%22laboratory+informatics%22&dq=%22laboratory+informatics%22&hl=en\" target=\"_blank\">\"Section 36: Health Economics and Hospital Management\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Excerpta Medica<\/i>&#32;<b>19<\/b>&#32;(1): 72, 534.&#32;1983<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z4GaAAAAIAAJ&q=%22laboratory+informatics%22&dq=%22laboratory+informatics%22&hl=en\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z4GaAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=%22laboratory+informatics%22&amp;dq=%22laboratory+informatics%22&amp;hl=en<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Section+36%3A+Health+Economics+and+Hospital+Management&amp;rft.jtitle=Excerpta+Medica&amp;rft.date=1983&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=72%2C+534&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz4GaAAAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522laboratory%2Binformatics%2522%26dq%3D%2522laboratory%2Binformatics%2522%26hl%3Den&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NewSciLI-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NewSciLI_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=uyceAQAAMAAJ&q=%22laboratory+informatics%22&dq=%22laboratory+informatics%22&hl=en\" target=\"_blank\">\"Research\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>New Scientist<\/i>&#32;(New Science Publications)&#32;<b>109<\/b>: 66.&#32;1986<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=uyceAQAAMAAJ&q=%22laboratory+informatics%22&dq=%22laboratory+informatics%22&hl=en\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=uyceAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=%22laboratory+informatics%22&amp;dq=%22laboratory+informatics%22&amp;hl=en<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Research&amp;rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.volume=109&amp;rft.pages=66&amp;rft.pub=New+Science+Publications&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuyceAQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522laboratory%2Binformatics%2522%26dq%3D%2522laboratory%2Binformatics%2522%26hl%3Den&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-InfoPath-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-InfoPath_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=PbNYAAAAYAAJ&q=%22laboratory+informatics%22&dq=%22laboratory+informatics%22&hl=en\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introduction\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Informatics in Pathology<\/i>&#32;(Grune &amp; Stratton)&#32;<b>1<\/b>&#32;(1): 1.&#32;1986<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=PbNYAAAAYAAJ&q=%22laboratory+informatics%22&dq=%22laboratory+informatics%22&hl=en\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=PbNYAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=%22laboratory+informatics%22&amp;dq=%22laboratory+informatics%22&amp;hl=en<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Introduction&amp;rft.jtitle=Informatics+in+Pathology&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=1&amp;rft.pub=Grune+%26+Stratton&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPbNYAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D%2522laboratory%2Binformatics%2522%26dq%3D%2522laboratory%2Binformatics%2522%26hl%3Den&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-InfoClinLab-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-InfoClinLab_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Cowan, D., ed.&#32;(2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=OKqGfr6xgFkC&pg=PA9\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Informatics for the Clinical Laboratory: A Practical Guide<\/i><\/a>&#32;(1st ed.).&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;9.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9780387244495<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=OKqGfr6xgFkC&pg=PA9\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=OKqGfr6xgFkC&amp;pg=PA9<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Informatics+for+the+Clinical+Laboratory%3A+A+Practical+Guide&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B9&amp;rft.edition=1st&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=9780387244495&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOKqGfr6xgFkC%26pg%3DPA9&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VI-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-VI_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150425070143\/http:\/\/virtualinformatics.com\/content\/Laboratory_informatics.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;virtualinformatics.com.&#32;9 April 2011.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.virtualinformatics.com\/content\/Laboratory_informatics.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 25 April 2015<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150425070143\/http:\/\/virtualinformatics.com\/content\/Laboratory_informatics.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150425070143\/http:\/\/virtualinformatics.com\/content\/Laboratory_informatics.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 17 February 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=9+April+2011&amp;rft.pub=virtualinformatics.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150425070143%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fvirtualinformatics.com%2Fcontent%2FLaboratory_informatics.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KrasovecLIMS09-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KrasovecLIMS09_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Krasovec, E.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/lims-get-agile.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS Get Agile\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>International Clinical Trials<\/i>&#32;<b>Spring 2009<\/b>: 32, 34<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/lims-get-agile.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/lims-get-agile.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=LIMS+Get+Agile&amp;rft.jtitle=International+Clinical+Trials&amp;rft.aulast=Krasovec%2C+E.&amp;rft.au=Krasovec%2C+E.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.volume=Spring+2009&amp;rft.pages=32%2C+34&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.abbott%2Fshared%2Flims-get-agile.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CSolsAgile19-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CSolsAgile19_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/agile-development-in-laboratory-informatics\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Agile Development in Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;CSols, Inc..&#32;5 December 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/agile-development-in-laboratory-informatics\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/blog\/agile-development-in-laboratory-informatics\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Agile+Development+in+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=5+December+2019&amp;rft.pub=CSols%2C+Inc.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csolsinc.com%2Fblog%2Fagile-development-in-laboratory-informatics%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MetrickTrends10-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MetrickTrends10_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Metrick, G.&#32;(8 December 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/laboratory-technology\/trends-in-laboratory-informatics-19119\" target=\"_blank\">\"Trends in Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Lab Manager Magazine<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/laboratory-technology\/trends-in-laboratory-informatics-19119\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/laboratory-technology\/trends-in-laboratory-informatics-19119<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Trends+in+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=Lab+Manager+Magazine&amp;rft.aulast=Metrick%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Metrick%2C+G.&amp;rft.date=8+December+2010&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labmanager.com%2Flaboratory-technology%2Ftrends-in-laboratory-informatics-19119&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PRN3.8Bn19-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PRN3.8Bn19_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Research and Markets&#32;(14 March 2019).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.prnewswire.com\/news-releases\/3-8-bn-laboratory-informatics-market---global-forecasts-to-2024-growing-demand-in-biobanksbiorepositories-academic-research-institutes-and-cros-300848731.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"$3.8 Bn Laboratory Informatics Market - Global Forecasts to 2024: Growing Demand in Biobanks\/Biorepositories, Academic Research Institutes, and CROs\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>PR Newswire<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.prnewswire.com\/news-releases\/3-8-bn-laboratory-informatics-market---global-forecasts-to-2024-growing-demand-in-biobanksbiorepositories-academic-research-institutes-and-cros-300848731.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.prnewswire.com\/news-releases\/3-8-bn-laboratory-informatics-market---global-forecasts-to-2024-growing-demand-in-biobanksbiorepositories-academic-research-institutes-and-cros-300848731.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=%243.8+Bn+Laboratory+Informatics+Market+-+Global+Forecasts+to+2024%3A+Growing+Demand+in+Biobanks%2FBiorepositories%2C+Academic+Research+Institutes%2C+and+CROs&amp;rft.atitle=PR+Newswire&amp;rft.aulast=Research+and+Markets&amp;rft.au=Research+and+Markets&amp;rft.date=14+March+2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.prnewswire.com%2Fnews-releases%2F3-8-bn-laboratory-informatics-market---global-forecasts-to-2024-growing-demand-in-biobanksbiorepositories-academic-research-institutes-and-cros-300848731.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130213132659\/http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/services\/laboratory-strategy.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Informatics Strategy\"<\/a>.&#32;Labvantage Solutions, Inc.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/services\/laboratory-strategy.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 13 February 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130213132659\/http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/services\/laboratory-strategy.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130213132659\/http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/services\/laboratory-strategy.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Laboratory+Informatics+Strategy&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Labvantage+Solutions%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130213132659%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.labvantage.com%2Fservices%2Flaboratory-strategy.aspx&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTME1578-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1578_13-0\">13.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1578_13-1\">13.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1578_13-2\">13.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1578-18 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;ASTM International<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/e1578-18.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578-18+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=ASTM+International&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2Fe1578-18.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JonesASTME1578_18-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-JonesASTME1578_18_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jones, J.&#32;(2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn2.mindmeister.com\/943721819\/astm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics?fullscreen=1\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM 1578 (Scope &amp; Elements of Laboratory Informatics)\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>MindMeister<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cdn2.mindmeister.com\/943721819\/astm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics?fullscreen=1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cdn2.mindmeister.com\/943721819\/astm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics?fullscreen=1<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ASTM+1578+%28Scope+%26+Elements+of+Laboratory+Informatics%29&amp;rft.atitle=MindMeister&amp;rft.aulast=Jones%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdn2.mindmeister.com%2F943721819%2Fastm-e1578-scope-elements-of-laboratory-informatics%3Ffullscreen%3D1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MatsushitaCompl09-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MatsushitaCompl09_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Matsushita, H.; Miyachi, H.&#32;(2009).&#32;\"Compliance with laboratory requirements regarding the secondary use of clinical specimens and laboratory data\".&#32;<i>Rinsho Byori<\/i>&#32;<b>57<\/b>&#32;(7): 678\u201382.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/19708538\" target=\"_blank\">19708538<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Compliance+with+laboratory+requirements+regarding+the+secondary+use+of+clinical+specimens+and+laboratory+data&amp;rft.jtitle=Rinsho+Byori&amp;rft.aulast=Matsushita%2C+H.%3B+Miyachi%2C+H.&amp;rft.au=Matsushita%2C+H.%3B+Miyachi%2C+H.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.volume=57&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=678%E2%80%9382&amp;rft_id=info:pmid\/19708538&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PoosaAnExpl15-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PoosaAnExpl15_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Poosa, S.&#32;(November 2015).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200319213139\/http:\/\/www.bcsolutionsrfn.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/explanation-of-laboratory-governing-bodies-regulations-and-applicable-laws.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"An Explanation of Laboratory Governing Bodies, Regulations, and Applicable Laws\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;BC Solutions, LLC.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bcsolutionsrfn.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/explanation-of-laboratory-governing-bodies-regulations-and-applicable-laws.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 19 March 2020<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200319213139\/http:\/\/www.bcsolutionsrfn.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/explanation-of-laboratory-governing-bodies-regulations-and-applicable-laws.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20200319213139\/http:\/\/www.bcsolutionsrfn.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/explanation-of-laboratory-governing-bodies-regulations-and-applicable-laws.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=An+Explanation+of+Laboratory+Governing+Bodies%2C+Regulations%2C+and+Applicable+Laws&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Poosa%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Poosa%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=November+2015&amp;rft.pub=BC+Solutions%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200319213139%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.bcsolutionsrfn.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F11%2Fexplanation-of-laboratory-governing-bodies-regulations-and-applicable-laws.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Hamou-LhadjRegulatory10-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hamou-LhadjRegulatory10_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Hamou-Lhadj, A.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.semanticscholar.org\/paper\/Regulatory-Compliance-and-its-Impact-on-Software-Hamou-Lhadj\/033e3f4cb88026804d1de861b6e1944d652cbd74?p2df\" target=\"_blank\">\"Regulatory Compliance and its Impact on Software Development\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Proceedings from the First Workshop on Law Compliancy Issues in Organisational Systems and Strategies (iComply10)<\/i>: 1\u20135<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.semanticscholar.org\/paper\/Regulatory-Compliance-and-its-Impact-on-Software-Hamou-Lhadj\/033e3f4cb88026804d1de861b6e1944d652cbd74?p2df\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.semanticscholar.org\/paper\/Regulatory-Compliance-and-its-Impact-on-Software-Hamou-Lhadj\/033e3f4cb88026804d1de861b6e1944d652cbd74?p2df<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Regulatory+Compliance+and+its+Impact+on+Software+Development&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+from+the+First+Workshop+on+Law+Compliancy+Issues+in+Organisational+Systems+and+Strategies+%28iComply10%29&amp;rft.aulast=Hamou-Lhadj%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Hamou-Lhadj%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=1%E2%80%935&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.semanticscholar.org%2Fpaper%2FRegulatory-Compliance-and-its-Impact-on-Software-Hamou-Lhadj%2F033e3f4cb88026804d1de861b6e1944d652cbd74%3Fp2df&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MiriComply18-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MiriComply18_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Miri, M.; Foomany, F.H.; Mohammed, N.&#32;(2018).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.isaca.org\/resources\/isaca-journal\/issues\/2018\/volume-2\/complying-with-gdpr-an-agile-case-study\" target=\"_blank\">\"Complying With GDPR: An Agile Case Study\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ISACA Journal<\/i>&#32;<b>2<\/b>: 1\u20137<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.isaca.org\/resources\/isaca-journal\/issues\/2018\/volume-2\/complying-with-gdpr-an-agile-case-study\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.isaca.org\/resources\/isaca-journal\/issues\/2018\/volume-2\/complying-with-gdpr-an-agile-case-study<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Complying+With+GDPR%3A+An+Agile+Case+Study&amp;rft.jtitle=ISACA+Journal&amp;rft.aulast=Miri%2C+M.%3B+Foomany%2C+F.H.%3B+Mohammed%2C+N.&amp;rft.au=Miri%2C+M.%3B+Foomany%2C+F.H.%3B+Mohammed%2C+N.&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.volume=2&amp;rft.pages=1%E2%80%937&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.isaca.org%2Fresources%2Fisaca-journal%2Fissues%2F2018%2Fvolume-2%2Fcomplying-with-gdpr-an-agile-case-study&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO17025Peak-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO17025Peak_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025:2017(en) - General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>ISO Online Browsing Platform (OBP)<\/i>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;2017<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-3:v1:en<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 19 March 2020<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025%3A2017%28en%29+-+General+requirements+for+the+competence+of+testing+and+calibration+laboratories&amp;rft.atitle=ISO+Online+Browsing+Platform+%28OBP%29&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fobp%2Fui%2F%23iso%3Astd%3Aiso-iec%3A17025%3Aed-3%3Av1%3Aen&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110152934\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.863 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.420 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 13204\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 97017\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 43432\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 31581\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 387.597 1 -total\n 85.03% 329.581 1 Template:Reflist\n 60.36% 233.949 19 Template:Citation\/core\n 42.68% 165.411 11 Template:Cite_web\n 20.74% 80.398 7 Template:Cite_journal\n 13.15% 50.985 1 Template:As_of\n 9.54% 36.964 1 Template:Cite_book\n 9.35% 36.222 1 Template:DMCA\n 8.27% 32.049 9 Template:Date\n 7.70% 29.832 1 Template:Dated_maintenance_category\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:96-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110152933 and revision id 45409. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/8e\/PCR_machine.jpg"],"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301_timestamp":1704906975,"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33_type":"article","c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33_title":"Laboratory","c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory","c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33_plaintext":"\n\nLaboratoryFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search Biomedical Engineering Laboratory at UC Davis College of EngineeringA laboratory is a building, part of a building, or other place equipped to conduct scientific experiments, tests, investigations, and practice within one or multiple fields of study.&#91;1&#93; This may also be referred to as a science laboratory or research laboratory.&#91;2&#93;&#91;3&#93; Such labs take many forms because of the differing requirements of specialists in the various fields of science and research. For example, a physics lab might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, while a metallurgy lab could have an apparatus for casting or refining metals or for testing their strength. A chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologist's lab might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. \nDespite the great differences among laboratories, some features are common. The use of workbenches or countertops at which the scientist may choose to either sit or stand is a common way to ensure comfortable working conditions. Cabinets for the storage of laboratory equipment are also quite common. Scientists have traditionally recorded an experiment's progress in a laboratory notebook, but modern labs almost always contain at least one computer workstation for data collection and analysis, utilizing tools like laboratory information management systems (LIMS) or electronic laboratory notebooks (ELN).\nScientific laboratories can be found in schools and universities, in industry, in government or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. A laboratory might offer work space for just one to more than 30 researchers depending on its size and purpose. Recently, a new type of laboratory called an \"open laboratory\" has emerged. Its format allows the sharing of space, equipment, and support staff among different students and research groups, and it also fosters information exchange through communications across fields. Current examples include the Electrical and Computer Engineering Lab at Temple University&#91;4&#93; and all the laboratories at The Mechanobiology Institute of Singapore.&#91;5&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 Types of laboratories \n2 Laboratory safety \n\n2.1 Standards and guidance \n\n\n3 Notes \n4 References \n\n\n\nTypes of laboratories \nScientific or research laboratories are as diverse as there are specialties. However, the title of laboratory is also used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. These notably include:\n\nmedical lab\npublic health lab\nforensic lab used to process crime scene evidence\ncomputer lab\nmedia lab\nfilm laboratory or darkroom\nclandestine lab for the production of illegal drugs\nIn recent years government and private centers for innovation in learning, leadership, and organization have also adopted \"lab\" in their name to emphasize the experimental and research-oriented nature of their work.\n\nLaboratory safety \n Examples of safety equipment in the laboratoryIn some laboratories, the conditions are no more dangerous than in any other room. In many labs, though, hazards are present. Laboratory hazards are as varied as the subjects of study in laboratories, and might include poisons; infectious agents; flammable, explosive, or radioactive materials; moving machinery; extreme temperatures; lasers; strong magnetic fields; or high voltage. In laboratories where dangerous conditions might exist, safety precautions are important. Rules exist to minimize the individual's risk, and safety equipment is used to protect the lab user from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency.&#91;6&#93;\nIn the laboratory regular inspections and audits help assess hazards due to chemical handling and storage, electrical equipment, biohazards, hazardous waste management, housekeeping and emergency preparedness, radiation safety, ventilation, and air quality. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance and the training of individuals who have access to and\/or work in the laboratory. Training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries, and potential litigation. Training may include laboratory safety videos that are both relevant and engaging.&#91;7&#93;\n\nStandards and guidance \nThe following entities create standards and guidance for laboratory safety around the world:\n\nAmerican National Standards Institute (ANSI)\nClinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI)\nInternational Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)\nInternational Organization for Standardization (ISO)\nNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)\nOccupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)\nNotes \nSome elements of this article are reused from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"laboratory\".&#32;Merriam-Webster Dictionary.&#32;Merriam-Webster, Inc.&#32;https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/laboratory .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"laboratory\".&#32;WordNet Search.&#32;Princeton University.&#32;http:\/\/wordnetweb.princeton.edu\/perl\/webwn?o2=&amp;o0=1&amp;o8=1&amp;o1=1&amp;o7=&amp;o5=&amp;o9=&amp;o6=&amp;o3=&amp;o4=&amp;s=laboratory .&#32;Retrieved 10 September 2013 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Russo, Jose&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Chapter 5: What is a Research Laboratory?\".&#32;The Tools of Science: The Handbook for the Apprentice of Biomedical Research.&#32;World Scientific.&#32;pp.&#160;133\u2013142.&#32;ISBN&#160;9814293164.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GSAtu-yc-vkC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The Electrical &amp; Computer Engineering Department's interchangeable and portable lab equipment makes interactive learning a reality\".&#32;Temple University.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 28 September 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130928054509\/http:\/\/engineering.temple.edu\/electrical-computer-engineering\/labs-equipment .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"MBI Laboratories\".&#32;The Mechanobiology Institute.&#32;https:\/\/www.mbi.nus.edu.sg\/services\/core-facilities\/laboratories\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Gile, Terry Jo&#32;(2004).&#32;\"Chapter 1: The Law and Science of Laboratory Safety\".&#32;Complete Guide to Laboratory Safety.&#32;HC Pro, Inc.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201312.&#32;ISBN&#160;1578395313.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AnHuuIngEcAC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Matson, Michael L.; Fitzgerald, Jeffrey P.; Lin, Shirley&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Creating Customized, Relevant, and Engaging Laboratory Safety Videos\".&#32;Journal of Chemical Education&#32;84&#32;(10): 1727.&#32;doi:10.1021\/ed084p1727. &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory<\/a>\nCategory: Laboratory typesNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 6 January 2022, at 16:23.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 57,411 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory rootpage-Laboratory skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:452px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Biomedical_Engineering_Laboratory.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"7889b09e9ac7cdd0faf78305f80a835c\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a3\/Biomedical_Engineering_Laboratory.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Biomedical_Engineering_Laboratory.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"7889b09e9ac7cdd0faf78305f80a835c\"><\/a><\/div>Biomedical Engineering Laboratory at UC Davis College of Engineering<\/div><\/div><\/div><p>A <b>laboratory<\/b> is a building, part of a building, or other place equipped to conduct scientific experiments, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Test\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Test\" data-key=\"8728d547050acbd2e29117a4fc3b357b\">tests<\/a>, investigations, and practice within one or multiple fields of study.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MWLabDef_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MWLabDef-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This may also be referred to as a <b>science laboratory<\/b> or <b>research laboratory<\/b>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WNLab_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WNLab-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ToolsRusso_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ToolsRusso-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Such labs take many forms because of the differing requirements of specialists in the various fields of science and research. For example, a physics lab might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, while a metallurgy lab could have an apparatus for casting or refining metals or for testing their strength. A chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologist's lab might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. \n<\/p><p>Despite the great differences among laboratories, some features are common. The use of workbenches or countertops at which the scientist may choose to either sit or stand is a common way to ensure comfortable working conditions. Cabinets for the storage of laboratory equipment are also quite common. Scientists have traditionally recorded an experiment's progress in a laboratory notebook, but modern labs almost always contain at least one computer workstation for data collection and analysis, utilizing tools like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management systems<\/a> (LIMS) or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a> (ELN).\n<\/p><p>Scientific laboratories can be found in schools and universities, in industry, in government or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. A laboratory might offer work space for just one to more than 30 researchers depending on its size and purpose. Recently, a new type of laboratory called an \"open laboratory\" has emerged. Its format allows the sharing of space, equipment, and support staff among different students and research groups, and it also fosters <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> exchange through communications across fields. Current examples include the Electrical and Computer Engineering Lab at Temple University<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TempleOL_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TempleOL-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> and all the laboratories at The Mechanobiology Institute of Singapore.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MBIOL_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MBIOL-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_laboratories\">Types of laboratories<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Scientific or research laboratories are as diverse as there are specialties. However, the title of <i>laboratory<\/i> is also used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. These notably include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_laboratory\" title=\"Clinical laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"307bcdf1bdbcd1bb167cee435b7a5463\">medical lab<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_laboratory\" title=\"Public health laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34ffb658cb79bf322c65efaad95996f5\">public health lab<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Forensic_science\" title=\"Forensic science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"415d36a7b65494677b6d2873d5febec1\">forensic<\/a> lab used to process crime scene evidence<\/li>\n<li>computer lab<\/li>\n<li>media lab<\/li>\n<li>film laboratory or darkroom<\/li>\n<li>clandestine lab for the production of illegal drugs<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In recent years government and private centers for innovation in learning, leadership, and organization have also adopted \"lab\" in their name to emphasize the experimental and research-oriented nature of their work.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laboratory_safety\">Laboratory safety<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Safety_equipment.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"9af3c5de3242c5f1cfac9ba639373569\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/8e\/Safety_equipment.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"213\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Safety_equipment.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"9af3c5de3242c5f1cfac9ba639373569\"><\/a><\/div>Examples of safety equipment in the laboratory<\/div><\/div><\/div><p>In some laboratories, the conditions are no more dangerous than in any other room. In many labs, though, hazards are present. Laboratory hazards are as varied as the subjects of study in laboratories, and might include poisons; infectious agents; flammable, explosive, or radioactive materials; moving machinery; extreme temperatures; lasers; strong magnetic fields; or high voltage. In laboratories where dangerous conditions might exist, safety precautions are important. Rules exist to minimize the individual's risk, and safety equipment is used to protect the lab user from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabSafeGile_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabSafeGile-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the laboratory regular inspections and audits help assess hazards due to chemical handling and storage, electrical equipment, biohazards, hazardous waste management, housekeeping and emergency preparedness, radiation safety, ventilation, and air quality. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance and the training of individuals who have access to and\/or work in the laboratory. Training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries, and potential litigation. Training may include laboratory safety videos that are both relevant and engaging.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SafeVids_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SafeVids-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards_and_guidance\">Standards and guidance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The following entities create standards and guidance for laboratory safety around the world:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/American_National_Standards_Institute\" title=\"American National Standards Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a3da6ae9a20adfa068187109b058ff4\">American National Standards Institute<\/a> (ANSI)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clsi.org\/standards\/about-our-standards\/standards-resources\/\" target=\"_blank\">Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Electrotechnical_Commission\" title=\"International Electrotechnical Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25341e03365f68cab3f247b7508a23e5\">International Electrotechnical Commission<\/a> (IEC)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health\" title=\"National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00e847c2d90b5e56ed2310039fe508fd\">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health<\/a> (NIOSH)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.osha.gov\/SLTC\/laboratories\/standards.html\" target=\"_blank\">Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some elements of this article are reused from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory\" data-key=\"d485d02536811b3c6746522f10f7094b\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-MWLabDef-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MWLabDef_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/laboratory\" target=\"_blank\">\"laboratory\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Merriam-Webster Dictionary<\/i>.&#32;Merriam-Webster, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/laboratory\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/laboratory<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=laboratory&amp;rft.atitle=Merriam-Webster+Dictionary&amp;rft.pub=Merriam-Webster%2C+Inc&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Flaboratory&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WNLab-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WNLab_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wordnetweb.princeton.edu\/perl\/webwn?o2=&o0=1&o8=1&o1=1&o7=&o5=&o9=&o6=&o3=&o4=&s=laboratory\" target=\"_blank\">\"laboratory\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>WordNet Search<\/i>.&#32;Princeton University<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/wordnetweb.princeton.edu\/perl\/webwn?o2=&o0=1&o8=1&o1=1&o7=&o5=&o9=&o6=&o3=&o4=&s=laboratory\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/wordnetweb.princeton.edu\/perl\/webwn?o2=&amp;o0=1&amp;o8=1&amp;o1=1&amp;o7=&amp;o5=&amp;o9=&amp;o6=&amp;o3=&amp;o4=&amp;s=laboratory<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 10 September 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=laboratory&amp;rft.atitle=WordNet+Search&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwordnetweb.princeton.edu%2Fperl%2Fwebwn%3Fo2%3D%26o0%3D1%26o8%3D1%26o1%3D1%26o7%3D%26o5%3D%26o9%3D%26o6%3D%26o3%3D%26o4%3D%26s%3Dlaboratory&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ToolsRusso-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ToolsRusso_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Russo, Jose&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GSAtu-yc-vkC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 5: What is a Research Laboratory?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Tools of Science: The Handbook for the Apprentice of Biomedical Research<\/i>.&#32;World Scientific.&#32;pp.&#160;133\u2013142.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;9814293164<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GSAtu-yc-vkC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GSAtu-yc-vkC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+5%3A+What+is+a+Research+Laboratory%3F&amp;rft.atitle=The+Tools+of+Science%3A+The+Handbook+for+the+Apprentice+of+Biomedical+Research&amp;rft.aulast=Russo%2C+Jose&amp;rft.au=Russo%2C+Jose&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B133%E2%80%93142&amp;rft.pub=World+Scientific&amp;rft.isbn=9814293164&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGSAtu-yc-vkC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TempleOL-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TempleOL_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130928054509\/http:\/\/engineering.temple.edu\/electrical-computer-engineering\/labs-equipment\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Electrical &amp; Computer Engineering Department's interchangeable and portable lab equipment makes interactive learning a reality\"<\/a>.&#32;Temple University.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/engineering.temple.edu\/electrical-computer-engineering\/labs-equipment\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 September 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130928054509\/http:\/\/engineering.temple.edu\/electrical-computer-engineering\/labs-equipment\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130928054509\/http:\/\/engineering.temple.edu\/electrical-computer-engineering\/labs-equipment<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+Electrical+%26+Computer+Engineering+Department%27s+interchangeable+and+portable+lab+equipment+makes+interactive+learning+a+reality&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=Temple+University&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130928054509%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fengineering.temple.edu%2Felectrical-computer-engineering%2Flabs-equipment&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MBIOL-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MBIOL_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mbi.nus.edu.sg\/services\/core-facilities\/laboratories\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"MBI Laboratories\"<\/a>.&#32;The Mechanobiology Institute<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mbi.nus.edu.sg\/services\/core-facilities\/laboratories\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.mbi.nus.edu.sg\/services\/core-facilities\/laboratories\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=MBI+Laboratories&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=The+Mechanobiology+Institute&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mbi.nus.edu.sg%2Fservices%2Fcore-facilities%2Flaboratories%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LabSafeGile-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabSafeGile_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Gile, Terry Jo&#32;(2004).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AnHuuIngEcAC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: The Law and Science of Laboratory Safety\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Complete Guide to Laboratory Safety<\/i>.&#32;HC Pro, Inc.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u201312.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1578395313<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AnHuuIngEcAC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AnHuuIngEcAC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+The+Law+and+Science+of+Laboratory+Safety&amp;rft.atitle=Complete+Guide+to+Laboratory+Safety&amp;rft.aulast=Gile%2C+Terry+Jo&amp;rft.au=Gile%2C+Terry+Jo&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%9312&amp;rft.pub=HC+Pro%2C+Inc&amp;rft.isbn=1578395313&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAnHuuIngEcAC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SafeVids-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SafeVids_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Matson, Michael L.; Fitzgerald, Jeffrey P.; Lin, Shirley&#32;(2007).&#32;\"Creating Customized, Relevant, and Engaging Laboratory Safety Videos\".&#32;<i>Journal of Chemical Education<\/i>&#32;<b>84<\/b>&#32;(10): 1727.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1021%2Fed084p1727\" target=\"_blank\">10.1021\/ed084p1727<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Creating+Customized%2C+Relevant%2C+and+Engaging+Laboratory+Safety+Videos&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&amp;rft.aulast=Matson%2C+Michael+L.%3B+Fitzgerald%2C+Jeffrey+P.%3B+Lin%2C+Shirley&amp;rft.au=Matson%2C+Michael+L.%3B+Fitzgerald%2C+Jeffrey+P.%3B+Lin%2C+Shirley&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.volume=84&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.pages=1727&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1021%2Fed084p1727&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110061501\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.832 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.779 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4566\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 31050\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 12411\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 17\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 10607\/5000000 bytes\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 96.704 1 -total\n100.00% 96.704 1 Template:Reflist\n 59.87% 57.901 7 Template:Citation\/core\n 36.94% 35.722 4 Template:Cite_web\n 30.37% 29.366 2 Template:Cite_book\n 12.78% 12.363 3 Template:Citation\/identifier\n 12.77% 12.347 1 Template:Cite_journal\n 6.81% 6.583 12 Template:Citation\/make_link\n 4.22% 4.084 6 Template:Hide_in_print\n 3.05% 2.950 3 Template:Only_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:84-0!canonical and timestamp 20240110061459 and revision id 45408. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a3\/Biomedical_Engineering_Laboratory.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/8e\/Safety_equipment.jpg"],"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33_timestamp":1704906975,"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f_type":"article","0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f_title":"Informatics (academic field)","0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)","0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f_plaintext":"\n\nInformatics (academic field)From LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to search A computer used at China's 2002 National Olympiad in InformaticsInformatics is the science of information, the practice of information processing, and the engineering of information systems.&#91;1&#93; Informatics studies the structure, algorithms, behavior, and interactions of natural and artificial systems that store, process, access, and communicate information. It also develops its own conceptual and theoretical foundations and utilizes foundations developed in other fields. Since the advent of computers, individuals and organizations increasingly process information digitally. This has led to the study of informatics that has computational, cognitive, and social aspects, including study of the social impact of information technologies.&#91;1&#93;\nWhile the field of informatics encompasses the study of systems that represent, process, and communicate information, the theory of computation in the specific discipline of theoretical computer science which evolved from Alan Turing studies the notion of a complex system regardless of whether information actually exists. Since both fields process information, there is some disagreement among scientists as to field hierarchy. For example, Arizona State University attempted to adopt a broader definition of informatics to even encompass cognitive science at the launch of its School of Computing and Informatics in September 2006.&#91;2&#93; \nThe confusion arises since information can be easily stored on a computer, and hence informatics could be considered the parent of computer science. However, the original notion of a computer was the name given to the action of computation regardless of the existence of information or the existence of a Von Neumann architecture. Humans are examples of computational systems and not information systems. Many fields such as quantum computing theory are studied in theoretical computer science but not related to informatics. \nA practitioner of informatics may be called an informatician or an informaticist.\n\nContents \n\n1 Etymology \n2 History \n\n2.1 Changing definitions \n\n\n3 Applications of informatics \n4 Contributing disciplines \n5 Further reading \n6 External links \n7 References \n\n\n\nEtymology \nIn 1957 the German computer scientist Karl Steinbuch coined the word Informatik by publishing a paper called Informatik: Automatische Informationsverarbeitung (\"Informatics: Automatic Information Processing\").&#91;3&#93; The English term informatics is sometimes understood as meaning the same as computer science. However, the German word Informatik is the correct translation of the English phrase computer science. (The naming for computer science is derived from the concept of computation, which may or may not involve the existence of information. For example, quantum computation and digital logic do not involve information.)\nThe French term informatique was coined in 1962 by Philippe Dreyfus&#91;4&#93; together with various translations \u2014 informatics (English), also proposed independently and simultaneously by Walter F. Bauer and associates who co-founded Informatics Inc., and informatica (Italian, Spanish, Romanian, Portuguese, Dutch), referring to the application of computers to store and process information. The term was coined as a combination of \"information\" and \"automatic\" to describe the science of automating information interactions.\nThe morphology\u2014informat-ion + -ics\u2014uses \"the accepted form for names of sciences, as conics, linguistics, optics, or matters of practice, as economics, politics, tactics\", and so, linguistically, the meaning extends easily to encompass both the science of information and the practice of information processing.\n\nHistory \nThis new term was adopted across Western Europe, and, except in English, developed a meaning roughly translated by the English \"computer science\" or \"computing science.\" Mikhailov et al. advocated the Russian term informatika (1966), and the English informatics (1967), as names for the theory of scientific information and argued for a broader meaning, including study of the use of information technology in various communities and of the interaction of technology and human organizational structures:\n\nInformatics is the discipline of science which investigates the structure and properties (not specific content) of scientific information, as well as the regularities of scientific information activity, its theory, history, methodology and organization.&#91;5&#93;\nUsage has since modified this definition in three ways. First, the restriction to scientific information is removed, as in business informatics or legal informatics. Second, since most information is now digitally stored, computation is now central to informatics. Third, the representation, processing and communication of information are added as objects of investigation, since they have been recognized as fundamental to any scientific account of information. Taking information as the central focus of study, then, distinguishes informatics, which includes the study of biological and social mechanisms of information processing, from computer science, where digital computation plays a distinguished central role. Similarly, in the study of representation and communication, informatics is indifferent to the substrate that carries information. For example, it encompasses the study of communication using gesture, speech and language, as well as digital communications and networking.\nThe first example of a degree-level qualification in informatics occurred in 1982 when Plymouth Polytechnic (now the University of Plymouth) offered a four-year BSc (honours) degree in \"Computing and Informatics,\" with an initial intake of only 35 students. The course still runs today, making it the longest available qualification in the subject.&#91;citation needed&#93;\nIn 1989, the first International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI) \u2014 a competition of the brightest informatics students around the world \u2014 was held in Bulgaria.&#91;6&#93; The competition involved two days of intense competition, with up to four students selected from each participating country to attend and compete for the highest score on a variety of informatics problems.&#91;7&#93;\n\nChanging definitions \nThe definition of informatics has seen many variations across different institutions:\n\nThe 2008 Research Assessment Exercise, of the U.K. Funding Councils, includes a new Computer Science and Informatics unit of assessment (UoA),&#91;8&#93; the scope of which is described as follows:\nThe UoA includes the study of methods for acquiring, storing, processing, communicating and reasoning about information, and the role of interactivity in natural and artificial systems, through the implementation, organisation and use of computer hardware, software and other resources. The subjects are characterised by the rigorous application of analysis, experimentation and design.\nAt the Indiana University School of Informatics and Computing in Indianapolis and Southeast, informatics is defined as \"the art, science and human dimensions of information technology\" and \"\u201cthe study and application of information technology to the arts, science and professions.\"&#91;9&#93;&#91;10&#93; These definitions are generally accepted in the United States and differ from British usage in omitting the study of natural computation.\nAt the University of California, Irvine, informatics is defined thusly&#91;11&#93;:\nInformatics is based on recognizing that the design of this technology is not solely a technical matter, but must focus on the relationship between the technology and its use in real-world settings. That is, informatics designs solutions in context, and takes into account the social, cultural and organizational settings in which computing and information technology will be used.\nAt the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, defines it as a \"coupling [of] information with computing technology,\" adding&#91;12&#93;:\nInformatics provides solid grounding in computer programming, mathematics, and statistics, combined with study of the ethical and social science aspects of complex information systems. Informatics majors learn to critically analyze various approaches to processing information and develop skills to design, implement, and evaluate the next generation of information technology tools.\nApplications of informatics \nIn the English-speaking world the term informatics was first widely used in the applied sense as \"medical informatics,\" taken to include \"the cognitive, information processing, and communication tasks of medical practice, education, and research, including information science and the technology to support these tasks.\"&#91;13&#93; Many such compounds are now in use; they can be viewed as different areas of applied informatics.\nIn the 2000s, a major area of applied informatics is that of organizational informatics. Organizational informatics is fundamentally interested in the application of information, information systems and ICT within organizations of various forms, including private sector, public sector, and voluntary sector organizations.&#91;14&#93;&#91;15&#93; As such, organizational informatics can be seen to be sub-category of social informatics and a super-category of business informatics.\nBy 2004, the field of laboratory informatics \u2014 the specialized application of information technology to optimize and extend laboratory operations \u2014 began emerging as a more distinct area of applied informatics.&#91;16&#93;\n\nContributing disciplines \nComputer science\nCommunication studies\nComplex systems\nDidactics of informatics\nInformation science\nInformation theory\nInformation technology\nFurther reading \nGammack, John; Valerie Hobbs; Diarmuid Pigott&#32;(2011).&#32;The Book of Informatics&#32;(1st Revised ed.).&#32;Cengage Learning.&#32;pp.&#160;548.&#32;ISBN&#160;0170216004.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=MOIW12eOvJsC . &#160; \nFourman, Michael&#32;(2002)&#32;(PDF).&#32;Informatics: Informatics Research Report EDI-INF-RR-0139.&#32;University of Edinburgh.&#32;pp.&#160;9.&#32;http:\/\/www.inf.ed.ac.uk\/publications\/online\/0139.pdf . &#160; \nBauer, Walter F.&#32;(1996).&#32;\"Informatics and (et) Informatique\".&#32;IEEE Annals of the History of Computing&#32;(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)&#32;18&#32;(2).&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 20 November 2010.&#32;http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101120212846\/http:\/\/www.softwarehistory.org\/history\/Bauer1.html . &#160; \nExternal links \nCouncil of European Professional Informatics Societies (CEPIS)\nReferences \n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 Gammack, John; Valerie Hobbs; Diarmuid Pigott&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Chapter 0: What Is Informatics?\".&#32;The Book of Informatics&#32;(1st Revised ed.).&#32;Cengage Learning.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u20133.&#32;ISBN&#160;0170216004.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=MOIW12eOvJsC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Sci Monitor - Fall 2006\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;School of Computing and Informatics, Arizona State University.&#32;Fall 2006.&#32;p. 4\u20135.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 2 January 2007.&#32;http:\/\/wayback.archive.org\/web\/20070715000000*\/http:\/\/sci.asu.edu\/news\/publications\/SCInewsletter_Fall06.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 10 April 2012 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Steinbuch, Karl&#32;(1957).&#32;\"Informatik: Automatische Informationsverarbeitung\".&#32;SEG-Nachrichten&#32;(Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen)&#32;22&#32;(4). &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Cronin, Blaise&#32;(2007).&#32;Annual Review of Information Science &amp; Technology.&#32;Information Today, Inc..&#32;p.&#160;596.&#32;ISBN&#160;157387308X.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=aPg6CW0V0YEC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Mikhailov, A.I.; A.I. Chernyl; R.S. Gilyarevskii&#32;(1966).&#32;\"Informatika \u2013 novoe nazvanie teorii nau\u010dnoj informacii\".&#32;Nau\u010dno tehni\u010deskaja informacija&#32;(12): 35\u201339. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"The 1st International Olympiad in Informatics\".&#32;International Olympiad in Informatics.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 30 June 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120630235245\/http:\/\/ioinformatics.org\/locations\/ioi89\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"About Us\".&#32;International Olympiad in Informatics.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 07 June 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120607061710\/http:\/\/ioinformatics.org\/about.shtml .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"UoA 23, Computer Science and Informatics\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.K. Funding Councils.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 24 February 2021.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210224143539\/http:\/\/www.rae.ac.uk\/pubs\/2006\/01\/docs\/f23.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Informatics Defined\".&#32;IUPUI School of Informatics.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 22 April 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120422154432\/http:\/\/informatics.iupui.edu\/about\/what-is-informatics\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"IU Southeast Informatics Program\".&#32;IU Southeast.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 13 May 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120513234532\/http:\/\/www.ius.edu\/informatics\/ .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Questions &amp; answers &gt; 1. What is informatics?\".&#32;UC-Irvine's Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 01 June 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120601131317\/http:\/\/www.informatics.uci.edu\/qa\/#general01 .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"About informatics\".&#32;University of Michigan - Ann Arbor.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 06 April 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120406180203\/http:\/\/informatics.umich.edu\/informatics\/about .&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Greenes, R.A.; E.H. Shortliffe&#32;(1990).&#32;\"Medical Informatics: An emerging discipline with academic and institutional perspectives\".&#32;Journal of the American Medical Association&#32;263&#32;(8): 1114\u20131120.&#32;doi:10.1001\/jama.1990.03440080092030. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Beynon-Davies, Paul&#32;(2002).&#32;Information Systems: An Introduction to Informatics in Organisations.&#32;Palgrave.&#32;ISBN&#160;0333963903.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cCqdQAAACAAJ . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Beynon-Davies, Paul&#32;(2009).&#32;Business Information Systems.&#32;Palgrave Macmillan.&#32;ISBN&#160;023020368X.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pdUROgAACAAJ . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Perry, Douglas&#32;(2004).&#32;\"Laboratory Informatics: Origin, Scope, and its Place in Higher Education\".&#32;Journal of Laboratory Automation&#32;9&#32;(6).&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.jala.2004.08.010. &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)<\/a>\nCategories: Articles with unsourced statementsInformaticsHidden category: All articles with unsourced statementsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 September 2022, at 18:15.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 21,509 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Informatics_academic_field rootpage-Informatics_academic_field skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Informatics (academic field)<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:242px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:20020811203148_-_NOI_2002.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"093d873c5b869f540035401d36a06544\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/db\/20020811203148_-_NOI_2002.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"240\" height=\"180\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:20020811203148_-_NOI_2002.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"093d873c5b869f540035401d36a06544\"><\/a><\/div>A computer used at China's 2002 National Olympiad in Informatics<\/div><\/div><\/div><p><b>Informatics<\/b> is the science of information, the practice of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> processing, and the engineering of information systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cengage1_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cengage1-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Informatics studies the structure, algorithms, behavior, and interactions of natural and artificial systems that store, process, access, and communicate information. It also develops its own conceptual and theoretical foundations and utilizes foundations developed in other fields. Since the advent of computers, individuals and organizations increasingly process information digitally. This has led to the study of informatics that has computational, cognitive, and social aspects, including study of the social impact of information technologies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cengage1_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cengage1-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While the field of informatics encompasses the study of systems that represent, process, and communicate information, the theory of computation in the specific discipline of theoretical computer science which evolved from Alan Turing studies the notion of a complex system regardless of whether information actually exists. Since both fields process information, there is some disagreement among scientists as to field hierarchy. For example, Arizona State University attempted to adopt a broader definition of informatics to even encompass cognitive science at the launch of its School of Computing and Informatics in September 2006.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>The confusion arises since information can be easily stored on a computer, and hence informatics could be considered the parent of computer science. However, the original notion of a computer was the name given to the action of computation regardless of the existence of information or the existence of a Von Neumann architecture. Humans are examples of computational systems and not information systems. Many fields such as quantum computing theory are studied in theoretical computer science but not related to informatics. \n<\/p><p>A practitioner of informatics may be called an <i>informatician<\/i> or an <i>informaticist<\/i>.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Etymology\">Etymology<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In 1957 the German computer scientist Karl Steinbuch coined the word <i>Informatik<\/i> by publishing a paper called <i>Informatik: Automatische Informationsverarbeitung<\/i> (\"Informatics: Automatic Information Processing\").<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The English term <i>informatics<\/i> is sometimes understood as meaning the same as computer science. However, the German word <i>Informatik<\/i> is the correct translation of the English phrase <i>computer science<\/i>. (The naming for computer science is derived from the concept of computation, which may or may not involve the existence of information. For example, quantum computation and digital logic do not involve information.)\n<\/p><p>The French term <i>informatique<\/i> was coined in 1962 by Philippe Dreyfus<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> together with various translations \u2014 informatics (English), also proposed independently and simultaneously by Walter F. Bauer and associates who co-founded <i>Informatics Inc.<\/i>, and <i>informatica<\/i> (Italian, Spanish, Romanian, Portuguese, Dutch), referring to the application of computers to store and process information. The term was coined as a combination of \"information\" and \"automatic\" to describe the science of automating information interactions.\n<\/p><p>The morphology\u2014<i>informat<\/i>-ion + -<i>ics<\/i>\u2014uses \"the accepted form for names of sciences, as conics, linguistics, optics, or matters of practice, as economics, politics, tactics\", and so, linguistically, the meaning extends easily to encompass both the science of information and the practice of information processing.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This new term was adopted across Western Europe, and, except in English, developed a meaning roughly translated by the English \"computer science\" or \"computing science.\" Mikhailov et al. advocated the Russian term <i>informatika<\/i> (1966), and the English <i>informatics<\/i> (1967), as names for the <i>theory of scientific information<\/i> and argued for a broader meaning, including study of the use of information technology in various communities and of the interaction of technology and human organizational structures:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd><i>Informatics is the discipline of science which investigates the structure and properties (not specific content) of scientific information, as well as the regularities of scientific information activity, its theory, history, methodology and organization.<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>Usage has since modified this definition in three ways. First, the restriction to scientific information is removed, as in business informatics or legal informatics. Second, since most information is now digitally stored, computation is now central to informatics. Third, the representation, processing and communication of information are added as objects of investigation, since they have been recognized as fundamental to any scientific account of information. Taking <i>information<\/i> as the central focus of study, then, distinguishes <i>informatics,<\/i> which includes the study of biological and social mechanisms of information processing, from <i>computer science<\/i>, where digital computation plays a distinguished central role. Similarly, in the study of representation and communication, informatics is indifferent to the substrate that carries information. For example, it encompasses the study of communication using gesture, speech and language, as well as digital communications and networking.\n<\/p><p>The first example of a degree-level qualification in informatics occurred in 1982 when Plymouth Polytechnic (now the University of Plymouth) offered a four-year BSc (honours) degree in \"Computing and Informatics,\" with an initial intake of only 35 students. The course still runs today, making it the longest available qualification in the subject.<sup class=\"Template-Fact\" title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">&#91;<i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Citation_needed\" title=\"LIMSWiki:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a05514560e13447268ca6f577949869e\">citation needed<\/a><\/i>&#93;<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 1989, the first International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI) \u2014 a competition of the brightest informatics students around the world \u2014 was held in Bulgaria.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The competition involved two days of intense competition, with up to four students selected from each participating country to attend and compete for the highest score on a variety of informatics problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Changing_definitions\">Changing definitions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The definition of informatics has seen many variations across different institutions:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The 2008 Research Assessment Exercise, of the U.K. Funding Councils, includes a new <i>Computer Science and Informatics<\/i> unit of assessment (UoA),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup> the scope of which is described as follows:<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dd><i>The UoA includes the study of methods for acquiring, storing, processing, communicating and reasoning about information, and the role of interactivity in natural and artificial systems, through the implementation, organisation and use of computer hardware, software and other resources. The subjects are characterised by the rigorous application of analysis, experimentation and design.<\/i><\/dd><\/dl>\n<ul><li>At the Indiana University School of Informatics and Computing in Indianapolis and Southeast, informatics is defined as \"the art, science and human dimensions of information technology\" and \"\u201cthe study and application of information technology to the arts, science and professions.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup> These definitions are generally accepted in the United States and differ from British usage in omitting the study of natural computation.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>At the University of California, Irvine, informatics is defined thusly<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dd><i>Informatics is based on recognizing that the design of this technology is not solely a technical matter, but must focus on the relationship between the technology and its use in real-world settings. That is, informatics designs solutions in context, and takes into account the social, cultural and organizational settings in which computing and information technology will be used.<\/i><\/dd><\/dl>\n<ul><li>At the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, defines it as a \"coupling [of] information with computing technology,\" adding<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dd><i>Informatics provides solid grounding in computer programming, mathematics, and statistics, combined with study of the ethical and social science aspects of complex information systems. Informatics majors learn to critically analyze various approaches to processing information and develop skills to design, implement, and evaluate the next generation of information technology tools.<\/i><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications_of_informatics\">Applications of informatics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In the English-speaking world the term <i>informatics<\/i> was first widely used in the applied sense as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_informatics\" title=\"Health informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4\">medical informatics<\/a>,\" taken to include \"the cognitive, information processing, and communication tasks of medical practice, education, and research, including information science and the technology to support these tasks.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Many such compounds are now in use; they can be viewed as different areas of applied informatics.\n<\/p><p>In the 2000s, a major area of applied informatics is that of organizational informatics. Organizational informatics is fundamentally interested in the application of information, information systems and ICT within organizations of various forms, including private sector, public sector, and voluntary sector organizations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup> As such, organizational informatics can be seen to be sub-category of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Social_informatics\" title=\"Social informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcd933b4a1738f1d4d5c473ef9768874\">social informatics<\/a> and a super-category of business informatics.\n<\/p><p>By 2004, the field of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> \u2014 the specialized application of information technology to optimize and extend laboratory operations \u2014 began emerging as a more distinct area of applied informatics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Contributing_disciplines\">Contributing disciplines<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Computer science<\/li>\n<li>Communication studies<\/li>\n<li>Complex systems<\/li>\n<li>Didactics of informatics<\/li>\n<li>Information science<\/li>\n<li>Information theory<\/li>\n<li>Information technology<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Gammack, John; Valerie Hobbs; Diarmuid Pigott&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=MOIW12eOvJsC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Book of Informatics<\/i><\/a>&#32;(1st Revised ed.).&#32;Cengage Learning.&#32;pp.&#160;548.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0170216004<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=MOIW12eOvJsC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=MOIW12eOvJsC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Informatics&amp;rft.aulast=Gammack%2C+John%3B+Valerie+Hobbs%3B+Diarmuid+Pigott&amp;rft.au=Gammack%2C+John%3B+Valerie+Hobbs%3B+Diarmuid+Pigott&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B548&amp;rft.edition=1st+Revised&amp;rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&amp;rft.isbn=0170216004&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMOIW12eOvJsC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Fourman, Michael&#32;(2002)&#32;(PDF).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.inf.ed.ac.uk\/publications\/online\/0139.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Informatics: Informatics Research Report EDI-INF-RR-0139<\/i><\/a>.&#32;University of Edinburgh.&#32;pp.&#160;9<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.inf.ed.ac.uk\/publications\/online\/0139.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.inf.ed.ac.uk\/publications\/online\/0139.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Informatics%3A+Informatics+Research+Report+EDI-INF-RR-0139&amp;rft.aulast=Fourman%2C+Michael&amp;rft.au=Fourman%2C+Michael&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B9&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Edinburgh&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.inf.ed.ac.uk%2Fpublications%2Fonline%2F0139.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation Journal\">Bauer, Walter F.&#32;(1996).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101120212846\/http:\/\/www.softwarehistory.org\/history\/Bauer1.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Informatics and (et) Informatique\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>IEEE Annals of the History of Computing<\/i>&#32;(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)&#32;<b>18<\/b>&#32;(2).&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.softwarehistory.org\/history\/Bauer1.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 20 November 2010<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101120212846\/http:\/\/www.softwarehistory.org\/history\/Bauer1.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101120212846\/http:\/\/www.softwarehistory.org\/history\/Bauer1.html<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Informatics+and+%28et%29+Informatique&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Annals+of+the+History+of+Computing&amp;rft.aulast=Bauer%2C+Walter+F.&amp;rft.au=Bauer%2C+Walter+F.&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.volume=18&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pub=Institute+of+Electrical+and+Electronics+Engineers&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20101120212846%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.softwarehistory.org%2Fhistory%2FBauer1.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cepis.org\" target=\"_blank\">Council of European Professional Informatics Societies (CEPIS)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cengage1-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Cengage1_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Cengage1_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Gammack, John; Valerie Hobbs; Diarmuid Pigott&#32;(2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=MOIW12eOvJsC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 0: What Is Informatics?\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>The Book of Informatics<\/i>&#32;(1st Revised ed.).&#32;Cengage Learning.&#32;pp.&#160;1\u20133.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0170216004<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=MOIW12eOvJsC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=MOIW12eOvJsC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Chapter+0%3A+What+Is+Informatics%3F&amp;rft.atitle=The+Book+of+Informatics&amp;rft.aulast=Gammack%2C+John%3B+Valerie+Hobbs%3B+Diarmuid+Pigott&amp;rft.au=Gammack%2C+John%3B+Valerie+Hobbs%3B+Diarmuid+Pigott&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%933&amp;rft.edition=1st+Revised&amp;rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&amp;rft.isbn=0170216004&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMOIW12eOvJsC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wayback.archive.org\/web\/20070715000000*\/http:\/\/sci.asu.edu\/news\/publications\/SCInewsletter_Fall06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sci Monitor - Fall 2006\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;School of Computing and Informatics, Arizona State University.&#32;Fall 2006.&#32;p. 4\u20135.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sci.asu.edu\/news\/publications\/SCInewsletter_Fall06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 2 January 2007<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/wayback.archive.org\/web\/20070715000000*\/http:\/\/sci.asu.edu\/news\/publications\/SCInewsletter_Fall06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/wayback.archive.org\/web\/20070715000000*\/http:\/\/sci.asu.edu\/news\/publications\/SCInewsletter_Fall06.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 10 April 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Sci+Monitor+-+Fall+2006&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=Fall+2006&amp;rft.pages=p.+4%E2%80%935&amp;rft.pub=School+of+Computing+and+Informatics%2C+Arizona+State+University&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwayback.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20070715000000%2A%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fsci.asu.edu%2Fnews%2Fpublications%2FSCInewsletter_Fall06.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Steinbuch, Karl&#32;(1957).&#32;\"Informatik: Automatische Informationsverarbeitung\".&#32;<i>SEG-Nachrichten<\/i>&#32;(Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen)&#32;<b>22<\/b>&#32;(4).<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Informatik%3A+Automatische+Informationsverarbeitung&amp;rft.jtitle=SEG-Nachrichten&amp;rft.aulast=Steinbuch%2C+Karl&amp;rft.au=Steinbuch%2C+Karl&amp;rft.date=1957&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pub=Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Cronin, Blaise&#32;(2007).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=aPg6CW0V0YEC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Annual Review of Information Science &amp; Technology<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Information Today, Inc..&#32;p.&#160;596.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;157387308X<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=aPg6CW0V0YEC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=aPg6CW0V0YEC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Annual+Review+of+Information+Science+%26+Technology&amp;rft.aulast=Cronin%2C+Blaise&amp;rft.au=Cronin%2C+Blaise&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B596&amp;rft.pub=Information+Today%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.isbn=157387308X&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaPg6CW0V0YEC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Mikhailov, A.I.; A.I. Chernyl; R.S. Gilyarevskii&#32;(1966).&#32;\"Informatika \u2013 novoe nazvanie teorii nau\u010dnoj informacii\".&#32;<i>Nau\u010dno tehni\u010deskaja informacija<\/i>&#32;(12): 35\u201339.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Informatika+%E2%80%93+novoe+nazvanie+teorii+nau%C4%8Dnoj+informacii&amp;rft.jtitle=Nau%C4%8Dno+tehni%C4%8Deskaja+informacija&amp;rft.aulast=Mikhailov%2C+A.I.%3B+A.I.+Chernyl%3B+R.S.+Gilyarevskii&amp;rft.au=Mikhailov%2C+A.I.%3B+A.I.+Chernyl%3B+R.S.+Gilyarevskii&amp;rft.date=1966&amp;rft.issue=12&amp;rft.pages=35%E2%80%9339&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120630235245\/http:\/\/ioinformatics.org\/locations\/ioi89\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The 1st International Olympiad in Informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;International Olympiad in Informatics.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ioinformatics.org\/locations\/ioi89\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 30 June 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120630235245\/http:\/\/ioinformatics.org\/locations\/ioi89\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120630235245\/http:\/\/ioinformatics.org\/locations\/ioi89\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=The+1st+International+Olympiad+in+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Olympiad+in+Informatics&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120630235245%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fioinformatics.org%2Flocations%2Fioi89%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120607061710\/http:\/\/ioinformatics.org\/about.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"About Us\"<\/a>.&#32;International Olympiad in Informatics.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ioinformatics.org\/about.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 07 June 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120607061710\/http:\/\/ioinformatics.org\/about.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120607061710\/http:\/\/ioinformatics.org\/about.shtml<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+Us&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=International+Olympiad+in+Informatics&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120607061710%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fioinformatics.org%2Fabout.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210224143539\/http:\/\/www.rae.ac.uk\/pubs\/2006\/01\/docs\/f23.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"UoA 23, Computer Science and Informatics\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;U.K. Funding Councils.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rae.ac.uk\/pubs\/2006\/01\/docs\/f23.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 24 February 2021<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210224143539\/http:\/\/www.rae.ac.uk\/pubs\/2006\/01\/docs\/f23.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210224143539\/http:\/\/www.rae.ac.uk\/pubs\/2006\/01\/docs\/f23.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=UoA+23%2C+Computer+Science+and+Informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=U.K.+Funding+Councils&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20210224143539%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.rae.ac.uk%2Fpubs%2F2006%2F01%2Fdocs%2Ff23.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120422154432\/http:\/\/informatics.iupui.edu\/about\/what-is-informatics\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Informatics Defined\"<\/a>.&#32;IUPUI School of Informatics.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/informatics.iupui.edu\/about\/what-is-informatics\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 22 April 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120422154432\/http:\/\/informatics.iupui.edu\/about\/what-is-informatics\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120422154432\/http:\/\/informatics.iupui.edu\/about\/what-is-informatics\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Informatics+Defined&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=IUPUI+School+of+Informatics&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120422154432%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Finformatics.iupui.edu%2Fabout%2Fwhat-is-informatics%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120513234532\/http:\/\/www.ius.edu\/informatics\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"IU Southeast Informatics Program\"<\/a>.&#32;IU Southeast.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ius.edu\/informatics\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 13 May 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120513234532\/http:\/\/www.ius.edu\/informatics\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120513234532\/http:\/\/www.ius.edu\/informatics\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=IU+Southeast+Informatics+Program&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=IU+Southeast&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120513234532%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ius.edu%2Finformatics%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#general01\">\"Questions &amp; answers &gt; 1. What is informatics?\"<\/a>.&#32;UC-Irvine's Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#general01\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 01 June 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#general01\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120601131317\/http:\/\/www.informatics.uci.edu\/qa\/#general01<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Questions+%26+answers+%3E+1.+What+is+informatics%3F&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=UC-Irvine%27s+Donald+Bren+School+of+Information+and+Computer+Sciences&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120601131317%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.uci.edu%2Fqa%2F%23general01&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120406180203\/http:\/\/informatics.umich.edu\/informatics\/about\" target=\"_blank\">\"About informatics\"<\/a>.&#32;University of Michigan - Ann Arbor.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/informatics.umich.edu\/informatics\/about\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 06 April 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120406180203\/http:\/\/informatics.umich.edu\/informatics\/about\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120406180203\/http:\/\/informatics.umich.edu\/informatics\/about<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 06 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=About+informatics&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+-+Ann+Arbor&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120406180203%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Finformatics.umich.edu%2Finformatics%2Fabout&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Greenes, R.A.; E.H. Shortliffe&#32;(1990).&#32;\"Medical Informatics: An emerging discipline with academic and institutional perspectives\".&#32;<i>Journal of the American Medical Association<\/i>&#32;<b>263<\/b>&#32;(8): 1114\u20131120.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1001%2Fjama.1990.03440080092030\" target=\"_blank\">10.1001\/jama.1990.03440080092030<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Medical+Informatics%3A+An+emerging+discipline+with+academic+and+institutional+perspectives&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Medical+Association&amp;rft.aulast=Greenes%2C+R.A.%3B+E.H.+Shortliffe&amp;rft.au=Greenes%2C+R.A.%3B+E.H.+Shortliffe&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.volume=263&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=1114%E2%80%931120&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1001%2Fjama.1990.03440080092030&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Beynon-Davies, Paul&#32;(2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cCqdQAAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Information Systems: An Introduction to Informatics in Organisations<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Palgrave.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0333963903<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cCqdQAAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cCqdQAAACAAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Information+Systems%3A+An+Introduction+to+Informatics+in+Organisations&amp;rft.aulast=Beynon-Davies%2C+Paul&amp;rft.au=Beynon-Davies%2C+Paul&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.pub=Palgrave&amp;rft.isbn=0333963903&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcCqdQAAACAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Beynon-Davies, Paul&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pdUROgAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Business Information Systems<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Palgrave Macmillan.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;023020368X<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pdUROgAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pdUROgAACAAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Business+Information+Systems&amp;rft.aulast=Beynon-Davies%2C+Paul&amp;rft.au=Beynon-Davies%2C+Paul&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&amp;rft.isbn=023020368X&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpdUROgAACAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Perry, Douglas&#32;(2004).&#32;\"Laboratory Informatics: Origin, Scope, and its Place in Higher Education\".&#32;<i>Journal of Laboratory Automation<\/i>&#32;<b>9<\/b>&#32;(6).&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.jala.2004.08.010\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.jala.2004.08.010<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Laboratory+Informatics%3A+Origin%2C+Scope%2C+and+its+Place+in+Higher+Education&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Laboratory+Automation&amp;rft.aulast=Perry%2C+Douglas&amp;rft.au=Perry%2C+Douglas&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.jala.2004.08.010&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Informatics_(academic_field)\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110061037\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.656 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.205 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and revision id 49353. Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/db\/20020811203148_-_NOI_2002.jpg"],"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f_timestamp":1704906975,"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d_type":"article","6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d_title":"Information","6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information","6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d_plaintext":"\n\nInformationFrom LIMSWikiJump to navigationJump to searchInformation, in its most restricted technical sense, is a sequence of symbols that can be interpreted as a message, recorded as signs, or transmitted as signals.&#91;1&#93; Conceptually, information is the message (utterance or expression) being conveyed. Therefore, in a general sense, information is \"knowledge communicated or received concerning a particular fact or circumstance.\"&#91;2&#93;\nFrom the stance of information theory, information is taken as a sequence of symbols from an alphabet, say an input alphabet \u03c7, and an output alphabet \u03d2. Information processing consists of an input-output function that maps any input sequence from \u03c7 into an output sequence from \u03d2. The mapping may be probabilistic or determinate. It may have memory or be memoryless.&#91;3&#93;\nInformation cannot be predicted and resolves uncertainty. The uncertainty of an event is measured by its probability of occurrence and is inversely proportional to that. The more uncertain an event, the more information is required to resolve uncertainty of that event. The amount of information is measured in bits.&#91;4&#93; The concept that information is the message has different meanings in different contexts. Thus the concept of information becomes closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, understanding, stimulation, pattern, perception, representation, and entropy.&#91;4&#93;\n\nContents \n\n1 Variations of information \n\n1.1 As sensory input \n1.2 As representation and complexity \n1.3 As an influence which leads to a transformation \n1.4 As a property in physics \n1.5 As records \n\n\n2 Technologically mediated information \n3 Information and semiotics \n4 See also \n5 Further reading \n6 External links \n7 Notes \n8 References \n\n\n\nVariations of information \nAs sensory input \nOften information can be viewed as a type of input to an organism or system. Some inputs are important to the function of the organism (for example, food) or to the system itself (energy) and are called causal inputs. Other inputs (information) are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time (and perhaps another place). Some information is important because of its association with other information, but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input.&#91;5&#93; \nIn practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or system. For example, light is often a causal input to plants but provides information to animals. The colored light reflected from a flower is too weak to do much photosynthetic work. However, the visual system of the bee detects it, and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or pollen, causal inputs serving a nutritional function.&#91;5&#93;\n\nAs representation and complexity \nOne theory says information is a concept that involves at least two related entities in order to make quantitative sense: a dimensionally defined category of objects \"S\" and any of its subsets \"R\". In essence \"R\" is a representation of \"S\"; it conveys representational (and hence, conceptual) information about \"S\". The amount of information that \"R\" conveys about \"S\" is equivalent to the rate of change in the complexity of \"S\" whenever the objects in \"R\" are removed from \"S\". Under this theory, the universal scientific constructs of pattern, invariance, complexity, representation, and information are unified under a novel mathematical framework.&#91;6&#93;&#91;7&#93; Among other things, the framework aims to overcome the limitations of Shannon-Weaver information when attempting to characterize and measure subjective information.\n\nAs an influence which leads to a transformation \n Visual representation of the relationship between language, data\/facts, information, and knowledge\nInformation can also be defined as any type of pattern that influences the formation or transformation of other patterns. In this sense, there is no need for a conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the pattern. Consider, for example, DNA. The sequence of nucleotides is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind.&#91;8&#93;&#91;9&#93; \nSystems theory at times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind, and patterns circulating (due to feedback) in the system can be called information. In other words, it can be said information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose. For example, anthropologist and social scientist Gregory Bateson defined \"information\" as a \"difference that makes a difference.\"&#91;10&#93;\nIf, however, the premise of \"influence\" implies that information has been perceived by a conscious mind and also interpreted by it, the specific context associated with this interpretation may cause the transformation of the information into knowledge. Complex definitions of both \"information\" and \"knowledge\" make such semantic and logical analysis difficult, but the condition of \"transformation\" is an important point in the study of information as it relates to knowledge, especially in the business discipline of knowledge management. In this practice, tools and processes are used to assist a knowledge worker in performing research and making decisions, including steps such as&#91;11&#93;&#91;12&#93;:\n\nreviewing information in order to effectively derive value and meaning\nreferencing metadata if any is available\nestablishing a relevant context, often selecting from many possible contexts\nderiving new knowledge from the information\nmaking decisions or recommendations from the resulting knowledge\nThe Danish Dictionary of Information Terms suggests, however, information only provides an answer to a posed question. Whether the answer provides knowledge depends on the informed person.&lt;ref name=\"DDIT\"&gt;\"information\".&#32;Informationsordbogen.&#32;Informationsvidenskabelige Akademi.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 24 August 2013.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130824075255\/http:\/\/www.informationsordbogen.dk\/concept.php?cid=902 .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n&lt;\/ref&gt; Thus a generalized definition of the transformation concept could be \"information represents the answer to a specific question.\"\n\nAs a property in physics \nInformation has had a well-defined meaning in physics.&#91;13&#93; However, in 2003 theoretical physicist J. D. Bekenstein claimed a growing trend in physics was to define the physical world as being made up of information itself.&#91;14&#93; Examples of this include the phenomenon of quantum entanglement, where particles can interact without reference to their separation or the speed of light. Information itself cannot travel faster than light, even if the information is transmitted indirectly. This could lead to all attempts at physically observing a particle with an \"entangled\" relationship to another being slowed down, even though the particles are not connected in any other way other than by the information they carry.&#91;13&#93;\nAnother link is demonstrated by the Maxwell's demon thought experiment. In this experiment, a direct relationship between information and another physical property, entropy, is demonstrated. As a result, destroying the information is impossible without increasing the entropy of a system; in practical terms this often means generating heat.&#91;15&#93;\n\nAs records \nRecords are specialized forms of information, produced consciously or as by-products of business activities or transactions and retained because of their value. Organizations value records as evidence of activity, but they may also be retained for their informational value. Sound records management ensures the integrity of records is preserved for as long as they are required.\nThe international standard on records management, ISO 15489, defines records as \"information created, received, and maintained as evidence and information by an organization or person, in pursuance of legal obligations or in the transaction of business.\"&#91;16&#93;\nThe International Committee on Archives (ICA), Committee on Electronic Records defined a record as \"recorded information produced or received in the initiation, conduct, or completion of an institutional or individual activity and that comprises content, context, and structure sufficient to provide evidence of the activity.\"&#91;17&#93;\nRecords may be maintained to retain corporate memory of the organization or to meet legal, fiscal, or accountability requirements imposed on the organization. In 2005 legal expert Anthony Willis elaborated on this view, stating the sound management of business records and information delivered \"...six key requirements for good corporate governance ... transparency; accountability; due process; compliance; meeting statutory and common law requirements; and security of personal and corporate information.\"&#91;18&#93;\n\nTechnologically mediated information \nIn 2011 scientists Martin Hilbert and Priscila L\u00f3pez estimated the world's technological capacity to store information grew from 2.6 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 1986 \u2013 which is the informational equivalent to less than one 730-MB CD-ROM per person (539 MB per person) \u2013 to 295 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2007.&#91;19&#93; This is the informational equivalent of almost 61 CD-ROM per person in 2007.&#91;20&#93;\nHilbert and L\u00f3pez also stated the world's combined technological capacity to receive information through one-way broadcast networks was the informational equivalent of 174 newspapers per person per day in 2007.&#91;19&#93;, while the world's combined effective capacity to exchange information through two-way telecommunication networks was the informational equivalent of six newspapers per person per day.&#91;20&#93;\n\nInformation and semiotics \nScientists can also explain information in terms of signs and signal-sign systems. Signs themselves can be considered in terms of four interdependent levels, layers, or branches of semiotics: pragmatics, semantics, syntax, and empirics. These four layers serve to connect the social world with the physical or technical. The four branches of semiotics are described as such&#91;21&#93;&#91;22&#93;:\n\npragmatics: the purpose of communication - Pragmatics links the issue of signs with the context within which signs are used. The focus of pragmatics is on the intentions of living agents underlying communicative behavior. In other words, pragmatics links language to action.\nsemantics: the meaning of a message conveyed in a communicative act - Semantics considers the content of communication, the meaning of signs, and the association between signs and behavior. The study of semantics links symbols and their referents or concepts, particularly the way in which signs relate to human behavior.\nsyntax: the formalism used to represent a message - Syntax considers the form of communication in terms of the logic and grammar of sign systems. Syntax focuses on form rather than the content of signs and sign systems.\nempirics: the signals used to carry a message - Emperics focus on the physical characteristics of the medium of communication. Empirics is devoted to the study of communication channels and their characteristics, e.g., sound, light, electronic transmission, etc.\nIn 2008, lexicographer Sandro Nielsen discussed the relationship between semiotics and information in relation to dictionaries. The concept of lexicographic information costs is introduced and refers to the efforts users of dictionaries need to make in order to, first, find the data sought and, secondly, understand the data so they can generate information.&#91;23&#93;\nCommunication normally exists within the context of some social situation. The social situation sets the context for the intentions conveyed (pragmatics) and the form in which communication takes place. We express out intentions through a mutually understood collection of inter-related signs. Mutual understanding implies agents involved understand the chosen language in terms of its agreed syntax (syntactics) and semantics. The sender codes the message in the language and sends the message as signals along some communication channel (empirics). The chosen communication channel will have inherent properties which determine outcomes such as the speed with which communication can take place and over what distance.\n\nSee also \nGeographic information system\nInformatics\nLaboratory information management system\nLaboratory information system\nFurther reading \nFloridi, L.&#32;(2010).&#32;Information - A Very Short Introduction.&#32;Oxford University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;130.&#32;ISBN&#160;0199551375.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VupFqa3IJiUC . &#160; \nFloridi, L..&#32;Zalta, Edward N.&#32;ed.&#32;Semantic Conceptions of Information&#32;(Spring 2013 ed.).&#32;Stanford University.&#32;https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/information-semantic\/ . &#160; \nFrieden, B.R.&#32;(20 August 2012).&#32;\"Fisher Information, a New Paradigm of Science\".&#32;Optical Sciences Center, Univ. of Arizona.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 05 December 2012.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121205005223\/http:\/\/fp.optics.arizona.edu\/frieden\/fisher_information.htm . &#160; \nVon Baeyer, H.C.&#32;(2004).&#32;Information: The New Language of Science.&#32;Harvard University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;258.&#32;ISBN&#160;0674013875.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QpuZgAR8DJwC . &#160; \nYoung, P.&#32;(1987).&#32;The Nature of Information.&#32;Praeger.&#32;pp.&#160;192.&#32;ISBN&#160;0275926982.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=yX9QAAAAMAAJ . &#160; \nExternal links \nInformationsordbogen.dk, the Danish Dictionary of Information Terms \/ Informationsordbogen\nNotes \nSome elements of this article are reused from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Von Baeyer, Hans Christian&#32;(2004).&#32;Information: The New Language of Science.&#32;Harvard University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;258.&#32;ISBN&#160;0674013875.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QpuZgAR8DJwC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"information\".&#32;Dictionary.com Unabridged.&#32;Dictionary.com, LLC.&#32;https:\/\/www.dictionary.com\/browse\/information .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Wicker, Stephen B.; Kim, Saejoon&#32;(2003).&#32;Fundamentals of Codes, Graphs, and Iterative Decoding.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;1.&#32;ISBN&#160;1402072643.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rMu-R3FFG54C&amp;pg=PA1 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 Floridi, Luciano&#32;(2010).&#32;Information - A Very Short Introduction.&#32;Oxford University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;130.&#32;ISBN&#160;0199551375.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VupFqa3IJiUC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 Dusenbery, David B.&#32;(1992).&#32;Sensory Ecology: How Organisms Acquire and Respond to Information.&#32;W H Freeman Limited.&#32;pp.&#160;558.&#32;ISBN&#160;0716723336.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6S1mQgAACAAJ . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Vigo, R.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Representational information: A new general notion and measure of information\".&#32;Information Sciences&#32;181&#32;(21): 4847\u20134859.&#32;doi:10.1016\/j.ins.2011.05.020. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Vigo, R.&#32;(2013).&#32;\"Complexity over Uncertainty in Generalized Representational Information Theory (GRIT): A Structure-Sensitive General Theory of Information\".&#32;Information&#32;4&#32;(1): 1\u201330.&#32;doi:10.3390\/info4010001. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Shannon, Claude E.&#32;(1949).&#32;The Mathematical Theory of Communication.&#32;University of Illinois Press.&#32;pp.&#160;117.&#32;ISBN&#160;0252725484.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=dk0n_eGcqsUC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Casagrande, D.G.&#32;(1999).&#32;\"Information as Verb: Re-conceptualizing Information for Cognitive and Ecological Models\".&#32;Georgia Journal of Ecological Anthropology&#32;3&#32;(1): 4\u201313.&#32;doi:10.5038\/2162-4593.3.1.1. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Bateson, Gregory&#32;(1972).&#32;Steps to an Ecology of Mind: Collected Essays in Anthropology, Psychiatry, Evolution, and Epistemology.&#32;University of Chicago Press.&#32;pp.&#160;448\u2013466.&#32;ISBN&#160;0226039056.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=HewJbnQmn1gC . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Alavi, M.; Leidner, D.E.&#32;(June 1999).&#32;\"Knowledge Management and Knowledge Management Systems: Conceptual Foundations and Research Issues\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Emery University.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 26 March 2014.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140326193732\/http:\/\/knowledge.emory.edu\/papers\/1005.pdf .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Riley, J.&#32;(2017)&#32;(PDF).&#32;Understanding Metadata: What Is Metadata, and What Is It For?.&#32;National Information Standards Organization.&#32;ISBN&#160;978-1-937522-72-8.&#32;https:\/\/groups.niso.org\/apps\/group_public\/download.php\/17446\/Understanding%20Metadata.pdf . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 13.0 13.1 Zurek, Wojciech Hubert, ed.&#32;(1990).&#32;Complexity, Entropy, and the Physics of Information: The Proceedings of the 1988 Workshop on Complexity, Entropy, and the Physics of Information.&#32;Westview Press.&#32;pp.&#160;530.&#32;ISBN&#160;0201515067.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RQpQDwAAQBAJ . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Bekenstein, J.D.&#32;(August 2003).&#32;\"Information in the Holographic Universe\".&#32;Scientific American&#32;289&#32;(2): 58\u201365.&#32;https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/information-in-the-holographic-univ\/ .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Edwards, L.&#32;(15 November 2010).&#32;\"Maxwell's demon demonstration turns information into energy\".&#32;Phys.org.&#32;https:\/\/phys.org\/news\/2010-11-maxwell-demon-energy.html .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 15489-1:2016 Information and documentation \u2014 Records management \u2014 Part 1: Concepts and principles\".&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;April 2016.&#32;https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62542.html .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 \"Networked Electronic Information in the Internet and Intranet Environments\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;International Committee on Archives (ICA), Committee on Electronic Records.&#32;27 August 2000.&#32;https:\/\/www.ica.org\/en\/networked-electronic-information-internet-and-intranet-environments-2000 .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Willis, A.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"Corporate governance and management of information and records\".&#32;Records Management Journal&#32;15&#32;(2): 86\u201397.&#32;doi:10.1108\/09565690510614238. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 19.0 19.1 Hilbert, M.; L\u00f3pez, P.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"The World\u2019s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information\".&#32;Science&#32;332&#32;(6025): 60-65.&#32;doi:10.1126\/science.1200970. &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 20.0 20.1 Hilbert, M.&#32;(11 June 2011).&#32;\"World_info_capacity_animation\".&#32;YouTube.&#32;https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=iIKPjOuwqHo .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n\n\u2191 Beynon-Davies, P.&#32;(2002).&#32;Information Systems: An Introduction to Informatics in Organisations.&#32;Palgrave Macmillan Limited.&#32;pp.&#160;595.&#32;ISBN&#160;0333963903.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cCqdQAAACAAJ . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Beynon-Davies, P.&#32;(2009).&#32;Business Information Systems.&#32;Palgrave Macmillan Limited.&#32;pp.&#160;512.&#32;ISBN&#160;023020368X.&#32;https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pdUROgAACAAJ . &#160; \n \n\n\u2191 Nielsen, S.&#32;(2008).&#32;\"The Effect of Lexicographical Information Costs on Dictionary Making and Use\"&#32;(PDF).&#32;Lexikos&#32;18: 170\u2013189.&#32;ISSN&#160;1684-4904.&#32;Archived&#32;from the original&#32;on 28 April 2019.&#32;https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190428163910\/http:\/\/lexikos.journals.ac.za\/pub\/article\/download\/483\/179 .&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022 . &#160; \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information<\/a>\nCategories: InformaticsScience termsNavigation menuPage actionsPageDiscussionView sourceHistoryPage actionsPageDiscussionMoreToolsIn other languagesPersonal toolsLog inNavigationMain pageEncyclopedic articlesRecent changesRandom pageHelp about MediaWikiSearch\u00a0 ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationPopular publications\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\nPrint\/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFDownload as PDFDownload as Plain textPrintable version This page was last edited on 18 September 2022, at 18:14.Content is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.This page has been accessed 29,462 times.Privacy policyAbout LIMSWikiDisclaimers\n\n\n\n","6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Information rootpage-Information skin-monobook action-view skin--responsive\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\"><a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Information<\/h1><div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\"><!-- start content --><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Information<\/b>, in its most restricted technical sense, is a sequence of symbols that can be interpreted as a message, recorded as signs, or transmitted as signals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VonBaeyer_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VonBaeyer-1\">&#91;1&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Conceptually, information is the message (utterance or expression) being conveyed. Therefore, in a general sense, information is \"knowledge communicated or received concerning a particular fact or circumstance.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DComDef_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DComDef-2\">&#91;2&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>From the stance of information theory, information is taken as a sequence of symbols from an alphabet, say an input alphabet \u03c7, and an output alphabet \u03d2. Information processing consists of an input-output function that maps any input sequence from \u03c7 into an output sequence from \u03d2. The mapping may be probabilistic or determinate. It may have memory or be memoryless.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Wicker_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Wicker-3\">&#91;3&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Information cannot be predicted and resolves uncertainty. The uncertainty of an event is measured by its probability of occurrence and is inversely proportional to that. The more uncertain an event, the more information is required to resolve uncertainty of that event. The amount of information is measured in bits.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Floridi_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Floridi-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup> The concept that <i>information is the message<\/i> has different meanings in different contexts. Thus the concept of information becomes closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, understanding, stimulation, pattern, perception, representation, and entropy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Floridi_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Floridi-4\">&#91;4&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Variations_of_information\">Variations of information<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"As_sensory_input\">As sensory input<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Often information can be viewed as a type of input to an organism or system. Some inputs are important to the function of the organism (for example, food) or to the system itself (energy) and are called causal inputs. Other inputs (information) are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time (and perhaps another place). Some information is important because of its association with other information, but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dusenberry_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dusenberry-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or system. For example, light is often a causal input to plants but provides information to animals. The colored light reflected from a flower is too weak to do much photosynthetic work. However, the visual system of the bee detects it, and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or pollen, causal inputs serving a nutritional function.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dusenberry_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dusenberry-5\">&#91;5&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"As_representation_and_complexity\">As representation and complexity<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One theory says information is a concept that involves at least two related entities in order to make quantitative sense: a dimensionally defined category of objects \"S\" and any of its subsets \"R\". In essence \"R\" is a representation of \"S\"; it conveys representational (and hence, conceptual) information about \"S\". The amount of information that \"R\" conveys about \"S\" is equivalent to the rate of change in the complexity of \"S\" whenever the objects in \"R\" are removed from \"S\". Under this theory, the universal scientific constructs of pattern, invariance, complexity, representation, and information are unified under a novel mathematical framework.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VigoRepInfo_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VigoRepInfo-6\">&#91;6&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VigoCompUnc_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VigoCompUnc-7\">&#91;7&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Among other things, the framework aims to overcome the limitations of Shannon-Weaver information when attempting to characterize and measure subjective information.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"As_an_influence_which_leads_to_a_transformation\">As an influence which leads to a transformation<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Image_7_Information_Relationship_Model.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"99c51b8801aae9b31fce3bc89eb353c6\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e9\/Image_7_Information_Relationship_Model.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Image_7_Information_Relationship_Model.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"99c51b8801aae9b31fce3bc89eb353c6\"><\/a><\/div>Visual representation of the relationship between language, data\/facts, information, and knowledge<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Information can also be defined as any type of pattern that influences the formation or transformation of other patterns. In this sense, there is no need for a conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the pattern. Consider, for example, DNA. The sequence of nucleotides is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShannonMath_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShannonMath-8\">&#91;8&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Casagrande_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Casagrande-9\">&#91;9&#93;<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Systems theory at times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind, and patterns circulating (due to feedback) in the system can be called information. In other words, it can be said information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose. For example, anthropologist and social scientist Gregory Bateson defined \"information\" as a \"difference that makes a difference.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bateson_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bateson-10\">&#91;10&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>If, however, the premise of \"influence\" implies that information has been perceived by a conscious mind and also interpreted by it, the specific context associated with this interpretation may cause the transformation of the information into knowledge. Complex definitions of both \"information\" and \"knowledge\" make such semantic and logical analysis difficult, but the condition of \"transformation\" is an important point in the study of information as it relates to knowledge, especially in the business discipline of knowledge management. In this practice, tools and processes are used to assist a knowledge worker in performing research and making decisions, including steps such as<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KMSysAlavi_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KMSysAlavi-11\">&#91;11&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">&#91;12&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>reviewing information in order to effectively derive value and meaning<\/li>\n<li>referencing metadata if any is available<\/li>\n<li>establishing a relevant context, often selecting from many possible contexts<\/li>\n<li>deriving new knowledge from the information<\/li>\n<li>making decisions or recommendations from the resulting knowledge<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The Danish Dictionary of Information Terms suggests, however, information only provides an answer to a posed question. Whether the answer provides knowledge depends on the informed person.&lt;ref name=\"DDIT\"&gt;<span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130824075255\/http:\/\/www.informationsordbogen.dk\/concept.php?cid=902\" target=\"_blank\">\"information\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Informationsordbogen<\/i>.&#32;Informationsvidenskabelige Akademi.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informationsordbogen.dk\/concept.php?cid=902\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 24 August 2013<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130824075255\/http:\/\/www.informationsordbogen.dk\/concept.php?cid=902\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130824075255\/http:\/\/www.informationsordbogen.dk\/concept.php?cid=902<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=information&amp;rft.atitle=Informationsordbogen&amp;rft.pub=Informationsvidenskabelige+Akademi&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130824075255%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.informationsordbogen.dk%2Fconcept.php%3Fcid%3D902&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n&lt;\/ref&gt; Thus a generalized definition of the transformation concept could be \"information represents the answer to a specific question.\"\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"As_a_property_in_physics\">As a property in physics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Information has had a well-defined meaning in physics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Zurek_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Zurek-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup> However, in 2003 theoretical physicist J. D. Bekenstein claimed a growing trend in physics was to define the physical world as being made up of information itself.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JDHolo_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JDHolo-14\">&#91;14&#93;<\/a><\/sup> Examples of this include the phenomenon of quantum entanglement, where particles can interact without reference to their separation or the speed of light. Information itself cannot travel faster than light, even if the information is transmitted indirectly. This could lead to all attempts at physically observing a particle with an \"entangled\" relationship to another being slowed down, even though the particles are not connected in any other way other than by the information they carry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Zurek_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Zurek-13\">&#91;13&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Another link is demonstrated by the Maxwell's demon thought experiment. In this experiment, a direct relationship between information and another physical property, entropy, is demonstrated. As a result, destroying the information is impossible without increasing the entropy of a system; in practical terms this often means generating heat.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PhysOrgMax_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PhysOrgMax-15\">&#91;15&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"As_records\">As records<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Records are specialized forms of information, produced consciously or as by-products of business activities or transactions and retained because of their value. Organizations value records as evidence of activity, but they may also be retained for their informational value. Sound records management ensures the integrity of records is preserved for as long as they are required.\n<\/p><p>The international standard on records management, ISO 15489, defines records as \"information created, received, and maintained as evidence and information by an organization or person, in pursuance of legal obligations or in the transaction of business.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO15489_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO15489-16\">&#91;16&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The International Committee on Archives (ICA), Committee on Electronic Records defined a record as \"recorded information produced or received in the initiation, conduct, or completion of an institutional or individual activity and that comprises content, context, and structure sufficient to provide evidence of the activity.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ICA.2FCER_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ICA.2FCER-17\">&#91;17&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Records may be maintained to retain corporate memory of the organization or to meet legal, fiscal, or accountability requirements imposed on the organization. In 2005 legal expert Anthony Willis elaborated on this view, stating the sound management of business records and information delivered \"...six key requirements for good corporate governance ... transparency; accountability; due process; compliance; meeting statutory and common law requirements; and security of personal and corporate information.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Willis05_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Willis05-18\">&#91;18&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technologically_mediated_information\">Technologically mediated information<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In 2011 scientists Martin Hilbert and Priscila L\u00f3pez estimated the world's technological capacity to store information grew from 2.6 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 1986 \u2013 which is the informational equivalent to less than one 730-MB CD-ROM per person (539 MB per person) \u2013 to 295 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2007.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup> This is the informational equivalent of almost 61 CD-ROM per person in 2007.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hilbertvideo2011_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hilbertvideo2011-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Hilbert and L\u00f3pez also stated the world's combined technological capacity to receive information through one-way broadcast networks was the informational equivalent of 174 newspapers per person per day in 2007.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-19\">&#91;19&#93;<\/a><\/sup>, while the world's combined effective capacity to exchange information through two-way telecommunication networks was the informational equivalent of six newspapers per person per day.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hilbertvideo2011_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hilbertvideo2011-20\">&#91;20&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Information_and_semiotics\">Information and semiotics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Scientists can also explain information in terms of signs and signal-sign systems. Signs themselves can be considered in terms of four interdependent levels, layers, or branches of semiotics: pragmatics, semantics, syntax, and empirics. These four layers serve to connect the social world with the physical or technical. The four branches of semiotics are described as such<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-InfoSysBD_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-InfoSysBD-21\">&#91;21&#93;<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BISBD_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BISBD-22\">&#91;22&#93;<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li><i>pragmatics<\/i>: the purpose of communication - Pragmatics links the issue of signs with the context within which signs are used. The focus of pragmatics is on the intentions of living agents underlying communicative behavior. In other words, pragmatics links language to action.<\/li>\n<li><i>semantics<\/i>: the meaning of a message conveyed in a communicative act - Semantics considers the content of communication, the meaning of signs, and the association between signs and behavior. The study of semantics links symbols and their referents or concepts, particularly the way in which signs relate to human behavior.<\/li>\n<li><i>syntax<\/i>: the formalism used to represent a message - Syntax considers the form of communication in terms of the logic and grammar of sign systems. Syntax focuses on form rather than the content of signs and sign systems.<\/li>\n<li><i>empirics<\/i>: the signals used to carry a message - Emperics focus on the physical characteristics of the medium of communication. Empirics is devoted to the study of communication channels and their characteristics, e.g., sound, light, electronic transmission, etc.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>In 2008, lexicographer Sandro Nielsen discussed the relationship between semiotics and information in relation to dictionaries. The concept of lexicographic information costs is introduced and refers to the efforts users of dictionaries need to make in order to, first, find the data sought and, secondly, understand the data so they can generate information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nielsen08_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nielsen08-23\">&#91;23&#93;<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Communication normally exists within the context of some social situation. The social situation sets the context for the intentions conveyed (pragmatics) and the form in which communication takes place. We express out intentions through a mutually understood collection of inter-related signs. Mutual understanding implies agents involved understand the chosen language in terms of its agreed syntax (syntactics) and semantics. The sender codes the message in the language and sends the message as signals along some communication channel (empirics). The chosen communication channel will have inherent properties which determine outcomes such as the speed with which communication can take place and over what distance.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Geographic_information_system\" title=\"Geographic information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8981ab93f8ebf0730c3b38949b39ad99\">Geographic information system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Informatics\" data-key=\"ea0ff624ac3a644c35d2b51d39047bdf\">Informatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">Laboratory information management system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">Laboratory information system<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Floridi, L.&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VupFqa3IJiUC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Information - A Very Short Introduction<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Oxford University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;130.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0199551375<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VupFqa3IJiUC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VupFqa3IJiUC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Information+-+A+Very+Short+Introduction&amp;rft.aulast=Floridi%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Floridi%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B130&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.isbn=0199551375&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVupFqa3IJiUC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Floridi, L..&#32;Zalta, Edward N.&#32;ed.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/information-semantic\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Semantic Conceptions of Information<\/i><\/a>&#32;(Spring 2013 ed.).&#32;Stanford University<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/information-semantic\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/information-semantic\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Semantic+Conceptions+of+Information&amp;rft.aulast=Floridi%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Floridi%2C+L.&amp;rft.edition=Spring+2013&amp;rft.pub=Stanford+University&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Finformation-semantic%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation web\">Frieden, B.R.&#32;(20 August 2012).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121205005223\/http:\/\/fp.optics.arizona.edu\/frieden\/fisher_information.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Fisher Information, a New Paradigm of Science\"<\/a>.&#32;Optical Sciences Center, Univ. of Arizona.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/fp.optics.arizona.edu\/frieden\/fisher_information.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 05 December 2012<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121205005223\/http:\/\/fp.optics.arizona.edu\/frieden\/fisher_information.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121205005223\/http:\/\/fp.optics.arizona.edu\/frieden\/fisher_information.htm<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Fisher+Information%2C+a+New+Paradigm+of+Science&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Frieden%2C+B.R.&amp;rft.au=Frieden%2C+B.R.&amp;rft.date=20+August+2012&amp;rft.pub=Optical+Sciences+Center%2C+Univ.+of+Arizona&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20121205005223%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Ffp.optics.arizona.edu%2Ffrieden%2Ffisher_information.htm&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Von Baeyer, H.C.&#32;(2004).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QpuZgAR8DJwC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Information: The New Language of Science<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Harvard University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;258.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0674013875<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QpuZgAR8DJwC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QpuZgAR8DJwC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Information%3A+The+New+Language+of+Science&amp;rft.aulast=Von+Baeyer%2C+H.C.&amp;rft.au=Von+Baeyer%2C+H.C.&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B258&amp;rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft.isbn=0674013875&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQpuZgAR8DJwC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><span class=\"citation book\">Young, P.&#32;(1987).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=yX9QAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Nature of Information<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Praeger.&#32;pp.&#160;192.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0275926982<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=yX9QAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=yX9QAAAAMAAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Information&amp;rft.aulast=Young%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Young%2C+P.&amp;rft.date=1987&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B192&amp;rft.pub=Praeger&amp;rft.isbn=0275926982&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyX9QAAAAMAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informationsordbogen.dk\/\" target=\"_blank\">Informationsordbogen.dk<\/a>, the Danish Dictionary of Information Terms \/ Informationsordbogen<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some elements of this article are reused from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-VonBaeyer-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-VonBaeyer_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Von Baeyer, Hans Christian&#32;(2004).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QpuZgAR8DJwC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Information: The New Language of Science<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Harvard University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;258.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0674013875<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QpuZgAR8DJwC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QpuZgAR8DJwC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Information%3A+The+New+Language+of+Science&amp;rft.aulast=Von+Baeyer%2C+Hans+Christian&amp;rft.au=Von+Baeyer%2C+Hans+Christian&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B258&amp;rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft.isbn=0674013875&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQpuZgAR8DJwC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DComDef-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DComDef_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dictionary.com\/browse\/information\" target=\"_blank\">\"information\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Dictionary.com Unabridged<\/i>.&#32;Dictionary.com, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dictionary.com\/browse\/information\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.dictionary.com\/browse\/information<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=information&amp;rft.atitle=Dictionary.com+Unabridged&amp;rft.pub=Dictionary.com%2C+LLC&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Finformation&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Wicker-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Wicker_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Wicker, Stephen B.; Kim, Saejoon&#32;(2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rMu-R3FFG54C&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Fundamentals of Codes, Graphs, and Iterative Decoding<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Springer.&#32;pp.&#160;1.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;1402072643<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rMu-R3FFG54C&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rMu-R3FFG54C&amp;pg=PA1<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Codes%2C+Graphs%2C+and+Iterative+Decoding&amp;rft.aulast=Wicker%2C+Stephen+B.%3B+Kim%2C+Saejoon&amp;rft.au=Wicker%2C+Stephen+B.%3B+Kim%2C+Saejoon&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.isbn=1402072643&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrMu-R3FFG54C%26pg%3DPA1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Floridi-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Floridi_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Floridi_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Floridi, Luciano&#32;(2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VupFqa3IJiUC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Information - A Very Short Introduction<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Oxford University Press.&#32;pp.&#160;130.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0199551375<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VupFqa3IJiUC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VupFqa3IJiUC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Information+-+A+Very+Short+Introduction&amp;rft.aulast=Floridi%2C+Luciano&amp;rft.au=Floridi%2C+Luciano&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B130&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.isbn=0199551375&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVupFqa3IJiUC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dusenberry-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Dusenberry_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Dusenberry_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Dusenbery, David B.&#32;(1992).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6S1mQgAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Sensory Ecology: How Organisms Acquire and Respond to Information<\/i><\/a>.&#32;W H Freeman Limited.&#32;pp.&#160;558.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0716723336<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6S1mQgAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6S1mQgAACAAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Sensory+Ecology%3A+How+Organisms+Acquire+and+Respond+to+Information&amp;rft.aulast=Dusenbery%2C+David+B.&amp;rft.au=Dusenbery%2C+David+B.&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B558&amp;rft.pub=W+H+Freeman+Limited&amp;rft.isbn=0716723336&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6S1mQgAACAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VigoRepInfo-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-VigoRepInfo_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Vigo, R.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"Representational information: A new general notion and measure of information\".&#32;<i>Information Sciences<\/i>&#32;<b>181<\/b>&#32;(21): 4847\u20134859.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.ins.2011.05.020\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.ins.2011.05.020<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Representational+information%3A+A+new+general+notion+and+measure+of+information&amp;rft.jtitle=Information+Sciences&amp;rft.aulast=Vigo%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Vigo%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.volume=181&amp;rft.issue=21&amp;rft.pages=4847%E2%80%934859&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.ins.2011.05.020&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VigoCompUnc-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-VigoCompUnc_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Vigo, R.&#32;(2013).&#32;\"Complexity over Uncertainty in Generalized Representational Information Theory (GRIT): A Structure-Sensitive General Theory of Information\".&#32;<i>Information<\/i>&#32;<b>4<\/b>&#32;(1): 1\u201330.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3390%2Finfo4010001\" target=\"_blank\">10.3390\/info4010001<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Complexity+over+Uncertainty+in+Generalized+Representational+Information+Theory+%28GRIT%29%3A+A+Structure-Sensitive+General+Theory+of+Information&amp;rft.jtitle=Information&amp;rft.aulast=Vigo%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Vigo%2C+R.&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=1%E2%80%9330&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.3390%2Finfo4010001&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShannonMath-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ShannonMath_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Shannon, Claude E.&#32;(1949).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=dk0n_eGcqsUC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Mathematical Theory of Communication<\/i><\/a>.&#32;University of Illinois Press.&#32;pp.&#160;117.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0252725484<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=dk0n_eGcqsUC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=dk0n_eGcqsUC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Mathematical+Theory+of+Communication&amp;rft.aulast=Shannon%2C+Claude+E.&amp;rft.au=Shannon%2C+Claude+E.&amp;rft.date=1949&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B117&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&amp;rft.isbn=0252725484&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddk0n_eGcqsUC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Casagrande-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Casagrande_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Casagrande, D.G.&#32;(1999).&#32;\"Information as Verb: Re-conceptualizing Information for Cognitive and Ecological Models\".&#32;<i>Georgia Journal of Ecological Anthropology<\/i>&#32;<b>3<\/b>&#32;(1): 4\u201313.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.5038%2F2162-4593.3.1.1\" target=\"_blank\">10.5038\/2162-4593.3.1.1<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Information+as+Verb%3A+Re-conceptualizing+Information+for+Cognitive+and+Ecological+Models&amp;rft.jtitle=Georgia+Journal+of+Ecological+Anthropology&amp;rft.aulast=Casagrande%2C+D.G.&amp;rft.au=Casagrande%2C+D.G.&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=4%E2%80%9313&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.5038%2F2162-4593.3.1.1&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bateson-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bateson_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Bateson, Gregory&#32;(1972).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=HewJbnQmn1gC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Steps to an Ecology of Mind: Collected Essays in Anthropology, Psychiatry, Evolution, and Epistemology<\/i><\/a>.&#32;University of Chicago Press.&#32;pp.&#160;448\u2013466.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0226039056<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=HewJbnQmn1gC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=HewJbnQmn1gC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Steps+to+an+Ecology+of+Mind%3A+Collected+Essays+in+Anthropology%2C+Psychiatry%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Epistemology&amp;rft.aulast=Bateson%2C+Gregory&amp;rft.au=Bateson%2C+Gregory&amp;rft.date=1972&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B448%E2%80%93466&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&amp;rft.isbn=0226039056&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHewJbnQmn1gC&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KMSysAlavi-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KMSysAlavi_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Alavi, M.; Leidner, D.E.&#32;(June 1999).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140326193732\/http:\/\/knowledge.emory.edu\/papers\/1005.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Knowledge Management and Knowledge Management Systems: Conceptual Foundations and Research Issues\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;Emery University.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/knowledge.emory.edu\/papers\/1005.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 26 March 2014<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140326193732\/http:\/\/knowledge.emory.edu\/papers\/1005.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140326193732\/http:\/\/knowledge.emory.edu\/papers\/1005.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Knowledge+Management+and+Knowledge+Management+Systems%3A+Conceptual+Foundations+and+Research+Issues&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.aulast=Alavi%2C+M.%3B+Leidner%2C+D.E.&amp;rft.au=Alavi%2C+M.%3B+Leidner%2C+D.E.&amp;rft.date=June+1999&amp;rft.pub=Emery+University&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140326193732%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fknowledge.emory.edu%2Fpapers%2F1005.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Riley, J.&#32;(2017)&#32;(PDF).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/groups.niso.org\/apps\/group_public\/download.php\/17446\/Understanding%20Metadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding Metadata: What Is Metadata, and What Is It For?<\/i><\/a>.&#32;National Information Standards Organization.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;978-1-937522-72-8<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/groups.niso.org\/apps\/group_public\/download.php\/17446\/Understanding%20Metadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/groups.niso.org\/apps\/group_public\/download.php\/17446\/Understanding%20Metadata.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+Metadata%3A+What+Is+Metadata%2C+and+What+Is+It+For%3F&amp;rft.aulast=Riley%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Riley%2C+J.&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.pub=National+Information+Standards+Organization&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-937522-72-8&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgroups.niso.org%2Fapps%2Fgroup_public%2Fdownload.php%2F17446%2FUnderstanding%2520Metadata.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Zurek-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Zurek_13-0\">13.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Zurek_13-1\">13.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Zurek, Wojciech Hubert, ed.&#32;(1990).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RQpQDwAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Complexity, Entropy, and the Physics of Information: The Proceedings of the 1988 Workshop on Complexity, Entropy, and the Physics of Information<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Westview Press.&#32;pp.&#160;530.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0201515067<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RQpQDwAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RQpQDwAAQBAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Complexity%2C+Entropy%2C+and+the+Physics+of+Information%3A+The+Proceedings+of+the+1988+Workshop+on+Complexity%2C+Entropy%2C+and+the+Physics+of+Information&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B530&amp;rft.pub=Westview+Press&amp;rft.isbn=0201515067&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRQpQDwAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JDHolo-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-JDHolo_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Bekenstein, J.D.&#32;(August 2003).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/information-in-the-holographic-univ\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Information in the Holographic Universe\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Scientific American<\/i>&#32;<b>289<\/b>&#32;(2): 58\u201365<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/information-in-the-holographic-univ\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/information-in-the-holographic-univ\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Information+in+the+Holographic+Universe&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&amp;rft.aulast=Bekenstein%2C+J.D.&amp;rft.au=Bekenstein%2C+J.D.&amp;rft.date=August+2003&amp;rft.volume=289&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=58%E2%80%9365&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Finformation-in-the-holographic-univ%2F&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PhysOrgMax-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PhysOrgMax_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Edwards, L.&#32;(15 November 2010).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/phys.org\/news\/2010-11-maxwell-demon-energy.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Maxwell's demon demonstration turns information into energy\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>Phys.org<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/phys.org\/news\/2010-11-maxwell-demon-energy.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/phys.org\/news\/2010-11-maxwell-demon-energy.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Maxwell%27s+demon+demonstration+turns+information+into+energy&amp;rft.atitle=Phys.org&amp;rft.aulast=Edwards%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Edwards%2C+L.&amp;rft.date=15+November+2010&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2010-11-maxwell-demon-energy.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO15489-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO15489_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62542.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 15489-1:2016 Information and documentation \u2014 Records management \u2014 Part 1: Concepts and principles\"<\/a>.&#32;International Organization for Standardization.&#32;April 2016<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62542.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62542.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=ISO+15489-1%3A2016+Information+and+documentation+%E2%80%94+Records+management+%E2%80%94+Part+1%3A+Concepts+and+principles&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=April+2016&amp;rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F62542.html&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ICA.2FCER-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ICA.2FCER_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ica.org\/en\/networked-electronic-information-internet-and-intranet-environments-2000\" target=\"_blank\">\"Networked Electronic Information in the Internet and Intranet Environments\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;International Committee on Archives (ICA), Committee on Electronic Records.&#32;27 August 2000<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ica.org\/en\/networked-electronic-information-internet-and-intranet-environments-2000\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ica.org\/en\/networked-electronic-information-internet-and-intranet-environments-2000<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.btitle=Networked+Electronic+Information+in+the+Internet+and+Intranet+Environments&amp;rft.atitle=&amp;rft.date=27+August+2000&amp;rft.pub=International+Committee+on+Archives+%28ICA%29%2C+Committee+on+Electronic+Records&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ica.org%2Fen%2Fnetworked-electronic-information-internet-and-intranet-environments-2000&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Willis05-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Willis05_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Willis, A.&#32;(2005).&#32;\"Corporate governance and management of information and records\".&#32;<i>Records Management Journal<\/i>&#32;<b>15<\/b>&#32;(2): 86\u201397.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108%2F09565690510614238\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/09565690510614238<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Corporate+governance+and+management+of+information+and+records&amp;rft.jtitle=Records+Management+Journal&amp;rft.aulast=Willis%2C+A.&amp;rft.au=Willis%2C+A.&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.volume=15&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=86%E2%80%9397&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1108%2F09565690510614238&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HilbertLopez2011-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_19-0\">19.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_19-1\">19.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Hilbert, M.; L\u00f3pez, P.&#32;(2011).&#32;\"The World\u2019s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information\".&#32;<i>Science<\/i>&#32;<b>332<\/b>&#32;(6025): 60-65.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.1200970\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.1200970<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+World%E2%80%99s+Technological+Capacity+to+Store%2C+Communicate%2C+and+Compute+Information&amp;rft.jtitle=Science&amp;rft.aulast=Hilbert%2C+M.%3B+L%C3%B3pez%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Hilbert%2C+M.%3B+L%C3%B3pez%2C+P.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.volume=332&amp;rft.issue=6025&amp;rft.pages=60-65&amp;rft_id=info:doi\/10.1126%2Fscience.1200970&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Hilbertvideo2011-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hilbertvideo2011_20-0\">20.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hilbertvideo2011_20-1\">20.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation video\">Hilbert, M.&#32;(11 June 2011).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=iIKPjOuwqHo\" target=\"_blank\">\"World_info_capacity_animation\"<\/a>.&#32;<i>YouTube<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=iIKPjOuwqHo\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=iIKPjOuwqHo<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=World_info_capacity_animation&amp;rft.jtitle=YouTube&amp;rft.aulast=Hilbert%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Hilbert%2C+M.&amp;rft.date=11+June+2011&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DiIKPjOuwqHo&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-InfoSysBD-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-InfoSysBD_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Beynon-Davies, P.&#32;(2002).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cCqdQAAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Information Systems: An Introduction to Informatics in Organisations<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Palgrave Macmillan Limited.&#32;pp.&#160;595.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;0333963903<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cCqdQAAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cCqdQAAACAAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Information+Systems%3A+An+Introduction+to+Informatics+in+Organisations&amp;rft.aulast=Beynon-Davies%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Beynon-Davies%2C+P.&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B595&amp;rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+Limited&amp;rft.isbn=0333963903&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcCqdQAAACAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BISBD-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BISBD_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Beynon-Davies, P.&#32;(2009).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pdUROgAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Business Information Systems<\/i><\/a>.&#32;Palgrave Macmillan Limited.&#32;pp.&#160;512.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a>&#160;023020368X<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pdUROgAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pdUROgAACAAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Business+Information+Systems&amp;rft.aulast=Beynon-Davies%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=Beynon-Davies%2C+P.&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B512&amp;rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+Limited&amp;rft.isbn=023020368X&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpdUROgAACAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Nielsen08-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Nielsen08_23-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Nielsen, S.&#32;(2008).&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190428163910\/http:\/\/lexikos.journals.ac.za\/pub\/article\/download\/483\/179\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Effect of Lexicographical Information Costs on Dictionary Making and Use\"<\/a>&#32;(PDF).&#32;<i>Lexikos<\/i>&#32;<b>18<\/b>: 170\u2013189.&#32;<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" data-key=\"a5dec3e4d005e654c29ad167ab53f53a\">ISSN<\/a>&#160;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1684-4904\" target=\"_blank\">1684-4904<\/a>.&#32;Archived&#32;from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/lexikos.journals.ac.za\/pub\/article\/download\/483\/179\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a>&#32;on 28 April 2019<span class=\"printonly\">.&#32;<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190428163910\/http:\/\/lexikos.journals.ac.za\/pub\/article\/download\/483\/179\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190428163910\/http:\/\/lexikos.journals.ac.za\/pub\/article\/download\/483\/179<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">.&#32;Retrieved 05 January 2022<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=The+Effect+of+Lexicographical+Information+Costs+on+Dictionary+Making+and+Use&amp;rft.jtitle=Lexikos&amp;rft.aulast=Nielsen%2C+S.&amp;rft.au=Nielsen%2C+S.&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.volume=18&amp;rft.pages=170%E2%80%93189&amp;rft.issn=1684-4904&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20190428163910%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Flexikos.journals.ac.za%2Fpub%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F483%2F179&amp;rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Information\"><span style=\"display: none;\">&#160;<\/span><\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20240110171615\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nComplications: []\nCPU time usage: 0.636 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.108 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 20150\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 131727\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 46895\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion 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Serialized with JSON.\n -->\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information<\/a><\/div>\n<!-- end content --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column --><div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<\/body>","6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e9\/Image_7_Information_Relationship_Model.jpg"],"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d_timestamp":1704906974,"259ec2a992ae1b04920538f525cb79e3":{"type":"chapter","title":"1. Informatics in the laboratory","key":"259ec2a992ae1b04920538f525cb79e3"}},"link":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Book:The_Complete_Guide_to_LIMS_and_Laboratory_Informatics","price_currency":"","price_amount":"","book_size":"","download_url":"https:\/\/www.limsforum.com?ebb_action=book_download&book_id=89932","language":"","cta_button_content":"","toc":[{"type":"chapter","name":"1. Informatics in the laboratory","id":"259ec2a992ae1b04920538f525cb79e3","children":[{"type":"article","name":"Information","id":"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information"},{"type":"article","name":"Informatics (academic field)","id":"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)"},{"type":"article","name":"Laboratory","id":"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory"},{"type":"article","name":"Laboratory informatics","id":"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics"}]},{"type":"chapter","name":"2. Informatics across the sciences","id":"d22ed668d422a633f8e1d3754ebeb846","children":[{"type":"article","name":"Biodiversity informatics","id":"e1fc3c3cb12287ecf307f488d3cd2357","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biodiversity_informatics"},{"type":"article","name":"Bioinformatics","id":"8f506695fdbb26e3f314da308f8c053b","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bioinformatics"},{"type":"article","name":"Cancer informatics","id":"b665bf61e7903152714531827699ad0d","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cancer_informatics"},{"type":"article","name":"Chemical informatics","id":"f351334854570f46a1227e6e952840c1","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chemical_informatics"},{"type":"article","name":"Environmental informatics","id":"8f0d09dd24612a7abc14e2875017c4c9","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_informatics"},{"type":"article","name":"Genome informatics","id":"304bd6698e9a01cab6157ba518743ff1","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Genome_informatics"},{"type":"article","name":"Health informatics","id":"055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_informatics"},{"type":"article","name":"Imaging informatics","id":"fc0ae6a154d8896767defefdb6d14d0e","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Imaging_informatics"},{"type":"article","name":"Infectious disease informatics","id":"d318bbc2e54c35364b6d9d0c26f0be5d","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Infectious_disease_informatics"},{"type":"article","name":"Materials informatics","id":"4dd2125beb9794d0a679b921981f1ddc","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Materials_informatics"},{"type":"article","name":"Public health informatics","id":"f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_informatics"}]},{"type":"chapter","name":"3. All about LIMS and LIS","id":"77773d0efda7043b7d09d44a36b8c7db","children":[{"type":"article","name":"Laboratory information management system","id":"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system"},{"type":"article","name":"LIMS feature","id":"ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature"},{"type":"article","name":"Laboratory information system","id":"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system"},{"type":"article","name":"LIS feature","id":"23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature"}]},{"type":"chapter","name":"4. 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Laboratory informatics considerations&#58; Data management and security","id":"5e58d7faddb4dde2261ab876dac1b3c4","children":[{"type":"article","name":"Audit trail","id":"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail"},{"type":"article","name":"Backup","id":"e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Backup"},{"type":"article","name":"Blockchain","id":"ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blockchain"},{"type":"article","name":"Cloud computing security","id":"e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing_security"},{"type":"article","name":"Computer security","id":"6679e77e1dd923e89b04f0e19ea06240","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Computer_security"},{"type":"article","name":"Data analysis","id":"545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis"},{"type":"article","name":"Data exchange","id":"7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange"},{"type":"article","name":"Data mapping","id":"b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mapping"},{"type":"article","name":"Data migration","id":"6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_migration"},{"type":"article","name":"Data recovery","id":"19c0a64172f39c37880cceb6d0fbf452","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_recovery"},{"type":"article","name":"Data retention","id":"d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_retention"},{"type":"article","name":"Data visualization","id":"4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_visualization"},{"type":"article","name":"Electronic signature","id":"dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature"},{"type":"article","name":"Encryption","id":"86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Encryption"},{"type":"article","name":"Information management","id":"f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management"},{"type":"article","name":"Information privacy","id":"185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_privacy"},{"type":"article","name":"Information security","id":"9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security"},{"type":"article","name":"Information security management","id":"153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security_management"},{"type":"article","name":"Information technology security audit","id":"aca6d664bdd7690b6fbb176859ed0652","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_technology_security_audit"},{"type":"article","name":"IT risk management","id":"e1ad6dda9336bc9948bb36a6d5f75b03","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/IT_risk_management"},{"type":"article","name":"Master data","id":"451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Master_data"},{"type":"article","name":"Metadata","id":"f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata"},{"type":"article","name":"Network security","id":"8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Network_security"},{"type":"article","name":"Retention period","id":"c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Retention_period"},{"type":"article","name":"Security as a service","id":"af13240044bd9d2af38147be005dff00","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Security_as_a_service"},{"type":"article","name":"Single sign-on","id":"a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Single_sign-on"},{"type":"article","name":"Web application security","id":"5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6","pageUrl":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Web_application_security"}]},{"type":"chapter","name":"7. 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    The Complete Guide to LIMS and Laboratory Informatics
    2024 Edition
    Editor: Shawn Douglas
    Publisher: LabLynx Press
    Copyright LabLynx Inc. All rights reserved.